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Title: The Grammar of English Grammars

Author: Goold Brown

Release date: March 1, 2004 [eBook #11615]
Most recently updated: October 28, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Karl Hagen and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS ***

Transcriber's Notes: Despite the severity with which the author of this

work treats those who depart from his standard of correctness, the source text does contain a small number of typographical errors. Missing punctuation has been supplied silently, but all other errors have been left uncorrected. To let the reader distinguish such problems from any inadvertent transcription errors that remain, I have inserted notes to flag items that appear errors by Brown's own standard. Spellings that are simply different from current practice, e.g., 'Shakspeare' are not noted. Special characters: vowels with macrons are rendered with an equals sign (=) before the vowel. Vowels with breve marks are rendered with tildes (~) before the vowels.—KTH.

THE

GRAMMAR

OF

ENGLISH GRAMMARS,

WITH

AN INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL;

THE WHOLE

METHODICALLY ARRANGED AND AMPLY ILLUSTRATED;

WITH

FORMS OF CORRECTING AND OF PARSING, IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, DECISIONS AND PROOFS FOR THE SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTED POINTS, OCCASIONAL STRICTURES AND DEFENCES, AN EXHIBITION OF THE SEVERAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS,

AND

A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES:

TO WHICH ARE ADDED

FOUR APPENDIXES,

PERTAINING SEPARATELY TO THE FOUR PARTS OF GRAMMAR.

BY GOOLD BROWN,

AUTHOR OF THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ETC.

"So let great authors have their due, that Time, who is the author of authors, be not deprived of his due, which is, farther and farther to discover truth."—LORD BACON.

SIXTH EDITION—REVISED AND IMPROVED.

ENLARGED BY THE ADDITION OF A COPIOUS INDEX OF MATTERS.

BY SAMUEL U. BERRIAN, A. M.

PREFACE

The present performance is, so far as the end could be reached, the fulfillment of a design, formed about twenty-seven years ago, of one day presenting to the world, if I might, something like a complete grammar of the English language;—not a mere work of criticism, nor yet a work too tame, indecisive, and uncritical; for, in books of either of these sorts, our libraries already abound;—not a mere philosophical investigation of what is general or universal in grammar, nor yet a minute detail of what forms only a part of our own philology; for either of these plans falls very far short of such a purpose;—not a mere grammatical compend, abstract, or compilation, sorting with other works already before the public; for, in the production of school grammars, the author had early performed his part; and, of small treatises on this subject, we have long had a superabundance rather than a lack.

After about fifteen years devoted chiefly to grammatical studies and exercises, during most of which time I had been alternately instructing youth in four different languages, thinking it practicable to effect some improvement upon the manuals which explain our own, I prepared and published, for the use of schools, a duodecimo volume of about three hundred pages; which, upon the presumption that its principles were conformable to the best usage, and well established thereby, I entitled, "The Institutes of English Grammar." Of this work, which, it is believed, has been gradually gaining in reputation and demand ever since its first publication, there is no occasion to say more here, than that it was the result of diligent study, and that it is, essentially, the nucleus, or the groundwork, of the present volume.

With much additional labour, the principles contained in the Institutes of English Grammar, have here been not only reaffirmed and rewritten, but occasionally improved in expression, or amplified in their details. New topics, new definitions, new rules, have also been added; and all parts of the subject have been illustrated by a multiplicity of new examples and exercises, which it has required a long time to amass and arrange. To the main doctrines, also, are here subjoined many new observations and criticisms, which are the results of no inconsiderable reading and reflection.

Regarding it as my business and calling, to work out the above-mentioned purpose as circumstances might permit, I have laid no claim to genius, none to infallibility; but I have endeavoured to be accurate, and aspired to be useful; and it is a part of my plan, that the reader of this volume shall never, through my fault, be left in doubt as to the origin of any thing it contains. It is but the duty of an author, to give every needful facility for a fair estimate of his work; and, whatever authority there may be for anonymous copying in works on grammar, the precedent is always bad.

The success of other labours, answerable to moderate wishes, has enabled me to pursue this task under favourable circumstances, and with an unselfish, independent aim. Not with vainglorious pride, but with reverent gratitude to God, I acknowledge this advantage, giving thanks for the signal mercy which has upborne me to the long-continued effort. Had the case been otherwise,—had the labours of the school-room been still demanded for my support,—the present large volume would never have appeared. I had desired some leisure for the completing of this design, and to it I scrupled not to sacrifice the profits of my main employment, as soon as it could be done without hazard of adding another chapter to "the Calamities of Authors."

The nature and design of this treatise are perhaps sufficiently developed in connexion with the various topics which are successively treated of in the Introduction. That method of teaching, which I conceive to be the best, is also there described. And, in the Grammar itself, there will be found occasional directions concerning the manner of its use. I have hoped to facilitate the study of the English language, not by abridging our grammatical code, or by rejecting the common phraseolgy [sic—KTH] of its doctrines, but by extending the former, improving the latter, and establishing both;—but still more, by furnishing new illustrations of the subject, and arranging its vast number of particulars in such order that every item may be readily found.

An other important purpose, which, in the preparation of this work, has been borne constantly in mind, and judged worthy of very particular attention, was the attempt to settle, so far as the most patient investigation and the fullest exhibition of proofs could do it, the multitudinous and vexatious disputes which have hitherto divided the sentiments of teachers, and made the study of English grammar so uninviting, unsatisfactory, and unprofitable, to the student whose taste demands a reasonable degree of certainty.

"Whenever labour implies the exertion of thought, it does good, at least to the strong: when the saving of labour is a saving of thought, it enfeebles. The mind, like the body, is strengthened by hard exercise: but, to give this exercise all its salutary effect, it should be of a reasonable kind; it should lead us to the perception of regularity, of order, of principle, of a law. When, after all the trouble we have taken, we merely find anomalies and confusion, we are disgusted with what is so uncongenial: and, as our higher faculties have not been called into action, they are not unlikely to be outgrown by the lower, and overborne as it were by the underwood of our minds. Hence, no doubt, one of the reasons why our language has been so much neglected, and why such scandalous ignorance prevails concerning its nature and history, is its unattractive, disheartening irregularity: none but Satan is fond of plunging into chaos."—Philological Museum, (Cambridge, Eng., 1832,) Vol. i, p. 666.

If there be any remedy for the neglect and ignorance here spoken of, it must be found in the more effectual teaching of English grammar. But the principles of grammar can never have any beneficial influence over any person's manner of speaking or writing, till by some process they are made so perfectly familiar, that he can apply them with all the readiness of a native power; that is, till he can apply them not only to what has been said or written, but to whatever he is about to utter. They must present themselves to the mind as by intuition, and with the quickness of thought; so as to regulate his language before it proceeds from the lips or the pen. If they come only by tardy recollection, or are called to mind but as contingent afterthoughts, they are altogether too late; and serve merely to mortify the speaker or writer, by reminding him of some deficiency or inaccuracy which there may then be no chance to amend.

But how shall, or can, this readiness be acquired? I answer, By a careful attention to such exercises as are fitted to bring the learner's knowledge into practice. The student will therefore find, that I have given him something to do, as well as something to learn. But, by the formules and directions in this work, he is very carefully shown how to proceed; and, if he be a tolerable reader, it will be his own fault, if he does not, by such aid, become a tolerable grammarian. The chief of these exercises are the parsing of what is right, and the correcting of what is wrong; both, perhaps, equally important; and I have intended to make them equally easy. To any real proficient in grammar, nothing can be more free from embarrassment, than the performance of these exercises, in all ordinary cases. For grammar, rightly learned, institutes in the mind a certain knowledge, or process of thought, concerning the sorts, properties, and relations, of all the words which can be presented in any intelligible sentence; and, with the initiated, a perception of the construction will always instantly follow or accompany a discovery of the sense: and instantly, too, should there be a perception of the error, if any of the words are misspelled, misjoined, misapplied,—or are, in any way, unfaithful to the sense intended.

Thus it is the great end of grammar, to secure the power of apt expression, by causing the principles on which language is constructed, if not to be constantly present to the mind, at least to pass through it more rapidly than either pen or voice can utter words. And where this power resides, there cannot but be a proportionate degree of critical skill, or of ability to judge of the language of others. Present what you will, grammar directs the mind immediately to a consideration of the sense; and, if properly taught, always creates a discriminating taste which is not less offended by specious absurdities, than by the common blunders of clownishness. Every one who has any pretensions to this art, knows that, to parse a sentence, is but to resolve it according to one's understanding of its import; and it is equally clear, that the power to correct an erroneous passage, usually demands or implies a knowledge of the author's thought.

But, if parsing and correcting are of so great practical importance as our first mention of them suggests, it may be well to be more explicit here concerning them. The pupil who cannot perform these exercises both accurately and fluently, is not truly prepared to perform them at all, and has no right to expect from any body a patient hearing. A slow and faltering rehearsal of words clearly prescribed, yet neither fairly remembered nor understandingly applied, is as foreign from parsing or correcting, as it is from elegance of diction. Divide and conquer, is the rule here, as in many other cases. Begin with what is simple; practise it till it becomes familiar; and then proceed. No child ever learned to speak by any other process. Hard things become easy by use; and skill is gained by little and little. Of the whole method of parsing, it should be understood, that it is to be a critical exercise in utterance, as well as an evidence of previous study,—an exhibition of the learner's attainments in the practice, as well as in the theory, of grammar; and that, in any tolerable performance of this exercise, there must be an exact adherence to the truth of facts, as they occur in the example, and to the forms of expression, which are prescribed as models, in the book. For parsing is, in no degree, a work of invention; but wholly an exercise, an exertion of skill. It is, indeed, an exercise for all the powers of the mind, except the inventive faculty. Perception, judgement, reasoning, memory, and method, are indispensable to the performance. Nothing is to be guessed at, or devised, or uttered at random. If the learner can but rehearse the necessary definitions and rules, and perform the simplest exercise of judgement in their application, he cannot but perceive what he must say in order to speak the truth in parsing. His principal difficulty is in determining the parts of speech. To lessen this, the trial should commence with easy sentences, also with few of the definitions, and with definitions that have been perfectly learned. This difficulty being surmounted, let him follow the forms prescribed for the several praxes of this work, and he shall not err. The directions and examples given at the head of each exercise, will show him exactly the number, the order, and the proper phraseology, of the particulars to be stated; so that he may go through the explanation with every advantage which a book can afford. There is no hope of him whom these aids will not save from "plunging into chaos."

"Of all the works of man, language is the most enduring, and partakes the most of eternity. And, as our own language, so far as thought can project itself into the future, seems likely to be coeval with the world, and to spread vastly beyond even its present immeasurable limits, there cannot easily be a nobler object of ambition than to purify and better it."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 665.

It was some ambition of the kind here meant, awakened by a discovery of the scandalous errors and defects which abound in all our common English grammars, that prompted me to undertake the present work. Now, by the bettering of a language, I understand little else than the extensive teaching of its just forms, according to analogy and the general custom of the most accurate writers. This teaching, however, may well embrace also, or be combined with, an exposition of the various forms of false grammar by which inaccurate writers have corrupted, if not the language itself, at least their own style in it.

With respect to our present English, I know not whether any other improvement of it ought to be attempted, than the avoiding and correcting of those improprieties and unwarrantable anomalies by which carelessness, ignorance, and affectation, are ever tending to debase it, and the careful teaching of its true grammar, according to its real importance in education. What further amendment is feasible, or is worthy to engage attention, I will not pretend to say; nor do I claim to have been competent to so much as was manifestly desirable within these limits. But what I lacked in ability, I have endeavored to supply by diligence; and what I could conveniently strengthen by better authority than my own, I have not failed to support with all that was due, of names, guillemets, and references.

Like every other grammarian, I stake my reputation as an author, upon "a certain set of opinions," and a certain manner of exhibiting them, appealing to the good sense of my readers for the correctness of both. All contrary doctrines are unavoidably censured by him who attempts to sustain his own; but, to grammatical censures, no more importance ought to be attached than what belongs to grammar itself. He who cares not to be accurate in the use of language, is inconsistent with himself, if he be offended at verbal criticism; and he who is displeased at finding his opinions rejected, is equally so, if he cannot prove them to be well founded. It is only in cases susceptible of a rule, that any writer can be judged deficient. I can censure no man for differing from me, till I can show him a principle which he ought to follow. According to Lord Kames, the standard of taste, both in arts and in manners, is "the common sense of mankind," a principle founded in the universal conviction of a common nature in our species. (See Elements of Criticism, Chap, xxv, Vol. ii, p. 364.) If this is so, the doctrine applies to grammar as fully as to any thing about which criticism may concern itself.

But, to the discerning student or teacher, I owe an apology for the abundant condescension with which I have noticed in this volume the works of unskillful grammarians. For men of sense have no natural inclination to dwell upon palpable offences against taste and scholarship; nor can they be easily persuaded to approve the course of an author who makes it his business to criticise petty productions. And is it not a fact, that grammatical authorship has sunk so low, that no man who is capable of perceiving its multitudinous errors, dares now stoop to notice the most flagrant of its abuses, or the most successful of its abuses? And, of the quackery which is now so prevalent, what can be a more natural effect, than a very general contempt for the study of grammar? My apology to the reader therefore is, that, as the honour of our language demands correctness in all the manuals prepared for schools, a just exposition of any that are lacking in this point, is a service due to the study of English grammar, if not to the authors in question.

The exposition, however, that I have made of the errors and defects of other writers, is only an incident, or underpart, of the scheme of this treatise. Nor have I anywhere exhibited blunders as one that takes delight in their discovery. My main design has been, to prepare a work which, by its own completeness and excellence, should deserve the title here chosen. But, a comprehensive code of false grammar being confessedly the most effectual means of teaching what is true, I have thought fit to supply this portion of my book, not from anonymous or uncertain sources, but from the actual text of other authors, and chiefly from the works of professed grammarians.

"In what regards the laws of grammatical purity," says Dr. Campbell, "the violation is much more conspicuous than the observance."—See Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 190. It therefore falls in with my main purpose, to present to the public, in the following ample work, a condensed mass of special criticism, such as is not elsewhere to be found in any language. And, if the littleness of the particulars to which the learner's attention is called, be reckoned an objection, the author last quoted has furnished for me, as well as for himself, a good apology. "The elements which enter into the composition of the hugest bodies, are subtile and inconsiderable. The rudiments of every art and science exhibit at first, to the learner, the appearance of littleness and insignificancy. And it is by attending to such reflections, as to a superficial observer would appear minute and hypercritical, that language must be improved, and eloquence perfected."—Ib., p. 244.

GOOLD BROWN.

LYNN, MASS., 1851.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PRELIMINARY MATTERS.
  Preface to the Grammar of English Grammars
  This Table of Contents
  Catalogue of English Grammars and Grammarians

INTRODUCTION.
  Chapter I. Of the Science of Grammar
  Chapter II. Of Grammatical Authorship
  Chapter III. Of Grammatical Success and Fame
  Chapter IV. Of the Origin of Language
  Chapter V. Of the Power of Language
  Chapter VI. Of the Origin and History of the English Language
  Chapter VII. Changes and Specimens of the English Language
  Chapter VIII. Of the Grammatical Study of the English Language
  Chapter IX. Of the Best Method of Teaching Grammar
  Chapter X. Of Grammatical Definitions
  Chapter XI. Brief Notices of the Schemes of certain Grammars

THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.
  Introductory Definitions
  General Division of the Subject

PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. Chapter I. Of Letters I. Names of the Letters II. Classes of the Letters III. Powers of the Letters IV. Forms of the Letters Rules for the use of Capitals Errors concerning Capitals Promiscuous Errors of Capitals Chapter II. Of Syllables Diphthongs and Triphthongs Rules for Syllabication Observations on Syllabication Errors concerning Syllables Chapter III. Of Words Rules for the Figure of Words Observations on Figure of Words On the Identity of Words Errors concerning Figure Promiscuous Errors in Figure Chapter IV. Of Spelling Rules for Spelling Observations on Spelling Errors in Spelling Promiscuous Errors in Spelling Chapter V. Questions on Orthography Chapter VI Exercises for Writing

PART II. ETYMOLOGY. Introductory Definitions Chapter I. Of the Parts of Speech Observations on Parts of Speech Examples for Parsing, Praxis I Chapter II. Of the Articles Observations on the Articles Examples for Parsing, Praxis II Errors concerning Articles Chapter III. Of Nouns Classes of Nouns Modifications of Nouns Persons Numbers Genders Cases The Declension of Nouns Examples for Parsing, Praxis III Errors concerning Nouns Chapter IV. Of Adjectives Classes of Adjectives Modifications of Adjectives Regular Comparison Comparison by Adverbs Irregular Comparison Examples for Parsing, Praxis IV Errors concerning Adjectives Chapter V. Of Pronouns Classes of the Pronouns Modifications of the Pronouns The Declension of Pronouns Examples for Parsing, Praxis V Errors concerning Pronouns Chapter VI. Of Verbs Classes of Verbs Modifications of Verbs Moods Tenses Persons and Numbers The Conjugation of Verbs I. Simple Form, Active or Neuter First Example, the verb LOVE Second Example, the verb SEE Third Example, the verb BE II. Compound or Progressive Form Fourth Example, to BE READING Observations on Compound Forms III. Form of Passive Verbs Fifth Example, to BE LOVED IV. Form of Negation V. Form of Question VI. Form of Question with Negation Irregular Verbs, with Obs. and List Redundant Verbs, with Obs. and List Defective Verbs, with Obs. and List Examples for Parsing, Praxis VI Errors concerning Verbs Chapter VII. Of Participles Classes of Participles Examples for Parsing, Praxis VII Errors concerning Participles Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs Classes of Adverbs Modifications of Adverbs Examples for Parsing, Praxis VIII Errors concerning Adverbs Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions Classes of Conjunctions List of the Conjunctions Examples for Parsing, Praxis IX Errors concerning Conjunctions Chapter X. Of Prepositions List of the Prepositions Examples for Parsing, Praxis X Errors concerning Prepositions Chapter XI. Of Interjections List of the Interjections Examples for Parsing, Praxis XI Errors concerning Interjections Chapter XII. Questions on Etymology Chapter XIII. Exercises for Writing

PART III. SYNTAX. Introductory Definitions Chapter I. Of Sentences The Rules of Syntax General or Critical Obs. on Syntax The Analyzing of Sentences The several Methods of Analysis Observations on Methods of Analysis Examples for Parsing, Praxis XII Chapter II. Of the Articles Rule I. Syntax of Articles Observations on Rule I Notes to Rule I; 17 of them False Syntax under Notes to Rule I Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns Rule II. Of Nominatives Observations on Rule II False Syntax under Rule II Rule III. Of Apposition Observations on Rule III False Syntax under Rule III Rule IV. Of Possessives Observations on Rule IV Notes to Rule IV; 5 of them False Syntax under Notes to Rule IV Rule V. Of Objectives after Verbs Observations on Rule V Notes to Rule V; 8 of them False Syntax under Rule V Rule VI. Of Same Cases Observations on Rule VI Notes to Rule VI; 2 of them False Syntax under Rule VI Rule VII. Of Objectives after Prepositions Observations on Rule VII Note to Rule VII; 1 only False Syntax under Rule VII Rule VIII. Of Nominatives Absolute Observations on Rule VIII False Syntax under Rule VIII Chapter IV. Of Adjectives Rule IX. Of Adjectives Observations on Rule IX Notes to Rule IX; 16 of them False Syntax under Rule IX Chapter V. Of Pronouns Rule X. Pronoun and Antecedent Observations on Rule X Notes to Rule X; 16 of them False Syntax under Rule X Rule XI. Pronoun and Collective Noun Observations on Rule XI Notes to Rule XI; 2 of them False Syntax under Rule XI Rule XII. Pronoun after AND Observations on Rule XII False Syntax under Rule XII Rule XIII. Pronoun after OR or NOR Observations on Rule XIII False Syntax under Rule XIII Chapter VI. Of Verbs Rule XIV. Verb and Nominative Observations on Rule XIV Notes to Rule XIV; 10 of them False Syntax under Rule XIV Rule XV. Verb and Collective Noun Observations on Rule XV Note to Rule XV; 1 only False Syntax under Rule XV Rule XVI. The Verb after AND Observations on Rule XVI Notes to Rule XVI; 7 of them False Syntax under Rule XVI Rule XVII. The Verb with OR or NOR Observations on Rule XVII Notes to Rule XVII; 15 of them False Syntax under Rule XVII Rule XVIII. Of Infinitives with TO Observations on Rule XVIII False Syntax under Rule XVIII Rule XIX. Of Infinitives without TO Observations on Rule XIX False Syntax under Rule XIX Chapter VII. Of Participles Rule XX. Syntax of Participles Observations on Rule XX Notes to Rule XX; 13 of them False Syntax under Rule XX Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs Rule XXI. Relation of Adverbs Observations on Rule XXI Notes to Rule XXI; 10 of them False Syntax under Rule XXI Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions Rule XXII. Use of Conjunctions Observations on Rule XXII Notes to Rule XXII; 8 of them False Syntax under Rule XXII Chapter X. Of Prepositions Rule XXIII. Use of Prepositions Observations on Rule XXIII Notes to Rule XXIII; 5 of them False Syntax under Rule XXIII Chapter XI. Of Interjections Rule XXIV. For Interjections Observations on Rule XXIV False Syntax Promiscuous Examples for Parsing, Praxis XIII Chapter XII. General Review False Syntax for a General Review Chapter XIII. General Rule of Syntax Critical Notes to the General Rule General Observations on the Syntax False Syntax under the General Rule False Syntax under the Critical Notes Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax Chapter XIV. Questions on Syntax Chapter XV. Exercises for Writing

PART IV. PROSODY. Introductory Definitions and Observations Chapter I. Punctuation Obs. on Pauses, Points, Names, &c. Section I. The Comma; its 17 Rules Errors concerning the Comma Section II. The Semicolon; its 3 Rules Errors concerning the Semicolon Mixed Examples of Error Section III. The Colon; its 3 Rules Errors concerning the Colon Mixed Examples of Error Section IV. The Period; its 8 Rules Observations on the Period Errors concerning the Period Mixed Examples of Error Section V. The Dash; its 3 Rules Observations on the Dash Errors concerning the Dash Mixed Examples of Error Section VI. The Eroteme; its 3 Rules Observations on the Eroteme Errors concerning the Eroteme Mixed Examples of Error Section VII. The Ecphoneme; its 3 Rules Errors concerning the Ecphoneme Mixed Examples of Error Section VIII. The Curves; and their 2 Rules Errors concerning the Curves Mixed Examples of Error Section IX. The Other Marks Mixed Examples of Error Bad English Badly Pointed Chapter II. Of Utterance Section I. Of Articulation Article I. Of the Definition Article II. Of Good Articulation Section II. Of Pronunciation Article I. Powers of Letters Article II. Of Quantity Article III. Of Accent Section III. Of Elocution Article I. Of Emphasis Article II. Of Pauses Article III. Of Inflections Article IV. Of Tones Chapter III. Of Figures Section I. Figures of Orthography Section II. Figures of Etymology Section III. Figures of Syntax Section IV. Figures of Rhetoric Section V. Examples for Parsing, Praxis XIV Chapter IV. Of Versification Section I. Of Verse Definitions and Principles Observations on Verse Section II. Of Accent and Quantity Section III. Of Poetic Feet Critical Observations on Theories Section IV. Of the Kinds of Verse Order I. Iambic Verse; its 8 Measures Order II. Trochaic Verse; its Nature Observations on Trochaic Metre Trochaics shown in their 8 Measures Order III. Anapestic Verse; its 4 Measures Observations on the Short Anapestics Order IV. Dactylic Verse; its 8 Measures Observations on Dactylics Order V. Composite Verse Observations on Composites Section V. Improprieties for Correction Chapter V. Questions on Prosody Chapter VI. Exercises for Writing

KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES.

THE KEY.—PART I.—ORTHOGRAPHY.
  Chapter I. Of Letters; Capitals
    Corrections under each of the 16 Rules
    Promiscuous corrections of Capitals
  Chapter II. Of Syllables
    Corrections of False Syllabication
  Chapter III. Of the Figure of Words
    Corrections under each of the 6 Rules
    Promiscuous corrections of Figure
  Chapter IV. Of Spelling
    Corrections under each of the 15 Rules
    Promiscuous corrections of Spelling

THE KEY.—PART II—ETYMOLOGY.
  Chapter I. Of the Parts of Speech
    Remark concerning False Etymology
  Chapter II. Of Articles; 5 Lessons
  Chapter III. Of Nouns; 3 Lessons
  Chapter IV. Of Adjectives; 3 Lessons
  Chapter V. Of Pronouns; 3 Lessons
  Chapter VI. Of Verbs; 3 Lessons
  Chapter VII. Of Participles; 3 Lessons
  Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs; 1 Lesson
  Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions; 1 Lesson
  Chapter X. Of Prepositions; 1 Lesson
  Chapter XI. Of Interjections; 1 Lesson

THE KEY.—PART III.—SYNTAX.
  Chapter I. Of Sentences; Remark
  Chapter II. Of Articles. Corrections under the 17 Notes to Rule 1
  Chapter III. Of Cases, or Nouns
    Cor. under Rule II; of Nominatives
    Cor. under Rule III; of Apposition
    Cor. under Rule IV; of Possessives
    Cor. under Rule V; of Objectives
    Cor. under Rule VI; of Same Cases
    Cor. under Rule VII; of Objectives
    Cor. under Rule VIII; of Nom. Absolute
  Chapter IV. Of Adjectives. Corrections under the 16 Notes to Rule IX
  Chapter V. Of Pronouns. Corrections under Rule X and its 16 Notes
    Corrections under Rule XI; of Pronouns
    Cor. under Rule XII; of Pronouns
    Cor. under Rule XIII; of Pronouns
  Chapter VI. Of Verbs. Corrections under Rule XIV and its 10 Notes
    Cor. under Rule XV and its Note
    Cor. under Rule XVI and its 7 Notes
    Cor. under Rule XVII and its 15 Notes
    Cor. under Rule XVIII; of Infinitives
    Cor. under Rule XIX; of Infinitives
  Chapter VII. Of Participles. Corrections under the 13 Notes to Rule XX
  Chapter VIII. Of Adverbs. Corrections under the 10 Notes to Rule XXI
  Chapter IX. Of Conjunctions. Corrections under the 8 Notes to Rule XXII
  Chapter X. Of Prepositions. Corrections under the 5 Notes to Rule XXIII
  Chapter XI. Promiscuous Exercises. Corrections of the 8 Lessons
  Chapter XII. General Review. Corrections under all the preceding Rules
    and Notes; 18 Lessons
  Chapter XIII. General Rule. Corrections under the General Rule; 16
    Lessons
  Corrections under the Critical Notes
  Promiscuous Corrections of False Syntax; 5 Lessons, under Various Rules

THE KEY.—PART IV.—PROSODY.
  Chapter I. Punctuation
    Section I. The Comma; Corrections under its 17 Rules
    Section II. The Semicolon; Corrections under its 8 Rules
    Mixed Examples Corrected
    Section III. The Colon; Corrections under its 8 Rules
    Mixed Examples Corrected
    Section IV. The Period; Corrections under its 8 Rules
    Mixed Examples Corrected
    Section V. The Dash; Corrections under its 8 Rules
    Mixed Examples Corrected
    Section VI. The Eroteme; Corrections under its 3 Rules
    Mixed Examples Corrected
    Section VII. The Ecphoneme; Corrections under its 3 Rules
    Mixed Examples Corrected
    Section VIII. The Curves; Corrections under their 2 Rules
    Mixed Examples Corrected
    Section IX. All Points; Corrections
    Good English Rightly Pointed
  Chapter II. Utterance; no Corrections
  Chapter III. Figures; no Corrections
  Chapter IV. Versification. False Prosody, or Errors of Metre, Corrected

THE FOUR APPENDIXES.
  Appendix I. (To Orthography.) Of the Sounds of the Letters
  Appendix II. (To Etymology.) Of the Derivation of Words
  Appendix III. (To Syntax.) Of the Qualities of Style
  Appendix IV. (To Prosody.) Of Poetic Diction; its Peculiarities

INDEX OF MATTERS.

A DIGESTED CATALOGUE OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS AND GRAMMARIANS,

WITH SOME COLLATERAL WORKS AND AUTHORITIES, ESPECIALLY SUCH AS ARE CITED IN THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.

ADAM, ALEXANDER, LL. D.; "Latin and English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 302:
Edinburgh, 1772; Boston, 1803.

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, LL. D.; "Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory;" 2 vols., 8vo: Cambridge, N. E., 1810.

ADAMS, Rev. CHARLES, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 172: 1st Edition,
Boston, 1838. ADAMS, DANIEL, M. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 103: 3d
Edition, Montpelier, Vt., 1814.

ADAMS, E.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 143. Leicester, Mass., 1st Ed., 1806; 5th Ed., 1821.

AICKIN, JOSEPH; English Grammar, 8vo: London, 1693.

AINSWORTH, ROBERT; Latin and English Dictionary, 4to: 1st Ed., 1736; revised Ed., Lond., 1823.

AINSWORTH, LUTHER; "A Practical System of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144: 1st Ed., Providence, R. I., 1837.

ALDEN, ABNER, A. M.; "Grammar Made Easy;" 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Boston, 1811.

ALDEN, Rev. TIMOTHY, Jun.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Boston, 1811.

ALDRICH, W.; "Lectures on English Grammar and Rhetoric, for Common Schools,
Academies," &c.; 18mo, pp. 68: 11th Ed., Boston, 1847.

ALEXANDER, CALEB, A. M.; (1.) "Grammatical Elements," published before
1794. (2.) "A Grammatical Institute of the Latin Language;" 12mo, pp. 132:
Worcester, Mass., 1794. (3.) "A Grammatical System of the English
Language;" 12mo, pp. 96; written at Mendon, Mass., 1795: 10th Ed., Keene,
N. H., 1814. Also, (4.) "An Introduction to Latin," 1795; and, (5.) "An
Introduction to the Speaking and Writing of English."

ALEXANDER, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 216: 4th Edition, London, 1832.

ALGER, ISRAEL, Jun., A. M.; "Abridgement of Murray's E. Gram.," &c.; 18mo, pp. 126: Boston, 1824 and 1842.

ALLEN, Rev. WILLIAM, M. A.; "Grammar of the English Language," &c.; 18mo:
London. Also, "The Elements of English Grammar." &c.; 12mo, pp. 457:
London, 1813; 2d Ed.,

ALLEN and CORNWELL; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 162: 3d Edition, London, 1841.

ALLEN, D. CAVERNO; "Grammatic Guide, or Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 94: Syracuse, N. Y., 1847.

ANDREW, JAMES, LL. D.; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 129: London, 1817.

ANDREWS & STODDARD; "A Grammar of the Latin Language;" 12mo, pp. 328:
Boston, 1836; 11th Ed., 1845.

ANGELL, OLIVER, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 90: 1st Edition,
Providence, R. I., 1830.

ANGUS, WILLIAM, M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 255: 2d Edition, Glasgow,
Scotland, 1807.

ANON.; "The British Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 281: London, 1760, or near that date. Boston, Mass., 1784.

ANON.; "A Comprehensive Grammar," &c.; 18mo, pp. 174: 3d Ed., Philadelphia,
T. Dobson, 1789.

ANON.; "The Comic Grammar," &c,: London, 1840.

ANON.; "The Decoy," an English Grammar with Cuts; 12mo, pp. 33: New York,
S. Wood & Sons, 1820.

ANON.: E. Gram., "By T. C.;" 18mo, pp. 104: London, 1843.

ANON.; Grammar and Rhetoric; 12mo, pp. 221: London, 1776.

ANON.; "The English Tutor;" 8vo: London, 1747.

ANON.; English Grammar, 12mo: London, Boosey, 1795.

ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 161: London, 1838.

ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 85: London, 1838.

ANON.; An English Grammar, with Engravings; 18mo, pp. 16: London, 1820.

ANON.; English Grammar, pp. 84: 1st Ed., Huddersfield, 1817.

ANON.: "The Essentials of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 3d Edition,
London, 1821.

ANON.; "A Plain and Comprehensive Grammar," in "The Complete
Letter-Writer;" 12mo, pp. 31;—pages of the whole book, 215: London, 1811.

ANON.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 131: Albany, N. Y., 1819.

ANON.; (A. H. Maltby & Co. pub.;) Murray's Abridgement, "with Additions;" 18mo, pp. 120: Newhaven, Ct., 1822.

ANON.; (James Loring, pub.;) Murray's Abridgement, "with Alterations and
Improvements; by a Teacher of Youth;" (Lawson Lyon;) 18mo, pp. 72: 14th
Ed., Boston, 1821.

ANON.; "The Infant School Grammar;" (said to have been written by Mrs.
Bethune;) 18mo, pp. 182: New York, 1830. Jonathan Seymour, proprietor.

ANON.; Pestalozzian Grammar; 12mo, pp. 60: Boston, 1830.

ANON.; Interrogative Grammar; 12mo, pp. 70: Boston, 1832.

ANON.; Grammar with Cuts; 18mo, pp. 108: Boston, 1830. ANON.; "The Juvenile English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 89: Boston, 1829. B. Perkins & Co., publishers and proprietors.

ANON.; "The Little Grammarian;" 18mo, pp. 108: 2d Edition, Boston, 1829.

ANON.; An Inductive Grammar; 12mo, pp. 185: Windsor, Vt., 1829.

ANON.; "A Concise Grammar of the English Language, attempted in Verse;" 18mo, pp. 63: 1st Edition, New York, 1825. ANON.; "Edward's First Lessons in Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Boston, T. H. Webb & Co., 1843.

ANON.; "The First Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 90: 1st Edition,
Boston, 1842.

ANON.; "A New Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 124: New York, 1831; 2d Ed., Boston, 1834.

ANON.; "Enclytica, or the Principles of Universal Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 133:
London, J. Booth, 1814.

ANON.; "The General Principles of Grammar, edited by a few Well-Wishers to
Knowledge;" 18mo, pp. 76: Philadelphia, Lea & Blanchard, 1847.

ANON.; "English School Grammar;" small 12mo, pp. 32: London, 1850. A meagre sketch, published by "the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge."

ANON.; "An English Grammar, together with a First Lesson in Reading;" 18mo, pp. 16: James Burns, London; 2d Ed., 1844. Not worth a pin.

ARISTOTLE; his Poetics;—the Greek text, with Goulston's Latin Version, and
Winstanley's Notes;—8vo, pp. 320: Oxford, England, 1780.

ARNOLD, T. K., M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 76: 2d Edition, London, 1841.

ASH, JOHN, LL. D.; "Grammatical Institutes;" 18mo, pp. 142: London, first published about 1763; New York, "A New Edition, Revised and Corrected," 1799.

BACON, CALEB, Teacher; "Murray's English Grammar Put into Questions and Answers;" 18mo, pp. 108: New York, 1st Edition, 1818; 5th Edition, 1823, 1827, and 1830.

BADGLEY, JONATHAN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 200: 1st Edition, Utica, N.
Y., 1845. Suppressed for plagiarism from G. Brown.

BALCH, WILLIAM S.; (1.) "Lectures on Language;" 12mo, pp. 252: Providence, 1838. (2.) "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp, 140: 1st Edition, Boston, 1839.

BALDWIN, EDWARD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 148: London, 1810; 2d Ed., 1824.

BARBER, Dr. JONATHAN; "A Grammar of Elocution;" 12mo; Newhaven, 1830.

BARNARD, FREDERICK A. P., A. M.; "Analytic Grammar; with Symbolic Illustration;" 12mo, pp. 264: New York, 1836. This is a curious work, and remarkably well-written.

BARNES, DANIEL H., of N. Y.; "The Red Book," or Bearcroft's "Practical
Orthography," Revised and Enlarged; 12mo, pp. 347: New York, 1828.

BARNES, WILLIAM, B. D.; (1.) English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 120: London, 1842. (2.) "A Philological Grammar, grounded upon English, and formed from a Comparison of more than Sixty Languages;" 8vo, pp. 312: London, 1854.

BARRETT, JOHN; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 214: 2d Ed.,
Boston, 1819.

BARRETT, SOLOMON, Jun.; (1.) "The Principles of Language;" 12mo, pp. 120:
Albany, 1837. (2.) "The Principles of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 96;
"Tenth Edition, Revised:" Utica, 1845. (3.) "The Principles of Grammar;"
12mo, pp. 407: "Revised Edition;" Cambridge, 1854.

BARRIE, ALEXANDER; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 54: Edinburgh, 9th Ed., 1800.

BARTLETT, MONTGOMERY R.; "The Common School Manual;" called in the Third or Philadelphia Edition, "The National School Manual;"—"in Four Parts," or Separate Volumes, 12mo: I, pp. 108; II, 302; III, 379; IV, promised "to consist of 450 or 500 pages." First three parts, "Second Edition," New York, 1830. A miserable jumble, in the successive pages of which, Grammar is mixed up with Spelling-columns, Reading-lessons, Arithmetic, Geometry, and the other supposed daily tasks of a school-boy!

BAILEY, N., Schoolmaster; "English and Latin Exercises;" 12mo, pp. 183:
London. 18th Ed., 1798.

BAILEY, Rev. R. W., A. M.; "English Grammar," or "Manual of the English
Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: 2d Ed., Philadelphia, 1854.

BAYLEY, ANSELM, LL. D.; English Grammar, 8vo: London, 1772.

BEALE, SOLON; English Grammar, 18mo, pp. 27: Bangor, Maine, 1833.

BEALL, ALEXANDER; English Grammar, 12mo: 1st Ed., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1841.

BEATTIE, JAMES, LL. D.; "Theory of Language:" London, 1783; Philadelphia,
1809. "Elements of Moral Science;" 12mo, pp. 572; Baltimore, 1813. See, in
Part 1, the sections which treat of "The Faculty of Speech," and the
"Essentials of Language;" and, in Part IV, those which treat of "Rhetorick,
Figures, Sentences, Style, and Poetry."

BECK, WILLIAM; "Outline of English Grammar;" very small, pp. 34: 3d Ed.,
London, 1829.

BEECHER, CATHARINE E.; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 74. 1st Ed., Hartford,
Ct., 1829.

BELL, JOHN; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 446: (2 vols.:) 1st Ed., Glasgow, 1769.

BELLAMY, ELIZABETH; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1802.

BENEDICT,————; English Grammar, 12mo, pp. 192: 1st Ed., Nicholasville,
Ky., 1832.

BETTESWORTH, JOHN; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1778.

BICKNELL, ALEXANDER, Esq.; "The Grammatical Wreath; or, a Complete System of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 804: London, 1790.

BINGHAM, CALEB, A. M.; "The Young Lady's Accidence;" 18mo, pp. 60: Boston, 1804; 20th Ed., 1815.

BLAIR, HUGH, D. D., F. B. S.; "Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres;" 8vo, pp. 500: London, 1783; New York, 1819.

BLAIR, JOHN, D. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 145: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1831.

BLAIR, DAVID, Rev.; "A Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 167: 7th Ed., London, 1815.

BLAISDALE, SILAS; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 88: 1st Ed., Boston, 1831.

BLISS, LEONARD Jun.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 73: 1st Ed., Louisville,
Ky., 1839.

BOBBITT, A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 136: 1st Ed., London, 1833.

BOLLES, WILLIAM; (1.) "A Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 180: Ster. Ed., N. London, 1831. (2.) "An Explanatory and Phonographic Pronouncing Dictionary of the English Language;" royal octavo, pp. 944; Ster. Ed., New London, 1845.

BOOTH, DAVID; Introd. to Analytical Dict.; 8vo, pp. 168: London, 1814. Analytical Dictionary of the English Language: London, 1835. E. Grammar, 12mo: London, 1837.

BRACE, JOAB; "The Principles of English Grammar;" (vile theft from Lennie;) 18mo, pp. 144: 1st Edition, Philadelphia, 1839.

BRADLEY, JOSHUA, A. M.; "Youth's Literary Guide;" 12mo, pp. 192: 1st Ed.,
Windsor, Vt., 1815.

BRADLEY, Rev. C.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 148: York, Eng., 1810; 3d Ed., 1813.

BRIDIL, EDMUND, LL. D.; E. Gram., 4to: London, 1799.

BRIGHTLAND, JOHN, Pub.; "A Grammar of the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 800: 7th Ed., London, 1748.

BRITTAIN, Rev. LEWIS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 156: 2d Edition, London, 1790.

BROMLEY, WALTER; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 104: 1st Ed., Halifax, N. S., 1822.

BROWN, GOOLD; (1.) "The Institutes of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 220-312: New York, 1st Ed., 1823; stereotyped in 1832, and again in 1846. (2.) "The First Lines of English Grammar;" early copies 18mo, late copies 12mo, pp. 108: New York, 1st Ed., 1823; stereotyped in 1827, and in 1844. (3.) "A Key to the Exercises for Writing, contained in the Institutes of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 51: New York, 1825. (4.) "A Catechism of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 72: New York, 1827. (5.) "A Compendious English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 22: (in Part I of the Treasury of Knowledge:) New York, 1831. (6.) "The Grammar of English Grammars;" 8vo, pp. 1028; first printed in Boston in 1850 and 1851.

BROWN, JAMES; (1.) An Explanation of E. Grammar as taught by an Expensive
Machine; 8vo, pp. 40: 1st Ed., Boston, 1815. (2.) "The American Grammar;" a
Pamphlet; 12mo, pp. 48: Salem, N. Y., 1821. (3.) "An American Grammar;"
18mo, pp. 162: New York, 1821. (4.) "An Appeal from the British System of
English Grammar to Common Sense;" 12mo, pp. 336: Philadelphia, 1837. (5.)
"The American System of English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 216: Philad., 1838. (6.)
"An Exegesis of English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 147: Philad., 1840. (7.) "The
First Part of the American System of English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 195:
Boston, 1841. (8.) "An English Syntascope," a "Chart," and other
fantastical works.

BROWN, J. H., A. M.; (with Gengemhre;) "Elements of English Grammar, on a
Progressive System;" 12mo, pp. 213: Philad., 1855.

BROWN, RICHARD; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1692.

BUCHANAN, JAMES; "A Regular English Syntax;" 12mo, pp. 196: 5th American
Ed., Philad., 1792.

BUCKE, CHARLES; "A Classical Grammar of the E. Language;" 18mo, pp. 152:
London, 1829.

BULLEN, Rev. H. ST. JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 140: 1st Edition,
London, 1797.

BULLIONS, Rev. PETER, D. D.; (1.) "Elements of the Greek Language;" (now called, "The Principles of Greek Grammar;") mostly a version of Dr. Moor's "Elementa Linguæ Græcæ:" 1st Ed., 1831. (2.) "The Principles of English Grammar;" (mostly copied from Lennie;) 12mo, pp. 187; 2d Ed., New York, 1837; 5th Ed., Revised, pp. 216, 1843, (3.) "The Principles of Latin Grammar;" (professedly, "upon the foundation of Adam's Latin Grammar;") 12mo, pp. 312: Albany, 1841: 12th Ed., New York, 1846. (4.) "Practical Lessons in English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 132: New York, 1844. (5.) "An Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: 1st Ed., New York, 1849.

BULLOKAR, WILLIAM; (1.) "Booke at Large for the Amendment of Orthographie for English Speech." (2.) "A Bref Grammar for English:" London, 1586.

BURHANS, HEZEKIAH; "The Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., Philad., 1823.

BURLES, EDWARD; E. Gram., 12mo: Lond., 1652.

BURN, JOHN; "A Practical Grammar of the E. Lang.;" 12mo, pp. 275: Glasgow, 1766; 10th Ed., 1810.

BURR, JONATHAN, A. M.; "A Compendium of Eng. Gram.;" 18mo, pp. 72: Boston, 1797,—1804,—1818.

BUTLER, CHARLES; E. Gram., 4to: Oxford, Eng., 1633.

BUTLER, NOBLE, A. M.; (1.) "A Practical Grammar of the E. Lang.;" 12mo, pp. 216: 1st Ed., Louisville, Ky., 1845. (2.) "Introductory Lessons in E. Grammar," 1845.

CAMPBELL, GEORGE, D. D., F. R. S.; "The Philosophy of Rhetoric;" 8vo, pp. 445: London, 1776: Philad., 1818.

CARDELL, WM. S.; (1.) An "Analytical Spelling-Book;" (with Part of the "Story of Jack Halyard;") 12mo, pp. 192: (published at first under the fictitious name of "John Franklin Jones:") New York, 1823; 2d Ed., 1824. (2.) An "Essay on Language;" 12mo, pp. 203: New York, 1825. (3.) "Elements of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 141: New York, 1826; 3d Ed., Hartford, 1827. (4.) "Philosophic Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 236: Philadelphia, 1827.

CAREY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 220: 1st Ed., London, 1809.

CARTER, JOHN; E. Gram., 8vo: Leeds, 1773.

CHANDLER, JOSEPH R.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 180:
Philad., 1821. Rev. Ed., pp. 208, stereotyped, 1847.

CHAPIN, JOEL; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 252: 1st Edition, Springfield,
Mass., 1842.

CHAUVIER, J. H., M. A.; "A Treatise on Punctuation;" translated from the
French, by J. B. Huntington; large 18mo, pp. 112: London, 1849.

CHESSMAN, DANIEL, A. M.; Murray Abridged; 18mo, pp. 24: 3d Ed., Hullowell,
Me., 1821.

CHILD, PROF. F. J.; "Revised Edition" of Dr. Latham's "Elementary English
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 236: Cambridge, N. E., 1852.

CHURCHILL, T. O.; "A New Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 454: 1st Ed., London, 1823.

CLAPHAM, Rev. SAMUEL; E. Grammar: London, 1810.

CLARK, HENRY; E. Grammar; 4to: London, 1656.

CLARK, SCHUYLER; "The American Linguist, or Natural Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 240: Providence, 1830.

CLARK, S. W., A. M.; "A Practical Grammar," with "a System of Diagrams;" 12mo, pp. 218; 2d Ed., New York, 1848.

CLARK, WILLIAM; E. Gram.; 18mo: London, 1810.

CLARKE, R.; "Poetical Grammar of the English Language, and an Epitome of
Rhetoric;" 12mo, pp. 172; price, 2s. 6d.: London, 1855.

COAR, THOMAS; "A Grammar of the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 276: 1st Ed.,
London, 1796.

COBB, ENOS; "Elements of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed.,
Boston, 1820.

COBB, LYMAN, A. M.; (1.) A Spelling-Book according to J. Walker; "Revised Ed.:" Ithaca, N. Y., 1825. (2.) "Abridgment of Walker's Crit. Pron. Dict.:" Hartford, Ct., 1829. (3.) "Juvenile Reader, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and Sequel:" New York, 1831. (4.) "The North American Reader;" 12mo, pp. 498: New York, 1835. (5.) "New Spelling-Book, in Six Parts;" 12mo, pp. 168: N. Y., 1843. (6.) An "Expositor," a "Miniature Lexicon," books of "Arithmetic, &c., &c."

COBBETT, WILLIAM; "A Grammar of the E. Language;" 12mo, New York and Lond., 1818; 18mo, N. Y., 1832.

COBBIN, Rev. INGRAM, M. A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 20th Edition,
London, 1844.

COCHRAN, PETER, A. B.: English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 71: 1st Ed., Boston, 1802.

COLET, Dr. John, Dean of St. Paul's; the "English Introduction" to Lily's
Grammar; dedicated to Lily in 1510. See Gram. of E. Gram., Introd., Chap.
XI, ¶¶ 3, 4, and 5.

COMLY, JOHN; "English Grammar Made Easy;" 18mo, pp. 192: 6th Ed., Philad., 1815; 15th Ed., 1826.

COMSTOCK, ANDREW, M. D.; "A System of Elocution;" 12mo, pp. 364:
Philadelphia, 1844. "A Treatise on Phonology;" 12mo, 1846: &c.

CONNEL, ROBERT; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 162: Glasgow, 1831; 2d Ed., 1834.

CONNON, C. W., M. A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: Edinburgh, 1845.

COOPER, Rev. JOAB GOLDSMITH, A. M.; (1.) "An Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar;" (largely stolen from G. Brown;) 12mo, pp. 200: Philadelphia, 1828. (2.) "A Plain and Practical English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 210: Philad., 1831.

COOTE, C., LL. D.; on the English Language; 8vo, pp. 281: 1st Edition,
London, 1788.

CORBET, JAMES; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 153: 1st Edition, Glasgow, 1743.

CORBET, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo: Shrewsbury, England, 1784.

CORNELL, WILLIAM M.; English Grammar; 4to, pp. 12: 1st Edition, Boston, 1840.

COVELL, L. T.; "A Digest of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 219: 3d Ed., New
York, 1853. Much indebted to S. S. Greene, H. Mandeville, and G. Brown.

CRANE, GEORGE; "The Principles of Language;" 12mo, pp. 264: 1st Ed.,
London, 1843.

CROCKER, ABRAHAM; English Grammar, 12mo: Lond., 1772.

CROMBIE, ALEXANDER, LL. D., F. R. S.; "A Treatise on the Etymology and
Syntax of the English Language;" 8vo, pp. 425: London, 2d Ed., 1809; 4th
Ed., 1836.

CUTLER, ANDREW, A. M.; "English Grammar and Parser;" 12mo, pp. 168: 1st
Ed., Plainfield, Ct., 1841.

DALE, W. A. T.; a small "English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed., Albany,
N. Y., 1820.

DALTON, JOHN; "Elements of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 122: London, 1st
Ed., 1801.

DAVENPORT, BISHOP; "English Grammar Simplified;" 18mo, pp. 139: 1st Ed.,
Wilmington, Del., 1830.

DAVIDSON, DAVID; a Syntactical Treatise, or Grammar; 12mo: London, 1823.

DAVIS, Rev. JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 188: 1st Ed., Belfast,
Ireland, 1832.

DAVIS, PARDON; (1.) An Epitome of E. Gram.; 12mo, pp. 56: 1st Ed., Philad., 1818. (2.) "Modern Practical E. Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 175: 1st Ed., Philad., 1845.

DAY, PARSONS E.; "District School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 120: 2d Ed., Ithaca,
N. Y., 1844.

DAY, WILLIAM; "Punctuation Reduced to a System;" 18mo, pp. 147: 3d Ed.,
London, 1847.

DEARBORN, BENJAMIN; "Columbian Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 140: 1st Ed., Boston, 1795.

DEL MAR, E.; Treatise on English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 115: 1st Ed., London, 1842.

D'ORSEY, ALEXANDER J. D.; (1.) A Duodecimo Grammar, in Two Parts; Part I, pp. 153; Part II, pp. 142: 1st Ed., Edinburgh, 1842. (2.) An Introduction to E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 104: Edin., 1845.

DE SACY, A. J. SYLVESTRE, Baron; "Principles of General Grammar;" translated from the French, by D. Fosdick, Jun.; 12mo, pp. 156: 1st American, from the 5th French Edition; Andover and New York, 1834.

"DESPAUTER, JOHN, a Flemish grammarian, whose books were, at one time, in great repute; he died in 1520."—Univ. Biog. Dict. Despauter's Latin Grammar, in Three Parts,—Etymology, Syntax, and Versification,—comprises 858 octavo pages. Dr. Adam says, in the "Preface to the Fourth Edition" of his Grammar, "The first complete edition of Despauter's Grammar was printed at Cologne, anno 1522; his Syntax had been published anno 1509." G. Brown's copy is a "complete edition," printed partly in 1517, and partly in 1518.

DEVIS, ELLEN; E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 130: London and Dublin; 1st Ed., 1777; 17th Ed., 1825. [Fist] Devis's Grammar, spoken of in D. Blair's Preface, as being too "comprehensive and minute," is doubtless an other and much larger work.

DILWORTH, THOMAS; "A New Guide to the English Tongue;" 12mo, pp. 148:
London; 1st Ed., 1740: 26th Ed., 1764; 40th Ed., (used by G. B.,) undated.

DOHERTY, HUGH; a Treatise on English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 240; 1st Ed.,
London, 1841.

DRUMMOND, JOHN; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1767. DYCHE, THOMAS; English
Grammar; 8vo, pp. 10: London, 1st Ed., 1710; 12th Ed., 1765.

EARL, MARY; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Boston, 1816.

EDWARDS, Mrs. M. C.; English Grammar; 8vo: Brentford. England, 1796.

EGELSHEM, WELLS; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1781.

ELMORE, D. W., A. M.; "English Grammar, or Natural Analysis;" 18mo, pp. 18: 1st Ed., Troy, N. Y., 1830. A mere trifle.

ELPHINSTON, JAMES; on the English Language; 12mo, pp. 298: 1st Ed., London, 1796.

EMERSON, BENJAMIN D.; "National Spelling-Book;" 12mo, pp. 168: Boston, 1828.

EMERY, J., A. B.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 39: 1st Ed., Wellsborough,
Pa., 1829.

EMMONS, S. B.; "The Grammatical Instructer;" 12mo, pp. 160: 1st Ed.,
Boston, 1832. Worthless.

ENSELL, G.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" in English and Dutch; 8vo, pp. 612: Rotterdam, 1797.

EVEREST, Rev. CORNELIUS B.; "An English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 270: 1st Ed.,
Norwich, Ct., 1835. Suppressed for plagiarism from G. Brown.

EVERETT, ERASTUS, A. M.; "A System of English Versification;" 12mo, pp. 198: 1st Ed., New York, 1848.

FARNUM, CALEB, Jun., A. M.; "Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 124: 1st Edition, (suppressed for petty larcenies from G. Brown,) Providence, R. I., 1842; 2d Edition, (altered to evade the charge of plagiarism,) Boston, 1843.

FARBO, DANIEL; "The Royal British Grammar and Vocabulary;" 12mo, pp. 344: 1st Ed., London. 1754.

FELCH, W.; "A Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 122: 1st Edition, Boston, 1837. This author can see others' faults better than his own.

FELTON, OLIVER C.; "A Concise Manual of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 145:
Salem, Mass., 1843.

FENNING, DANIEL; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 224: 1st Ed., London, 1771.

FENWICK, JOHN; an English Grammar, 12mo.: London, 1811.

FISHER, A.; "A Practical New Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 176: London: 1st Ed., 1753; 28th Ed., 1795; "A New Ed., Enlarged, Improved, and Corrected," (used by G. B.,) 1800.

FISK, ALLEN; (1.) Epitome of E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 124: Hallowell, Me., 1821; 2d Ed., 1828. (2.) "Adam's Latin Grammar Simplified;" 8vo, pp. 190: New York, 1822; 2d Ed., 1824. (3.) "Murray's English Grammar Simplified;" 8vo, pp. 178: 1st Ed., Troy, N. Y., 1822.

FLEMING, Rev. CALEB; an English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1765.

FLETCHER, LEVI; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 83: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1834.

FLETCHER, Rev. W.; English Gram.; 18mo, pp. 175: London; 1st Ed., 1828; 2d
Ed., 1833.

FLINT, ABEL, A. M., and D. D.; "Murray's English Grammar Abridged;" 12mo, pp. 204: Hartford, Ct.; 1st Ed., 1807; 6th Ed., pp. 214, 1826.

FLINT, JOHN; "First Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 107: 1st Ed.,
New York, 1834.

FLOWER, M. and W. B.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 170: 1st Ed., London, 1844.

FOLKER, JOSEPH; "An Introduction to E. Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 34: Savannah, Ga., 1821.

FORMEY, M., M. D., S. E., &c., &c.; "Elementary Principles of the
Belles-Lettres;"—"Translated from the French, by the late Mr. Sloper
Forman;" 12mo, pp. 224: Glasgow, 1767.

FOWLE, WILLIAM BENTLEY; (1.) "The True English Grammar," (Part I;) 18mo, pp. 180: Boston, 1827. (2.) "The True English Grammar, Part II;" 18mo, pp. 97: Boston, 1829. (3.) "The Common School Grammar, Part I;" 12mo, pp. 46: Boston, 1842. (4.) "The Common School Grammar, Part II;" 12mo, pp. 108: Boston, 1842.

FOWLER, WILLIAM C.; "English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 675: 1st Ed., New York, 1850.

FRAZEE, Rev. BRADFORD; "An Improved Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192: Philad., 1844;
Ster. Ed., 1845.

FRENCH, D'ARCY A.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: Baltimore, 1st Ed., 1831.

FROST, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Elements of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Boston, 1829. (2.) "A Practical English Grammar;" (with 89 cuts;) 12mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1842.

FULLER, ALLEN; "Grammatical Exercises, being a plain and concise Method of teaching English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Plymouth, Mass., 1822. A book of no value.

GARTLEY, G.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 225: 1st Edition, London, 1830.

GAY, ANTHELME; "A French Prosodical Grammar;" for English or American
Students; 12mo, pp. 215: New York, 1795.

GENGEMBRE, P. W.; "Brown and Gengembre's English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 213:
Philad., 1855. (See J. H. Brown.)

GIBBS, Prof. J. W., of Yale C.; on Dialects, Sounds, and Derivations. See about 126 pages, credited to this gentleman, in Prof. Fowler's large Grammar, of 1850.

GILBERT, ELI; a "Catechetical Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 124: 1st Ed., 1834; 2d
Ed., New York, 1835.

GILCHRIST, JAMES; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 269: 1st Ed., London, 1815.

GILES, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 152: London, 1804; 2d Ed., 1810.

GILES, Rev. T. A., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, London, 2d Ed., 1838.

GILL, ALEXANDER; English Grammar, treated in Latin; 4to: London, 1621.

GILLEADE, G.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 206: London; 1st Ed., 1816.

GIRAULT Du VIVIER, Ch. P.; (1.) "La Grammaire des Grammaires;" two thick volumes, 8vo: Paris; 2d Ed., 1814. (2.) "Traité des Participes;" 8vo, pp. 84: 2d Ed., Paris, 1816.

GOLDSBURY, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "The Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 94: 1st Ed., Boston, 1842. (2.) "Sequel to the Common School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 110: 1st Ed., Boston, 1842.

GOODENOW, SMITH B.; "A Systematic Text-Book of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144: 1st Edition, Portland, 1839; 2d Edition, Boston, 1843.

GOUGH, JOHN and JAMES; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 212: 2d Ed., Dublin, 1760.

GOULD, BENJAMIN A.; "Adam's Lat. Gram., with Improvements;" 12mo, pp. 300:
Boston, 1829.

GRAHAM, G. F.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 134: 1st Ed., London, 1843.

GRANT, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Institutes of Latin Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 453:
London, 1808. (2.) A Comprehensive English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 410: 1st Ed.,
London, 1813.

GRANVILLE, GEO.; English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1827.

GRAY, JAMES, D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 144: 1st Ed., Baltimore, 1818.

GREEN, MATTHIAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 148: 1st Ed., London, 1837.

GREEN, RICHARD W.; "Inductive Exercises in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., New York, 1829; 5th Ed., Phila., 1834.

GEEENE, ROSCOE G.; (1.) E. Gram.; 12mo, pp. 132: Hallowell, Me.; 1st Ed., 1828; Ster. Ed., 1835. (2.) "A Practical Grammar for the English Language;" (with Diagrams of Moods;) 12mo: Portland, 1829. (3.) "A Grammatical Text-Book, being an Abstract of a Practical Gram., &c.;" 12mo, pp. 69: Boston, 1833.

GREENE, SAMUEL S.; (1.) "Analysis of Sentences;" 12mo, pp. 258: 1st Ed.,
Philadelphia, 1848. (2.) "First Lessons in Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 171: 1st
Ed., Philad., 1848.

GREENLEAF, JEREMIAH; "Grammar Simplified;" 4to, pp. 48: New York; 3d Ed., 1821; 20th Ed., 1837.

GREENWOOD, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 315: London, 1711; 2d Ed., 1722.

GEENVILLE, A. S.; "Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 63: 1st Ed.,
Boston, 1822.

GRISCOM, JOHN, LL. D.; "Questions in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 42: 1st
Ed., New York, 1821.

GURNEY, DAVID. A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: Boston, 1801; 2d Ed., 1808.

GUY, JOSEPH, Jun.; "English School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 143: 4th Ed., London 1816.

HALL, Rev. S. R.; "The Grammatical Assistant;" 12mo, pp. 131: 1st Ed.,
Springfield, Mass., 1832.

HALL, WILLIAM; "Encyclopedia of English Grammar;" (by report;) Ohio, 1850.

HALLOCK, EDWARD J., A. M.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 251: 1st Ed., New York, 1842. A very inaccurate book, with sundry small plagiarisms from G. Brown.

HAMLIN, LORENZO F.; "English Grammar in Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 108: New York, 1831; Ster. Ed., 1832.

HAMMOND, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 8vo: Lond., 1744.

HARRIS, JAMES, Esq.; "Hermes; or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning
Universal Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 468; London, 1751: 6th Ed., 1806.

HARRISON, Mr.; "Rudiments of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 108: 9th American
Ed., Philad., 1812.

HARRISON, Rev. MATTHEW, A. M.; "The Rise, Progress, and Present Structure of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 393: Preface dated Basingstoke, Eng., 1848; 1st American Ed., Philad., 1850.

HART, JOHN S., A. M.; "English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192; 1st Ed.,
Philadelphia, 1845.

HARVEY, J.; English Grammar: London, 1841.

HAZEN, EDWARD, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 240: New York, 1842.

HAZLITT, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 205: London, 1810.

HENDRICK, J. L., A. M.; "A Grammatical Manual;" 18mo, pp. 105: 1st Ed.,
Syracuse, N. Y., 1844.

HEWES, JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 4to: London, 1624.

HEWETT, D.; English Grammar; folio, pp. 16: 1st Edition, New York, 1838.

HIGGINSON, Rev. T. E.; E. Gram.; 12mo; Dublin, 1803.

HILEY, RICHARD; "A Treatise on English Grammar," &c.; 12mo, pp. 269: 3d Ed., London, 1840. Hiley's Grammar Abridged; 18mo, pp. 196: London, 1843: 4th Ed., 1851.

HILL, J. H.; "On the Subjunctive Mood;" 8vo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., London, 1834.

HODGSON, Rev. ISAAC; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 184: 1st Ed., London, 1770.

HOME, HENRY, Lord Kames; "Elements of Criticism;" 2 volumes 8vo, pp. 836: (3d American, from the 8th London Ed.:) New York, 1819. Also, "The Art of Thinking;" 12mo, pp. 284: (from the last London Ed.:) New York, 1818.

HORNSEY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 144; York, England, 1798: 6th
Ed., 1816.

HORT, W. JILLARD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 219: 1st Ed., London, 1822.

HOUGHTON, JOHN; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1766.

HOUSTON, SAMUEL, A. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 48: 1st Ed.,
Harrisburgh, Pa., 1818.

HOWE, S. L.; English Grammar; 18mo; 1st Ed., Lancaster, Ohio, 1838.

HOWELL, JAMES; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1662.

HULL, JOSEPH HERVEY; "E. Gram., by Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 72: 4th Ed.,
Boston, 1828.

HUMPHREY, ASA; (1.) "The English Prosody;" 12mo, pp. 175: 1st Ed., Boston, 1847. (2.) "The Rules of Punctuation;" with "Rules for the Use of Capitals;" 18mo, pp. 71: 1st Ed., Boston, 1847.

HURD, S. T.; E. Gram.: 2d Ed., Boston, 1827.

HUTHERSAL, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo: England, 1814.

INGERSOLL, CHARLES M.; "Conversations on English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 296:
New York, 1821.

JAMIESON, ALEXANDER; "A Grammar of Rhetoric and Polite Literature;" 12mo, pp. 345: "The first American, from the last London Edition;" Newhaven, 1820.

JAUDON, DANIEL; "The Union Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 216: Philadelphia; 1st Ed., 1812; 4th, 1828.

JENKINS, AZARIAH; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 256; 1st Ed., Rochester, N.
Y., 1835.

JOEL, THOMAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 78: 1st Ed., London, 1775.

JOHNSON, RICHARD; "Grammatical Commentaries;" (chiefly on Lily;) 8vo, pp. 436: London, 1706.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL, LL. D.; "A Dictionary of the English Language;" in two
thick volumes, 4to: 1st American, from the 11th London Edition;
Philadelphia, 1818. To this work, are prefixed Johnson's "History of the
English Language," pp. 29; and his "Grammar of the English Tongue," pp. 14.

JONES, JOSHUA; E. Gram.; 18mo: Phila., 1841.

JONSON, BEN;—see, in his Works, "The English Grammar, made by Ben Jonson, for the Benefit of all Strangers, out of his Observation of the English Language, now spoken and in use:" London, 1634: 8vo, pp. 94; Lond., 1816.

JUDSON, ADONIRAM, Jun., A. B.; E. Grammar; 12mo, pp. 56: 1st Ed., Boston, 1808.

KENNION, CHARLOTTE; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 157: 1st Ed., London, 1842.

KILSON, ROGER; English Grammar; 12mo: England, 1807.

KING, WALTER W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 76: 1st Ed., London, 1841.

KIRKHAM, SAMUEL; "English Grammar in familiar Lectures;" 12mo, pp. 141—228: 2d Ed., Harrisburgh, Pa., 1825; 12th Ed., New York, 1829.

KNOWLES, JOHN; "The Principles of English Grammar;" 12mo: 3d Ed., London, 1794.

KNOWLTON, JOSEPH; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 84: Salem, Mass., 1818; 2d
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LATHAM, ROBERT GORDON, A. M., M. D., F. R. S. (1.) "The English Language;" 8vo, pp. 418: 1st Ed., London, 1841. (2.) "English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 214: 1st Ed., London, 1843. (3.) "A Hand-Book of the English Language;" large 12mo, pp. 898: New York, 1852.

LEAVITT, DUDLEY; English Grammar; 24to, pp. 60: 1st Ed., Concord, N. H., 1826.

LENNIE, WILLIAM; "The Principles of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 142: 5th
Ed., Edinburgh, 1819; 13th Ed., 1831.

LEWIS, ALONZO; "Lessons in English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 50: 1st Ed., Boston, 1822.

LEWIS, JOHN; (1.) English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 48: 1st Ed., New York, 1828. (2.) "Tables of Comparative Etymology; or, The Student's Manual of Languages;" 4to, pp. 108: Philad., 1828.

LEWIS, WILLIAM GREATHEAD; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 204: 1st Ed., London, 1821.

LILY, WILLIAM; "Brevissima Institutio, seu Ratio Grammatices cognoscendæ;" large 18mo, pp. 140: London, 1793.

LINDSAY, Rev. JOHN, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 88: 1st Ed., London. 1842.

LOCKE, JOHN, M. D.; small English Grammar; 18mo: 1st Ed., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1827.

LOUGHTON, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 194: 3d Ed., London, 1739.

LOVECHILD, Mrs.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 40th Ed., London, 1842.

LOWTH, ROBERT, D. D.; "A Short Introduction to English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 132: London, 1763;—Philadelphia, 1799;—Cambridge, Mass., 1838.

LYNDE, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 10: 1st Ed., Woodstock, Vt., 1821.

MACK, EVERED J.; "The Self-Instructor, and Practical English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Springfield, Mass., 1835. An egregious plagiarism from G. Brown.

MACGOWAN, Rev. JAMES; "English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 248: London, 1825.

MACKINTOSH, DUNCAN; "An Essay on English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 239: Boston, 1797.

MACKILQUHEM, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo: Glasgow, 1799.

MAITTAIRE, MICHAEL; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 272: London, 1712.

MANDEVILLE, HENRY, D. D.; (1.) "Elements of Reading and Oratory;" large 12mo: Utica, N. Y., 1845. (2.) "A Course of Reading for Schools;" 12mo, pp. 377: Improved Ed.; New York, 1851.

MARCET, Mrs.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 331: 7th Ed., London, 1843.

MARTIN, BENJ.; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1754.

MATHESON, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 138: 2d Ed., London, 1821.

MAUNDER, SAMUEL; Grammar prefixed to Dict.; 12mo, pp. 20: 1st Ed., London, 1830.

MAVOR, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 70: 1st Ed., London, 1820.

M'CREADY, F.; 12mo Grammar: Philad., 1820.

M'CULLOCH, J. M., D. D.; "A Manual of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 188: 7th
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M'ELLIGOTT, JAMES N.; "Manual, Analytical and Synthetical, of Orthography and Definition;" 8vo, pp. 223: 1st Ed., New York, 1846. Also, "The Young Analyzer:" 12mo, pp. 54: New York, 1846.

MEILAN, MARK A.; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1803.

MENDENHALL, WILLIAM; "The Classification of Words;" 12mo, pp. 36: Philad., 1814.

MENNYE, J.: "English Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 124: 1st Ed., New York, 1785.

MERCEY, BLANCHE; English Grammar; 12mo, 2 vols., pp. 248: 1st Ed., London, 1799.

MERCHANT, AARON M.; Murray's Small Grammar, Enlarged; 18mo, pp. 216: N. Y., 1824. This "Enlarged Abridgement" became "The American School Grammar" in 1828.

MILLER, ALEXANDER; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 119: 1st Ed., New York, 1795.

MILLER, The Misses; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 63: 1st Ed., London, 1830.
MILLER, FERDINAND H.; "The Ready Grammarian;" square 12mo, pp. 24: Ithaca,
New York, 1843.

MILLER, TOBIAS HAM; Murray's Abridgement, with Questions; 12mo, pp. 76:
Portsmouth, N. H., 1823.

MILLIGAN, Rev. GEORGE; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: Edin., 1831; 2d Ed., 1839.

MOORE, THOMAS; "Orthography and Pronunciation;" 12mo, pp. 176: London, 1810.

MORGAN, JONATHAN, Jun., A. B.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 405: 1st Ed.,
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MORLEY, CHARLES, A. B.; "School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 86: (with Cuts:) 1st
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MOREY, AMOS C.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: Albany, N. Y., 1829.

MULKEY, WILLIAM; "An Abridgment of Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the
Letters;" 18mo, pp. 124: Boston. 1834. Fudge!

MULLIGAN, JOHN, A. M.; (1.) "Exposition of the Grammatical Structure of the English Language;" small 8vo, pp. 574: New York, 1852. (2.) Same Abridged for Schools; 12mo, pp. 301: N. Y., 1854.

MURRAY, ALEXANDER, D. D.; "The History of European Languages;" in two vols., 8vo.; pp. 800.

MURRAY, ALEXANDER, Schoolmaster; "Easy English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 194: 3d
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MURRAY, LINDLEY; (1.) "English Grammar, Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners;" 12mo, pp. 284: York, Eng., 1795; 2d Ed., 1796; 23d Ed., 1816. (2.) "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 105: "From the 30th English Ed.," New York, 1817. (3.) "An English Grammar;" in two volumes, octavo; pp. 684: 4th American from the last English Ed.; New York, 1819. (4.) A Spelling-Book; 18mo, pp. 180: New York, 1819.

MYLINS, WM. F.; Gram., 12mo: England, 1809.

MYLNE, Rev. A., D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 180: 11th Ed., Edinburgh, 1832.

NESBIT, A.; "An Introd. to English Parsing;" 18mo, pp. 213: 2d Ed., York,
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NEWBURY, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 152: 5th Ed., London, 1787.

NIGHTINGALE, Rev. J.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 96: 1st Ed., London, 1822.

NIXON, H.; (1.) "The English Parser;" 12mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., London, 1826. (2.) "New and Comprehensive English Grammar;" 12mo: 1st Ed., London, 1833.

NUTTING, RUFUS, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 144: 3d Ed.,
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ODELL, J., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 205: 1st Ed., London, 1806.

OLIVER, EDWARD, D. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 178: 1st Ed., London, 1807.

OLIVER, SAMUEL; English Grammar; 8vo, pp. 377: 1st Ed., London, 1825.

PALMER, MARY; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 48: New York, 1803.

PARKER, RICHARD GREEN; (1.) "Exercises in Composition;" 12mo, pp. 106: 3d
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PARKER and FOX; "Progressive Exercises in English Grammar;" in three separate parts, 12mo:—Part I, pp. 96; Boston, 1834: Part II, pp. 60; Boston, 1835: Part III, pp. 122; Boston, 1840.

PARKHURST, JOHN L.; (1.) "A Systematic Introduction to English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 104: Concord, N. H., 1820; 2d Ed., 1824. (2.) "English Grammar for Beginners;" 18mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Andover, Mass., 1838.

PARSONS, SAMUEL H.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 107: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1836.

PEIRCE, JOHN; "The New American Spelling-Book," with "A Plain and Easy Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 200: 6th Ed., Philadelphia, 1804. This Grammar is mostly copied from Harrison's.

PEIRCE, OLIVER B.; "The Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 384: 1st Ed., New York, 1839. Also, Abridgement of the same; 18mo, pp. 144: Boston, 1840.

PENGELLEY, EDWARD; English Gram.; 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., London, 1840.

PERLEY, DANIEL, M. D.; "A Grammar of the English Language;" 18mo, pp. 79: 1st Ed., Andover, Mass., 1834.

PERRY, WILLIAM; Grammar in Dict.; 12mo: Edinburgh, 1801.

PICKBOURN, JAMES; "Dissertation on the English Verb:" London, 1789.

PICKET, ALBERT; "Analytical School Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 252: New York, 1823; 2d Ed., 1824.

PINNEO, T. S., M. A., M. D.; (1.) "A Primary Grammar, for Beginners:" Cincinnati. (2.) "Analytical Grammar of the E. Language:" 12mo, pp. 216: Cincinnati, 1850; New York, 1853. (3.) "Pinneo's English Teacher; in which is taught the Structure of Sentences by Analysis and Synthesis;" 12mo, pp. 240: Cincinnati, 1854.

PINNOCK, W.; (1.) A Catechism of E. Gram.; 18mo, pp. 70: 18th Ed., London, 1825. (2.) A Comprehensive Grammar; 12mo, pp. 318: 1st Ed., London, 1829.

POND, ENOCH, D. D.; "Murray's System of Eng. Grammar, Improved;" 12mo, pp. 228: 5th Ed., Worcester, Mass., 1835. Also, under the same title, a petty Grammar with Cuts; 18mo, pp. 71: New Ed., Worcester, 1835.

POWERS, DANIEL, A. M.; E. Grammar; 12mo, pp. 188: 1st Ed., West Brookfleld,
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PRIESTLEY, JOSEPH, LL. D.; "The Rudiments of E. Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 202: 3d
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PUE, HUGH A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 149: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1841.

PULLEN, P. H.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 321: London, 1820; 2d Ed., 1822.

PUTNAM, J. M.; "English Grammar;" (Murray's, Modified;) 18mo, pp. 162:
Concord, N. H., 1825; Ster., 1831.

PUTNAM, SAMUEL; "Putnam's Murray;" 18mo, pp. 108: Improved Ster. Ed.;
Dover, N. H., 1828.

PUTSEY, Rev. W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 211: London, 1821; 2d Ed., 1829.

QUACKENBOS, GEO. PAYN; (1.) "First Lessons in Composition." (2.) "Advanced
Course of Composition and Rhetoric;" 12mo, pp. 455: New York, 1854.

RAND, ASA; "Teacher's Manual," &c.; 18mo, pp. 90: 1st Ed., Boston, 1832.

REED, CALEB, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 30: 1st Ed., Boston, 1821.

REID, A.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 46: 2d Ed., London, 1839.

REID, JOHN, M. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 68: 1st Ed., Glasgow, 1830.

RICORD, F. W., A. M.; "The Youth's Grammar; or, Easy Lessons in Etymology;" 12mo, pp. 118: 1st Ed., N. Y., 1855.

RIGAN, JOHN; Grammar, 12mo: Dublin, 1823.

ROBBINS, MANASSEH; "Rudimental Lessons in Etym. and Synt.;" 12mo, pp. 70:
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ROBINSON, JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 95: 1st Ed., Maysville, 1830.

ROOME, Rev. T.; Gram.; 12mo: England, 1813.

ROSS, ROBERT; an American Grammar; 12mo, pp. 199: 7th Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1782.

ROTHWELL, J.; English Grammar; 12mo: 2d Ed., London, 1797.

ROZZELL, WM.; English Grammar in Verse; 8vo: London, 1795.

RUSH, JAMES, M. D.; "Philosophy of the Human Voice;" 8vo: Philadelphia, 1833.

RUSSELL, Rev. J., D. D.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 168: London, 1835; 10th
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RUSSELL, WILLIAM; (1.) "A Grammar of Composition;" 12mo, pp. 150: Newhaven, 1823. (2.) "Lessons in Enunciation:" Boston, 1841. (3.) "Orthophony; or the Cultivation of the Voice;" 12mo, pp. 300: improved Ed., Boston, 1847.

RUSSELL, WILLIAM E.: "An Abridgment of Murray's Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 142:
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RYLAND, JOHN; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., Northampton, Eng., 1767.

SABINE, H., A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 120: 1st Ed., London, 1702.

SANBOBN, DYER H.; "An Analytical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 299: 1st Ed., Concord, N. H., 1836.

SANDERS, CHARLES W. and J. C.; "The Young Grammarian;" 12mo, pp. 120:
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SARGENT, EPES; "The Standard Speaker; a Treatise on Oratory and Elocution;" small 8vo, pp. 558: Philadelphia, 1852.

SCOTT, WILLIAM; Grammar, 12mo: Edinb., 1797. Dictionary, with Grammar prefixed; square, pp. 492: Cork, 1810.

SEARLE, Rev. THOMAS; Grammar in Verse; 18mo, pp. 114: 1st Ed., London, 1822.

SHATFORD, W.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 104: 1st Ed., London, 1834.

SHAW, Rev. JOHN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 259: 4th Ed., London, 1793.

SHERIDAN, THOMAS, A. M.; (1.) "Lectures on Elocution;" 12mo, pp. 185: London, 1762; Troy, N. Y., 1803. (2.) "Lectures on the Art of Reading." (3.) "A Rhetorical Grammar;" square 12mo, pp. 73: 3d Ed., Philadelphia, 1789. (4.) "Elements of English;" 12mo, pp. 69: Dublin, 1789. (5.) "A Complete Dictionary of the English Language;" 1st Ed., 1780.

SHERMAN, JOHN; American Grammar; 12mo, pp. 323: 1st Ed., Trenton Falls, N.
Y., 1836.

SIMMONITE, W. J.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 228: 1st Ed., London, 1841.

SKILLERN, R. S., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 184: 2d Ed., Gloucester,
England, 1808. SMART, B. H.; (1.) "A Practical Grammar of English
Pronunciation;" 8vo: London, 1810. (2.) "The Accidence of English Grammar;"
12mo, pp. 52: London, 1841. (3.) "The Accidence and Principles of English
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 280: London, 1841.

SMETHAM, THOMAS; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 168: 1st Ed., London, 1774.

SMITH, ELI; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 108: 1st Ed., Philadelphia, 1812.

SMITH, JOHN; Grammar, 8vo: Norwich, Eng., 1816.

SMITH, PETER, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 176: 1st Ed., Edinburgh, 1826.

SMITH, Rev. THOMAS; (1.) Alderson's "Orthographical Exercises," Copied;
18mo, pp. 108: 15th Ed., London, 1819. (2.) "Smith's Edition of L. Murray's
Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 128: London, 1832. Very petty authorship. SMITH,
ROSWELL C.; (1.) "English Grammar on the Inductive System;" 12mo, pp. 205:
Boston, 1830; 2d Ed., 1881. (2.) "English Grammar on the Productive
System;" 12mo, pp. 192: 2d Ed., New York, 1832. A sham.

SNYDER, W.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 164: 1st Ed., Winchester, Va., 1834.

SPALDING, CHARLES; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 36: 1st Ed., Onondaga, N. Y., 1825.

SPEAR, MATTHEW P.; "The Teacher's Manual of English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 116: 1st Ed., Boston, 1845.

SPENCER, GEORGE, A. M.; "An English Grammar on Synthetical Principles;" 12mo, pp. 178: New York, 1851.

STANIFORD, DANIEL, A. M.; "A Short but Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 96: Boston, 1807; 2d Ed., 1815.

STEARNS, GEORGE; English Grammar; 4to, pp. 17: 1st Ed., Boston, 1843.

STOCKWOOD, JOHN; Gram., 4to: London, 1590.

STORY, JOSHUA; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 180: 1st Ed., Newcastle, Eng., 1778; 3d, 1783.

ST. QUENTIN, D., M. A.; "The Rudiments of General Gram.;" 12mo, pp. 163:
Lond., 1812.

SUTCLIFFE, JOSEPH, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 262; London, 1815; 2d
Ed., 1821.

SWETT, J., A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 192: Claremont, N. H., 1843; 2d Ed., 1844.

TICKEN, WILLIAM; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 147: 1st Ed., London, 1806.

TICKNOR, ELISHA, A. M.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 72: 3d Ed., Boston, 1794.

TOBITT, R.; "Grammatical Institutes;" (in Verse;) 12mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed.,
London, 1825.

TODD, LEWIS C.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 126: Fredonia, N. Y., 1826; 2d
Ed., 1827.

TOOKE, JOHN HORNE, A. M.; "Epea Pteroenta; or, the Diversions of Purley;" 2 vols., 8vo; pp. 924: 1st American, from the 2d London Ed.; Philadelphia, 1806.

TOWER, DAVID B., A. M.; "Gradual Lessons in Grammar;" small 12mo, pp. 180:
Boston, 1847.

TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX, B. D; "On the Study of Words;" 12mo, pp. 236:
London, 1st Ed., 1851; 2d Ed., 1852: reprinted, New York, 1852.

TRINDER, WILLIAM M.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 116: 1st Ed., London, 1781.

TUCKER, BENJAMIN; "A Short Introd. to E. Gram.;" 18mo, pp. 36: 4th Ed.,
Phila., 1812.

TURNER, DANIEL, A. M.; English Grammar; 8vo: London, 1739.

TURNER, Rev. BRANDON, A. M.; Grammar from G. Brown's Inst.; 12mo, pp. 238:
Lond., 1841.

TWITCHELL, MARK; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: 1st Ed., Portland. Me., 1825.

USSHER, G. NEVILLE; English Grammar: 12mo, pp. 132: London, 1787; 3d Amer.
Ed., Exeter, N. H., 1804.

WALDO, JOHN; "Rudiments," 12mo; Philad., 1813: "Abridg't," 18mo, pp. 124;
Philadelphia, 1814.

WALKER, JOHN; (1.) E. Gram., 12mo, pp. 118: London, 1806. (2.) "Elements of
Elocution;" 8vo, pp. 379: Boston, 1810. (3.) Rhyming Dict., 12mo; (4.)
Pronouncing Dict., 8vo; and other valuable works.

WALKER, WILLIAM, B. D.; (1.) "A Treatise of English Particles;" 12mo, pp. 488: London, 1653; 10th Ed., 1691. (2.) "The Art of Teaching Grammar;" large 18mo, pp. 226: 8th Ed., London, 1717.

WALLIS, JOHN, D. D.; E. Gram. in Latin; 8vo, pp. 281:. Lond., 1653; 6th
Ed., 1765.

WARD, H.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 151: Whitehaven, England, 1777.

WARD, JOHN, LL. D.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 238: London, 1768.

WARD, WILLIAM, A. M.; "A Practical Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 192: York, England, 1765.

WARE, JONATHAN, Esq.; "A New Introduction to English Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 48: Windsor, Vt., 1814.

WASE, CHRISTOPHER, M. A.; "An Essay of a Practical Gram.," 12mo, pp. 79:
Lond., 1660.

WATT, THOMAS, A. M.; "Gram. Made Easy;" 18mo, pp. 92: Edinburgh, 1708.; 5th
Ed., 1742.

WEBBER, SAMUEL, A. M., M. D.; "An Introd. to E. Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 116:
Cambridge, Mass., 1832.

WEBSTER, NOAH, LL. D.; (1.) "A Plain and Comprehensive Grammar;" 12mo, pp.
131: 8th Ed., Hartford, Ct., 1800. (2.) "A Philosophical and Practical
Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 250: Newhaven, Ct., 1807. (3.) "Rudiments of English
Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 87: New York, 1811. (4.) "An Improved Grammar of the E.
L.;" 12mo, pp. 180: Newhaven, 1831. (5.) "An American Dictionary of the E.
L.," 4to; and an Abridgement, 8vo.

WELCH, A. S.; "Analysis of the English Sentence;" 12mo, pp. 264: New York, 1854. Of no value.

WELD, ALLEN H., A. M.; (1.) "English Grammar Illustrated;" 12mo, pp. 228:
Portland, Me., 1846; 2d Ed., 1847: "Abridged Edition," Boston, 1849.
"Improved Edition," much altered: Portland, 1852. (2.) "Parsing Book,
containing Rules of Syntax," &c.; 18mo, pp. 112: Portland, 1847.

WELLS, WILLIAM H., M. A.; "Wells's School Grammar;" 12mo, pp. 220: 1st Ed.,
Andover, 1846; "113th Thousand," 1850.

WHITE, MR. JAMES; "The English Verb;" 8vo, pp. 302: 1st Ed., London, 1761.

WHITING, JOSEPH, A. M.; English Grammar; 12mo: Detroit, 1845.

WHITWORTH, T.; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 216: 1st Ed., London, 1819.

WICKES, EDWARD WALTER; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 106: 2d Ed., London, 1841.

WILBER & LIVINGSTON; "The Grammatical Alphabet;" (with a Chart;) 18mo, pp. 36: 2d Ed., Albany, 1815.

WILBUR, JOSIAH; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 132: Bellows Falls, N. H., 1815; 2d Ed., 1822.

WILCOX, A. F.; "A Catechetical and Practical Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 110: 1st
Ed., Newhaven, Ct., 1828.

WILLARD, SAMUEL: English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 54: 1st Ed., Greenfield, Mass., 1816.

WILLIAMS, MRS. HONORIA; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 226: London, 1823; 3d
Ed., 1826.

WILSON, CHARLES, D. D.; "Elements of Hebrew Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 398: 3d Ed.,
London, 1802.

WILSON, GEORGE; English Grammar; 18mo; London, 1777.

WILSON, JAMES P., D. D.: "An Essay on Grammar;" 8vo, pp. 281: Philadelphia, 1817.

WILSON, JOHN; "A Treatise on English Punctuation;" 12mo, pp. 204: Boston, 1850.

WILSON, Rev. J.; English Grammar; 18mo, pp. 184: 3d Ed., Congleton,
England, 1803.

WINNING, Rev. W. B., M. A.; "A Manual of Comparative Philology;" 8vo, pp. 291: London, 1838.

WISEMAN, CHARLES; an English Grammar, 12mo: London, 1765.

WOOD, HELEN; English Grammar; 12mo, pp. 207: London, 1st Ed., 1827; 6th
Ed., 1841.

WOOD, Rev. JAMES, D. D; English Grammar; 12mo: London, 1778.

WOODWORTH, A.; "Grammar Demonstrated;" 12mo, pp. 72: 1st Ed., Auburn, N.
Y., 1823.

WORCESTER, JOSEPH, E.; "Universal and Critical Dictionary of the English
Language;" 1st Ed., Boston, 1846.

WORCESTER, SAMUEL; "A First Book of English Grammar;" 18mo, pp. 86; Boston, 1831.

WRIGHT, ALBERT D.; "Analytical Orthography;" 18mo, pp. 112: 2d Ed.,
Cazenovia, N. Y., 1842.

WRIGHT, JOSEPH W.; "A Philosophical Grammar of the English Language;" 12mo, pp. 252: New York and London, 1838.

[Asterism] The Names, or Heads, in the foregoing alphabetical Catalogue, are 452; the Works mentioned are 548; the Grammars are 463; the other Books are 85.

END OF THE CATALOGUE.

INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL

CHAPTER I.

OF THE SCIENCE OF GRAMMAR.

"Hæc de Grammatica quam brevissime potui: non ut omnia dicerem sectatus, (quod infinitum erat,) sed ut maxima necessaria."—QUINTILIAN. De Inst. Orat., Lib. i, Cap. x.

1. Language, in the proper sense of the term, is peculiar to man; so that, without a miraculous assumption of human powers, none but human beings can make words the vehicle of thought. An imitation of some of the articulate sounds employed in speech, may be exhibited by parrots, and sometimes by domesticated ravens, and we know that almost all brute animals have their peculiar natural voices, by which they indicate their feelings, whether pleasing or painful. But language is an attribute of reason, and differs essentially not only from all brute voices, but even from all the chattering, jabbering, and babbling of our own species, in which there is not an intelligible meaning, with division of thought, and distinction of words.

2. Speech results from the joint exercise of the best and noblest faculties of human nature, from our rational understanding and our social affection; and is, in the proper use of it, the peculiar ornament and distinction of man, whether we compare him with other orders in the creation, or view him as an individual preëminent among his fellows. Hence that science which makes known the nature and structure of speech, and immediately concerns the correct and elegant use of language, while it surpasses all the conceptions of the stupid or unlearned, and presents nothing that can seem desirable to the sensual and grovelling, has an intrinsic dignity which highly commends it to all persons of sense and taste, and makes it most a favourite with the most gifted minds. That science is Grammar. And though there be some geniuses who affect to despise the trammels of grammar rules, to whom it must be conceded that many things which have been unskillfully taught as such, deserve to be despised; yet it is true, as Dr. Adam remarks, that, "The study of Grammar has been considered an object of great importance by the wisest men in all ages."—Preface to Latin and English Gram., p. iii.

3. Grammar bears to language several different relations, and acquires from each a nature leading to a different definition. First, It is to language, as knowledge is to the thing known; and as doctrine, to the truths it inculcates. In these relations, grammar is a science. It is the first of what have been called the seven sciences, or liberal branches of knowledge; namely, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Secondly, It is as skill, to the thing to be done; and as power, to the instruments it employs. In these relations, grammar is an art; and as such, has long been defined, "ars rectè scribendi, rectèque loquendi" the art of writing and speaking correctly. Thirdly, It is as navigation, to the ocean, which nautic skill alone enables men to traverse. In this relation, theory and practice combine, and grammar becomes, like navigation, a practical science. Fourthly, It is as a chart, to a coast which we would visit. In this relation, our grammar is a text-book, which we take as a guide, or use as a help to our own observation. Fifthly, It is as a single voyage, to the open sea, the highway of nations. Such is our meaning, when we speak of the grammar of a particular text or passage.

4. Again: Grammar is to language a sort of self-examination. It turns the faculty of speech or writing upon itself for its own elucidation; and makes the tongue or the pen explain the uses and abuses to which both are liable, as well as the nature and excellency of that power, of which, these are the two grand instruments. From this account, some may begin to think that in treating of grammar we are dealing with something too various and changeable for the understanding to grasp; a dodging Proteus of the imagination, who is ever ready to assume some new shape, and elude the vigilance of the inquirer. But let the reader or student do his part; and, if he please, follow us with attention. We will endeavour, with welded links, to bind this Proteus, in such a manner that he shall neither escape from our hold, nor fail to give to the consulter an intelligible and satisfactory response. Be not discouraged, generous youth. Hark to that sweet far-reaching note:

   "Sed, quanto ille magis formas se vertet in omnes,
    Tanto, nate, magis contende tenacia vincla."
                    VIRGIL. Geor. IV, 411.

   "But thou, the more he varies forms, beware
    To strain his fetters with a stricter care."
                    DRYDEN'S VIRGIL.

5. If for a moment we consider the good and the evil that are done in the world through the medium of speech, we shall with one voice acknowledge, that not only the faculty itself, but also the manner in which it is used, is of incalculable importance to the welfare of man. But this reflection does not directly enhance our respect for grammar, because it is not to language as the vehicle of moral or of immoral sentiment, of good or of evil to mankind, that the attention of the grammarian is particularly directed. A consideration of the subject in these relations, pertains rather to the moral philosopher. Nor are the arts of logic and rhetoric now considered to be properly within the grammarian's province. Modern science assigns to these their separate places, and restricts grammar, which at one period embraced all learning, to the knowledge of language, as respects its fitness to be the vehicle of any particular thought or sentiment which the speaker or writer may wish to convey by it. Accordingly grammar is commonly defined, by writers upon the subject, in the special sense of an art—"the art of speaking or writing a language with propriety or correctness."—Webster's Dict.

6. Lily says, "Grammatica est rectè scribendi atque loquendi ars;" that is, "Grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly." Despauter, too, in his definition, which is quoted in a preceding paragraph, not improperly placed writing first, as being that with which grammar is primarily concerned. For it ought to be remembered, that over any fugitive colloquial dialect, which has never been fixed by visible signs, grammar has no control; and that the speaking which the art or science of grammar teaches, is exclusively that which has reference to a knowledge of letters. It is the certain tendency of writing, to improve speech. And in proportion as books are multiplied, and the knowledge of written language is diffused, local dialects, which are beneath the dignity of grammar, will always be found to grow fewer, and their differences less. There are, in the various parts of the world, many languages to which the art of grammar has never yet been applied; and to which, therefore, the definition or true idea of grammar, however general, does not properly extend. And even where it has been applied, and is now honoured as a popular branch of study, there is yet great room for improvement: barbarisms and solecisms have not been rebuked away as they deserve to be.

7. Melancthon says, "Grammatica est certa loquendi ac scribendi ratio, Latinis Latinè." Vossius, "Ars benè loquendi eóque et scribendi, atque id Latinis Latinè." Dr. Prat, "Grammatica est rectè loquendi atque scribendi ars." Ruddiman also, in his Institutes of Latin Grammar, reversed the terms writing and speaking, and defined grammar, "ars recè loquendi scribendique;" and, either from mere imitation, or from the general observation that speech precedes writing, this arrangement of the words has been followed by most modern grammarians. Dr. Lowth embraces both terms in a more general one, and says, "Grammar is the art of rightly expressing our thoughts by words." It is, however, the province of grammar, to guide us not merely in the expression of our own thoughts, but also in our apprehension of the thoughts, and our interpretation of the words, of others. Hence, Perizonius, in commenting upon Sanctius's imperfect definition, "Grammatica est ars rectè loquendi," not improperly asks, "et quidni intelligendi et explicandi?" "and why not also of understanding and explaining?" Hence, too, the art of reading is virtually a part of grammar; for it is but the art of understanding and speaking correctly that which we have before us on paper. And Nugent has accordingly given us the following definition: "Grammar is the art of reading, speaking, and writing a language by rules."—Introduction to Dict., p. xii.[1]

8. The word rectè, rightly, truly, correctly, which occurs in most of the foregoing Latin definitions, is censured by the learned Richard Johnson, in his Grammatical Commentaries, on account of the vagueness of its meaning. He says, it is not only ambiguous by reason of its different uses in the Latin classics, but destitute of any signification proper to grammar. But even if this be true as regards its earlier application, it may well be questioned, whether by frequency of use it has not acquired a signification which makes it proper at the present time. The English word correctly seems to be less liable to such an objection; and either this brief term, or some other of like import, (as, "with correctness"—"with propriety,") is still usually employed to tell what grammar is. But can a boy learn by such means what it is, to speak and write grammatically? In one sense, he can; and in an other, he cannot. He may derive, from any of these terms, some idea of grammar as distinguished from other arts; but no simple definition of this, or of any other art, can communicate to him that learns it, the skill of an artist.

9. R. Johnson speaks at large of the relation of words to each other in sentences, as constituting in his view the most essential part of grammar; and as being a point very much overlooked, or very badly explained, by grammarians in general. His censure is just. And it seems to be as applicable to nearly all the grammars now in use, as to those which he criticised a hundred and thirty years ago. But perhaps he gives to the relation of words, (which is merely their dependence on other words according to the sense,) an earlier introduction and a more prominent place, than it ought to have in a general system of grammar. To the right use of language, he makes four things to be necessary. In citing these, I vary the language, but not the substance or the order of his positions. First, That we should speak and write words according to the significations which belong to them: the teaching of which now pertains to lexicography, and not to grammar, except incidentally. "Secondly, That we should observe the relations that words have one to another in sentences, and represent those relations by such variations, and particles, as are usual with authors in that language." Thirdly, That we should acquire a knowledge of the proper sounds of the letters, and pay a due regard to accent in pronunciation. Fourthly, That we should learn to write words with their proper letters, spelling them as literary men generally do.

10. From these positions, (though he sets aside the first, as pertaining to lexicography, and not now to grammar, as it formerly did,) the learned critic deduces first his four parts of the subject, and then his definition of grammar. "Hence," says he, "there arise Four Parts of Grammar; Analogy, which treats of the several parts of speech, their definitions, accidents, and formations; Syntax, which treats of the use of those things in construction, according to their relations; Orthography, which treats of spelling; and Prosody, which treats of accenting in pronunciation. So, then, the true definition of Grammar is this: Grammar is the art of expressing the relations of things in construction, with due accent in speaking, and orthography in writing, according to the custom of those whose language we learn." Again he adds: "The word relation has other senses, taken by itself; but yet the relation of words one to another in a sentence, has no other signification than what I intend by it, namely, of cause, effect, means, end, manner, instrument, object, adjunct, and the like; which are names given by logicians to those relations under which the mind comprehends things, and therefore the most proper words to explain them to others. And if such things are too hard for children, then grammar is too hard; for there neither is, nor can be, any grammar without them. And a little experience will satisfy any man, that the young will as easily apprehend them, as gender, number, declension, and other grammar-terms." See R. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, p. 4.

11. It is true, that the relation of words—by which I mean that connexion between them, which the train of thought forms and suggests—or that dependence which one word has on an other according to the sense—lies at the foundation of all syntax. No rule or principle of construction can ever have any applicability beyond the limits, or contrary to the order, of this relation. To see what it is in any given case, is but to understand the meaning of the phrase or sentence. And it is plain, that no word ever necessarily agrees with an other, with which it is not thus connected in the mind of him who uses it. No word ever governs an other, to which the sense does not direct it. No word is ever required to stand immediately before or after an other, to which it has not some relation according to the meaning of the passage. Here then are the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences; and these make up the whole of syntax—but not the whole of grammar. To this one part of grammar, therefore, the relation of words is central and fundamental; and in the other parts also, there are some things to which the consideration of it is incidental; but there are many more, like spelling, pronunciation, derivation, and whatsoever belongs merely to letters, syllables, and the forms of words, with which it has, in fact, no connexion. The relation of words, therefore, should be clearly and fully explained in its proper place, under the head of syntax; but the general idea of grammar will not be brought nearer to truth, by making it to be "the art of expressing the relations of things in construction," &c., according to the foregoing definition.

12. The term grammar is derived from the Greek word [Greek: gramma], a letter. The art or science to which this term is applied, had its origin, not in cursory speech, but in the practice of writing; and speech, which is first in the order of nature, is last with reference to grammar. The matter or common subject of grammar, is language in general; which, being of two kinds, spoken and written, consists of certain combinations either of sounds or of visible signs, employed for the expression of thought. Letters and sounds, though often heedlessly confounded in the definitions given of vowels, consonants, &c., are, in their own nature, very different things. They address themselves to different senses; the former, to the sight; the latter, to the hearing. Yet, by a peculiar relation arbitrarily established between them, and in consequence of an almost endless variety in the combinations of either, they coincide in a most admirable manner, to effect the great object for which language was bestowed or invented; namely, to furnish a sure medium for the communication of thought, and the preservation of knowledge.

13. All languages, however different, have many things in common. There are points of a philosophical character, which result alike from the analysis of any language, and are founded on the very nature of human thought, and that of the sounds or other signs which are used to express it. When such principles alone are taken as the subject of inquiry, and are treated, as they sometimes have been, without regard to any of the idioms of particular languages, they constitute what is called General, Philosophical, or Universal Grammar. But to teach, with Lindley Murray and some others, that "Grammar may be considered as consisting of two species, Universal and Particular," and that the latter merely "applies those general principles to a particular language," is to adopt a twofold absurdity at the outset.[2] For every cultivated language has its particular grammar, in which whatsoever is universal, is necessarily included; but of which, universal or general principles form only a part, and that comparatively small. We find therefore in grammar no "two species" of the same genus; nor is the science or art, as commonly defined and understood, susceptible of division into any proper and distinct sorts, except with reference to different languages—as when we speak of Greek, Latin, French, or English grammar.

14. There is, however, as I have suggested, a certain science or philosophy of language, which has been denominated Universal Grammar; being made up of those points only, in which many or all of the different languages preserved in books, are found to coincide. All speculative minds are fond of generalization; and, in the vastness of the views which may thus be taken of grammar, such may find an entertainment which they never felt in merely learning to speak and write grammatically. But the pleasure of such contemplations is not the earliest or the most important fruit of the study. The first thing is, to know and understand the grammatical construction of our own language. Many may profit by this acquisition, who extend not their inquiries to the analogies or the idioms of other tongues. It is true, that every item of grammatical doctrine is the more worthy to be known and regarded, in proportion as it approaches to universality. But the principles of all practical grammar, whether universal or particular, common or peculiar, must first be learned in their application to some one language, before they can be distinguished into such classes; and it is manifest, both from reason and from experience, that the youth of any nation not destitute of a good book for the purpose, may best acquire a knowledge of those principles, from the grammatical study of their native tongue.

15. Universal or Philosophical Grammar is a large field for speculation and inquiry, and embraces many things which, though true enough in themselves, are unfit to be incorporated with any system of practical grammar, however comprehensive its plan. Many authors have erred here. With what is merely theoretical, such a system should have little to do. Philosophy, dealing in generalities, resolves speech not only as a whole into its constituent parts and separable elements, as anatomy shows the use and adaptation of the parts and joints of the human body; but also as a composite into its matter and form, as one may contemplate that same body in its entireness, yet as consisting of materials, some solid and some fluid, and these curiously modelled to a particular figure. Grammar, properly so called, requires only the former of these analyses; and in conducting the same, it descends to the thousand minute particulars which are necessary to be known in practice. Nor are such things to be despised as trivial and low: ignorance of what is common and elementary, is but the more disgraceful for being ignorance of mere rudiments. "Wherefore," says Quintilian, "they are little to be respected, who represent this art as mean and barren; in which, unless you faithfully lay the foundation for the future orator, whatever superstructure you raise will tumble into ruins. It is an art, necessary to the young, pleasant to the old, the sweet companion of the retired, and one which in reference to every kind of study has in itself more of utility than of show. Let no one therefore despise as inconsiderable the elements of grammar. Not because it is a great thing, to distinguish consonants from vowels, and afterwards divide them into semivowels and mutes; but because, to those who enter the interior parts of this temple of science, there will appear in many things a great subtilty, which is fit not only to sharpen the wits of youth, but also to exercise the loftiest erudition and science."—De Institutione Oratoria, Lib. i, Cap. iv.

16. Again, of the arts which spring from the composition of language. Here the art of logic, aiming solely at conviction, addresses the understanding with cool deductions of unvarnished truth; rhetoric, designing to move, in some particular direction, both the judgement and the sympathies of men, applies itself to the affections in order to persuade; and poetry, various in its character and tendency, solicits the imagination, with a view to delight, and in general also to instruct. But grammar, though intimately connected with all these, and essential to them in practice, is still too distinct from each to be identified with any of them. In regard to dignity and interest, these higher studies seem to have greatly the advantage over particular grammar; but who is willing to be an ungrammatical poet, orator, or logician? For him I do not write. But I would persuade my readers, that an acquaintance with that grammar which respects the genius of their vernacular tongue, is of primary importance to all who would cultivate a literary taste, and is a necessary introduction to the study of other languages. And it may here be observed, for the encouragement of the student, that as grammar is essentially the same thing in all languages, he who has well mastered that of his own, has overcome more than half the difficulty of learning another; and he whose knowledge of words is the most extensive, has the fewest obstacles to encounter in proceeding further.

17. It was the "original design" of grammar, says Dr. Adam, to facilitate "the acquisition of languages;" and, of all practical treatises on the subject, this is still the main purpose. In those books which are to prepare the learner to translate from one tongue into another, seldom is any thing else attempted. In those also which profess to explain the right use of vernacular speech, must the same purpose be ever paramount, and the "original design" be kept in view. But the grammarian may teach many things incidentally. One cannot learn a language, without learning at the same time a great many opinions, facts, and principles, of some kind or other, which are necessarily embodied in it. For all language proceeds from, and is addressed to, the understanding; and he that perceives not the meaning of what he reads, makes no acquisition even of the language itself. To the science of grammar, the nature of the ideas conveyed by casual examples, is not very essential: to the learner, it is highly important. The best thoughts in the best diction should furnish the models for youthful study and imitation; because such language is not only the most worthy to be remembered, but the most easy to be understood. A distinction is also to be made between use and abuse. In nonsense, absurdity, or falsehood, there can never be any grammatical authority; because, however language may be abused, the usage which gives law to speech, is still that usage which is founded upon the common sense of mankind.

18. Grammar appeals to reason, as well as to authority, but to what extent it should do so, has been matter of dispute. "The knowledge of useful arts," says Sanctius, "is not an invention of human ingenuity, but an emanation from the Deity, descending from above for the use of man, as Minerva sprung from the brain of Jupiter. Wherefore, unless thou give thyself wholly to laborious research into the nature of things, and diligently examine the causes and reasons of the art thou teachest, believe me, thou shalt but see with other men's eyes, and hear with other men's ears. But the minds of many are preoccupied with a certain perverse opinion, or rather ignorant conceit, that in grammar, or the art of speaking, there are no causes, and that reason is scarcely to be appealed to for any thing;—than which idle notion, I know of nothing more foolish;—nothing can be thought of which is more offensive. Shall man, endowed with reason, do, say, or contrive any thing, without design, and without understanding? Hear the philosophers; who positively declare that nothing comes to pass without a cause. Hear Plato himself; who affirms that names and words subsist by nature, and contends that language is derived from nature, and not from art."

19. "I know," says he, "that the Aristotelians think otherwise; but no one will doubt that names are the signs, and as it were the instruments, of things. But the instrument of any art is so adapted to that art, that for any other purpose it must seem unfit; thus with an auger we bore, and with a saw we cut wood; but we split stones with wedges, and wedges are driven with heavy mauls. We cannot therefore but believe that those who first gave names to things, did it with design; and this, I imagine, Aristotle himself understood when he said, ad placitum nomina significare. For those who contend that names were made by chance, are no less audacious than if they would endeavour to persuade us, that the whole order of the universe was framed together fortuitously."

20. "You will see," continues he, "that in the first language, whatever it was, the names of things were taken from Nature herself; but, though I cannot affirm this to have been the case in other tongues, yet I can easily persuade myself that in every tongue a reason can be rendered for the application of every name; and that this reason, though it is in many cases obscure, is nevertheless worthy of investigation. Many things which were not known to the earlier philosophers, were brought to light by Plato; after the death of Plato, many were discovered by Aristotle; and Aristotle was ignorant of many which are now everywhere known. For truth lies hid, but nothing is more precious than truth. But you will say, 'How can there be any certain origin to names, when one and the same thing is called by different names, in the several parts of the world?' I answer, of the same thing there may be different causes, of which some people may regard one, and others, an other. * * * There is therefore no doubt, that of all things, even of words, a reason is to be rendered: and if we know not what that reason is, when we are asked; we ought rather to confess that we do not know, than to affirm that none can be given. I know that Scaliger thinks otherwise; but this is the true account of the matter."

21. "These several observations," he remarks further, "I have unwillingly brought together against those stubborn critics who, while they explode reason from grammar, insist so much on the testimonies of the learned. But have they never read Quintilian, who says, (Lib. i, Cap. 6,) that, 'Language is established by reason, antiquity, authority, and custom?' He therefore does not exclude reason, but makes it the principal thing. Nay, in a manner, Laurentius, and other grammatists, even of their fooleries, are forward to offer reasons, such as they are. Moreover, use does not take place without reason; otherwise, it ought to be called abuse, and not use. But from use authority derives all its force; for when it recedes from use, authority becomes nothing: whence Cicero reproves Coelius and Marcus Antonius for speaking according to their own fancy, and not according to use. But, 'Nothing can be lasting,' says Curtius, (Lib. iv,) 'which is not based upon reason.' It remains, therefore, that of all things the reason be first assigned; and then, if it can be done, we may bring forward testimonies; that the thing, having every advantage, may be made the more clear."—Sanctii Minerva, Lib. i, Cap. 2.

22. Julius Cæsar Scaliger, from whose opinion Sanctius dissents above, seems to limit the science of grammar to bounds considerably too narrow, though he found within them room for the exercise of much ingenuity and learning. He says, "Grammatica est scientia loquendi ex usu; neque enim constituit regulas scientibus usus modum, sed ex eorum statis frequentibusque usurpatiombus colligit communem rationem loquendi, quam discentibus traderet."—De Causis L. Latinæ, Lib. iv, Cap. 76. "Grammar is the science of speaking according to use; for it does not establish rules for those who know the manner of use, but from the settled and frequent usages of these, gathers the common fashion of speaking, which it should deliver to learners." This limited view seems not only to exclude from the science the use of the pen, but to exempt the learned from any obligation to respect the rules prescribed for the initiation of the young. But I have said, and with abundant authority, that the acquisition of a good style of writing is the main purpose of the study; and, surely, the proficients and adepts in the art can desire for themselves no such exemption. Men of genius, indeed, sometimes affect to despise the pettiness of all grammatical instructions; but this can be nothing else than affectation, since the usage of the learned is confessedly the basis of all such instructions, and several of the loftiest of their own rank appear on the list of grammarians.

23. Quintilian, whose authority is appealed to above, belonged to that age in which the exegesis of histories, poems, and other writings, was considered an essential part of grammar. He therefore, as well as Diomedes, and other ancient writers, divided the grammarian's duties into two parts; the one including what is now called grammar, and the other the explanation of authors, and the stigmatizing of the unworthy. Of the opinion referred to by Sanctius, it seems proper to make here an ampler citation. It shall be attempted in English, though the paragraph is not an easy one to translate. I understand the author to say, "Speakers, too, have their rules to observe; and writers, theirs. Language is established by reason, antiquity, authority, and custom. Of reason the chief ground is analogy, but sometimes etymology. Ancient things have a certain majesty, and, as I might say, religion, to commend them. Authority is wont to be sought from orators and historians; the necessity of metre mostly excuses the poets. When the judgement of the chief masters of eloquence passes for reason, even error seems right to those who follow great leaders. But, of the art of speaking, custom is the surest mistress; for speech is evidently to be used as money, which has upon it a public stamp. Yet all these things require a penetrating judgement, especially analogy; the force of which is, that one may refer what is doubtful, to something similar that is clearly established, and thus prove uncertain things by those which are sure."—QUINT, de Inst. Orat., Lib. i, Cap. 6, p. 48.

24. The science of grammar, whatever we may suppose to be its just limits, does not appear to have been better cultivated in proportion as its scope was narrowed. Nor has its application to our tongue, in particular, ever been made in such a manner, as to do great honour to the learning or the talents of him that attempted it. What is new to a nation, may be old to the world. The development of the intellectual powers of youth by instruction in the classics, as well as the improvement of their taste by the exhibition of what is elegant in literature, is continually engaging the attention of new masters, some of whom may seem to effect great improvements; but we must remember that the concern itself is of no recent origin. Plato and Aristotle, who were great masters both of grammar and of philosophy, taught these things ably at Athens, in the fourth century before Christ. Varro, the grammarian, usually styled the most learned of the Romans, was contemporary with the Saviour and his apostles. Quintilian lived in the first century of our era, and before he wrote his most celebrated book, taught a school twenty years in Rome, and received from the state a salary which made him rich. This "consummate guide of wayward youth," as the poet Martial called him, being neither ignorant of what had been done by others, nor disposed to think it a light task to prescribe the right use of his own language, was at first slow to undertake the work upon which his fame now reposes; and, after it was begun, diligent to execute it worthily, that it might turn both to his own honour, and to the real advancement of learning.

25. He says, at the commencement of his book: "After I had obtained a quiet release from those labours which for twenty years had devolved upon me as an instructor of youth, certain persons familiarly demanded of me, that I should compose something concerning the proper manner of speaking; but for a long time I withstood their solicitations, because I knew there were already illustrious authors in each language, by whom many things which might pertain to such a work, had been very diligently written, and left to posterity. But the reason which I thought would obtain for me an easier excuse, did but excite more earnest entreaty; because, amidst the various opinions of earlier writers, some of whom were not even consistent with themselves, the choice had become difficult; so that my friends seemed to have a right to enjoin upon me, if not the labour of producing new instructions, at least that of judging concerning the old. But although I was persuaded not so much by the hope of supplying what was required, as by the shame of refusing, yet, as the matter opened itself before me, I undertook of my own accord a much greater task than had been imposed; that while I should thus oblige my very good friends by a fuller compliance, I might not enter a common path and tread only in the footsteps of others. For most other writers who have treated of the art of speaking, have proceeded in such a manner as if upon adepts in every other kind of doctrine they would lay the last touch in eloquence; either despising as little things the studies which we first learn, or thinking them not to fall to their share in the division which should be made of the professions; or, what indeed is next to this, hoping no praise or thanks for their ingenuity about things which, although necessary, lie far from ostentation: the tops of buildings make a show, their foundations are unseen."—Quintiliani de Inst. Orat., Prooemium.

26. But the reader may ask, "What have all these things to do with English Grammar?" I answer, they help to show us whence and what it is. Some acquaintance with the history of grammar as a science, as well as some knowledge of the structure of other languages than our own, is necessary to him who professes to write for the advancement of this branch of learning—and for him also who would be a competent judge of what is thus professed. Grammar must not forget her origin. Criticism must not resign the protection of letters. The national literature of a country is in the keeping, not of the people at large, but of authors and teachers. But a grammarian presumes to be a judge of authorship, and a teacher of teachers; and is it to the honour of England or America, that in both countries so many are countenanced in this assumption of place, who can read no language but their mother tongue? English Grammar is not properly an indigenous production, either of this country or of Britain; because it is but a branch of the general science of philology—a new variety, or species, sprung up from the old stock long ago transplanted from the soil of Greece and Rome.

27. It is true, indeed, that neither any ancient system of grammatical instruction nor any grammar of an other language, however contrived, can be entirely applicable to the present state of our tongue; for languages must needs differ greatly one from an other, and even that which is called the same, may come in time to differ greatly from what it once was. But the general analogies of speech, which are the central principles of grammar, are but imperfectly seen by the man of one language. On the other hand, it is possible to know much of those general principles, and yet be very deficient in what is peculiar to our own tongue. Real improvement in the grammar of our language, must result from a view that is neither partial nor superficial. "Time, sorry artist," as was said of old, "makes all he handles worse." And Lord Bacon, seeming to have this adage in view, suggests: "If Time of course alter all things to the worse, and Wisdom and Counsel shall not alter them to the better, what shall be the end?"—Bacon's Essays, p. 64.

28. Hence the need that an able and discreet grammarian should now and then appear, who with skillful hand can effect those corrections which a change of fashion or the ignorance of authors may have made necessary; but if he is properly qualified for his task, he will do all this without a departure from any of the great principles of Universal Grammar. He will surely be very far from thinking, with a certain modern author, whom I shall notice in an other chapter, that, "He is bound to take words and explain them as he finds them in his day, without any regard to their ancient construction and application."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 28. The whole history of every word, so far as he can ascertain it, will be the view under which he will judge of what is right or wrong in the language which he teaches. Etymology is neither the whole of this view, nor yet to be excluded from it. I concur not therefore with Dr. Campbell, who, to make out a strong case, extravagantly says, "It is never from an attention to etymology, which would frequently mislead us, but from custom, the only infallible guide in this matter, that the meanings of words in present use must be learnt."—Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 188. Jamieson too, with an implicitness little to be commended, takes this passage from Campbell; and, with no other change than that of "learnt" to "learned" publishes it as a corollary of his own.—Grammar of Rhetoric, p. 42. It is folly to state for truth what is so obviously wrong. Etymology and custom are seldom at odds; and where they are so, the latter can hardly be deemed infallible.

CHAPTER II.

OF GRAMMATICAL AUTHORSHIP.

"Respondeo, dupliciter aliquem dici grammaticum, arte et professione. Grammatici vera arte paucissimi sunt: et hi magna laude digni sunt, ut patuit: hos non vituperant summi viri; quia ipse Plinius ejusmodi grammaticus fuit, et de arte grammatica libelos edidit. Et Grellius veræ grammaticæ fuit diligentissimus doctor; sic et ipse Datus. Alii sunt grammatici professione, et ii plerumque sunt inceptissimi; quia scribimus indocti doctique, et indignissimus quisque hanc sibi artem vindicat:——hos mastigias multis probris docti summo jure insectantur."—DESPAUTER. Syntaxis, fol. 1.

1. It is of primary importance in all discussions and expositions of doctrines, of any sort, to ascertain well the principles upon which our reasonings are to be founded, and to see that they be such as are immovably established in the nature of things; for error in first principles is fundamental, and he who builds upon an uncertain foundation, incurs at least a hazard of seeing his edifice overthrown. The lover of truth will be, at all times, diligent to seek it, firm to adhere to it, willing to submit to it, and ready to promote it; but even the truth may be urged unseasonably, and important facts are things liable to be misjoined. It is proper, therefore, for every grammarian gravely to consider, whether and how far the principles of his philosophy, his politics, his morals, or his religion, ought to influence, or actually do influence, his theory of language, and his practical instructions respecting the right use of words. In practice, grammar is so interwoven with all else that is known, believed, learned, or spoken of among men, that to determine its own peculiar principles with due distinctness, seems to be one of the most difficult points of a grammarian's duty.

2. From misapprehension, narrowness of conception, or improper bias, in relation to this point, many authors have started wrong; denounced others with intemperate zeal; departed themselves from sound doctrine; and produced books which are disgraced not merely by occasional oversights, but by central and radical errors. Hence, too, have sprung up, in the name of grammar, many unprofitable discussions, and whimsical systems of teaching, calculated rather to embarrass than to inform the student. Mere collisions of opinion, conducted without any acknowledged standard to guide the judgement, never tend to real improvement. Grammar is unquestionably a branch of that universal philosophy by which the thoroughly educated mind is enlightened to see all things aright; for philosophy, in this sense of the term, is found in everything. Yet, properly speaking, the true grammarian is not a philosopher, nor can any man strengthen his title to the former character by claiming the latter; and it is certain, that a most disheartening proportion of what in our language has been published under the name of Philosophic Grammar, is equally remote from philosophy, from grammar, and from common sense.

3. True grammar is founded on the authority of reputable custom; and that custom, on the use which men make of their reason. The proofs of what is right are accumulative, and on many points there can be no dispute, because our proofs from the best usage, are both obvious and innumerable. On the other hand, the evidence of what is wrong is rather demonstrative; for when we would expose a particular error, we exhibit it in contrast with the established principle which it violates. He who formed the erroneous sentence, has in this case no alternative, but either to acknowledge the solecism, or to deny the authority of the rule. There are disputable principles in grammar, as there are moot points in law; but this circumstance affects no settled usage in either; and every person of sense and taste will choose to express himself in the way least liable to censure. All are free indeed from positive constraint on their phraseology; for we do not speak or write by statutes. But the ground of instruction assumed in grammar, is similar to that upon which are established the maxims of common law, in jurisprudence. The ultimate principle, then, to which we appeal, as the only true standard of grammatical propriety, is that species of custom which critics denominate GOOD USE; that is, present, reputable, general use.

4. Yet a slight acquaintance with the history of grammar will suffice to show us, that it is much easier to acknowledge this principle, and to commend it in words, than to ascertain what it is, and abide by it in practice. Good use is that which is neither ancient nor recent, neither local nor foreign, neither vulgar nor pedantic; and it will be found that no few have in some way or other departed from it, even while they were pretending to record its dictates. But it is not to be concealed, that in every living language, it is a matter of much inherent difficulty, to reach the standard of propriety, where usage is various; and to ascertain with clearness the decisions of custom, when we descend to minute details. Here is a field in which whatsoever is achieved by the pioneers of literature, can be appreciated only by thorough scholars; for the progress of improvement in any art or science, can be known only to those who can clearly compare its ruder with its more refined stages; and it often happens that what is effected with much labour, may be presented in a very small compass.

5. But the knowledge of grammar may retrograde; for whatever loses the vital principle of renovation and growth, tends to decay. And if mere copyists, compilers, abridgers, and modifiers, be encouraged as they now are, it surely will not advance. Style is liable to be antiquated by time, corrupted by innovation, debased by ignorance, perverted by conceit, impaired by negligence, and vitiated by caprice. And nothing but the living spirit of true authorship, and the application of just criticism, can counteract the natural tendency of these causes. English grammar is still in its infancy; and even bears, to the imagination of some, the appearance of a deformed and ugly dwarf among the liberal arts. Treatises are multiplied almost innumerably, but still the old errors survive. Names are rapidly added to our list of authors, while little or nothing is done for the science. Nay, while new blunders have been committed in every new book, old ones have been allowed to stand as by prescriptive right;. and positions that were never true, and sentences that were never good English, have been published and republished under different names, till in our language grammar has become the most ungrammatical of all studies! "Imitators generally copy their originals in an inverse ratio of their merits; that is, by adding as much to their faults, as they lose of their merits."—KNIGHT, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 117.

   "Who to the life an exact piece would make,
    Must not from others' work a copy take."—Cowley.

6. All science is laid in the nature of things; and he only who seeks it there, can rightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his predecessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their errors, or none had eyes to see them! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest and reasonable; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsupported by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that authorship which has produced so many grammars without originality? Shall he who cannot write for himself, improve upon him who can? Shall he who cannot paint, retouch the canvass of Guido? Shall modest ingenuity be allowed only to imitators and to thieves? How many a prefatory argument issues virtually in this! It is not deference to merit, but impudent pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance! Commonness alone exempts it from scrutiny, and the success it has, is but the wages of its own worthlessness! To read and be informed, is to make a proper use of books for the advancement of learning; but to assume to be an author by editing mere commonplaces and stolen criticisms, is equally beneath the ambition of a scholar and the honesty of a man.

   "'T is true, the ancients we may rob with ease;
    But who with that mean shift himself can please?"
            Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham.

7. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professedly on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seem that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to teach the art of speaking and writing well; so that correctness of language and neatness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. Nay, I have before suggested that in no other science are the principles of good writing so frequently and so shamefully violated. The code of false grammar embraced in the following work, will go far to sustain this opinion. There have been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unworthy of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. But these, with scarcely any exception, have executed their inadequate designs, not as men engaged in their proper calling, but as mere literary almoners, descending for a day from their loftier purposes, to perform a service, needful indeed, and therefore approved, but very far from supplying all the aid that is requisite to a thorough knowledge of the subject. Even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though some have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives cause to regret their lack of an inducement to greater labour. The mere grammarian can neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a reward; and to those who were best qualified to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence.

8. Unlearned men, who neither make, nor can make, any pretensions to a knowledge of grammar as a study, if they show themselves modest in what they profess, are by no means to be despised or undervalued for the want of such knowledge. They are subject to no criticism, till they turn authors and write for the public. And even then they are to be treated gently, if they have any thing to communicate, which is worthy to be accepted in a homely dress. Grammatical inaccuracies are to be kindly excused, in all those from whom nothing better can be expected; for people are often under a necessity of appearing as speakers or writers, before they can have learned to write or speak grammatically. The body is more to be regarded than raiment; and the substance of an interesting message, may make the manner of it a little thing. Men of high purposes naturally spurn all that is comparatively low; or all that may seem nice, overwrought, ostentatious, or finical. Hence St. Paul, in writing to the Corinthians, suggests that the design of his preaching might have been defeated, had he affected the orator, and turned his attention to mere "excellency of speech," or "wisdom of words." But this view of things presents no more ground for neglecting grammar, and making coarse and vulgar example our model of speech, than for neglecting dress, and making baize and rags the fashionable costume. The same apostle exhorts Timothy to "hold fast the form of sound words," which he himself had taught him. Nor can it be denied that there is an obligation resting upon all men, to use speech fairly and understandingly. But let it be remembered, that all those upon whose opinions or practices I am disposed to animadvert, are either professed grammarians and philosophers, or authors who, by extraordinary pretensions, have laid themselves under special obligations to be accurate in the use of language. "The wise in heart shall be called prudent; and the sweetness of the lips increaseth learning."—Prov., xvi, 21. "The words of a man's mouth are as deep waters, and the well-spring of wisdom [is] as a flowing brook."—Ib., xviii, 4. "A fool's mouth is his destruction, and his lips are the snare of his soul."—Ib., xviii, 7.

9. The old maxim recorded by Bacon, "Loquendum ut vulgus, sentiendum ut sapientes,"—"We should speak as the vulgar, but think as the wise," is not to be taken without some limitation. For whoever literally speaks as the vulgar, shall offend vastly too much with his tongue, to have either the understanding of the wise or the purity of the good. In all untrained and vulgar minds, the ambition of speaking well is but a dormant or very weak principle. Hence the great mass of uneducated people are lamentably careless of what they utter, both as to the matter and the manner; and no few seem naturally prone to the constant imitation of low example, and some, to the practice of every abuse of which language is susceptible. Hence, as every scholar knows, the least scrupulous of our lexicographers notice many terms but to censure them as "low," and omit many more as being beneath their notice. Vulgarity of language, then, ever has been, and ever must be, repudiated by grammarians. Yet we have had pretenders to grammar, who could court the favour of the vulgar, though at the expense of all the daughters of Mnemosyne.

10. Hence the enormous insult to learning and the learned, conveyed in the following scornful quotations: "Grammarians, go to your tailors and shoemakers, and learn from them the rational art of constructing your grammars!"—Neef's Method of Education, p. 62. "From a labyrinth without a clew, in which the most enlightened scholars of Europe have mazed themselves and misguided others, the author ventures to turn aside."—Cardell's Gram., 12mo, p. 15. Again: "The nations of unlettered men so adapted their language to philosophic truth, that all physical and intellectual research can find no essential rule to reject or change."—Ibid., p. 91. I have shown that "the nations of unlettered men" are among that portion of the earth's population, upon whose language the genius of grammar has never yet condescended to look down! That people who make no pretensions to learning, can furnish better models or instructions than "the most enlightened scholars," is an opinion which ought not to be disturbed by argument.

11. I regret to say, that even Dr. Webster, with all his obligations and pretensions to literature, has well-nigh taken ground with Neef and Cardell, as above cited; and has not forborne to throw contempt, even on grammar as such, and on men of letters indiscriminately, by supposing the true principles of every language to be best observed and kept by the illiterate. What marvel then, that all his multifarious grammars of the English language are despised? Having suggested that the learned must follow the practice of the populace, because they cannot control it, he adds: "Men of letters may revolt at this suggestion, but if they will attend to the history of our language, they will find the fact to be as here stated. It is commonly supposed that the tendency of this practice of unlettered men is to corrupt the language. But the fact is directly the reverse. I am prepared to prove, were it consistent with the nature of this work, that nineteen-twentieths of all the corruptions of our language, for five hundred years past, have been introduced by authors—men who have made alterations in particular idioms which they did not understand. The same remark is applicable to the orthography and pronunciation. The tendency of unlettered men is to uniformity—to analogy; and so strong is this disposition, that the common people have actually converted some of our irregular verbs into regular ones. It is to unlettered people that we owe the disuse of holpen, bounden, sitten, and the use of the regular participles, swelled, helped, worked, in place of the ancient ones. This popular tendency is not to be contemned and disregarded, as some of the learned affect to do;[3] for it is governed by the natural, primary principles of all languages, to which we owe all their regularity and all their melody; viz., a love of uniformity in words of a like character, and a preference of an easy natural pronunciation, and a desire to express the most ideas with the smallest number of words and syllables. It is a fortunate thing for language, that these natural principles generally prevail over arbitrary and artificial rules."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 119; Improved Gram., p. 78. So much for unlettered erudition!

12. If every thing that has been taught under the name of grammar, is to be considered as belonging to the science, it will be impossible ever to determine in what estimation the study of it ought to be held; for all that has ever been urged either for or against it, may, upon such a principle, be proved by reference to different authorities and irreconcilable opinions. But all who are studious to know, and content to follow, the fashion established by the concurrent authority of the learned,[4] may at least have some standard to refer to; and if a grammarian's rules be based upon this authority, it must be considered the exclusive privilege of the unlearned to despise them—as it is of the unbred, to contemn the rules of civility. But who shall determine whether the doctrines contained in any given treatise are, or are not, based upon such authority? Who shall decide whether the contributions which any individual may make to our grammatical code, are, or are not, consonant with the best usage? For this, there is no tribunal but the mass of readers, of whom few perhaps are very competent judges. And here an author's reputation for erudition and judgement, may be available to him: it is the public voice in his favour. Yet every man is at liberty to form his own opinion, and to alter it whenever better knowledge leads him to think differently.

13. But the great misfortune is, that they who need instruction, are not qualified to choose their instructor; and many who must make this choice for their children, have no adequate means of ascertaining either the qualifications of such as offer themselves, or the comparative merits of the different methods by which they profess to teach. Hence this great branch of learning, in itself too comprehensive for the genius or the life of any one man, has ever been open to as various and worthless a set of quacks and plagiaries as have ever figured in any other. There always have been some who knew this, and there may be many who know it now; but the credulity and ignorance which expose so great a majority of mankind to deception and error, are not likely to be soon obviated. With every individual who is so fortunate as to receive any of the benefits of intellectual culture, the whole process of education must begin anew; and, by all that sober minds can credit, the vision of human perfectibility is far enough from any national consummation.

14. Whatever any may think of their own ability, or however some might flout to find their errors censured or their pretensions disallowed; whatever improvement may actually have been made, or however fondly we may listen to boasts and felicitations on that topic; it is presumed, that the general ignorance on the subject of grammar, as above stated, is too obvious to be denied. What then is the remedy? and to whom must our appeal be made? Knowledge cannot be imposed by power, nor is there any domination in the republic of letters. The remedy lies solely in that zeal which can provoke to a generous emulation in the cause of literature; and the appeal, which has recourse to the learning of the learned, and to the common sense of all, must be pressed home to conviction, till every false doctrine stand refuted, and every weak pretender exposed or neglected. Then shall Science honour them that honour her; and all her triumphs be told, all her instructions be delivered, in "sound speech that cannot be condemned."

15. A generous man is not unwilling to be corrected, and a just one cannot but desire to be set right in all things. Even over noisy gainsayers, a calm and dignified exhibition of true docrine [sic—KTH], has often more influence than ever openly appears. I have even seen the author of a faulty grammar heap upon his corrector more scorn and personal abuse than would fill a large newspaper, and immediately afterwards, in a new edition of his book, renounce the errors which had been pointed out to him, stealing the very language of his amendments from the man whom he had so grossly vilified! It is true that grammarians have ever disputed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who, in elementary treatises, have meddled much with philological controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Denham: "The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits."

16. Thus, then, as I have before suggested, we find among writers on grammar two numerous classes of authors, who have fallen into opposite errors, perhaps equally reprehensible; the visionaries, and the copyists. The former have ventured upon too much originality, the latter have attempted too little. "The science of philology," says Dr. Alexander Murray, "is not a frivolous study, fit to be conducted by ignorant pedants or visionary enthusiasts. It requires more qualifications to succeed in it, than are usually united in those who pursue it:—a sound penetrating judgement; habits of calm philosophical induction; an erudition various, extensive, and accurate; and a mind likewise, that can direct the knowledge expressed in words, to illustrate the nature of the signs which convey it."—Murray's History of European Languages, Vol. ii, p. 333.

17. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge every thing to be ungrammatical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the notions of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in some of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, various attempts have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which long use has rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is manifestly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this system, than to invent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have generally met the reception they deserved. Their history will give no encouragement to future innovators.

18. Again: While some have thus wasted their energies in eccentric flights, vainly supposing that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories; others, with more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are at all acquainted with the origin and character of the various compends thus introduced into our schools, cannot but desire to see them all displaced by some abler and better work, more honourable to its author and more useful to the public, more intelligible to students and more helpful to teachers. Books professedly published for the advancement of knowledge, are very frequently to be reckoned, among its greatest impediments; for the interests of learning are no less injured by whimsical doctrines, than the rights of authorship by plagiarism. Too many of our grammars, profitable only to their makers and venders, are like weights attached to the heels of Hermes. It is discouraging to know the history of this science. But the multiplicity of treatises already in use, is a reason, not for silence, but for offering more. For, as Lord Bacon observes, the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, but by writing others which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious.[5]

19. I have said that some grammars have too much originality, and others too little. It may be added, that not a few are chargeable with both these faults at once. They are original, or at least anonymous, where there should have been given other authority than that of the compiler's name; and they are copies, or, at best, poor imitations, where the author should have shown himself capable of writing in a good style of his own. What then is the middle ground for the true grammarian? What is the kind, and what the degree, of originality, which are to be commended in works of this sort? In the first place, a grammarian must be a writer, an author, a man who observes and thinks for himself; and not a mere compiler, abridger, modifier, copyist, or plagiarist. Grammar is not the only subject upon which we allow no man to innovate in doctrine; why, then, should it be the only one upon which a man may make it a merit, to work up silently into a book of his own, the best materials found among the instructions of his predecessors and rivals? Some definitions and rules, which in the lapse of time and by frequency of use have become a sort of public property, the grammarian may perhaps be allowed to use at his pleasure; yet even upon these a man of any genius will be apt to set some impress peculiar to himself. But the doctrines of his work ought, in general, to be expressed in his own language, and illustrated by that of others. With respect to quotation, he has all the liberty of other writers, and no more; for, if a grammarian makes "use of his predecessors' labours," why should any one think with Murray, "it is scarcely necessary to apologize for" this, "or for omitting to insert their names?"—Introd. to L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 7.

20. The author of this volume would here take the liberty briefly to refer to his own procedure. His knowledge of what is technical in grammar, was of course chiefly derived from the writings of other grammarians; and to their concurrent opinions and practices, he has always had great respect; yet, in truth, not a line has he ever copied from any of them with a design to save the labour of composition. For, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which he at first proposed to himself. Nor is there in all the present volume a single sentence, not regularly quoted, the authorship of which he supposes may now be ascribed to an other more properly than to himself. Where either authority or acknowledgement was requisite, names have been inserted. In the doctrinal parts of the volume, not only quotations from others, but most examples made for the occasion, are marked with guillemets, to distinguish them from the main text; while, to almost every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or reference is added. For those citations, however, which there was occasion to repeat in different parts of the work, a single reference has sometimes been thought sufficient. This remark refers chiefly to the corrections in the Key, the references being given in the Exercises.

21. Though the theme is not one on which a man may hope to write well with little reflection, it is true that the parts of this treatise which have cost the author the most labour, are those which "consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others." These, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, but the proofs and examples; which, according to the custom of the ancient grammarians, ought to be taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our modern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their readers, that the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many phrases and sentences, either original with the writer, or common to everybody, will therefore be found among the illustrations of the following work; for it was not supposed that any reader would demand for every thing of this kind the authority of some great name. Anonymous examples are sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them; and elucidation is often the sole purpose for which an example is needed.

22. It is obvious enough, that no writer on grammar has any right to propose himself as authority for what he teaches; for every language, being the common property of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against the caprices of individuals; and especially against that presumption which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary definitions and rules. "Since the matter of which we are treating," says the philologist of Salamanca, "is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men; for, with whatever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have confirmed his assertions by reason, and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in respect to grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 95, 'Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language.'"—Sanctii Minerva, Lib. ii, Cap. 2. Yet, as what is intuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated; nay, it would seem an injurious reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate proofs of what cannot but be evident to all who speak the language.

23. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far as they become competitors for the same prize; but in competition there is nothing dishonourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can need a false apology; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other—or to underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of having "done all that could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the science of English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of English grammarians; and he who begins with saying, that "little can be expected" from the office he assumes, must be wrongfully contradicted, when he is held to have done much. Neither the ordinary power of speech, nor even the ability to write respectably on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of literary merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man will become a grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy—a courtesy which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior pretensions may be accepted and honoured under the name.

24. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical authorship has been reduced, in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a mere serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed; and, what is most remarkable, even for an indifferent performance of this low office, not only unnamed reviewers, but several writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of grammatical excellence! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne away by a professed compiler; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme required, as to deny it even the common courtesies of compilation! What marvel is it, that, under the wing of such authority, many writers have since sprung up, to improve upon this most happy design; while all who were competent to the task, have been discouraged from attempting any thing like a complete grammar of our language? What motive shall excite a man to long-continued diligence, where such notions prevail as give mastership no hope of preference, and where the praise of his ingenuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured compiler usurp them both, and bring his "most useful matter" before the world under better auspices? If the love of learning supply such a motive, who that has generously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel himself reduced to an "humble drudge"—or, like Perizonius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting his time to such a subject as grammar?

25. The first edition of the "Institutes of English Grammar," the doctrinal parts of which are embraced in the present more copious work, was published in the year 1823; since which time, (within the space of twelve years,) about forty new compends, mostly professing to be abstracts of Murray, with improvements, have been added to our list of English grammars. The author has examined as many as thirty of them, and seen advertisements of perhaps a dozen more. Being various in character, they will of course be variously estimated; but, so far as he can judge, they are, without exception, works of little or no real merit, and not likely to be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, he would have been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of several of them have committed upon his earlier text, were it not possible, that by such a frittering-away of his work, he himself might one day seem to some to have copied that from others which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it manifest to men of learning, that in the production of the books which bear his name, far more has been done for the grammar of our language than any single hand had before achieved within the scope of practical philology, and that with perfect fairness towards other writers; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, whatever else may befall; and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so needful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish under his name or their own what they find only in the following pages.

26. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern; but it is enough for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of public utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor disputable, it is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to know what is, or is not, original. Dates must be accurately observed; and a multitude of minute things must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task but he that is personally interested? Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are adequate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject. The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to truth; and even of some things within their reach, the majority seem contend to take their opinions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will be everywhere preferred; or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appreciated. But common sense might dictate, that learning is not encouraged or respected by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen.

27. The fortune of a grammar is not always an accurate test of its merits. The goddess of the plenteous horn stands blindfold yet upon the floating prow; and, under her capricious favour, any pirate-craft, ill stowed with plunder, may sometimes speed as well, as barges richly laden from the golden mines of science. Far more are now afloat, and more are stranded on dry shelves, than can be here reported. But what this work contains, is candidly designed to qualify the reader to be himself a judge of what it should contain; and I will hope, so ample a report as this, being thought sufficient, will also meet his approbation. The favour of one discerning mind that comprehends my subject, is worth intrinsically more than that of half the nation: I mean, of course, the half of whom my gentle reader is not one.

   "They praise and they admire they know not what,
    And know not whom, but as one leads the other."—Milton.

CHAPTER III.

OF GRAMMATICAL SUCCESS AND FAME.

"Non is ego sum, cui aut jucundum, aut adeo opus sit, de aliis detrahere,
et hac viâ ad famara contendere. Melioribus artibus laudem parare didici.
Itaque non libenter dico, quod præsens institutum dicere cogit."—Jo.
AUGUSTI ERNESTI Præf. ad Græcum Lexicon, p. vii.

1. The real history of grammar is little known; and many erroneous impressions are entertained concerning it: because the story of the systems most generally received has never been fully told; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion was never worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made by the hand of interest, we have had a strange illustration of the saying: "Unto every one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance; but from him that hath not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talent are to be taken into the account; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they have taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talents of others into the shade, or made them tributary to their own success and popularity.

2. It is an ungrateful task to correct public opinion by showing the injustice of praise. Fame, though it may have been both unexpected and undeserved, is apt to be claimed and valued as part and parcel of a man's good name; and the dissenting critic, though ever-so candid, is liable to be thought an envious detractor. It would seem in general most prudent to leave mankind to find out for themselves how far any commendation bestowed on individuals is inconsistent with truth. But, be it remembered, that celebrity is not a virtue; nor, on the other hand, is experience the cheapest of teachers. A good man may not have done all things ably and well; and it is certainly no small mistake to estimate his character by the current value of his copy-rights. Criticism may destroy the reputation of a book, and not be inconsistent with a cordial respect for the private worth of its author. The reader will not be likely to be displeased with what is to be stated in this chapter, if he can believe, that no man's merit as a writer, may well be enhanced by ascribing to him that which he himself, for the protection of his own honour, has been constrained to disclaim. He cannot suppose that too much is alleged, if he will admit that a grammarian's fame should be thought safe enough in his own keeping. Are authors apt to undervalue their own performances? Or because proprietors and publishers may profit by the credit of a book, shall it be thought illiberal to criticise it? Is the author himself to be disbelieved, that the extravagant praises bestowed upon him may be justified? "Superlative commendation," says Dillwyn, "is near akin to detraction." (See his Reflections, p. 22.) Let him, therefore, who will charge detraction upon me, first understand wherein it consists. I shall criticise, freely, both the works of the living, and the doctrines of those who, to us, live only in their works; and if any man dislike this freedom, let him rebuke it, showing wherein it is wrong or unfair. The amiable author just quoted, says again: "Praise has so often proved an impostor, that it would be well, wherever we meet with it, to treat it as a vagrant."—Ib., p. 100. I go not so far as this; but that eulogy which one knows to be false, he cannot but reckon impertinent.

3. Few writers on grammar have been more noted than WILLIAM LILY and LINDLEY MURRAY. Others have left better monuments of their learning and talents, but none perhaps have had greater success and fame. The Latin grammar which was for a long time most popular in England, has commonly been ascribed to the one; and what the Imperial Review, in 1805, pronounced "the best English grammar, beyond all comparison, that has yet appeared," was compiled by the other. And doubtless they have both been rightly judged to excel the generality of those which they were intended to supersede; and both, in their day, may have been highly serviceable to the cause of learning. For all excellence is but comparative; and to grant them this superiority, is neither to prefer them now, nor to justify the praise which has been bestowed upon their authorship. As the science of grammar can never be taught without a book, or properly taught by any book which is not itself grammatical, it is of some importance both to teachers and to students, to make choice of the best. Knowledge will not advance where grammars hold rank by prescription. Yet it is possible that many, in learning to write and speak, may have derived no inconsiderable benefit from a book that is neither accurate nor complete.

4. With respect to time, these two grammarians were three centuries apart; during which period, the English language received its most classical refinement, and the relative estimation of the two studies, Latin and English grammar, became in a great measure reversed. Lily was an Englishman, born at Odiham,[6] in Hampshire, in 1466. When he had arrived at manhood, he went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and while abroad studied some time at Rome, and also at Paris. On his return he was thought one of the most accomplished scholars in England. In 1510, Dr. John Colet, dean of St. Paul's church, in London, appointed him the first high master of St. Paul's School, then recently founded by this gentleman's munificence. In this situation, Lily appears to have taught with great credit to himself till 1522, when he died of the plague, at the age of 56. For the use of this school, he wrote and published certain parts of the grammar which has since borne his name. Of the authorship of this work many curious particulars are stated in the preface by John Ward, which may be seen in the edition of 1793. Lily had able rivals, as well as learned coadjutors and friends. By the aid of the latter, he took precedence of the former; and his publications, though not voluminous, soon gained a general popularity. So that when an arbitrary king saw fit to silence competition among the philologists, by becoming himself, as Sir Thomas Elliott says, "the chiefe authour and setter-forth of an introduction into grammar, for the childrene of his lovynge subjects," Lily's Grammar was preferred for the basis of the standard. Hence, after the publishing of it became a privilege patented by the crown, the book appears to have been honoured with a royal title, and to have been familiarly called King Henry's Grammar.

5. Prefixed to this book, there appears a very ancient epistle to the reader, which while it shows the reasons for this royal interference with grammar, shows also, what is worthy of remembrance, that guarded and maintained as it was, even royal interference was here ineffectual to its purpose. It neither produced uniformity in the methods of teaching, nor, even for instruction in a dead language, entirely prevented the old manual from becoming diverse in its different editions. The style also may serve to illustrate what I have elsewhere said about the duties of a modern grammarian. "As for the diversitie of grammars, it is well and profitably taken awaie by the King's Majesties wisdome; who, foreseeing the inconvenience, and favorably providing the remedie, caused one kind of grammar by sundry learned men to be diligently drawn, and so to be set out, only every where to be taught, for the use of learners, and for the hurt in changing of schoolemaisters." That is, to prevent the injury which schoolmasters were doing by a whimsical choice, or frequent changing, of grammars. But, says the letter, "The varietie of teaching is divers yet, and alwaies will be; for that every schoolemaister liketh that he knoweth, and seeth not the use of that he knoweth not; and therefore judgeth that the most sufficient waie, which he seeth to be the readiest meane, and perfectest kinde, to bring a learner to have a thorough knowledge therein." The only remedy for such an evil then is, to teach those who are to be teachers, and to desert all who, for any whim of their own, desert sound doctrine.

6. But, to return. A law was made in England by Henry the Eighth, commanding Lily's Grammar only, (or that which has commonly been quoted as Lily's,) to be everywhere adopted and taught, as the common standard of grammatical instruction.[7] Being long kept in force by means of a special inquiry, directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, ("because," says one of the patentees, "he had so considerable a hand in the composition,") was written by Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the work after Lily's death. And of the other half, it has been incidentally asserted in history, that neither the scheme nor the text was original. The Printer's Grammar, London, 1787, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says: "The Italians in a short time brought it to that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 1474, they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age; as may be seen in a Latin Grammar, written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua on the 14th of January, 1474; from whom our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire scheme of his Grammar, and transcribed the greatest part thereof, without paying any regard to the memory of this author." The historian then proceeds to speak about types. See also the same thing in the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This is the grammar which bears upon its title page: "Quam solam Regia Majestas in omnibus scholis docendam prcæcipit."

7. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labours in the compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in original thought and critical skill he fell far below most of "the authors to whom," he confesses, "the grammatical part of his compilation is principally indebted for its materials; namely, Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, Blair, and Campbell."—Introd. to Lindley Murray's Gram., p. 7. It is certain and evident that he entered upon his task with a very insufficient preparation. His biography, which was commenced by himself and completed by one of his most partial friends, informs us, that, "Grammar did not particularly engage his attention, until a short time previous to the publication of his first work on that subject;" that, "His Grammar, as it appeared in the first edition, was completed in rather less than a year;" that, "It was begun in the spring of 1794, and published in the spring of 1795—though he had an intervening illness, which, for several weeks, stopped the progress of the work;" and that, "The Exercises and Key were also composed in about a year."—Life of L. Murray, p. 188. From the very first sentence of his book, it appears that he entertained but a low and most erroneous idea of the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to come before the public.[8] He improperly imagined, as many others have done, that "little can be expected" from a modern grammarian, or (as he chose to express it) "from a new compilation, besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the understanding, and the gradual progress of learners."—Introd. to L. Murray's Gram.; 8vo, p. 5; 12mo, p. 3. As if, to be master of his own art—to think and write well himself, were no part of a grammarian's business! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully selected, could need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned them!

8. Murray's general idea of the doctrines of grammar was judicious. He attempted no broad innovation on what had been previously taught; for he had neither the vanity to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in labours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he seems to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language. But his notion of grammatical authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for the sake of doing good; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for his own assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very authors whom he copied. To justify himself, he ungenerously places them, in common with others, under a degrading necessity which no able grammarian ever felt, and which every man of genius or learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars disprove his assertion, it is time to have a new one that will; for, to expect the perfection of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and pure, is absurd. He says, "The greater part of an English grammar must necessarily be a compilation ;" and adds, with reference to his own, "originality belongs to but a small portion of it. This I have acknowledged; and I trust this acknowledgement will protect me from all attacks, grounded on any supposed unjust and irregular assumptions." This quotation is from a letter addressed by Murray to his American publishers, in 1811, after they had informed him of certain complaints respecting the liberties which he had taken in his work. See "The Friend," Vol. iii, p. 34.

9. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies, does not appear to have been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It was, however, at some period, introduced into his short preface, or "Introduction," in the following well-meant but singularly sophistical terms: "In a work which professes itself to be a compilation, and which, from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologise for the use which the Compiler has made of his predecessors' labours, or for omitting to insert their names. From the alterations which have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they are introduced; and, in many instances, from the uncertainty to whom the passages originally belonged, the insertion of names could seldom be made with propriety. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this nature would derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references. It is. however, proper to acknowledge, in general terms, that the authors to whom the grammatical part of this compilation is principally indebted for its materials, are Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote."—Introd.; Duodecimo Gram., p. 4; Octavo, p. 7.

10. The fallacy, or absurdity, of this language sprung from necessity. An impossible case was to be made out. For compilation, though ever so fair, is not grammatical authorship. But some of the commenders of Murray have not only professed themselves satisfied with this general acknowledgement, but have found in it a candour and a liberality, a modesty and a diffidence, which, as they allege, ought to protect him from all animadversion. Are they friends to learning? Let them calmly consider what I reluctantly offer for its defence and promotion. In one of the recommendations appended to Murray's grammars, it is said, "They have nearly superseded every thing else of the kind, by concentrating the remarks of the best authors on the subject." But, in truth, with several of the best English grammars published previously to his own, Murray appears to have been totally unacquainted. The chief, if not the only school grammars which were largely copied by him, were Lowth's and Priestley's, though others perhaps may have shared the fate of these in being "superseded" by his. It may be seen by inspection, that in copying these two authors, the compiler, agreeably to what he says above, omitted all names and references—even such as they had scrupulously inserted: and, at the outset, assumed to be himself the sole authority for all his doctrines and illustrations; satisfying his own mind with making, some years afterwards, that general apology which we are now criticising. For if he so mutilated and altered the passages which he adopted, as to make it improper to add the names of their authors, upon what other authority than his own do they rest? But if, on the other hand, he generally copied without alteration; his examples are still anonymous, while his first reason for leaving them so, is plainly destroyed: because his position is thus far contradicted by the fact.

11. In his later editions, however, there are two opinions which the compiler thought proper to support by regular quotations; and, now and then, in other instances, the name of an author appears. The two positions thus distinguished, are these: First, That the noun means is necessarily singular as well as plural, so that one cannot with propriety use the singular form, mean, to signify that by which an end is attained; Second, That the subjective mood, to which he himself had previously given all the tenses without inflection, is not different in form from the indicative, except in the present tense. With regard to the later point, I have shown, in its proper place, that he taught erroneously, both before and after he changed his opinion; and concerning the former, the most that can be proved by quotation, is, that both mean and means for the singular number, long have been, and still are, in good use, or sanctioned by many elegant writers; so that either form may yet be considered grammatical, though the irregular can claim to be so, only when it is used in this particular sense. As to his second reason for the suppression of names, to wit, "the uncertainty to whom the passages originally belonged,"—to make the most of it, it is but partial and relative; and, surely, no other grammar ever before so multiplied the difficulty in the eyes of teachers, and so widened the field for commonplace authorship, as has the compilation in question. The origin of a sentiment or passage may be uncertain to one man, and perfectly well known to an other. The embarrassment which a compiler may happen to find from this source, is worthy of little sympathy. For he cannot but know from what work he is taking any particular sentence or paragraph, and those parts of a grammar, which are new to the eye of a great grammarian, may very well be credited to him who claims to have written the book. I have thus disposed of his second reason for the omission of names and references, in compilations of grammar.

12. There remains one more: "A work of this nature would derive no advantage from it, equal to the inconvenience of crowding the pages with a repetition of names and references." With regard to a small work, in which the matter is to be very closely condensed, this argument has considerable force. But Murray has in general allowed himself very ample room, especially in his two octavoes. In these, and for the most part also in his duodecimoes, all needful references might easily have been added without increasing the size of his volumes, or injuring their appearance. In nine cases out of ten, the names would only have been occupied what is now blank space. It is to be remembered, that these books do not differ much, except in quantity of paper. His octavo Grammar is but little more than a reprint, in a larger type, of the duodecimo Grammar, together with his Exercises and Key. The demand for this expensive publication has been comparatively small; and it is chiefly to the others, that the author owes his popularity as a grammarian. As to the advantage which Murray or his work might have derived from an adherence on his part to the usual custom of compilers, that may be variously estimated. The remarks of the best grammarians or the sentiments of the best authors, are hardly to be thought the more worthy of acceptance, for being concentrated in such a manner as to merge their authenticity in the fame of the copyist. Let me not be understood to suggest that this good man sought popularity at the expense of others; for I do not believe that either fame or interest was his motive. But the right of authors to the credit of their writings, is a delicate point; and, surely, his example would have been worthier of imitation, had he left no ground for the foregoing objections, and carefully barred the way to any such interference.

13. But let the first sentence of this apology be now considered. It is here suggested, that because this work is a compilation, even such an acknowledgement as the author makes, is "scarcely necessary." This is too much to say. Yet one may readily admit, that a compilation, "from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly"—nay, wholly—"of materials selected from the writings of others." But what able grammarian would ever willingly throw himself upon the horns of such a dilemma! The nature and design of a book, whatever they may be, are matters for which the author alone is answerable; but the nature and design of grammar, are no less repugnant to the strain of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked by Murray in his work of compilation. It is the express purpose of this practical science, to enable a man to write well himself. He that cannot do this, exhibits no excess of modesty when he claims to have "done all that could reasonably be expected in a work of this nature."—L. Murray's Gram., Introd., p. 9. He that sees with other men's eyes, is peculiarly liable to errors and inconsistencies: uniformity is seldom found in patchwork, or accuracy in secondhand literature. Correctness of language is in the mind, rather than in the hand or the tongue; and, in order to secure it, some originality of thought is necessary. A delineation from new surveys is not the less original because the same region has been sketched before; and how can he be the ablest of surveyors, who, through lack of skill or industry, does little more than transcribe the field-notes and copy the projections of his predecessors?

14. This author's oversights are numerous. There is no part of the volume more accurate than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone, he was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty paragraphs; and even in these there are many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes were taken from Priestley; yet it was he, at whose doctrines were pointed most of those "positions and discussions," which alone the author claims as original. To some of these reasonings, however, his own alterations may have given rise; for, where he "persuades himself he is not destitute of originality," he is often arguing against the text of his own earlier editions. Webster's well-known complaints of Murray's unfairness, had a far better cause than requital; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicuity and accuracy, about sixty pages were extracted from Blair; and it requires no great critical acumen to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of language, there are fifteen pages from Campbell; which, with a few exceptions, are well written. The rules for spelling are the same as Walker's: the third one, however, is a gross blunder; and the fourth, a, needless repetition.

15. Were this a place for minute criticism, blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner, was repeatedly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those who have since abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it. Who will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, Lyon, Miller, Alger, Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, R. G. Greene, Woodworth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill? It is curious to observe, how frequently a grammatical blunder committed by Murray, or some one of his predecessors, has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of many others who have found it easier to copy him than to write for themselves. No man professing to have copied and improved Murray, can rationally be supposed to have greatly excelled him; for to pretend to have produced an improved copy of a compilation, is to claim a sort of authorship, even inferior to his, and utterly unworthy of any man who is able to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English grammar.

16. But Murray's grammatical works, being extolled in the reviews, and made common stock in trade,—being published, both in England and in America, by booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by those who were most interested in the sale of them,—have been eminently successful with the public; and in the opinion of the world, success is the strongest proof of merit. Nor has the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have written in aid of his popularity. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which have been bestowed upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that, "at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed;" particularly commends him for his "candour and liberality towards rival authors;" avers that, "he went on, examining and correcting his Grammar, through all its forty editions, till he brought it to a degree of perfection which will render it as permanent as the English language itself;" censures (and not without reason) the "presumption" of those "superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp his honours; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others, but as a mark of "his exemplary diffidence of his own merits," adds, (in very bad English,) "Perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more unexpected by himself than Lindley Murray."—The Friend, Vol. iii, p. 33.

17. In a New-York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1812, there was inserted a "Caution to the Public," by Collins & Co., his American correspondents and publishers, in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, "as it came in purity from the pen of the author;" with an earnest remonstrance against the several revised editions which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other places, and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in altering the work, under pretence of improving it. In this article it is stated, "that the whole of these mutilated editions have been seen and examined by Lindley Murray himself, and that they, have met with his decided disapprobation. Every rational mind," continue these gentlemen, "will agree with him, that, 'the rights of living authors, and the interests of science and literature, demand the abolition of this ungenerous practice.'" (See this also in Murray's Key, 12mo, N. Y., 1811, p. iii.) Here, then, we have the feeling and opinion of Murray himself, upon this tender point of right. Here we see the tables turned, and other men judging it "scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which they have made of their predecessors' labours."

18. It is really remarkable to find an author and his admirers so much at variance, as are Murray and his commenders, in relation to his grammatical authorship; and yet, under what circumstances could men have stronger desires to avoid apparent contradiction? They, on the one side, claim for him the highest degree of merit as a grammarian; and continue to applaud his works as if nothing more could be desired in the study of English grammar—a branch of learning which some of them are willing emphatically to call "his science." He, on the contrary, to avert the charge of plagiarism, disclaims almost every thing in which any degree of literary merit consists; supposes it impossible to write an English grammar the greater part of which is not a "compilation;" acknowledges that originality belongs to but a small part of his own; trusts that such a general acknowledgement will protect him from all censure; suppresses the names of other writers, and leaves his examples to rest solely on his own authority; and, "contented with the great respectability of his private character and station, is satisfied with being useful as an author."—The Friend, Vol. iii, p. 33. By the high praises bestowed upon his works, his own voice is overborne: the trumpet of fame has drowned it. His liberal authorship is profitable in trade, and interest has power to swell and prolong the strain.

19. The name and character of Lindley Murray are too venerable to allow us to approach even the errors of his grammars, without some recognition of the respect due to his personal virtues and benevolent intentions. For the private virtues of Murray, I entertain as cordial a respect as any other man. Nothing is argued against these, even if it be proved that causes independent of true literary merit have given him his great and unexpected fame as a grammarian. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices, to impute to him any thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply; except those inaccuracies and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of course he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to such perfection as has been ascribed to it; for, by way of apology for his frequent alterations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete." Necessity has urged this reasoning upon me. I am as far from any invidious feeling, or any sordid motive, as was Lindley Murray. But it is due to truth, to correct erroneous impressions; and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination of the following pages, it seemed necessary first to convince them, that it is possible to compose a better grammar than Murray's, without being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not such, a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project; and if it is, the achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from his, and from all the pretended amendments of his, as a new map, drawn from actual and minute surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly from others still older and confessedly still more imperfect. The region and the scope are essentially the same; the tracing and the colouring are more original; and (if the reader can pardon the suggestion) perhaps more accurate and vivid.

20. He who makes a new grammar, does nothing for the advancement of learning, unless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose; and nothing for his own honour, unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own ingenuity and taste. A good style naturally commends itself to every reader—even to him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe, that the true principles of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by time, will never be generally superseded by any thing which individual caprice may substitute. In the republic of letters, there will always be some who can distinguish merit; and it is impossible that these should ever be converted to any whimsical theory of language, which goes to make void the learning of past ages. There will always be some who can discern the difference between originality of style, and innovation in doctrine,—between a due regard to the opinions of others, and an actual usurpation of their text; and it is incredible that these should ever be satisfied with any mere compilation of grammar, or with any such authorship as either confesses or betrays the writer's own incompetence. For it is not true, that, "an English grammar must necessarily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, "a compilation;" nay, on such a theme, and in "the grammatical part" of the work, all compilation beyond a fair use of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to all, most unavoidably implies—not conscious "ability," generously doing honour to rival merit—nor "exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own—but inadequate skill and inferior talents, bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and seeking precedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify.

21. Among the professed copiers of Murray, there is not one to whom the foregoing remarks do not apply, as forcibly as to him. For no one of them all has attempted any thing more honourable to himself, or more beneficial to the public, than what their master had before achieved; nor is there any one, who, with the same disinterestedness, has guarded his design from the imputation of a pecuniary motive. It is comical to observe what they say in their prefaces. Between praise to sustain their choice of a model, and blame to make room for their pretended amendments, they are often placed in as awkward a dilemma, as that which was contrived when grammar was identified with compilation. I should have much to say, were I to show them all in their true light.[9] Few of them have had such success as to be worthy of notice here; but the names of many will find frequent place in my code of false grammar. The one who seems to be now taking the lead in fame and revenue, filled with glad wonder at his own popularity, is SAMUEL KIRKHAM. Upon this gentleman's performance, I shall therefore bestow a few brief observations. If I do not overrate this author's literary importance, a fair exhibition of the character of his grammar, may be made an instructive lesson to some of our modern literati. The book is a striking sample of a numerous species.

22. Kirkham's treatise is entitled, "English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium;" that is, by a folded sheet. Of this work, of which I have recently seen copies purporting to be of the "SIXTY-SEVENTH EDITION," and others again of the "HUNDRED AND FIFTH EDITION," each published at Baltimore in 1835, I can give no earlier account, than what may be derived from the "SECOND EDITION, enlarged and much improved," which was published at Harrisburg in 1825. The preface, which appears to have been written for his first edition, is dated, "Fredericktown, Md., August 22, 1823." In it, there is no recognition of any obligation to Murray, or to any other grammarian in particular; but with the modest assumption, that the style of the "best philologists," needed to be retouched, the book is presented to the world under the following pretensions:

"The author of this production has endeavoured to condense all the most important subject-matter of the whole science, and present it in so small a compass that the learner can become familiarly acquainted with it in a short time. He makes but small pretensions to originality in theoretical matter. Most of the principles laid down, have been selected from our best modern philologists. If his work is entitled to any degree of merit, it is not on account of a judicious selection of principles and rules, but for the easy mode adopted of communicating these to the mind of the learner."—Kirkham's Grammar, 1825, p. 10.

23. It will be found on examination, that what this author regarded as "all the most important subject-matter of the whole science" of grammar, included nothing more than the most common elements of the orthography, etymology, and syntax, of the English tongue—beyond which his scholarship appears not to have extended. Whatsoever relates to derivation, to the sounds of the letters, to prosody, (as punctuation, utterance, figures, versification, and poetic diction,) found no place in his "comprehensive system of grammar;" nor do his later editions treat any of these things amply or well. In short, he treats nothing well; for he is a bad writer. Commencing his career of authorship under circumstances the most forbidding, yet receiving encouragement from commendations bestowed in pity, he proceeded, like a man of business, to profit mainly by the chance; and, without ever acquiring either the feelings or the habits of a scholar, soon learned by experience that, "It is much better to write than [to] starve."—Kirkham's Gram., Stereotyped, p. 89. It is cruel in any man, to look narrowly into the faults of an author who peddles a school-book for bread. The starveling wretch whose defence and plea are poverty and sickness, demands, and must have, in the name of humanity, an immunity from criticism, if not the patronage of the public. Far be it from me, to notice any such character, except with kindness and charity. Nor need I be told, that tenderness is due to the "young;" or that noble results sometimes follow unhopeful beginnings. These things are understood and duly appreciated. The gentleman was young once, even as he says; and I, his equal in years, was then, in authorship, as young—though, it were to be hoped, not quite so immature. But, as circumstances alter cases, so time and chance alter circumstances. Under no circumstances, however, can the artifices of quackery be thought excusable in him who claims to be the very greatest of modern grammarians. The niche that in the temple of learning belongs to any individual, can be no other than that which his own labours have purchased: here, his own merit alone must be his pedestal. If this critical sketch be unimpeachably just, its publication requires no further warrant. The correction has been forborne, till the subject of it has become rich, and popular, and proud; proud enough at least to have published his utter contempt for me and all my works. Yet not for this do I judge him worthy of notice here, but merely as an apt example of some men's grammatical success and fame. The ways and means to these grand results are what I purpose now to consider.

24. The common supposition, that the world is steadily advancing in knowledge and improvement, would seem to imply, that the man who could plausibly boast of being the most successful and most popular grammarian of the nineteenth century, cannot but be a scholar of such merit as to deserve some place, if not in the general literary history of his age, at least in the particular history of the science which he teaches. It will presently be seen that the author of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures," boasts of a degree of success and popularity, which, in this age of the world, has no parallel. It is not intended on my part, to dispute any of his assertions on these points; but rather to take it for granted, that in reputation and revenue he is altogether as preëminent as he pretends to be. The character of his alleged improvements, however, I shall inspect with the eyes of one who means to know the certainty for himself; and, in this item of literary history, the reader shall see, in some sort, what profit there is in grammar. Is the common language of two of the largest and most enlightened nations on earth so little understood, and its true grammar so little known or appreciated, that one of the most unscholarly and incompetent of all pretenders to grammar can have found means to outrival all the grammarians who have preceded him? Have plagiarism and quackery become the only means of success in philology? Are there now instances to which an intelligent critic may point, and say, "This man, or that, though he can scarcely write a page of good English, has patched up a grammar, by the help of Murray's text only, and thereby made himself rich?" Is there such a charm in the name of Murray, and the word improvement, that by these two implements alone, the obscurest of men, or the absurdest of teachers, may work his passage to fame; and then, perchance, by contrast of circumstances, grow conceited and arrogant, from the fortune of the undertaking? Let us see what we can find in Kirkham's Grammar, which will go to answer these questions.

25. Take first from one page of his "hundred and fifth edition," a few brief quotations, as a sample of his thoughts and style:

"They, however, who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and have power to control it." "PRINCIPLE.—A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the language, sanctioned by good usage." "DEFINITION.—A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed in a definite form." "RULE.—A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial relation of words, which custom has established for our observance."—Kirkham's Grammar, page 18.

Now, as "a rule describes a peculiar construction," and "a principle is a peculiar construction," and "a definition is a principle;" how, according to this grammarian, do a principle, a definition, and a rule, differ each from the others? From the rote here imposed, it is certainly not easier for the learner to conceive of all these things distinctly, than it is to understand how a departure from philosophy may make a man deservedly "conspicuous." It were easy to multiply examples like these, showing the work to be deficient in clearness, the first requisite of style.

26. The following passages may serve as a specimen of the gentleman's taste, and grammatical accuracy; in one of which, he supposes the neuter verb is to express an action, and every honest man to be long since dead! So it stands in all his editions. Did his praisers think so too?

"It is correct to say, The man eats, he eats; but we cannot say, The man dog eats, he dog eats. Why not? Because the man is here represented as the possessor, and dog, the property, or thing possessed; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to the possessor, the thing which he is represented as possessing, the possessor shall take a particular form to show ITS case, or relation to the property."—Ib., p. 52.

THE PRESENT TENSE.—"This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long since dead; as, 'Seneca reasons and moralizes well; An HONEST MAN IS the noblest work of God.'"—Ib., p. 138.

PARTICIPLES.—"The term Participle comes from the Latin word participio,[10] which signifies to partake."—"Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination ing, ed, or en. Ing signifies the same thing as the noun being. When postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus formed expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is being continued."—Ib., p. 78. "All participles are compound in their meaning and office."—Ib., p. 79.

VERBS.—"Verbs express, not only the state or manner of being, but, likewise, all the different actions and movements of all creatures and things, whether animate or inanimate."—Ib., p. 62. "It can be easily shown, that from the noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. They may even be reduced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, express actions; but they are intrinsically the mere NAMES of actions."—Ib., p. 37.

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.—"I have thought proper to intersperse through the pages of this work, under the head of 'Philosophical Notes,' an entire system of grammatical principles, as deduced from what appears[11] to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical investigations."— Ib., p. 36. "Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, would have been laughed at, had they essayed to thrust any thing like our modernized philosophical grammar down the throats of their cotemporaries."—Ib., p. 143.

Is it not a pity, that "more than one hundred thousand children and youth" should be daily poring over language and logic like this?

27. For the sake of those who happily remain ignorant of this successful empiricism, it is desirable that the record and exposition of it be made brief. There is little danger that it will long survive its author. But the present subjects of it are sufficiently numerous to deserve some pity. The following is a sample of the gentleman's method of achieving what he both justly and exultingly supposes, that Johnson, or Blair, or Lowth, could not have effected. He scoffs at his own grave instructions, as if they had been the production of some other impostor. Can the fact be credited, that in the following instances, he speaks of what he himself teaches?—of what he seriously pronounces "most rational and consistent?"—of what is part and parcel of that philosophy of his, which he declares, "will in general be found to accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of his work?"—See Kirkham's Gram., p. 36.

"Call this 'philosophical parsing, on reasoning principles, according to the original laws of nature and of thought,' and the pill will be swallowed, by pedants and their dupes, with the greatest ease imaginable."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 144. "For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their adoption, too, a modernized philosophical theory of the moods and tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has the advantage of being new; and, moreover, it sounds large, and will make the commonalty stare. Let it be distinctly understood that you teach '[Kirkham's] philosophical grammar, founded on reason and common sense,' and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast improvements of the age."—Ib., p. 141.

28. The pretty promises with which these "Familiar Lectures" abound, are also worthy to be noticed here, as being among the peculiar attractions of the performance. The following may serve as a specimen:

"If you proceed according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of Grammar in a short time."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 49. "If you have sufficient resolution to do this, you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations, and the rules of syntax that apply to them; and, in a few weeks, be able to speak and write accurately."—Ib., p. 62. "You will please to turn back and read over again the whole five lectures. You must exercise a little patience."—Ib., p. 82. "By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical knowledge in three months, than is commonly obtained in two years."—Ib., p. 82. "I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress."—Ib., p. 133. "The supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a few hours of pleasant pastime."—Ib., p. 142. "By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood, you will find it very easy."—Ib., p. 147. "By pursuing the following direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb."—Ib., p. 147. "Although this mode of procedure may, at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance, induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitate your progress."—Ib., p. 148.

29. The grand boast of this author is, that he has succeeded in "pleasing himself and the public." He trusts to have "gained the latter point," to so great an extent, and with such security of tenure, that henceforth no man can safely question the merit of his performance. Happy mortal! to whom that success which is the ground of his pride, is also the glittering ægis of his sure defence! To this he points with exultation and self-applause, as if the prosperity of the wicked, or the popularity of an imposture, had never yet been heard of in this clever world![12] Upon what merit this success has been founded, my readers may judge, when I shall have finished this slight review of his work. Probably no other grammar was ever so industriously spread. Such was the author's perseverance in his measures to increase the demand for his book, that even the attainment of such accuracy as he was capable of, was less a subject of concern. For in an article designed "to ward off some of the arrows of criticism,"—an advertisement which, from the eleventh to the "one hundred and fifth edition," has been promising "to the publick another and a better edition,"—he plainly offers this urgent engagement, as "an apology for its defects:"

"The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (active as far as imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for his defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his credit.—Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen criticks and reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral courage, which he would by no means, be willing to avow."—Kirkham's Gram., (Adv. of 1829,) p. 7.

30. Now, to this painful struggle, this active contention between business and the vapours, let all credit be given, and all sympathy be added; but, as an aid to the studies of healthy children, what better is the book, for any forbearance or favour that may have been won by this apology? It is well known, that, till phrenology became the common talk, the author's principal business was, to commend his own method of teaching grammar, and to turn this publication to profit. This honourable industry, aided, as himself suggests, by "not much less than one thousand written recommendations," is said to have wrought for him, in a very few years, a degree of success and fame, at which both the eulogists of Murray and the friends of English grammar may hang their heads. As to a "compromise" with any critic or reviewer whom he cannot bribe, it is enough to say of that, it is morally impossible. Nor was it necessary for such an author to throw the gauntlet, to prove himself not lacking in "self-confidence." He can show his "moral courage," only by daring do right.

31. In 1829, after his book had gone through ten editions, and the demand for it had become so great as "to call forth twenty thousand copies during the year," the prudent author, intending to veer his course according to the trade-wind, thought it expedient to retract his former acknowledgement to "our best modern philologists," and to profess himself a modifier of the Great Compiler's code. Where then holds the anchor of his praise? Let the reader say, after weighing and comparing his various pretensions:

"Aware that there is, in the publick mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of policy, but from choice, to select his principles chiefly from that work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another." [13]—Kirkham's Gram., 1829, p. 10.

32. Now these statements are either true or false; and I know not on which supposition they are most creditable to the writer. Had any Roman grammatist thus profited by the name of Varro or Quintilian, he would have been filled with constant dread of somewhere meeting the injured author's frowning shade! Surely, among the professed admirers of Murray, no other man, whether innovator or copyist, unfortunate or successful, is at all to be compared to this gentleman for the audacity with which he has "not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture, the text of that able writer." Murray simply intended to do good, and good that might descend to posterity; and this just and generous intention goes far to excuse even his errors. But Kirkham, speaking of posterity, scruples not to disavow and to renounce all care for them, or for any thing which a coming age may think of his character: saying,

"My pretensions reach not so far. To the present generation only, I present my claims. Should it lend me a listening ear, and grant me its suffrages, the height of my ambition will be attained."—Advertisement, in his Elocution, p. 346.

His whole design is, therefore, upon the very face of it, a paltry scheme of present income. And, seeing his entered classes of boys and girls must soon have done with him, he has doubtless acted wisely, and quite in accordance with his own interest, to have made all possible haste in his career.

33. Being no rival with him in this race, and having no personal quarrel with him on any account, I would, for his sake, fain rejoice at his success, and withhold my criticisms; because he is said to have been liberal with his gains, and because he has not, like some others, copied me instead of Murray. But the vindication of a greatly injured and perverted science, constrains me to say, on this occasion, that pretensions less consistent with themselves, or less sustained by taste and scholarship, have seldom, if ever, been promulgated in the name of grammar. I have, certainly, no intention to say more than is due to the uninformed and misguided. For some who are ungenerous and prejudiced themselves, will not be unwilling to think me so; and even this freedom, backed and guarded as it is by facts and proofs irrefragable, may still be ingeniously ascribed to an ill motive. To two thirds of the community, one grammar is just as good as an other; because they neither know, nor wish to know, more than may be learned from the very worst. An honest expression of sentiment against abuses of a literary nature, is little the fashion of these times; and the good people who purchase books upon the recommendations of others, may be slow to believe there is no merit where so much has been attributed. But facts may well be credited, in opposition to courteous flattery, when there are the author's own words and works to vouch for them in the face of day. Though a thousand of our great men may have helped a copier's weak copyist to take "some practical advantage" of the world's credulity, it is safe to aver, in the face of dignity still greater, that testimonials more fallacious have seldom mocked the cause of learning. They did not read his book.

34. Notwithstanding the author's change in his professions, the work is now essentially the same as it was at first; except that its errors and contradictions have been greatly multiplied, by the addition of new matter inconsistent with the old. He evidently cares not what doctrines he teaches, or whose; but, as various theories are noised abroad, seizes upon different opinions, and mixes them together, that his books may contain something to suit all parties. "A System of Philosophical Grammar," though but an idle speculation, even in his own account, and doubly absurd in him, as being flatly contradictory to his main text, has been thought worthy of insertion. And what his title-page denominates "A New System of Punctuation," though mostly in the very words of Murray, was next invented to supply a deficiency which he at length discovered. To admit these, and some other additions, the "comprehensive system-of grammar" was gradually extended from 144 small duodecimo pages, to 228 of the ordinary size. And, in this compass, it was finally stereotyped in 1829; so that the ninety-four editions published since, have nothing new for history.

35. But the publication of an other work designed for schools, "An Essay an Elocution" shows the progress of the author's mind. Nothing can be more radically opposite, than are some of the elementary doctrines which this gentleman is now teaching; nothing, more strangely inconsistent, than are some of his declarations and professions. For instance: "A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 19. Again: "A consonant is not only capable of being perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel, but, moreover, of forming, like a vowel, a separate syllable."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 32. Take a second example. He makes "ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS" a prominent division and leading title, in treating of the pronouns proper; defines the term in a manner peculiar to himself; prefers and uses it in all his parsing; and yet, by the third sentence of the story, the learner is conducted to this just conclusion: "Hence, such a thing as an adjective-pronoun cannot exist."—Grammar, p. 105. Once more. Upon his own rules, or such as he had borrowed, he comments thus, and comments truly, because he had either written them badly or made an ill choice: "But some of these rules are foolish, trifling, and unimportant."—Elocution, p. 97. Again: "Rules 10 and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be based on the principles of the language."—Grammar, p. 59. These are but specimens of his own frequent testimony against himself! Nor shall he find refuge in the impudent falsehood, that the things which I quote as his, are not his own.[14] These contradictory texts, and scores of others which might be added to them, are as rightfully his own, as any doctrine he has ever yet inculcated. But, upon the credulity of ignorance, his high-sounding certificates and unbounded boasting can impose any thing. They overrule all in favour of cue of the worst grammars extant;—of which he says, "it is now studied by more than one hundred thousand children and youth; and is more extensively used than all other English grammars published in the United States."—Elocution, p. 347. The booksellers say, he receives from his publishers ten cents a copy, on this work, and that he reports the sale of sixty thousand copies per annum. Such has of late been his public boast. I have once had the story from his own lips, and of course congratulated him, though I dislike the book. Six thousand dollars a year, on this most miserable modification of Lindley Murray's Grammar! Be it so—or double, if he and the public please. Murray had so little originality in his work, or so little selfishness in his design, that he would not take any thing; and his may ultimately prove the better bargain.

36. A man may boast and bless himself as he pleases, his fortune, surely, can never be worthy of an other's envy, so long as he finds it inadequate to his own great merits, and unworthy of his own poor gratitude. As a grammarian, Kirkham claims to be second only to Lindley Murray; and says, "Since the days of Lowth, no other work on grammar, Murray's only excepted, has been so favourably received by the publick as his own. As a proof of this, he would mention, that within the last six years it has passed through fifty editions."—Preface to Elocution, p. 12. And, at the same time, and in the same preface, he complains, that, "Of all the labours done under the sun, the labours of the pen meet with the poorest reward."—Ibid., p. 5. This too clearly favours the report, that his books were not written by himself, but by others whom he hired. Possibly, the anonymous helper may here have penned, not his employer's feeling, but a line of his own experience. But I choose to ascribe the passage to the professed author, and to hold him answerable for the inconsistency. Willing to illustrate by the best and fairest examples these fruitful means of grammatical fame, I am glad of his present success, which, through this record, shall become yet more famous. It is the only thing which makes him worthy of the notice here taken of him. But I cannot sympathize with his complaint, because he never sought any but "the poorest reward;" and more than all he sought, he found. In his last "Address to Teachers," he says, "He may doubtless be permitted emphatically to say with Prospero, 'Your breath has filled my sails.'"—Elocution, p. 18. If this boasting has any truth in it, he ought to be satisfied. But it is written, "He that loveth silver, shall not be satisfied with silver; nor he that loveth abundance, with increase." Let him remember this.[15] He now announces three or four other works as forthcoming shortly. What these will achieve, the world will see. But I must confine myself to the Grammar.

37. In this volume, scarcely any thing is found where it might be expected. "The author," as he tells us in his preface, "has not followed the common 'artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors;' yet he has endeavoured to pursue a more judicious one, namely, 'the order of the understanding.'"—Grammar, p. 12. But if this is the order of his understanding, he is greatly to be pitied. A book more confused in its plan, more wanting in method, more imperfect in distinctness of parts, more deficient in symmetry, or more difficult of reference, shall not easily be found in stereotype. Let the reader try to follow us here. Bating twelve pages at the beginning, occupied by the title, recommendations, advertisement, contents, preface, hints to teachers, and advice to lecturers; and fifty-four at the end, embracing syntax, orthography, orthoëpy, provincialisms, prosody, punctuation, versification, rhetoric, figures of speech, and a Key, all in the sequence here given; the work consists of fourteen chapters of grammar, absurdly called "Familiar Lectures." The first treats of sundries, under half a dozen titles, but chiefly of Orthography; and the last is three pages and a half, of the most common remarks, on Derivation. In the remaining twelve, the Etymology and Syntax of the ten parts of speech are commingled; and an attempt is made, to teach simultaneously all that the author judged important in either. Hence he gives us, in a strange congeries, rules, remarks, illustrations, false syntax, systematic parsing, exercises in parsing, two different orders of notes, three different orders of questions, and a variety of other titles merely occasional. All these things, being additional to his main text, are to be connected, in the mind of the learner, with the parts of speech successively, in some new and inexplicable catenation found only in the arrangement of the lectures. The author himself could not see through the chaos. He accordingly made his table of contents a mere meagre alphabetical index. Having once attempted in vain to explain the order of his instructions, he actually gave the matter up in despair!

38. In length, these pretended lectures vary, from three or four pages, to eight-and-thirty. Their subjects run thus: 1. Language, Grammar, Orthography; 2. Nouns and Verbs; 3. Articles; 4. Adjectives; 5. Participles; 6. Adverbs; 7. Prepositions; 8. Pronouns; 9. Conjunctions; 10. Interjections and Nouns; 11. Moods and Tenses; 12. Irregular Verbs; 13. Auxiliary, Passive, and Defective Verbs; 14. Derivation. Which, now, is "more judicious," such confusion as this, or the arrangement which has been common from time immemorial? Who that has any respect for the human intellect, or whose powers of mind deserve any in return, will avouch this jumble to be "the order of the understanding?" Are the methods of science to be accounted mere hinderances to instruction? Has grammar really been made easy by this confounding of its parts? Or are we lured by the name, "Familiar Lectures,"—a term manifestly adopted as a mere decoy, and, with respect to the work itself, totally inappropriate? If these chapters have ever been actually delivered as a series of lectures, the reader must have been employed on some occasions eight or ten times as long as on others! "People," says Dr. Johnson, "have now-a-days got a strange opinion that every thing should be taught by lectures. Now, I cannot see that lectures can do so much good as a private reading of the books from which the lectures are taken. I know of nothing that can be best taught by lectures, except where experiments are to be shown. You may teach chymistry by lectures—you might teach the making of shoes by lectures." —Boswell's Life of Johnson.

39. With singular ignorance and untruth, this gentleman claims to have invented a better method of analysis than had ever been practised before. Of other grammars, his preface avers, "They have all overlooked what the author considers a very important object; namely, a systematick order of parsing."—Grammar, p. 9. And, in his "Hints to Teachers," presenting himself as a model, and his book as a paragon, he says: "By pursuing this system, he can, with less labour, advance a pupil farther in the practical knowledge of this abstruse science, in two months, than he could in one year, when he taught in the old way."—Grammar, p. 12. What his "old way" was, does not appear. Doubtless something sufficiently bad. And as to his new way, I shall hereafter have occasion to show that that is sufficiently bad also. But to this gasconade the simple-minded have given credit—because the author showed certificates that testified to his great success, and called him "amiable and modest!" But who can look into the book, or into the writer's pretensions in regard to his predecessors, and conceive the merit which has made him—"preëminent by so much odds?" Was Murray less praiseworthy, less amiable, or less modest? In illustration of my topic, and for the sake of literary justice, I have selected that honoured "Compiler" to show the abuses of praise; let the history of this his vaunting modifier cap the climax of vanity. In general, his amendments of "that eminent philologist," are not more skillful than the following touch upon an eminent dramatist; and here, it is plain, he has mistaken two nouns for adjectives, and converted into bad English a beautiful passage, the sentiment of which is worthy of an author's recollection:

   "The evil deed or deeds that men do, lives after them;
    The good deed or deeds is oft interred with their bones." [16]
                    Kirkham's Grammar, p. 75.

40. Lord Bacon observes, "Nothing is thought so easy a request to a great person as his letter; and yet, if it be not in a good cause, it is so much out of his reputation." It is to this mischievous facility of recommendation, this prostituted influence of great names, that the inconvenient diversity of school-books, and the continued use of bad ones, are in a great measure to be attributed. It belongs to those who understand the subjects of which authors profess to treat, to judge fairly and fully of their works, and then to let the reasons of their judgement be known. For no one will question the fact, that a vast number of the school-books now in use are either egregious plagiarisms or productions of no comparative merit. And, what is still more surprising and monstrous, presidents, governors, senators, and judges; professors, doctors, clergymen, and lawyers; a host of titled connoisseurs; with incredible facility lend their names, not only to works of inferior merit, but to the vilest thefts, and the wildest absurdities, palmed off upon their own and the public credulity, under pretence of improvement. The man who thus prefixes his letter of recommendation to an ill-written book, publishes, out of mere courtesy, a direct impeachment of his own scholarship or integrity. Yet, how often have we seen the honours of a high office, or even of a worthy name, prostituted to give a temporary or local currency to a book which it would disgrace any man of letters to quote! With such encouragement, nonsense wrestles for the seat of learning, exploded errors are republished as novelties, original writers are plundered by dunces, and men that understand nothing well, profess to teach all sciences!

41. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing itself is so. To excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the subject, as in the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a theme so humble and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests, in his masterly preface, "that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even a whole life would not be sufficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such facts and confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of Murray, or among the various modifications of them by other hands we have any such work as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in English grammar? With great sacrifices, both of pleasure and of interest, I have humbly endeavoured to supply this desideratum; and it remains for other men to determine, and other times to know, what place shall be given to these my labours, in the general story of this branch of learning. Intending to develop not only the principles but also the history of grammar, I could not but speak of its authors. The writer who looks broadly at the past and the present, to give sound instruction to the future, must not judge of men by their shadows. If the truth, honestly told, diminish the stature of some, it does it merely by clearing the sight of the beholder. Real greatness cannot suffer loss by the dissipating of a vapour. If reputation has been raised upon the mist of ignorance, who but the builder shall lament its overthrow? If the works of grammarians are often ungrammatical, whose fault is this but their own? If all grammatical fame is little in itself, how can the abatement of what is undeserved of it be much? If the errors of some have long been tolerated, what right of the critic has been lost by nonuser? If the interests of Science have been sacrificed to Mammon, what rebuke can do injustice to the craft? Nay, let the broad-axe of the critic hew up to the line, till every beam in her temple be smooth and straight. For, "certainly, next to commending good writers, the greatest service to learning is, to expose the bad, who can only in that way be made of any use to it." [17] And if, among the makers of grammars, the scribblings of some, and the filchings of others, are discreditable alike to themselves and to their theme, let the reader consider, how great must be the intrinsic worth of that study which still maintains its credit in spite of all these abuses!

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.

"Tot fallaciis obrutum, tot hallucinationibus demersum, tot adhuc tenebris circumfusum studium hocce mihi visum est, ut nihil satis tuto in hac materia præstari posse arbitratus sim, nisi nova quadam arte critica præmissa."—SCIPIO MAFFEIUS: Cassiod. Complexiones, p. xxx.

1. The origin of things is, for many reasons, a peculiarly interesting point in their history. Among those who have thought fit to inquire into the prime origin of speech, it has been matter of dispute, whether we ought to consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of industry—a natural endowment, or an artificial invention. Nor is any thing that has ever yet been said upon it, sufficient to set the question permanently at rest. That there is in some words, and perhaps in some of every language, a natural connexion between the sounds uttered and the things signified, cannot be denied; yet, on the other hand, there is, in the use of words in general, so much to which nature affords no clew or index, that this whole process of communicating thought by speech, seems to be artificial. Under an other head, I have already cited from Sanctius some opinions of the ancient grammarians and philosophers on this point. With the reasoning of that zealous instructor, the following sentence from Dr. Blair very obviously accords: "To suppose words invented, or names given to things, in a manner purely arbitrary, without any ground or reason, is to suppose an effect without a cause. There must have always been some motive which led to the assignation of one name rather than an other."—Rhet., Lect. vi, p. 55.

2. But, in their endeavours to explain the origin and early progress of language, several learned men, among whom is this celebrated lecturer, have needlessly perplexed both themselves and their readers, with sundry questions, assumptions, and reasonings, which are manifestly contrary to what has been made known to us on the best of all authority. What signifies it[18] for a man to tell us how nations rude and barbarous invented interjections first,[19] and then nouns, and then verbs,[20] and finally the other parts of speech; when he himself confesses that he does not know whether language "can be considered a human invention at all;" and when he believed, or ought to have believed, that the speech of the first man, though probably augmented by those who afterwards used it, was, essentially, the one language of the earth for more than eighteen centuries? The task of inventing a language de novo, could surely have fallen upon no man but Adam; and he, in the garden of Paradise, had doubtless some aids and facilities not common to every wild man of the woods.

3. The learned Doctor was equally puzzled to conceive, "either how society could form itself, previously to language, or how words could rise into a language, previously to society formed."—Blair's Rhet., Lect. vi, p. 54. This too was but an idle perplexity, though thousands have gravely pored over it since, as a part of the study of rhetoric; for, if neither could be previous to the other, they must have sprung up simultaneously. And it is a sort of slander upon our prime ancestor, to suggest, that, because he was "the first," he must have been "the rudest" of his race; and that, "consequently, those first rudiments of speech," which alone the supposition allows to him or to his family, "must have been poor and narrow."—Blair's Rhet., p. 54. It is far more reasonable to think, with a later author, that, "Adam had an insight into natural things far beyond the acutest philosopher, as may be gathered from his giving of names to all creatures, according to their different constitutions."—Robinson's Scripture Characters, p. 4.

4. But Dr. Blair is not alone in the view which he here takes. The same thing has bean suggested by other learned men. Thus Dr. James P. Wilson, of Philadelphia, in an octavo published in 1817, says: "It is difficult to discern how communities could have existed without language, and equally so to discover how language could have obtained, in a peopled world, prior to society."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 1. I know not how so many professed Christians, and some of them teachers of religion too, with the Bible in their hands, can reason upon this subject as they do. We find them, in their speculations, conspiring to represent primeval man, to use their own words, as a "savage, whose 'howl at the appearance of danger, and whose exclamations of joy at the sight of his prey, reiterated, or varied with the change of objects, were probably the origin of language.'—Booth's Analytical Dictionary. In the dawn of society, ages may have passed away, with little more converse than what these efforts would produce."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 31. Here Gardiner quotes Booth with approbation, and the latter, like Wilson, may have borrowed his ideas from Blair. Thus are we taught by a multitude of guessers, grave, learned, and oracular, that the last of the ten parts of speech was in fact the first: "Interjections are exceedingly interesting in one respect. They are, there can be little doubt, the oldest words in all languages; and may be considered the elements of speech."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 78. On this point, however, Dr. Blair seems not to be quite consistent with himself: "Those exclamations, therefore, which by grammarians are called interjections, uttered in a strong and passionate manner, were, beyond doubt, the first elements or beginnings of speech."—Rhet., Lect. vi, p. 55. "The names of sensible objects were, in all languages, the words most early introduced."—Rhet., Lect. xiv, p. 135. "The names of sensible objects," says Murray too, "were the words most early introduced."—Octavo Gram., p. 336. Bat what says the Bible?

5. Revelation informs us that our first progenitor was not only endowed with the faculty of speech, but, as it would appear, actually incited by the Deity to exert that faculty in giving names to the objects by which he was surrounded. "Out of the ground the Lord God formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam, to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowls of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found a help meet for him."—Gen., ii, 19, 20. This account of the first naming of the other creatures by man, is apparently a parenthesis in the story of the creation of woman, with which the second chapter of Genesis concludes. But, in the preceding chapter, the Deity is represented not only as calling all things into existence by his Word; but as speaking to the first human pair, with reference to their increase in the earth, and to their dominion over it, and over all the living creatures formed to inhabit it. So that the order of the events cannot be clearly inferred from the order of the narration. The manner of this communication to man, may also be a subject of doubt. Whether it was, or was not, made by a voice of words, may be questioned. But, surely, that Being who, in creating the world and its inhabitants, manifested his own infinite wisdom, eternal power, and godhead, does not lack words, or any other means of signification, if he will use them. And, in the inspired record of his work in the beginning, he is certainly represented, not only as naming all things imperatively, when he spoke them into being, but as expressly calling the light Day, the darkness Night, the firmament Heaven, the dry land Earth, and the gatherings of the mighty waters Seas.

6. Dr. Thomas Hartwell Horne, in commending a work by Dr. Ellis, concerning the origin of human wisdom and understanding, says: "It shows satisfactorily, that religion and language entered the world by divine revelation, without the aid of which, man had not been a rational or religious creature."—Study of the Scriptures, Vol. i, p. 4. "Plato attributes the primitive words of the first language to a divine origin;" and Dr. Wilson remarks, "The transition from silence to speech, implies an effort of the understanding too great for man."—Essay on Gram., p. 1. Dr. Beattie says, "Mankind must have spoken in all ages, the young constantly learning to speak by imitating those who were older; and, if so, our first parents must have received this art, as well as some others, by inspiration."—Moral Science, p. 27. Horne Tooke says, "I imagine that it is, in some measure, with the vehicle of our thoughts, as with the vehicles for our bodies. Necessity produced both."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 20. Again: "Language, it is true, is an art, and a glorious one; whose influence extends over all the others, and in which finally all science whatever must centre: but an art springing from necessity, and originally invented by artless men, who did not sit down like philosophers to invent it."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 259.

7. Milton imagines Adam's first knowledge of speech, to have sprung from the hearing of his own voice; and that voice to have been raised, instinctively, or spontaneously, in an animated inquiry concerning his own origin—an inquiry in which he addresses to unintelligent objects, and inferior creatures, such questions as the Deity alone could answer:

   "Myself I then perused, and limb by limb
    Surveyed, and sometimes went, and sometimes ran
    With supple joints, as lively vigor led:
    But who I was, or where, or from what cause,
    Knew not; to speak I tried, and forthwith spake;
    My tongue obeyed, and readily could name
    Whatever I saw. 'Thou Sun,' said I, 'fair light,
    And thou enlightened Earth, so fresh and gay,
    Ye Hills and Dales, ye Rivers, Woods, and Plains;
    And ye that live and move, fair Creatures! tell,
    Tell, if ye saw, how came I thus, how here?
    Not of myself; by some great Maker then,
    In goodness and in power preëminent:
    Tell me how I may know him, how adore,
    From whom I have that thus I move and live,
    And feel that I am happier than I know.'"
                  Paradise Lost, Book viii, l. 267.

But, to the imagination of a poet, a freedom is allowed, which belongs not to philosophy. We have not always the means of knowing how far he literally believes what he states.

8. My own opinion is, that language is partly natural and partly artificial. And, as the following quotation from the Greek of Ammonius will serve in some degree to illustrate it, I present the passage in English for the consideration of those who may prefer ancient to modern speculations: "In the same manner, therefore, as mere motion is from nature, but dancing is something positive; and as wood exists in nature, but a door is something positive; so is the mere utterance of vocal sound founded in nature, but the signification of ideas by nouns or verbs is something positive. And hence it is, that, as to the simple power of producing vocal sound—which is as it were the organ or instrument of the soul's faculties of knowledge or volition—as to this vocal power, I say, man seems to possess it from nature, in like manner as irrational animals; but as to the power of using significantly nouns or verbs, or sentences combining these, (which are not natural but positive,) this he possesses by way of peculiar eminence; because he alone of all mortal beings partakes of a soul which can move itself, and operate to the production of arts. So that, even in the utterance of sounds, the inventive power of the mind is discerned; as the various elegant compositions, both in metre, and without metre, abundantly prove."—Ammon. de Interpr., p. 51.[21]

9. Man was made for society; and from the first period of human existence the race were social. Monkish seclusion is manifestly unnatural; and the wild independence of the savage, is properly denominated a state of nature, only in contradistinction to that state in which the arts are cultivated. But to civilized life, or even to that which is in any degree social, language is absolutely necessary. There is therefore no danger that the language of any nation shall fall into disuse, till the people by whom it is spoken, shall either adopt some other, or become themselves extinct. When the latter event occurs, as is the case with the ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, the language, if preserved at all from oblivion, becomes the more permanent; because the causes which are constantly tending to improve or deteriorate every living language, have ceased to operate upon those which are learned only from ancient books. The inflections which now compose the declensions and conjugations of the dead languages, and which indeed have ever constituted the peculiar characteristics of those forms of speech, must remain forever as they are.

10. When a nation changes, its language, as did our forefathers in Britain, producing by a gradual amalgamation of materials drawn from various tongues a new one differing from all, the first stages of its grammar will of course be chaotic and rude. Uniformity springs from the steady application of rules; and polish is the work of taste and refinement. We may easily err by following the example of our early writers with more reverence than judgement; nor is it possible for us to do justice to the grammarians, whether early or late, without a knowledge both of the history and of the present state of the science which they profess to teach. I therefore think it proper rapidly to glance at many things remote indeed in time, yet nearer to my present purpose, and abundantly more worthy of the student's consideration, than a thousand matters which are taught for grammar by the authors of treatises professedly elementary.

11. As we have already seen, some have supposed that the formation of the first language must have been very slow and gradual. But of this they offer no proof, and from the pen of inspiration we seem to have testimony against it. Did Adam give names to all the creatures about him, and then allow those names to be immediately forgotten? Did not both he and his family continually use his original nouns in their social intercourse? and how could they use them, without other parts of speech to form them into sentences? Nay, do we not know from the Bible, that on several occasions our prime ancestor expressed himself like an intelligent man, and used all the parts of speech which are now considered necessary? What did he say, when his fit partner, the fairest and loveliest work of God, was presented to him? "This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man." And again: Had he not other words than nouns, when he made answer concerning his transgression: "I heard thy voice in the garden, and I was afraid, because I was naked; and I hid myself?" What is it, then, but a groundless assumption, to make him and his immediate descendants ignorant savages, and to affirm, with Dr. Blair, that "their speech must have been poor and narrow?" It is not possible now to ascertain what degree of perfection the oral communication of the first age exhibited. But, as languages are now known to improve in proportion to the improvement of society in civilization and intelligence, and as we cannot reasonably suppose the first inhabitants of the earth to have been savages, it seems, I think, a plausible conjecture, that the primeval tongue was at least sufficient for all the ordinary intercourse of civilized men, living in the simple manner ascribed to our early ancestors in Scripture; and that, in many instances, human speech subsequently declined far below its original standard.

12. At any rate, let it be remembered that the first language spoken on earth, whatever it was, originated in Eden before the fall; that this "one language," which all men understood until the dispersion, is to be traced, not to the cries of savage hunters, echoed through the wilds and glades where Nimrod planted Babel, but to that eastern garden of God's own planting, wherein grew "every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food;" to that paradise into which the Lord God put the new-created man, "to dress it and to keep it." It was here that Adam and his partner learned to speak, while yet they stood blameless and blessed, entire and wanting nothing; free in the exercise of perfect faculties of body and mind, capable of acquiring knowledge through observation and experience, and also favoured with immediate communications with their Maker. Yet Adam, having nothing which he did not receive, could not originally bring any real knowledge into the world with him, any more than men do now: this, in whatever degree attained, must be, and must always have been, either an acquisition of reason, or a revelation from God. And, according to the understanding of some, even in the beginning, "That was not first which is spiritual, but that which is natural; and afterward that which is spiritual."—1 Cor., xv, 46. That is, the spirit of Christ, the second Adam, was bestowed on the first Adam, after his creation, as the life and the light of the immortal soul. For, "In Him was life, and the life was the light of men," a life which our first parents forfeited and lost on the day of their transgression. "It was undoubtedly in the light of this pure influence that Adam had such an intuitive discerning of the creation, as enabled him to give names to all creatures according to their several natures."—Phipps, on Man, p. 4. A lapse from all this favour, into conscious guilt and misery; a knowledge of good withdrawn, and of evil made too sure; followed the first transgression. Abandoned then in great measure by superhuman aid, and left to contend with foes without and foes within, mankind became what history and observation prove them to have been; and henceforth, by painful experience, and careful research, and cautious faith, and humble docility, must they gather the fruits of knowledge; by a vain desire and false conceit of which, they had forfeited the tree of life. So runs the story

   "Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit
    Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
    Brought death into the world, and all our wo,
    With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
    Restore us, and regain the blissful seat."

13. The analogy of words in the different languages now known, has been thought by many to be sufficiently frequent and clear to suggest the idea of their common origin. Their differences are indeed great; but perhaps not greater, than the differences in the several races of men, all of whom, as revelation teaches, sprung from one common stock. From the same source we learn, that, till the year of the world 1844, "The whole earth was of one language, and of one speech."—Gen., xi, 1.[22] At that period, the whole world of mankind consisted only of the descendants of the eight souls who had been saved in the ark, and so many of the eight as had survived the flood one hundred and eighty-eight years. Then occurred that remarkable intervention of the Deity, in which he was pleased to confound their language; so that they could not understand one an other's speech, and were consequently scattered abroad upon the face of the earth. This, however, in the opinion of many learned men, does not prove the immediate formation of any new languages.

14. But, whether new languages were thus immediately formed or not, the event, in all probability, laid the foundation for that diversity which subsequently obtained among the languages of the different nations which sprung from the dispersion; and hence it may be regarded as the remote cause of the differences which now exist. But for the immediate origin of the peculiar characteristical differences which distinguish the various languages now known, we are not able with much certainty to account. Nor is there even much plausibility in the speculations of those grammarians who have attempted to explain the order and manner in which the declensions, the moods, the tenses, or other leading features of the languages, were first introduced. They came into use before they could be generally known, and the partial introduction of them could seldom with propriety be made a subject of instruction or record, even if there were letters and learning at hand to do them this honour. And it is better to be content with ignorance, than to form such conjectures as imply any thing that is absurd or impossible. For instance: Neilson's Theory of the Moods, published in the Classical Journal of 1819, though it exhibits ingenuity and learning, is liable to this strong objection; that it proceeds on the supposition, that the moods of English verbs, and of several other derivative tongues, were invented in a certain order by persons, not speaking a language learned chiefly from their fathers, but uttering a new one as necessity prompted. But when or where, since the building of Babel, has this ever happened? That no dates are given, or places mentioned, the reader regrets, but he cannot marvel.

15. By what successive changes, our words in general, and especially the minor parts of speech, have become what we now find them, and what is their original and proper signification according to their derivation, the etymologist may often show to our entire satisfaction. Every word must have had its particular origin and history; and he who in such things can explain with certainty what is not commonly known, may do some service to science. But even here the utility of his curious inquiries may be overrated; and whenever, for the sake of some favourite theory, he ventures into the regions of conjecture, or allows himself to be seduced from the path of practical instruction, his errors are obstinate, and his guidance is peculiarly deceptive. Men fond of such speculations, and able to support them with some show of learning, have done more to unsettle the science of grammar, and to divert ingenious teachers from the best methods of instruction, than all other visionaries put together. Etymological inquiries are important, and I do not mean to censure or discourage them, merely as such; but the folly of supposing that in our language words must needs be of the same class, or part of speech, as that to which they may be traced in an other, deserves to be rebuked. The words the and an may be articles in English, though obviously traceable to something else in Saxon; and a learned man may, in my opinion, be better employed, than in contending that if, though, and although, are not conjunctions, but verbs!

16. Language is either oral or written; the question of its origin has consequently two parts. Having suggested what seemed necessary respecting the origin of speech, I now proceed to that of writing. Sheridan says, "We have in use two kinds of language, the spoken and the written: the one, the gift of God; the other, the invention of man."—Elocution, p. xiv. If this ascription of the two things to their sources, were as just as it is clear and emphatical, both parts of our question would seem to be resolved. But this great rhetorician either forgot his own doctrine, or did not mean what he here says. For he afterwards makes the former kind of language as much a work of art, as any one will suppose the latter to have been. In his sixth lecture, he comments on the gift of speech thus: "But still we are to observe, that nature did no more than furnish the power and means; she did not give the language, as in the case of the passions, but left it to the industry of men, to find out and agree upon such articulate sounds, as they should choose to make the symbols of their ideas."—Ib., p. 147. He even goes farther, and supposes certain tones of the voice to be things invented by man: "Accordingly, as she did not furnish the words, which were to be the symbols of his ideas; neither did she furnish the tones, which were to manifest, and communicate by their own virtue, the internal exertions and emotions, of such of his nobler faculties, as chiefly distinguish him from the brute species; but left them also, like words, to the care and invention of man."—Ibidem. On this branch of the subject, enough has already been presented.

17. By most authors, alphabetic writing is not only considered an artificial invention, but supposed to have been wholly unknown in the early ages of the world. Its antiquity, however, is great. Of this art, in which the science of grammar originated, we are not able to trace the commencement. Different nations have claimed the honour of the invention; and it is not decided, among the learned, to whom, or to what country, it belongs. It probably originated in Egypt. For, "The Egyptians," it is said, "paid divine honours to the Inventor of Letters, whom they called Theuth: and Socrates, when he speaks of him, considers him as a god, or a god-like man."—British Gram., p. 32. Charles Bucke has it, "That the first inventor of letters is supposed to have been Memnon; who was, in consequence, fabled to be the son of Aurora, goddess of the morning."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 5. The ancients in general seem to have thought Phoenicia the birthplace of Letters:

   "Phoenicians first, if ancient fame be true,
    The sacred mystery of letters knew;
    They first, by sound, in various lines design'd,
    Express'd the meaning of the thinking mind;
    The power of words by figures rude conveyed,
    And useful science everlasting made."
                            Rowe's Lucan, B. iii, l. 334.

18. Some, however, seem willing to think writing coeval with speech. Thus Bicknell, from Martin's Physico-Grammatical Essay: "We are told by Moses, that Adam gave names to every living creature;[23] but how those names were written, or what sort of characters he made use of, is not known to us; nor indeed whether Adam ever made use of a written language at all; since we find no mention made of any in the sacred history."—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 5. A certain late writer on English grammar, with admirable flippancy, cuts this matter short, as follows,—satisfying himself with pronouncing all speech to be natural, and all writing artificial: "Of how many primary kinds is language? It is of two kinds; natural or spoken, and artificial or written."—Oliver B. Peirce's Gram., p. 15. "Natural language is, to a limited extent, (the representation of the passions,) common to brutes as well as man; but artificial language, being the work of invention, is peculiar to man."—Ib., p. 16.[24]

19. The writings delivered to the Israelites by Moses, are more ancient than any others now known. In the thirty-first chapter of Exodus, it is said, that God "gave unto Moses, upon Mount Sinai, two tables of testimony, tables of stone, written with the finger of God." And again, in the thirty-second: "The tables were the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God, graven upon the tables." But these divine testimonies, thus miraculously written, do not appear to have been the first writing; for Moses had been previously commanded to write an account of the victory over Amalek, "for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua."—Exod., xvii, 14. This first battle of the Israelites occurred in Rephidim, a place on the east side of the western gulf of the Red Sea, at or near Horeb, but before they came to Sinai, upon the top of which, (on the fiftieth day after their departure from Egypt,) Moses received the ten commandments of the law.

20. Some authors, however, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, suppose that in this instance the order of the events is not to be inferred from the order of the record, or that there is room to doubt whether the use of letters was here intended; and that there consequently remains a strong probability, that the sacred Decalogue, which God himself delivered to Moses on Sinai, A. M. 2513, B. C. 1491, was "the first writing in alphabetical characters ever exhibited to the world." See Clarke's Succession of Sacred Literature, Vol. i, p. 24. Dr. Scott, in his General Preface to the Bible, seems likewise to favour the same opinion. "Indeed," says he, "there is some probability in the opinion, that the art of writing was first communicated by revelation, to Moses, in order to perpetuate, with certainty, those facts, truths, and laws, which he was employed to deliver to Israel. Learned men find no traces of literary, or alphabetical, writing, in the history of the nations, till long after the days of Moses; unless the book of Job may be regarded as an exception. The art of expressing almost an infinite variety of sounds, by the interchanges of a few letters, or marks, seems more like a discovery to man from heaven, than a human invention; and its beneficial effects, and almost absolute necessity, for the preservation and communication of true religion, favour the conjecture."—Scott's Preface, p. xiv.

21. The time at which Cadmus, the Phoenician, introduced this art into Greece, cannot be precisely ascertained. There is no reason to believe it was antecedent to the time of Moses; some chronologists make it between two and three centuries later. Nor is it very probable, that Cadmus invented the sixteen letters of which he is said to have made use. His whole story is so wild a fable, that nothing certain can be inferred from it. Searching in vain for his stolen sister—his sister Europa, carried off by Jupiter—he found a wife in the daughter of Venus! Sowing the teeth of a dragon, which had devoured his companions, he saw them spring up to his aid a squadron of armed soldiers! In short, after a series of wonderful achievements and bitter misfortunes, loaded with grief and infirm with age, he prayed the gods to release him from the burden of such a life; and, in pity from above, both he and his beloved Hermíonè were changed into serpents! History, however, has made him generous amends, by ascribing to him the invention of letters, and accounting him the worthy benefactor to whom the world owes all the benefits derived from literature. I would not willingly rob him of this honour. But I must confess, there is no feature of the story, which I can conceive to give any countenance to his claim; except that as the great progenitor of the race of authors, his sufferings correspond well with the calamities of which that unfortunate generation have always so largely partaken.

22. The benefits of this invention, if it may be considered an invention, are certainly very great. In oral discourse the graces of elegance are more lively and attractive, but well-written books are the grand instructors of mankind, the most enduring monuments of human greatness, and the proudest achievements of human intellect. "The chief glory of a nation," says Dr. Johnson, "arises from its authors." Literature is important, because it is subservient to all objects, even those of the very highest concern. Religion and morality, liberty and government, fame and happiness, are alike interested in the cause of letters. It was a saying of Pope Pius the Second, that, "Common men should esteem learning as silver, noblemen value it as gold, and princes prize it as jewels." The uses of learning are seen in every thing that is not itself useless.[25] It cannot be overrated, but where it is perverted; and whenever that occurs, the remedy is to be sought by opposing learning to learning, till the truth is manifest, and that which is reprehensible, is made to appear so.

23. I have said, learning cannot be overrated, but where it is perverted. But men may differ in their notions of what learning is; and, consequently, of what is, or is not, a perversion of it. And so far as this point may have reference to theology, and the things of God, it would seem that the Spirit of God alone can fully show us its bearings. If the illumination of the Spirit is necessary to an understanding and a reception of scriptural truth, is it not by an inference more erudite than reasonable, that some great men have presumed to limit to a verbal medium the communications of Him who is everywhere His own witness, and who still gives to His own holy oracles all their peculiar significance and authority? Some seem to think the Almighty has never given to men any notion of Himself, except by words. "Many ideas," says the celebrated Edmund Burke, "have never been at all presented to the senses of any men but by words, as God,[26] angels, devils, heaven, and hell, all of which have however a great influence over the passions."—On the Sublime and [the] Beautiful, p. 97. That God can never reveal facts or truths except by words, is a position with which I am by no means satisfied. Of the great truths of Christianity, Dr. Wayland, in his Elements of Moral Science, repeatedly avers, "All these being facts, can never be known, except by language, that is, by revelation."—First Edition, p. 132. Again: "All of them being of the nature of facts, they could be made known to man in no other way than by language."—Ib., p. 136. But it should be remembered, that these same facts were otherwise made known to the prophets; (1 Pet., i, 11;) and that which has been done, is not impossible, whether there is reason to expect it again or not. So of the Bible, Calvin says, "No man can have the least knowledge of true and sound doctrine, without having been a disciple of the Scripture."— Institutes, B. i, Ch. 6. Had Adam, Abel, Enoch, Noah, and Abraham, then, no such knowledge? And if such they had, what Scripture taught them? We ought to value the Scriptures too highly to say of them any thing that is unscriptural. I am, however, very far from supposing there is any other doctrine which can be safely substituted for the truths revealed of old, the truths contained in the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments:

   "Left only in those written records pure,
    Though not but by the Spirit understood." [27]—Milton.

CHAPTER V.

OF THE POWER OF LANGUAGE.

"Quis huic studio literarum, quod profitentur ii, qui grammatici vocantur, penitus se dedidit, quin omnem illarum artium pæne infinitam vim et materiam scientiæ cogitatione comprehenderit?"—CICERO. De Oratore, Lib. i, 3.

1. The peculiar power of language is another point worthy of particular consideration. The power of an instrument is virtually the power of him who wields it; and, as language is used in common, by the wise and the foolish, the mighty and the impotent, the candid and the crafty, the righteous and the wicked, it may perhaps seem to the reader a difficult matter, to speak intelligibly of its peculiar power. I mean, by this phrase, its fitness or efficiency to or for the accomplishment of the purposes for which it is used. As it is the nature of an agent, to be the doer of something, so it is the nature of an instrument, to be that with which something is effected. To make signs, is to do something, and, like all other actions, necessarily implies an agent; so all signs, being things by means of which other things are represented, are obviously the instruments of such representation. Words, then, which represent thoughts, are things in themselves; but, as signs, they are relative to other things, as being the instruments of their communication or preservation. They are relative also to him who utters them, as well as to those who may happen to be instructed or deceived by them. "Was it Mirabeau, Mr. President, or what other master of the human passions, who has told us that words are things? They are indeed things, and things of mighty influence, not only in addresses to the passions and high-wrought feelings of mankind, but in the discussion of legal and political questions also; because a just conclusion is often avoided, or a false one reached, by the adroit substitution of one phrase or one word for an other."—Daniel Webster, in Congress, 1833.

2. To speak, is a moral action, the quality of which depends upon the motive, and for which we are strictly accountable. "But I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement; for by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned."—Matt., xii, 36, 37. To listen, or to refuse to listen, is a moral action also; and there is meaning in the injunction, "Take heed what ye hear."—Mark, iv, 24. But why is it, that so much of what is spoken or written, is spoken or written in vain? Is language impotent? It is sometimes employed for purposes with respect to which it is utterly so; and often they that use it, know not how insignificant, absurd, or ill-meaning a thing they make of it. What is said, with whatever inherent force or dignity, has neither power nor value to him who does not understand it;[28] and, as Professor Duncan observes, "No word can be to any man the sign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a real existence in his mind."—Logic, p. 62. In instruction, therefore, speech ought not to be regarded as the foundation or the essence of knowledge, but as the sign of it; for knowledge has its origin in the power of sensation, or reflection, or consciousness, and not in that of recording or communicating thought. Dr. Spurzheim was not the first to suggest, "It is time to abandon the immense error of supposing that words and precepts are sufficient to call internal feelings and intellectual faculties into active exercise."—Spurzheim's Treatise on Education, p. 94.

3. But to this it may be replied, When God wills, the signs of knowledge are knowledge; and words, when he gives the ability to understand them, may, in some sense, become—"spirit and life." See John, vi, 63. Where competent intellectual faculties exist, the intelligible signs of thought do move the mind to think; and to think sometimes with deep feelings too, whether of assent or dissent, of admiration or contempt. So wonderful a thing is a rational soul, that it is hard to say to what ends the language in which it speaks, may, or may not, be sufficient. Let experience determine. We are often unable to excite in others the sentiments which we would: words succeed or fail, as they are received or resisted. But let a scornful expression be addressed to a passionate man, will not the words "call internal feelings" into action? And how do feelings differ from thoughts?[29] Hear Dr. James Rush: "The human mind is the place of representation of all the existences of nature which are brought within the scope of the senses. The representatives are called ideas. These ideas are the simple passive pictures of things, or [else] they exist with an activity, capable of so affecting the physical organs as to induce us to seek the continuance of that which produces them, or to avoid it. This active or vivid class of ideas comprehends the passions. The functions of the mind here described, exist then in different forms and degrees, from the simple idea, to the highest energy of passion: and the terms, thought, sentiment, emotion, feeling, and passion, are but the verbal signs of these degrees and forms. Nor does there appear to be any line of classification, for separating thought from passion: since simple thoughts, without changing their nature, do, from interest or incitement, often assume the colour of passion."—Philosophy of the Human Voice, p. 328.

4. Lord Kames, in the Appendix to his Elements of Criticism, divides the senses into external and internal, defining perception to be the act by which through the former we know outward objects, and consciousness the act by which through the latter we know what is within the mind. An idea, according to his definition, (which he says is precise and accurate,) is, "That perception of a real object which is raised in the mind by the power of memory." But among the real objects from which memory may raise ideas, he includes the workings of the mind itself, or whatever we remember of our former passions, emotions, thoughts, or designs. Such a definition, he imagines, might have saved Locke, Berkley, and their followers, from much vain speculation; for with the ideal systems of these philosophers, or with those of Aristotle and Des Cartes, he by no means coincides. This author says, "As ideas are the chief materials employed in reasoning and reflecting, it is of consequence that their nature and differences be understood. It appears now that ideas may be distinguished into three kinds: first, Ideas derived from original perceptions, properly termed ideas of memory; second, Ideas communicated by language or other signs; and third, Ideas of imagination. These ideas differ from each other in many respects; but chiefly in respect to their proceeding from different causes. The first kind is derived from real existences that have been objects of our senses; language is the cause of the second, or any other sign that has the same power with language; and a man's imagination is to himself the cause of the third. It is scarce [ly] necessary to add, that an idea, originally of imagination, being conveyed to others by language or any other vehicle, becomes in their mind an idea of the second kind; and again, that an idea of this kind, being afterwards recalled to the mind, becomes in that circumstance an idea of memory."—El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 384.

5. Whether, or how far, language is to the mind itself the instrument of thought, is a question of great importance in the philosophy of both. Our literature contains occasional assertions bearing upon this point, but I know of no full or able discussion of it.[30] Cardell's instructions proceed upon the supposition, that neither the reason of men, nor even that of superior intelligences, can ever operate independently of words. "Speech," says he, "is to the mind what action is to animal bodies. Its improvement is the improvement of our intellectual nature, and a duty to God who gave it."—Essay on Language, p. 3. Again: "An attentive investigation will show, that there is no way in which the individual mind can, within itself, to any extent, combine its ideas, but by the intervention of words. Every process of the reasoning powers, beyond the immediate perception of sensible objects, depends on the structure of speech; and, in a great degree, according to the excellence of this chief instrument of all mental operations, will be the means of personal improvement, of the social transmission of thought, and the elevation of national character. From this, it may be laid down as a broad principle, that no individual can make great advances in intellectual improvement, beyond the bounds of a ready-formed language, as the necessary means of his progress."—Ib., p. 9. These positions might easily be offset by contrary speculations of minds of equal rank; but I submit them to the reader, with the single suggestion, that the author is not remarkable for that sobriety of judgement which gives weight to opinions.

6. We have seen, among the citations in a former chapter, that Sanctius says, "Names are the signs, and as it were the instruments, of things." But what he meant by "instrumenta rerum" is not very apparent. Dr. Adam says, "The principles of grammar may be traced from the progress of the mind in the acquisition of language. Children first express their feelings by motions and gestures of the body, by cries and tears. This is[31] the language of nature, and therefore universal. It fitly represents[32] the quickness of sentiment and thought, which are as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye. Hence we always express our stronger feelings by these natural signs. But when we want to make known to others the particular conceptions of the mind, we must represent them by parts, we must divide and analyze them. We express each part by certain signs,[33] and join these together, according to the order of their relations. Thus words are both the instrument and signs[34] the division of thought."—Preface to Latin Gram.

7. The utterance of words, or the making of signs of any sort, requires time;[35] but it is here suggested by Dr. Adam, that sentiment and thought, though susceptible of being retained or recalled, naturally flash upon the mind with immeasurable quickness.[36] If so, they must originate in something more spiritual than language. The Doctor does not affirm that words are the instruments of thought, but of the division of thought. But it is manifest, that if they effect this, they are not the only instruments by means of which the same thing may be done. The deaf and dumb, though uninstructed and utterly ignorant of language, can think; and can, by rude signs of their own inventing, manifest a similar division, corresponding to the individuality of things. And what else can be meant by "the division of thought," than our notion of objects, as existing severally, or as being distinguishable into parts? There can, I think, be no such division respecting that which is perfectly pure and indivisible in its essence; and, I would ask, is not simple continuity apt to exclude it from our conception of every thing which appears with uniform coherence? Dr. Beattie says, "It appears to me, that, as all things are individuals, all thoughts must be so too."—Moral Science, Chap, i, Sec. 1. If, then, our thoughts are thus divided, and consequently, as this author infers, have not in themselves any of that generality which belongs to the signification of common nouns, there is little need of any instrument to divide them further: the mind rather needs help, as Cardell suggests, "to combine its ideas." [37]

8. So far as language is a work of art, and not a thing conferred or imposed upon us by nature, there surely can be in it neither division nor union that was not first in the intellect for the manifestation of which it was formed. First, with respect to generalization. "The human mind," says Harris, "by an energy as spontaneous and familiar to its nature, as the seeing of colour is familiar to the eye, discerns at once what in many is one, what in things dissimilar and different is similar and the same."—Hermes, p. 362. Secondly, with respect to division. Mechanical separations are limited: "But the mind surmounts all power of concretion; and can place in the simplest manner every attribute by itself; convex without concave; colour without superficies; superficies without body; and body without its accidents: as distinctly each one, as though they had never been united. And thus it is, that it penetrates into the recesses of all things, not only dividing them as wholes, into their more conspicuous parts, but persisting till it even separate those elementary principles which, being blended together after a more mysterious manner, are united in the minutest part as much as in the mightiest whole."—Harris's Hermes, p. 307.

9. It is remarkable that this philosopher, who had so sublime conceptions of the powers of the human mind, and who has displayed such extraordinary acuteness in his investigations, has represented the formation of words, or the utterance of language, as equalling in speed the progress of our very thoughts; while, as we have seen, an other author, of great name, avers, that thought is "as instantaneous as the impression of light on the eye." Philosophy here too evidently nods. In showing the advantage of words, as compared with pictures, Harris says, "If we consider the ease and speed with which words are formed,-an ease which knows no trouble or fatigue, and a speed which equals the progress of our very thoughts,[38]—we may plainly perceive an answer to the question here proposed, Why, in the common intercourse of men with men, imitations have been rejected, and symbols preferred."—Hermes, p. 336. Let us hear a third man, of equal note: "Words have been called winged; and they well deserve that name, when their abbreviations are compared with the progress which speech could make without these inventions; but, compared with the rapidity of thought, they have not the smallest claim to that title. Philosophers have calculated the difference of velocity between sound and light; but who will attempt to calculate the difference between speech and thought!"—Horne Tooke's Epea Pteroenta, Vol. i, p. 23.

10. It is certain, that, in the admirable economy of the creation, natures subordinate are made, in a wonderful manner, subservient to the operations of the higher; and that, accordingly, our first ideas are such as are conceived of things external and sensible. Hence all men whose intellect appeals only to external sense, are prone to a philosophy which reverses the order of things pertaining to the mind, and tends to materialism, if not to atheism. "But"—to refer again to Harris—"the intellectual scheme which never forgets Deity, postpones every thing corporeal to the primary mental Cause. It is here it looks for the origin of intelligible ideas, even of those which exist in human capacities. For though sensible objects may be the destined medium to awaken the dormant energies of man's understanding, yet are those energies themselves no more contained, in sense, than the explosion of a cannon, in the spark which gave it fire. In short, all minds that are, are similar and congenial; and so too are their ideas, or intelligible forms. Were it otherwise, there could be no intercourse between man and man, or (what is more important) between man and God."—Hermes, p. 393.

11. A doctrine somewhat like this, is found in the Meditations of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, though apparently repugnant to the polytheism commonly admitted by the Stoics, to whom he belonged: "The world, take it all together, is but one; there is but one sort of matter to make it of, one God to govern it, and one law to guide it. For, run through the whole system of rational beings, and you will find reason and truth but single and the same. And thus beings of the same kind, and endued with the same reason, are made happy by the same exercises of it."—Book vii, Sec. 9. Again: "Let your soul receive the Deity as your blood does the air; for the influences of the one are no less vital, than those of the other. This correspondence is very practicable: for there is an ambient omnipresent Spirit, which lies as open and pervious to your mind, as the air you breathe does to your lungs: but then you must remember to be disposed to draw it."—Book viii, Sec. 54; Collier's Translation.

12. Agreeably to these views, except that he makes a distinction between a natural and a supernatural idea of God, we find Barclay, the early defender of the Quakers, in an argument with a certain Dutch nobleman, philosophizing thus: "If the Scripture then be true, there is in men a supernatural idea of God, which altogether differs from this natural idea—I say, in all men; because all men are capable of salvation, and consequently of enjoying this divine vision. Now this capacity consisteth herein, that they have such a supernatural idea in themselves.[39] For if there were no such idea in them, it were impossible they should so know God; for whatsoever is clearly and distinctly known, is known by its proper idea; neither can it otherwise be clearly and distinctly known. For the ideas of all things are divinely planted in our souls; for, as the better philosophy teacheth, they are not begotten in us by outward objects or outward causes, but only are by these outward things excited or stirred up. And this is true, not only in supernatural ideas of God and things divine, and in natural ideas of the natural principles of human understanding, and conclusions thence deduced by the strength of human reason; but even in the ideas of outward objects, which are perceived by the outward senses: as that noble Christian philosopher Boëthius hath well observed; to which also the Cartesian philosophy agreeth." I quote only to show the concurrence of others, with Harris's position. Barclay carries on his argument with much more of a similar import. See Sewell's History, folio, p. 620.

13. But the doctrine of ideas existing primarily in God, and being divinely planted in our souls, did not originate with Boëthius: it may be traced back a thousand years from his time, through the philosophy of Proclus, Zeno, Aristotle,[40] Plato, Socrates, Parmenides, and Pythagoras. It is absurd to suppose any production or effect to be more excellent than its cause. That which really produces motion, cannot itself be inert; and that which actually causes the human mind to think and reason, cannot itself be devoid of intelligence. "For knowledge can alone produce knowledge." [41] A doctrine apparently at variance with this, has recently been taught, with great confidence, among the professed discoveries of Phrenology. How much truth there may be in this new "science," as it is called, I am not prepared to say; but, as sometimes held forth, it seems to me not only to clash with some of the most important principles of mental philosophy, but to make the power of thought the result of that which is in itself inert and unthinking. Assuming that the primitive faculties of the human understanding have not been known in earlier times, it professes to have discovered, in the physical organization of the brain, their proper source, or essential condition, and the true index to their measure, number, and distribution. In short, the leading phrenologists, by acknowledging no spiritual substance, virtually deny that ancient doctrine, "It is not in flesh to think, or bones to reason," [42] and make the mind either a material substance, or a mere mode without substantial being.

14. "The doctrine of immaterial substances," says Dr. Spurzheim, "is not sufficiently amenable to the test of observation; it is founded on belief, and only supported by hypothesis."—Phrenology, Vol. i, p. 20. But it should be remembered, that our notion of material substance, is just as much a matter of hypothesis. All accidents, whether they be qualities or actions, we necessarily suppose to have some support; and this we call substance, deriving the term from the Latin, or hypostasis, if we choose to borrow from the Greek. But what this substance, or hypostasis, is, independently of its qualities or actions, we know not. This is clearly proved by Locke. What do we mean by matter? and what by mind? Matter is that which is solid, extended, divisible, movable, and occupies space. Mind is that which thinks, and wills, and reasons, and remembers, and worships. Here are qualities in the one case; operations in the other. Here are two definitions as totally distinct as any two can be; and he that sees not in them a difference of substance, sees it nowhere: to him all natures are one; and that one, an absurd supposition.

15. In favour of what is urged by the phrenologists, it may perhaps be admitted, as a natural law, that, "If a picture of a visible object be formed upon the retina, and the impression be communicated, by the nerves, to the brain, the result will be an act of perception."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 4. But it does not follow, nor did the writer of this sentence believe, that perception is a mere act or attribute of the organized matter of the brain. A material object can only occasion in our sensible organs a corporeal motion, which has not in it the nature of thought or perception; and upon what principle of causation, shall a man believe, in respect to vision, that the thing which he sees, is more properly the cause of the idea conceived of it, than is the light by which he beholds it, or the mind in which that idea is formed? Lord Kames avers, that, "Colour, which appears to the eye as spread upon a substance, has no existence but in the mind of the spectator."—Elements of Criticism, i, 178. And Cicero placed the perception, not only of colour, but of taste, of sound, of smell, and of touch, in the mind, rather than in the senses. "Illud est album, hoc dulce, canorum illud, hoc bene olens, hoc asperum: animo jam hæc tenemus comprehensa, non sensibus."—Ciceronis Acad. Lib. ii, 7. Dr. Beattie, however, says: "Colours inhere not in the coloured body, but in the light that falls upon it; * * * and the word colour denotes, an external thing, and never a sensation of the mind."—Moral Science, i, 54. Here is some difference of opinion; but however the thing may be, it does not affect my argument; which is, that to perceive or think is an act or attribute of our immaterial substance or nature, and not to be supposed the effect either of the objects perceived or of our own corporeal organization.

16. Divine wisdom has established the senses as the avenues through which our minds shall receive notices of the forms and qualities of external things; but the sublime conception of the ancients, that these forms and qualities had an abstract preëxistence in the divine mind, is a common doctrine of many English authors, as Milton, Cowper, Akenside, and others. For example: "Now if Ens primum be the cause of entia a primo, then he hath the idea of them in him: for he made them by counsel, and not by necessity; for then he should have needed them, and they have a parhelion of that wisdom that is in his Idea."—Richardson's Logic, p. 16: Lond. 1657.

   "Then the Great Spirit, whom his works adore,
    Within his own deep essence view'd the forms,
    The forms eternal of created things."—AKENSIDE.
                    Pleasures of the Imagination, Book i.

    "And in the school of sacred wisdom taught,
    To read his wonders, in whose thought the world,
    Fair as it is, existed ere it was."—COWPER.
                    Task: Winter Morning Walk, p. 150.

    "Thence to behold this new-created world,
    The addition of his empire, how it show'd
    In prospect from his throne, how good, how fair,
    Answering his great idea."—MILTON.
                    Paradise Lost, Book vii, line 554.

    "Thought shines from God as shines the morn;
    Language from kindling thought is born."
                    ANON.: a Poem in imitation of Coleridge.

17. "Original Truth," [43] says Harris, "having the most intimate connection with the Supreme Intelligence, may be said (as it were) to shine with unchangeable splendor, enlightening throughout the universe every possible subject, by nature susceptible of its benign influence. Passions and other obstacles may prevent indeed its efficacy, as clouds and vapours may obscure the sun; but itself neither admits diminution, nor change, because the darkness respects only particular percipients. Among these therefore we must look for ignorance and error, and for that subordination of intelligence which is their natural consequence. Partial views, the imperfections of sense; inattention, idleness, the turbulence of passions; education, local sentiments, opinions, and belief; conspire in many instances to furnish us with ideas, some too partial, and (what is worse than all this) with many that are erroneous, and contrary to truth. These it behoves us to correct as far as possible, by cool suspense and candid examination. Thus by a connection perhaps little expected, the cause of Letters, and that of Virtue, appear to coincide; it being the business of both, to examine our ideas, and to amend them by the standard of nature and of truth."—See Hermes, p. 406.

18. Although it seems plain from our own consciousness, that the mind is an active self-moving principle or essence, yet capable of being moved, after its own manner, by other causes outward as well as inward; and although it must be obvious to reflection, that all its ideas, perceptions, and emotions, are, with respect to itself, of a spiritual nature—bearing such a relation to the spiritual substance in which alone they appear, as bodily motion is seen to bear to material substances; yet we know, from experience and observation, that they who are acquainted with words, are apt to think in words—that is, mentally to associate their internal conceptions with the verbal signs which they have learned to use. And though I do not conceive the position to be generally true, that words are to the mind itself the necessary instruments of thought, yet, in my apprehension, it cannot well be denied, that in some of its operations and intellectual reaches, the mind is greatly assisted by its own contrivances with respect to language. I refer not now to the communication of knowledge; for, of this, language is admitted to be properly the instrument. But there seem to be some processes of thought, or calculation, in which the mind, by a wonderful artifice in the combination of terms, contrives to prevent embarrassment, and help itself forward in its conceptions, when the objects before it are in themselves perhaps infinite in number or variety.

19. We have an instance of this in numeration. No idea is more obvious or simple than that of unity, or one. By the continual addition of this, first to itself to make two, and then to each higher combination successively, we form a series of different numbers, which may go on to infinity. In the consideration of these, the mind would not be able to go tar without the help of words, and those peculiarly fitted to the purpose. The understanding would lose itself in the multiplicity, were it not aided by that curious concatenation of names, which has been contrived for the several parts of the succession. As far as twelve we make use of simple unrelated terms. Thenceforward we apply derivatives and compounds, formed from these in their regular order, till we arrive at a hundred. This one new word, hundred, introduced to prevent confusion, has nine hundred and ninety-nine distinct repetitions in connexion with the preceding terms, and thus brings us to a thousand. Here the computation begins anew, runs through all the former combinations, and then extends forward, till the word thousand has been used nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand times; and then, for ten hundred thousand, we introduce the new word million. With this name we begin again as before, and proceed till we have used it a million of times, each combination denoting a number clearly distinguished from every other; and then, in like manner, we begin and proceed, with billions, trillions, quadrillions, quintillions, etc., to any extent we please.

20. Now can any one suppose that words are not here, in some true sense, the instruments of thought, or of the intellectual process thus carried on? Were all these different numbers to be distinguished directly by the mind itself, and denominated by terms destitute of this artificial connexion, it may well be doubted whether the greatest genius in the world would ever be able to do what any child may now effect by this orderly arrangement of words; that is, to distinguish exactly the several stages of this long progression, and see at a glance how far it is from the beginning of the series. "The great art of knowledge," says Duncan, "lies in managing with skill the capacity of the intellect, and contriving such helps, as, if they strengthen not its natural powers, may yet expose them to no unnecessary fatigue. When ideas become very complex, and by the multiplicity of their parts grow too unwieldy to be dealt with in the lump, we must ease the view of the mind by taking them to pieces, and setting before it the several portions separately, one after an other. By this leisurely survey we are enabled to take in the whole; and if we can draw it into such an orderly combination as will naturally lead the attention, step by step, in any succeeding consideration of the same idea, we shall have it ever at command, and with a single glance of thought be able to run over all its parts."—Duncan's Logic, p. 37, Hence we may infer the great importance of method in grammar; the particulars of which, as Quintilian says, are infinite.[44]

21. Words are in themselves but audible or visible signs, mere arbitrary symbols, used, according to common practice and consent, as significant of our ideas or thoughts.[45] But so well are they fitted to be made at will the medium of mental conference, that nothing else can be conceived to equal them for this purpose. Yet it does not follow that they who have the greatest knowledge and command of words, have all they could desire in this respect. For language is in its own nature but an imperfect instrument, and even when tuned with the greatest skill, will often be found inadequate to convey the impression with which the mind may labour. Cicero, that great master of eloquence, frequently confessed, or declared, that words failed him. This, however, may be thought to have been uttered as a mere figure of speech; and some may say, that the imperfection I speak of, is but an incident of the common weakness or ignorance of human nature; and that if a man always knew what to say to an other in order to persuade or confute, to encourage or terrify him, he would always succeed, and no insufficiency of this kind would ever be felt or imagined. This also is plausible; but is the imperfection less, for being sometimes traceable to an ulterior source? Or is it certain that human languages used by perfect wisdom, would all be perfectly competent to their common purpose? And if some would be found less so than others, may there not be an insufficiency in the very nature of them all?

22. If there is imperfection in any instrument, there is so much the more need of care and skill in the use of it. Duncan, in concluding his chapter about words as signs of our ideas, says, "It is apparent, that we are sufficiently provided with the means' of communicating our thoughts one to another; and that the mistakes so frequently complained of on this head, are wholly owing to ourselves, in not sufficiently defining the terms we use; or perhaps not connecting them with clear and determinate ideas."—Logic, p. 69. On the other hand, we find that some of the best and wisest of men confess the inadequacy of language, while they also deplore its misuse. But, whatever may be its inherent defects, or its culpable abuses, it is still to be honoured as almost the only medium for the communication of thought and the diffusion of knowledge. Bishop Butler remarks, in his Analogy of Religion, (a most valuable work, though defective in style,) "So likewise the imperfections attending the only method by which nature enables and directs us to communicate our thoughts to each other, are innumerable. Language is, in its very nature, inadequate, ambiguous, liable to infinite abuse, even from negligence; and so liable to it from design, that every man can deceive and betray by it."—Part ii, Chap. 3. Lord Kames, too, seconds this complaint, at least in part: "Lamentable is the imperfection of language, almost in every particular that falls not under external sense. I am talking of a matter exceedingly clear in the perception, and yet I find no small difficulty to express it clearly in words."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. i, p. 86. "All writers," says Sheridan, "seem to be under the influence of one common delusion, that by the help of words alone, they can communicate all that passes in their minds."—Lectures on Elocution, p. xi.

23. Addison also, in apologizing for Milton's frequent use of old words and foreign idioms, says, "I may further add, that Milton's sentiments and ideas were so wonderfully sublime, that it would have been impossible for him to have represented them in their full strength and beauty, without having recourse to these foreign assistances. Our language sunk under him, and was unequal to that greatness of soul which furnished him with such glorious conceptions."—Spectator, No. 297. This, however, Dr. Johnson seems to regard as a mere compliment to genius; for of Milton he says, "The truth is, that both in prose and verse, he had formed his style by a perverse and pedantick principle." But the grandeur of his thoughts is not denied by the critic; nor is his language censured without qualification. "Whatever be the faults of his diction, he cannot want the praise of copiousness and variety: he was master of his language in its full extent; and has selected the melodious words with such diligence, that from his book alone the Art of English Poetry might be learned."— Johnson's Life of Milton: Lives, p. 92. 24. As words abstractly considered are empty and vain, being in their nature mere signs, or tokens, which derive all their value from the ideas and feelings which they suggest; it is evident that he who would either speak or write well, must be furnished with something more than a knowledge of sounds and letters. Words fitly spoken are indeed both precious and beautiful—"like apples of gold in pictures of silver." But it is not for him whose soul is dark, whose designs are selfish, whose affections are dead, or whose thoughts are vain, to say with the son of Amram, "My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distil as the dew; as the small rain upon the tender herb, and as the showers upon the grass."—Deut., xxxii, 2. It is not for him to exhibit the true excellency of speech, because he cannot feel its power. It is not for him, whatever be the theme, to convince the judgement with deductions of reason, to fire the imagination with glowing imagery, or win with graceful words the willing ear of taste. His wisdom shall be silence, when men are present; for the soul of manly language, is the soul that thinks and feels as best becomes a man.

CHAPTER VI.

OF THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

"Non mediocres enim tenebræ in sylva, ubi hæc captanda: neque eon, quo pervenire volumus semitæ tritæ: neque non in tramitibus quædam objecta, quæ euntem retinere possent."—VARRO. De Lingua Latina, Lib. iv, p. 4.

1. In order that we may set a just value upon the literary labours of those who, in former times, gave particular attention to the culture of the English language, and that we may the better judge of the credibility of modern pretensions to further improvements, it seems necessary that we should know something of the course of events through which its acknowledged melioration in earlier days took place. For, in this case, the extent of a man's knowledge is the strength of his argument. As Bacon quotes Aristotle, "Qui respiciunt ad pauca, de facili pronunciant." He that takes a narrow view, easily makes up his mind. But what is any opinion worth, if further knowledge of facts can confute it?

2. Whatsoever is successively varied, or has such a manner of existence as time can affect, must have had both an origin and a progress; and may have also its particular history, if the opportunity for writing it be not neglected. But such is the levity of mankind, that things of great moment are often left without memorial, while the hand of Literature is busy to beguile the world with trifles or with fictions, with fancies or with lies. The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, till the genius of Grammar arise to their rescue, are among those transitory things which unsparing time is ever hurrying away, irrecoverably, to oblivion. Tradition knows not what they were; for of their changes she takes no account. Philosophy tells us, they are resolved into the variable, fleeting breath of the successive generations of those by whom they were spoken; whose kindred fate it was, to pass away unnoticed and nameless, lost in the elements from which they sprung.

3. Upon the history of the English language, darkness thickens as we tread back the course of time. The subject of our inquiry becomes, at every step, more difficult and less worthy. We have now a tract of English literature, both extensive and luminous; and though many modern writers, and no few even of our writers on grammar, are comparatively very deficient in style, it is safe to affirm that the English language in general has never been written or spoken with more propriety and elegance, than it is at the present day. Modern English we read with facility; and that which was good two centuries ago, though considerably antiquated, is still easily understood. The best way, therefore, to gain a practical knowledge of the changes which our language has undergone, is, to read some of our older authors in retrograde order, till the style employed at times more and more remote, becomes in some degree familiar. Pursued in this manner, the study will be less difficult, and the labour of the curious inquirer, which may be suspended or resumed at pleasure, will be better repaid, than if he proceed in the order of history, and attempt at first the Saxon remains.

4. The value of a language as an object of study, depends chiefly on the character of the books which it contains; and, secondarily, on its connexion with others more worthy to be thoroughly known. In this instance, there are several circumstances which are calculated soon to discourage research. As our language took its rise during the barbarism of the dark ages, the books through which its early history must be traced, are not only few and meagre, but, in respect to grammar, unsettled and diverse. It is not to be expected that inquiries of this kind will ever engage the attention of any very considerable number of persons. Over the minds of the reading public, the attractions of novelty hold a much greater influence, than any thing that is to be discovered in the dusk of antiquity. All old books contain a greater or less number of obsolete words, and antiquated modes of expression, which puzzle the reader, and call him too frequently to his glossary. And even the most common terms, when they appear in their ancient, unsettled orthography, are often so disguised as not to be readily recognized.

5. These circumstances (the last of which should be a caution to us against innovations in spelling) retard the progress of the reader, impose a labour too great for the ardour of his curiosity, and soon dispose him to rest satisfied with an ignorance, which, being general, is not likely to expose him to censure. For these reasons, ancient authors are little read; and the real antiquary is considered a man of odd habits, who, by a singular propensity, is led into studies both unfashionable and fruitless—a man who ought to have been born in the days of old, that he might have spoken the language he is so curious to know, and have appeared in the costume of an age better suited to his taste.

6. But Learning is ever curious to explore the records of time, as well as the regions of space; and wherever her institutions flourish, she will amass her treasures, and spread them before her votaries. Difference of languages she easily overcomes; but the leaden reign of unlettered Ignorance defies her scrutiny. Hence, of one period of the world's history, she ever speaks with horror—that "long night of apostasy," during which, like a lone Sibyl, she hid her precious relics in solitary cells, and fleeing from degraded Christendom, sought refuge with the eastern caliphs. "This awful decline of true religion in the world carried with it almost every vestige of civil liberty, of classical literature, and of scientific knowledge; and it will generally be found in experience that they must all stand or fall together."—Hints on Toleration, p. 263. In the tenth century, beyond which we find nothing that bears much resemblance to the English language as now written, this mental darkness appears to have gathered to its deepest obscuration; and, at that period, England was sunk as low in ignorance, superstition, and depravity, as any other part of Europe.

7. The English language gradually varies as we trace it back, and becomes at length identified with the Anglo-Saxon; that is, with the dialect spoken by the Saxons after their settlement in England. These Saxons were a fierce, warlike, unlettered people from Germany; whom the ancient Britons had invited to their assistance against the Picts and Scots. Cruel and ignorant, like their Gothic kindred, who had but lately overrun the Roman empire, they came, not for the good of others, but to accommodate themselves. They accordingly seized the country; destroyed or enslaved the ancient inhabitants; or, more probably, drove the remnant of them into the mountains of Wales. Of Welsh or ancient British words, Charles Bucke, who says in his grammar that he took great pains to be accurate in his scale of derivation, enumerates but one hundred and eleven, as now found in our language; and Dr. Johnson, who makes them but ninety-five, argues from their paucity, or almost total absence, that the Saxons could not have mingled at all with these people, or even have retained them in vassalage.

8. The ancient languages of France and of the British isles are said to have proceeded from an other language yet more ancient, called the Celtic; so that, from one common source, are supposed to have sprung the present Welsh, the present Irish, and the present Highland Scotch.[46] The term Celtic Dr. Webster defines, as a noun, "The language of the Celts;" and, as an adjective, "Pertaining to the primitive inhabitants of the south and west of Europe, or to the early inhabitants of Italy, Gaul, Spain, and Britain." What unity, according to this, there was, or could have been, in the ancient Celtic tongue, does not appear from books, nor is it easy to be conjectured.[47] Many ancient writers sustain this broad application of the term Celtæ or Celts; which, according to Strabo's etymology of it, means horsemen, and seems to have been almost as general as our word Indians. But Cæsar informs us that the name was more particularly claimed by the people who, in his day, lived in France between the Seine and the Garonne, and who by the Romans were called Galli, or Gauls.

9. The Celtic tribes are said to have been the descendants of Gomer, the son of Japhet. The English historians agree that the first inhabitants of their island owed their origin and their language to the Celtæ, or Gauls, who settled on the opposite shore. Julius Cæsar, who invaded Britain about half a century before the Christian era, found the inhabitants ignorant of letters, and destitute of any history but oral tradition. To this, however, they paid great attention, teaching every thing in verse. Some of the Druids, it is said in Cæsar's Commentaries, spent twenty years in learning to repeat songs and hymns that were never committed to writing. These ancient priests, or diviners, are represented as having great power, and as exercising it in some respects beneficially; but their horrid rites, with human sacrifices, provoked the Romans to destroy them. Smollett says, "Tiberius suppressed those human sacrifices in Gaul; and Claudius destroyed the Druids of that country; but they subsisted in Britain till the reign of Nero, when Paulus Suetonius reduced the island of Anglesey, which was the place of their retreat, and overwhelmed them with such unexpected and sudden destruction, that all their knowledge and tradition, conveyed to them in the songs of their predecessors, perished at once."—Smollett's Hist. of Eng., 4to, B. i, Ch. i, §7.

10. The Romans considered Britain a province of their empire, for a period of about five hundred years; but the northern part of the island was never entirely subdued by them, and not till Anno Domini 78, a hundred and thirty-three years after their first invasion of the country, had they completed their conquest of England. Letters and arts, so far at least as these are necessary to the purposes of war or government, the victors carried with them; and under their auspices some knowledge of Christianity was, at a very early period, introduced into Britain. But it seems strange, that after all that is related of their conquests, settlements, cities, fortifications, buildings, seminaries, churches, laws, &c., they should at last have left the Britons in so helpless, degraded, and forlorn a condition. They did not sow among them the seeds of any permanent improvement.

11. The Roman government, being unable to sustain itself at home, withdrew its forces finally from Britain in the year 446, leaving the wretched inhabitants almost as savage as it found them, and in a situation even less desirable. Deprived of their native resources, their ancient independence of spirit, as well as of the laws, customs, institutions, and leaders, that had kept them together under their old dynasties, and now deserted by their foreign protectors, they were apparently left at the mercy of blind fortune, the wretched vicissitudes of which there was none to foresee, none to resist. The glory of the Romans now passed away. The mighty fabric of their own proud empire crumbled into ruins. Civil liberty gave place to barbarism; Christian truth, to papal superstition; and the lights of science were put out by both. The shades of night gathered over all; settling and condensing, "till almost every point of that wide horizon, over which the Sun of Righteousness had diffused his cheering rays, was enveloped in a darkness more awful and more portentous than that which of old descended upon rebellious Pharaoh and the callous sons of Ham."—Hints on Toleration, p. 310.

12. The Saxons entered Britain in the year 449. But what was the form of their language at that time, cannot now be known. It was a dialect of the Gothic or Teutonic; which is considered the parent of all the northern tongues of Europe, except some few of Sclavonian origin. The only remaining monument of the Gothic language is a copy of the Gospels, translated by Ulphilas; which is preserved at Upsal, and called, from its embellishments, the Silver Book. This old work has been three times printed in England. We possess not yet in America all the advantages which may be enjoyed by literary men in the land of our ancestors; but the stores of literature, both ancient and modern, are somewhat more familiar to us, than is there supposed; and the art of printing is fast equalizing, to all nations that cultivate learning, the privilege of drinking at its ancient fountains.

13. It is neither liberal nor just to argue unfavourably of the intellectual or the moral condition of any remote age or country, merely from our own ignorance of it. It is true, we can derive from no quarter a favourable opinion of the state of England after the Saxon invasion, and during the tumultuous and bloody government of the heptarchy. But I will not darken the picture through design. If justice were done to the few names—to Gildas the wise, the memorialist of his country's sufferings and censor of the nation's depravity, who appears a solitary star in the night of the sixth century—to the venerable Bede, the greatest theologian, best scholar, and only historian of the seventh—to Alcuin, the abbot of Canterbury, the luminary of the eighth—to Alfred the great, the glory of the ninth, great as a prince, and greater as a scholar, seen in the evening twilight of an age in which the clergy could not read;—if justice were done to all such, we might find something, even in these dark and rugged times, if not to soften the grimness of the portrait, at least to give greater distinctness of feature.

14. In tracing the history of our language, Dr. Johnson, who does little more than give examples, cites as his first specimen of ancient English, a portion of king [sic—KTH] Alfred's paraphrase in imitation of Boëthius. But this language of Alfred's is not English; but rather, as the learned doctor himself considered it, an example of the Anglo-Saxon in its highest state of purity. This dialect was first changed by admixture with words derived from the Danish and the Norman; and, still being comparatively rude and meagre, afterwards received large accessions from the Latin, the French, the Greek, the Dutch—till, by gradual changes, which the etymologist may exhibit, there was at length produced a language bearing a sufficient resemblance to the present English, to deserve to be called English at this day.

15. The formation of our language cannot with propriety be dated earlier than the thirteenth century. It was then that a free and voluntary amalgamation of its chief constituent materials took place; and this was somewhat earlier than we date the revival of learning. The English of the thirteenth century is scarcely intelligible to the modern reader. Dr. Johnson calls it "a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English;" and says, that Sir John Gower, who wrote in the latter part of the fourteenth century, was "the first of our authors who can be properly said to have written English." Contemporary with Gower, the father of English poetry, was the still greater poet, his disciple Chaucer; who embraced many of the tenets of Wickliffe, and imbibed something of the spirit of the reformation, which was now begun.

16. The literary history of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is full of interest; for it is delightful to trace the progress of great and obvious improvement. The reformation of religion and the revival of learning were nearly simultaneous. Yet individuals may have acted a conspicuous part in the latter, who had little to do with the former; for great learning does not necessarily imply great piety, though, as Dr. Johnson observes, "the Christian religion always implies or produces a certain degree of civility and learning."—Hist. Eng. Lang. before his 4to Dict. "The ordinary instructions of the clergy, both philosophical and religious, gradually fell into contempt, as the Classics superseded the one, and the Holy Scriptures expelled the other. The first of these changes was effected by the early grammarians of Europe; and it gave considerable aid to the reformation, though it had no immediate connexion with that event. The revival of the English Bible, however, completed the work: and though its appearance was late, and its progress was retarded in every possible manner, yet its dispersion was at length equally rapid, extensive, and effectual."—Constable's Miscellany, Vol. xx, p. 75.

17. Peculiar honour is due to those who lead the way in whatever advances human happiness. And, surely, our just admiration of the character of the reformers must be not a little enhanced, when we consider what they did for letters as well as for the church. Learning does not consist in useless jargon, in a multitude of mere words, or in acute speculations remote from practice; else the seventeen folios of St. Thomas Aquinas, the angelical doctor of the thirteenth century, and the profound disputations of his great rival, Duns Scotus the subtle, for which they were revered in their own age, had not gained them the contempt of all posterity. From such learning the lucid reasoning of the reformers delivered the halls of instruction. The school divinity of the middle ages passed away before the presence of that which these men learned from the Bible, as did in a later age the Aristotelian philosophy before that which Bacon drew from nature.

18. Towards the latter part of the fourteenth century, Wickliffe furnished the first entire translation of the Bible into English. In like manner did the Germans, a hundred and fifty years after, receive it in their tongue from the hands of Luther; who says, that at twenty years of age, he himself had not seen it in any language. Wickliffe's English style is elegant for the age in which he lived, yet very different from what is elegant now. This first English translation of the Bible, being made about a hundred years before the introduction of printing into England, could not have been very extensively circulated. A large specimen of it may be seen in Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language. Wickliffe died in 1384. The art of printing was invented about 1440, and first introduced into England, in 1468; but the first printed edition of the Bible in English, was executed in Germany. It was completed, October 5th, 1535.

19. "Martin Luther, about the year 1517, first introduced metrical psalmody into the service of the church, which not only kept alive the enthusiasm of the reformers, but formed a rallying point for his followers. This practice spread in all directions; and it was not long ere six thousand persons were heard singing together at St. Paul's Cross in London. Luther was a poet and musician; but the same talent existed not in his followers. Thirty years afterwards, Sternhold versified fifty-one of the Psalms; and in 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the Psalter. These poetical effusions were chiefly sung to German melodies, which the good taste of Luther supplied: but the Puritans, in a subsequent age, nearly destroyed these germs of melody, assigning as a reason, that music should be so simplified as to suit all persons, and that all may join."—Dr. Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 283.

20. "The schools and colleges of England in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were not governed by a system of education which would render their students very eminent either as scholars or as gentlemen: and the monasteries, which were used as seminaries, even until the reformation, taught only the corrupt Latin used by the ecclesiastics. The time however was approaching, when the united efforts of Stanbridge, Linacre, Sir John Cheke, Dean Colet, Erasmus, William Lily, Roger Ascham, &c., were successful in reviving the Latin tongue in all its purity; and even in exciting a taste for Greek in a nation the clergy of which opposed its introduction with the same vehemence which characterized their enmity to a reformation in religion. The very learned Erasmus, the first who undertook the teaching of the Greek language at Oxford, met with few friends to support him; notwithstanding Oxford was the seat of nearly all the learning in England."—Constable's Miscellany, Vol. xx, p. 146.

21. "The priests preached against it, as a very recent invention of the arch-enemy; and confounding in their misguided zeal, the very foundation of their faith, with the object of their resentment, they represented the New Testament itself as 'an impious and dangerous book,' because it was written in that heretical language. Even after the accession of Henry VIII, when Erasmus, who had quitted Oxford in disgust, returned under his especial patronage, with the support of several eminent scholars and powerful persons, his progress was still impeded, and the language opposed. The University was divided into parties, called Greeks and Trojans, the latter being the strongest, from being favoured by the monks; and the Greeks were driven from the streets, with hisses and other expressions of contempt. It was not therefore until Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey gave it their positive and powerful protection, that this persecuted language was allowed to be quietly studied, even in the institutions dedicated to learning."—Ib., p. 147.

22. These curious extracts are adduced to show the spirit of the times, and the obstacles then to be surmounted in the cause of learning. This popular opposition to Greek, did not spring from a patriotic design to prefer and encourage English literature; for the improvement of this was still later, and the great promoters of it were all of them classical scholars. They wrote in English, not because they preferred it, but because none but those who were bred in colleges, could read any thing else; and, even to this very day, the grammatical study of the English language is shamefully neglected in what are called the higher institutions of learning. In alleging this neglect, I speak comparatively. Every student, on entering upon the practical business of life, will find it of far more importance to him, to be skillful in the language of his own country than to be distinguished for any knowledge which the learned only can appreciate. "Will the greatest Mastership in Greek and Latin, or [the] translating [of] these Languages into English, avail for the Purpose of acquiring an elegant English Style? No—we know just the Reverse from woeful Experience! And, as Mr. Locke and the Spectator observe, Men who have threshed hard at Greek and Latin for ten or eleven years together, are very often deficient in their own Language."—Preface to the British Gram., 8vo, 1784, p. xxi.

23. That the progress of English literature in early times was slow, will not seem wonderful to those who consider what is affirmed of the progress of other arts, more immediately connected with the comforts of life. "Down to the reign of Elizabeth, the greater part of the houses in considerable towns, had no chimneys: the fire was kindled against the wall, and the smoke found its way out as well as it could, by the roof, the door, or the windows. The houses were mostly built of wattling, plastered over with clay; and the beds were only straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow. In this respect, even the king fared no better than his subjects; for, in Henry the Eighth's time, we find directions, 'to examine every night the straw of the king's bed, that no daggers might be concealed therein.' A writer in 1577, speaking of the progress of luxury, mentions three things especially, that were 'marvellously altered for the worse in England;' the multitude of chimneys lately erected, the increase of lodgings, and the exchange of treen platters into pewter, and wooden spoons into silver and tin; and he complains bitterly that oak instead of willow was employed in the building of houses."—REV. ROYAL ROBBINS: Outlines of History, p. 377.

24. Shakspeare appeared in the reign of Elizabeth; outlived her thirteen years; and died in 1616 aged 52. The English language in his hands did not lack power or compass of expression. His writings are now more extensively read, than any others of that age; nor has any very considerable part of his phraseology yet become obsolete. But it ought to be known, that the printers or editors of the editions which are now read, have taken extensive liberty in modernizing his orthography, as well as that of other old authors still popular. How far such liberty is justifiable, it is difficult to say. Modern readers doubtless find a convenience in it. It is very desirable that the orthography of our language should be made uniform, and remain permanent. Great alterations cannot be suddenly introduced; and there is, in stability, an advantage which will counterbalance that of a slow approximation to regularity. Analogy may sometimes decide the form of variable words, but the concurrent usage of the learned must ever be respected, in this, as in every other part of grammar.

25. Among the earliest of the English grammarians, was Ben Jonson, the poet; who died in the year 1637, at the age of sixty-three. His grammar, (which Horne Tooke mistakingly calls "the first as well as the best English grammar,") is still extant, being published in the several editions of his works. It is a small treatise, and worthy of attention only as a matter of curiosity. It is written in prose, and designed chiefly for the aid of foreigners. Grammar is an unpoetical subject, and therefore not wisely treated, as it once very generally was, in verse. But every poet should be familiar with the art, because the formal principles of his own have always been considered as embraced in it. To its poets, too, every language must needs be particularly indebted; because their compositions, being in general more highly finished than works in prose, are supposed to present the language in its most agreeable form. In the preface to the Poems of Edmund Waller, published in 1690, the editor ventures to say, "He was, indeed, the Parent of English Verse, and the first that shewed us our Tongue had Beauty and Numbers in it. Our Language owes more to Him, than the French does to Cardinal Richelieu and the whole Academy. * * * * The Tongue came into His hands a rough diamond: he polished it first; and to that degree, that all artists since him have admired the workmanship, without pretending to mend it."—British Poets, Vol. ii, Lond., 1800: Waller's Poems, p. 4.

26. Dr. Johnson, however, in his Lives of the Poets, abates this praise, that he may transfer the greater part of it to Dryden and Pope. He admits that, "After about half a century of forced thoughts and rugged metre, some advances towards nature and harmony had been already made by Waller and Denham;" but, in distributing the praise of this improvement, he adds, "It may be doubted whether Waller and Denham could have over-born [overborne] the prejudices which had long prevailed, and which even then were sheltered by the protection of Cowley. The new versification, as it was called, may be considered as owing its establishment to Dryden; from whose time it is apparent that English poetry has had no tendency to relapse to its former savageness."—Johnson's Life of Dryden: Lives, p. 206. To Pope, as the translator of Homer, he gives this praise: "His version may be said to have tuned the English tongue; for since its appearance no writer, however deficient in other powers, has wanted melody."—Life of Pope: Lives, p. 567. Such was the opinion of Johnson; but there are other critics who object to the versification of Pope, that it is "monotonous and cloying." See, in Leigh Hunt's Feast of the Poets, the following couplet, and a note upon it:

   "But ever since Pope spoil'd the ears of the town
    With his cuckoo-song verses half up and half down."

27. The unfortunate Charles I, as well as his father James I, was a lover and promoter of letters. He was himself a good scholar, and wrote well in English, for his time: he ascended the throne in 1625, and was beheaded in 1648. Nor was Cromwell himself, with all his religious and military enthusiasm, wholly insensible to literary merit. This century was distinguished by the writings of Milton, Dryden, Waller, Cowley, Denham, Locke, and others; and the reign of Charles II, which is embraced in it, has been considered by some "the Augustan age of English literature." But that honour, if it may well be bestowed on any, belongs rather to a later period. The best works produced in the eighteenth century, are so generally known and so highly esteemed, that it would be lavish of the narrow space allowed to this introduction, to speak particularly of their merits. Some grammatical errors may be found in almost all books; but our language was, in general, written with great purity and propriety by Addison, Swift, Pope, Johnson, Lowth, Hume, Horne, and many other celebrated authors who flourished in the last century. Nor was it much before this period, that the British writers took any great pains to be accurate in the use of their own language;

   "Late, very late, correctness grew our care,
    When the tir'd nation breath'd from civil war."—Pope.

28. English books began to be printed in the early part of the sixteenth century; and, as soon as a taste for reading was formed, the press threw open the flood-gates of general knowledge, the streams of which are now pouring forth, in a copious, increasing, but too often turbid tide, upon all the civilized nations of the earth. This mighty engine afforded a means by which superior minds could act more efficiently and more extensively upon society in general. And thus, by the exertions of genius adorned with learning, our native tongue has been made the polished vehicle of the most interesting truths, and of the most important discoveries; and has become a language copious, strong, refined, and capable of no inconsiderable degree of harmony. Nay, it is esteemed by some who claim to be competent judges, to be the strongest, the richest, the most elegant, and the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of all the languages in the world.

CHAPTER VII.

CHANGES AND SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

"Quot enim verba, et nonnunquam in deterius, hoc, quo vivimus, sæculo, partim aliqâ, partim nullâ necessitate cogente, mutata sunt?"—ROB. AINSWORTH: Lat. Dict., 4to; Præf., p. xi.

1. In the use of language, every one chooses his words from that common stock which he has learned, and applies them in practice according to his own habits and notions. If the style of different writers of the same age is various, much greater is the variety which appears in the productions of different ages. Hence the date of a book may often be very plausibly conjectured from the peculiarities of its style. As to what is best in itself, or best adapted to the subject in hand, every writer must endeavour to become his own judge. He who, in any sort of composition, would write with a master's hand, must first apply himself to books with a scholar's diligence. He must think it worth his while to inform himself, that he may be critical. Desiring to give the student all the advantage, entertainment, and satisfaction, that can be expected from a work of this kind, I shall subjoin a few brief specimens in illustration of what has been said in the foregoing chapter. The order of time will be followed inversely; and, as Saxon characters are not very easily obtained, or very apt to be read, the Roman letters will be employed for the few examples to which the others would be more appropriate. But there are some peculiarities of ancient usage in English, which, for the information of the young reader, it is proper in the first place to explain.

2. With respect to the letters, there are several changes to be mentioned. (1.) The pages of old books are often crowded with capitals: it was at one time the custom to distinguish all nouns, and frequently verbs, or any other important words, by heading them with a great letter. (2.) The letter Ess, of the lower case, had till lately two forms, the long and the short, as [tall-s] and s; the former very nearly resembling the small f, and the latter, its own capital. The short s was used at the end of words, and the long [tall-s], in other places; but the latter is now laid aside, in favour of the more distinctive form. (3.) The letters I and J were formerly considered as one and the same. Hence we find hallelujah for halleluiah, Iohn for John, iudgement for judgement, &c. And in many dictionaries, the words beginning with J are still mixed with those which begin with I. (4.) The letters U and V were mixed in like manner, and for the same reason; the latter being a consonant power given to the former, and at length distinguished from it by a different form. Or rather, the figure of the capital seems to have been at last appropriated to the one, and that of the small letter to the other. But in old books the forms of these two letters are continually confounded or transposed. Hence it is, that our Double-u is composed of two Vees; which, as we see in old books, were sometimes printed separately: as, VV, for W; or vv, for w.

3. The orthography of our language, rude and unsettled as it still is in many respects, was formerly much more variable and diverse. In books a hundred years old or more, we often find the most common words spelled variously by the same writer, and even upon the very same page. With respect to the forms of words, a few particulars may here be noticed: (1.) The article an, from which the n was dropped before words beginning with a consonant sound, is often found in old books where a would be more proper; as, an heart, an help, an hill, an one, an use. (2.) Till the seventeenth century, the possessive case was written without the apostrophe; being formed at different times, in es, is, ys, or s, like the plural; and apparently without rule or uniformity in respect to the doubling of the final consonant: as Goddes, Godes, Godis, Godys, or Gods, for God's; so mannes, mannis, mannys or mans, for man's. Dr. Ash, whose English Grammar was in some repute in the latter part of the eighteenth century, argued against the use of the apostrophe, alleging that it was seldom used to distinguish the possessive case till about the beginning of that century; and he then prophesied that the time would come, when correct writers would lay it aside again, as a strange corruption, an improper "departure from the original formation" of that case of English nouns. And, among the speculations of these latter days, I have somewhere seen an attempt to disparage this useful sign, and explode it, as an unsightly thing never well established. It does not indeed, like a syllabic sign, inform the ear or affect the sound; but still it is useful, because it distinguishes to the eye, not only the case, but the number, of the nouns thus marked. Pronouns, being different in their declension, do not need it, and should therefore always be written without it.

4. The common usage of those who have spoken English, has always inclined rather to brevity than to melody; contraction and elision of the ancient terminations of words, constitute no small part of the change which has taken place, or of the difference which perhaps always existed between the solemn and the familiar style. In respect to euphony, however, these terminations have certainly nothing to boast; nor does the earliest period of the language appear to be that in which they were the most generally used without contraction. That degree of smoothness of which the tongue was anciently susceptible, had certainly no alliance with these additional syllables. The long sonorous endings which constitute the declensions and conjugations of the most admired languages, and which seem to chime so well with the sublimity of the Greek, the majesty of the Latin, the sweetness of the Italian, the dignity of the Spanish, or the polish of the French, never had any place in English. The inflections given to our words never embraced any other vowel power than that of the short e or i; and even, this we are inclined to dispense with, whenever we can; so that most of our grammatical inflections are, to the ear, nothing but consonants blended with the final syllables of the words to which they are added. Ing for the first participle, er for the comparative degree, and est for the superlative, are indeed added as whole syllables; but the rest, as d or ed for preterits and perfect participles, s or es for the plural number of nouns, or for the third person singular of verbs, and st or est for the second person singular of verbs, nine times in ten, fall into the sound or syllable with which the primitive word terminates. English verbs, as they are now commonly used, run through their entire conjugation without acquiring a single syllable from inflection, except sometimes when the sound of d, s, or st cannot be added to them.

5. This simplicity, so characteristic of our modern English, as well as of the Saxon tongue, its proper parent, is attended with advantages that go far to compensate for all that is consequently lost in euphony, or in the liberty of transposition. Our formation of the moods and tenses, by means of a few separate auxiliaries, all monosyllabic, and mostly without inflection, is not only simple and easy, but beautiful, chaste, and strong. In my opinion, our grammarians have shown far more affection for the obsolete or obsolescent terminations en, eth, est, and edst, than they really deserve. Till the beginning of the sixteenth century, en was used to mark the plural number of verbs, as, they sayen for they say; after which, it appears to have been dropped. Before the beginning of the seventeenth century, s or es began to dispute with th or eth the right of forming the third person singular of verbs; and, as the Bible and other grave books used only the latter, a clear distinction obtained, between the solemn and the familiar style, which distinction is well known at this day. Thus we have, He runs, walks, rides, reaches, &c., for the one; and, He runneth, walketh, rideth, reacheth, &c., for the other. About the same time, or perhaps earlier, the use of the second person singular began to be avoided in polite conversation, by the substitution of the plural verb and pronoun; and, when used in poetry, it was often contracted, so as to prevent any syllabic increase. In old books, all verbs and participles that were intended to be contracted in pronunciation, were contracted also, in some way, by the writer: as, "call'd, carry'd, sacrific'd;" "fly'st, ascrib'st, cryd'st;" "tost, curst, blest, finisht;" and others innumerable. All these, and such as are like them, we now pronounce in the same way, but usually write differently; as, called, carried, sacrificed; fliest, ascribest, criettst; tossed, cursed, blessed, finished. Most of these topics will be further noticed in the Grammar.

I. ENGLISH OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

6. Queen Victoria's Answer to an Address.—Example written in 1837.

"I thank you for your condolence upon the death of his late Majesty, for the justice which you render to his character, and to the measures of his reign, and for your warm congratulations upon my accession to the throne. I join in your prayers for the prosperity of my reign, the best security for which is to be found in reverence for our holy religion, and in the observance of its duties."—VICTORIA, to the Friends' Society.

7. From President Adams's Eulogy on Lafayette.—Written in 1834.

"Pronounce him one of the first men of his age, and you have yet not done him justice. Try him by that test to which he sought in vain to stimulate the vulgar and selfish spirit of Napoleon; class him among the men who, to compare and seat themselves, must take in the compass of all ages; turn back your eyes upon the records of time; summon from the creation of the world to this day the mighty dead of every age and every clime; and where, among the race of merely mortal men, shall one be found, who, as the benefactor of his kind, shall claim to take precedence of Lafayette?"—JOHN QUINCY ADAMS.

8. From President Jackson's Proclamation against Nullification.—1832.

"No, we have not erred! The Constitution is still the object of our reverence, the bond of our Union, our defence in danger, the source of our prosperity in peace. It shall descend, as we have received it, uncorrupted by sophistical construction, to our posterity: and the sacrifices of local interest, of State prejudices, of personal animosities, that were made to bring it into existence, will again be patriotically offered for its support."—ANDREW JACKSON.

9. From a Note on one of Robert Hall's Sermons.—Written about 1831.

"After he had written down the striking apostrophe which occurs at about page 76 of most of the editions—'Eternal God! on what are thine enemies intent! what are those enterprises of guilt and horror, that, for the safety of their performers, require to be enveloped in a darkness which the eye of Heaven must not penetrate!'—he asked, 'Did I say penetrate, sir, when I preached, it?' 'Yes.' 'Do you think, sir, I may venture to alter it? for no man who considered the force of the English language, would use a word of three syllables there, but from absolute necessity.' 'You are doubtless at liberty to alter it, if you think well.' 'Then be so good, sir, as to take your pencil, and for penetrate put pierce; pierce is the word, sir, and the only word to be used there.'"—OLINTHUS GREGORY.

10. King William's Answer to an Address.—Example written in 1830.

"I thank you sincerely for your condolence with me, on account of the loss which I have sustained, in common with my people, by the death of my lamented brother, his late Majesty. The assurances which you have conveyed to me, of loyalty and affectionate attachment to my person, are very gratifying to my feelings. You may rely upon my favour and protection, and upon my anxious endeavours to promote morality and true piety among all classes of my subjects."—WILLIAM IV, to the Friends.

11. Reign of George IV, 1830 back to 1820.—Example written in 1827.

   "That morning, thou, that slumbered[48] not before,
    Nor slept, great Ocean I laid thy waves to rest,
    And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy. No breath
    Thy deep composure stirred, no fin, no oar;
    Like beauty newly dead, so calm, so still,
    So lovely, thou, beneath the light that fell
    From angel-chariots sentinelled on high,
    Reposed, and listened, and saw thy living change,
    Thy dead arise. Charybdis listened, and Scylla;
    And savage Euxine on the Thracian beach
    Lay motionless: and every battle ship
    Stood still; and every ship of merchandise,
    And all that sailed, of every name, stood still."
                  ROBERT POLLOK: Course of Time, Book VII, line 634-647.

II. ENGLISH OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.

12. Reign of George III, 1820 back to 1760.—Example written in 1800.

"There is, it will be confessed, a delicate sensibility to character, a sober desire of reputation, a wish to possess the esteem of the wise and good, felt by the purest minds, which is at the farthest remove from arrogance or vanity. The humility of a noble mind scarcely dares approve of itself, until it has secured the approbation of others. Very different is that restless desire of distinction, that passion for theatrical display, which inflames the heart and occupies the whole attention of vain men. * * * The truly good man is jealous over himself, lest the notoriety of his best actions, by blending itself with their motive, should diminish their value; the vain man performs the same actions for the sake of that notoriety. The good man quietly discharges his duty, and shuns ostentation; the vain man considers every good deed lost that is not publickly displayed. The one is intent upon realities, the other upon semblances: the one aims to be virtuous, the other to appear so."—ROBERT HALL: Sermon on Modern Infidelity.

13. From Washington's Farewell Address.—Example written in 1796.

"Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, Religion and Morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labour to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and cherish them. A volume could not trace all their connexions with private and publick felicity. Let it simply be asked, where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert the oaths which are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice? And let us with caution indulge the supposition, that morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of a peculiar structure; reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle."—GEORGE WASHINGTON.

14. From Dr. Johnson's Life of Addison.—Example written about 1780.

"That he always wrote as he would think it necessary to write now, cannot be affirmed; his instructions were such as the character of his readers made proper. That general knowledge which now circulates in common talk, was in his time rarely to be found. Men not professing learning, were not ashamed of ignorance; and in the female world, any acquaintance with books was distinguished only to be censured. His purpose was to infuse literary curiosity, by gentle and unsuspected conveyance, into the gay, the idle, and the wealthy; he therefore presented knowledge in the most alluring form, not lofty and austere, but accessible and familiar. When he shewed them their defects, he shewed them likewise that they might easily be supplied. His attempt succeeded; inquiry was awakened, and comprehension expanded. An emulation of intellectual elegance was excited, and from this time to our own, life has been gradually exalted, and conversation purified and enlarged."—SAMUEL JOHNSON: Lives, p. 321.

15. Reign of George II, 1760 back to 1727.—Example written in 1751.

"We Britons in our time have been remarkable borrowers, as our multiform Language may sufficiently shew. Our Terms in polite Literature prove, that this came from Greece; our terms in Music and Painting, that these came from Italy; our Phrases in Cookery and War, that we learnt these from the French; and our phrases in Navigation, that we were taught by the Flemings and Low Dutch. These many and very different Sources of our Language may be the cause, why it is so deficient in Regularity and Analogy. Yet we have this advantage to compensate the defect, that what we want in Elegance, we gain in Copiousness, in which last respect few Languages will be found superior to our own."—JAMES HARRIS: Hermes, Book iii, Ch. v, p. 408.

16. Reign of George I, 1727 back to 1714.—Example written about 1718.

"There is a certain coldness and indifference in the phrases of our European languages, when they are compared with the Oriental forms of speech: and it happens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms ran into the English tongue, with a particular grace and beauty. Our language has received innumerable elegancies and improvements from that infusion of Hebraisms, which are derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy writ. They give a force and energy to our expressions, warm and animate our language, and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases, than any that are to be met with in our tongue."—JOSEPH ADDISON: Evidences, p. 192.

17. Reign of Queen Anne, 1714 to 1702.—Example written in 1708.

   "Some by old words to Fame have made pretence,
    Ancients in phrase, mere moderns in their sense;
    Such labour'd nothings, in so strange a style,
    Amaze th' unlearn'd, and make the learned smile."
    "In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold;
    Alike fantastick, if too new or old:
    Be not the first by whom the new are try'd,
    Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."
                    ALEXANDER POPE: Essay on Criticism, l. 324-336.

III. ENGLISH OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

18. Reign of William III, 1702 to 1689.—Example published in 1700.

"And when we see a Man of Milton's Wit Chime in with such a Herd, and Help on the Cry against Hirelings! We find How Easie it is for Folly and Knavery to Meet, and that they are Near of Kin, tho they bear Different Aspects. Therefor since Milton has put himself upon a Level with the Quakers in this, I will let them go together. And take as little Notice of his Buffoonry, as of their Dulness against Tythes. Ther is nothing worth Quoting in his Lampoon against the Hirelings. But what ther is of Argument in it, is fully Consider'd in what follows."—CHARLES LESLIE: Divine Right of Tithes, Pref., p. xi.

19. Reign of James II, 1689 back to 1685.—Example written in 1685.

      "His conversation, wit, and parts,
    His knowledge in the noblest useful arts,
     Were such, dead authors could not give;
     But habitudes of those who live;
    Who, lighting him, did greater lights receive:
     He drain'd from all, and all they knew;
    His apprehension quick, his judgment true:
     That the most learn'd with shame confess
    His knowledge more, his reading only less."
       JOHN DRYDEN: Ode to the Memory of Charles II; Poems, p. 84.

20. Reign of Charles II, 1685 to 1660.—Example from a Letter to the Earl of Sunderland, dated, "Philadelphia, 28th 5th mo. July, 1683."

"And I will venture to say, that by the help of God, and such noble Friends, I will show a Province in seven years, equal to her neighbours of forty years planting. I have lay'd out the Province into Countys. Six are begun to be seated; they lye on the great river, and are planted about six miles back. The town platt is a mile long, and two deep,—has a navigable river on each side, the least as broad as the Thames at Woolwych, from three to eight fathom water. There is built about eighty houses, and I have settled at least three hundred farmes contiguous to it."—WILLIAM PENN. The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 179.

21. From an Address or Dedication to Charles II.—Written in 1675.

"There is no [other] king in the world, who can so experimentally testify of God's providence and goodness; neither is there any [other], who rules so many free people, so many true Christians: which thing renders thy government more honourable, thyself more considerable, than the accession of many nations filled with slavish and superstitious souls."—ROBERT BARCLAY: Apology, p. viii.

22. The following example, from the commencement of Paradise Lost, first published in 1667, has been cited by several authors, to show how large a proportion of our language is of Saxon origin. The thirteen words in Italics are the only ones in this passage, which seem to have been derived from any other source.

   "Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit
    Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
    Brought death into the world, and all our woe,
    With loss of Eden; till one greater Man
    Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,
    Sing, heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top
    Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
    That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed,
    In the beginning, how the Heav'ns and Earth
    Rose out of Chaos."—MILTON: Paradise Lost, Book I.

23. Examples written during Cromwell's Protectorate, 1660 to 1650.

"The Queene was pleased to shew me the letter, the seale beinge a Roman eagle, havinge characters about it almost like the Greeke. This day, in the afternoone, the vice-chauncellor came to me and stayed about four hours with me; in which tyme we conversed upon the longe debates."—WHITELOCKE. Bucke's Class. Gram., p. 149.

"I am yet heere, and have the States of Holland ingaged in a more than ordnary maner, to procure me audience of the States Generall. Whatever happen, the effects must needes be good."—STRICKLAND: Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 149.

24. Reign of Charles I, 1648 to 1625.—Example from Ben Jonson's Grammar, written about 1634; but the orthography is more modern.

"The second and third person singular of the present are made of the first, by adding est and eth; which last is sometimes shortened into s. It seemeth to have been poetical licence which first introduced this abbreviation of the third person into use; but our best grammarians have condemned it upon some occasions, though perhaps not to be absolutely banished the common and familiar style."

"The persons plural keep the termination of the first person singular. In former times, till about the reign of Henry the eighth, they were wont to be formed by adding en; thus, loven, sayen, complainen. But now (whatever is the cause) it hath quite grown out of use, and that other so generally prevailed, that I dare not presume to set this afoot again: albeit (to tell you my opinion) I am persuaded that the lack hereof well considered, will be found a great blemish to our tongue. For seeing time and person be, as it were, the right and left hand of a verb, what can the maiming bring else, but a lameness to the whole body?"—Book i, Chap. xvi.

25. Reign of James I, 1625 to 1603.—From an Advertisement, dated 1608.

"I svppose it altogether needlesse (Christian Reader) by commending M. VVilliam Perkins, the Author of this booke, to wooe your holy affection, which either himselfe in his life time by his Christian conversation hath woon in you, or sithence his death, the neuer-dying memorie of his excellent knowledge, his great humilitie, his sound religion, his feruent zeale, his painefull labours, in the Church of God, doe most iustly challenge at your hands: onely in one word, I dare be bold to say of him as in times past Nazianzen spake of Athanasius. His life was a good definition of a true minister and preacher of the Gospell."—The Printer to the Reader.

26. Examples written about the end of Elizabeth's reign—1603.

   "Some say, That euer 'gainst that season comes
    Wherein our Saviour's Birth is celebrated,
    The Bird of Dawning singeth all night long;
    And then, say they, no Spirit dares walk abroad:
    The nights are wholsom, then no Planets strike,
    No Fairy takes, nor Witch hath pow'r to charm;
    So hallow'd and so gracious is the time."
                                      SHAKSPEARE: Hamlet.

    "The sea, with such a storme as his bare head
    In hell-blacke night indur'd, would haue buoy'd up
    And quench'd the stelled fires.
    Yet, poore old heart, he holpe the heuens to raine.
    If wolues had at thy gate howl'd that sterne time,
    Thou shouldst haue said, Good porter, turne the key."
                                       SHAKSPEARE: Lear.

IV. ENGLISH OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

27. Reign of Elizabeth, 1603 back to 1558.—Example written in 1592.

"As for the soule, it is no accidentarie qualitie, but a spirituall and inuisible essence or nature, subsisting by it selfe. Which plainely appeares in that the soules of men haue beeing and continuance as well forth of the bodies of men as in the same; and are as wel subiect to torments as the bodie is. And whereas we can and doe put in practise sundrie actions of life, sense, motion, vnderstanding, we doe it onely by the power and vertue of the soule. Hence ariseth the difference betweene the soules of men, and beasts. The soules of men are substances: but the soules of other creatures seeme not to be substances; because they haue no beeing out of the bodies in which they are."—WILLIAM PERKINS: Theol. Works, folio, p. 155.

28. Examples written about the beginning of Elizabeth's reign.—1558.

"Who can perswade, when treason is aboue reason; and mighte ruleth righte; and it is had for lawfull, whatsoever is lustfull; and commotioners are better than commissioners; and common woe is named common weale?"—SIR JOHN CHEKE. "If a yong jentleman will venture him selfe into the companie of ruffians, it is over great a jeopardie, lest their facions, maners, thoughts, taulke, and dedes, will verie sone be over like."—ROGER ASCHAM.

29. Reign of Mary the Bigot, 1558 to 1553.—Example written about 1555.

"And after that Philosophy had spoken these wordes the said companye of the musys poeticall beynge rebukyd and sad, caste downe their countenaunce to the grounde, and by blussyng confessed their shamefastnes, and went out of the dores. But I (that had my syght dull and blynd wyth wepyng, so that I knew not what woman this was hauyng soo great aucthoritie) was amasyd or astonyed, and lokyng downeward, towarde the ground, I began pryvyle to look what thyng she would save ferther."—COLVILLE: Version from Boëthius: Johnson's Hist. of E. L., p. 29.

30. Example referred by Dr. Johnson to the year 1553.

"Pronunciation is an apte orderinge bothe of the voyce, countenaunce, and all the whole bodye, accordynge to the worthinea of such woordes and mater as by speache are declared. The vse hereof is suche for anye one that liketh to haue prayse for tellynge his tale in open assemblie, that hauing a good tongue, and a comelye countenaunce, he shal be thought to passe all other that haue not the like vtteraunce: thoughe they have muche better learning."—DR. WILSON: Johnson's Hist. E. L., p. 45.

31. Reign of Edward VI, 1553 to 1547.—Example written about 1550.

   "Who that will followe the graces manyfolde
    Which are in vertue, shall finde auauncement:
    Wherefore ye fooles that in your sinne are bolde,
    Ensue ye wisdome, and leaue your lewde intent,
    Wisdome is the way of men most excellent:
    Therefore haue done, and shortly spede your pace,
    To quaynt your self and company with grace."
                    ALEXANDER BARCLAY: Johnson's Hist. E. L., p. 44.

32. Reign of Henry VIII, 1547 to 1509.—Example dated 1541.

"Let hym that is angry euen at the fyrste consyder one of these thinges, that like as he is a man, so is also the other, with whom he is angry, and therefore it is as lefull for the other to be angry, as unto hym: and if he so be, than shall that anger be to hym displeasant, and stere hym more to be angrye."—SIR THOMAS ELLIOTT: Castel of Helthe.

33. Example of the earliest English Blank Verse; written about 1540.

The supposed author died in 1541, aged 38. The piece from which these lines are taken describes the death of Zoroas, an Egyptian astronomer, slain in Alexander's first battle with the Persians.

   "The Persians waild such sapience to foregoe;
    And very sone the Macedonians wisht
    He would have lived; king Alexander selfe
    Demde him a man unmete to dye at all;
    Who wonne like praise for conquest of his yre,
    As for stoute men in field that day subdued,
    Who princes taught how to discerne a man,
    That in his head so rare a jewel beares;
    But over all those same Camenes,[49] those same
    Divine Camenes, whose honour he procurde,
    As tender parent doth his daughters weale,
    Lamented, and for thankes, all that they can,
    Do cherish hym deceast, and sett hym free,
    From dark oblivion of devouring death."
                       Probably written by SIR THOMAS WYAT.

34. A Letter written from prison, with a coal. The writer, Sir Thomas More, whose works, both in prose and verse, were considered models of pure and elegant style, had been Chancellor of England, and the familiar confidant of Henry VIII, by whose order he was beheaded in 1535.

"Myne own good doughter, our Lorde be thanked I am in good helthe of bodye, and in good quiet of minde: and of worldly thynges I no more desyer then I haue. I beseche hym make you all mery in the hope of heauen. And such thynges as I somewhat longed to talke with you all, concerning the worlde to come, our Lorde put theim into your myndes, as I truste he doth and better to by hys holy spirite: who blesse you and preserue you all. Written wyth a cole by your tender louing father, who in hys pore prayers forgetteth none of you all, nor your babes, nor your nources, nor your good husbandes, nor your good husbandes shrewde wyues, nor your fathers shrewde wyfe neither, nor our other frendes. And thus fare ye hartely well for lacke of paper. THOMAS MORE, knight."—Johnson's Hist. E. Lang., p. 42.

35. From More's Description of Richard III.—Probably written about 1520.

"Richarde the third sonne, of whom we nowe entreate, was in witte and courage egall with either of them, in bodye and prowesse farre vnder them bothe, little of stature, ill fetured of limmes, croke backed, his left shoulder much higher than his right, hard fauoured of visage, and such as is in states called warlye, in other menne otherwise, he was malicious, wrathfull, enuious, and from afore his birth euer frowarde. * * * Hee was close and secrete, a deep dissimuler, lowlye of counteynaunce, arrogant of heart—dispitious and cruell, not for euill will alway, but after for ambicion, and either for the suretie and encrease of his estate. Frende and foo was muche what indifferent, where his aduauntage grew, he spared no mans deathe, whose life withstoode his purpose. He slew with his owne handes king Henry the sixt, being prisoner in the Tower."—SIR THOMAS MORE: Johnson's History of the English Language, p. 39.

36. From his description of Fortune, written about the year 1500.

   "Fortune is stately, solemne, prowde, and hye:
    And rychesse geueth, to haue seruyce therefore.
    The nedy begger catcheth an half peny:
    Some manne a thousaude pounde, some lesse some more.
    But for all that she kepeth euer in store,
    From euery manne some parcell of his wyll,
    That he may pray therefore and serve her styll.
      Some manne hath good, but chyldren hath he none.
    Some manne hath both, but he can get none health.
    Some hath al thre, but vp to honours trone,
    Can he not crepe, by no maner of stelth.
    To some she sendeth chyldren, ryches, welthe,
    Honour, woorshyp, and reuerence all hys lyfe:
    But yet she pyncheth hym with a shrewde wife."
                                       SIR THOMAS MORE.

V. ENGLISH OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.

37. Example for the reign of Henry VII, who was crowned on Bosworth field, 1485, and who died in 1509.

"Wherefor and forasmoche as we haue sent for our derrest wif, and for our derrest moder, to come unto us, and that we wold have your advis and counsail also in soche matters as we haue to doo for the subduying of the rebelles, we praie you, that, yeving your due attendaunce vppon our said derrest wif and lady moder, ye come with thaym unto us; not failing herof as ye purpose to doo us plaisir. Yeven undre our signett, at our Castell of Kenelworth, the xiii daie of Maye."—HENRY VII: Letter to the Earl of Ormond: Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 147.

38. Example for the short reign of Richard III,—from 1485 to 1483.

"Right reverend fader in God, right trusty and right wel-beloved, we grete yow wele, and wol and charge you that under oure greate seale, being in your warde, ye do make in all haist our lettres of proclamation severally to be directed unto the shirrefs of everie countie within this oure royaume."—RICHARD III: Letter to his Chancellor.

39. Reign of Edward IV,—from 1483 to 1461.—Example written in 1463.

"Forasmoche as we by divers meanes bene credebly enformed and undarstand for certyne, that owr greate adversary Henry, naminge hym selfe kynge of England, by the maliceous counseyle and exitacion of Margaret his wife, namynge hir selfe queane of England, have conspired," &c.—EDWARD IV: Letter of Privy Seal.

40. Examples for the reign of Henry VI,—from 1461 back to 1422.

"When Nembroth [i.e. Nimrod] by Might, for his own Glorye, made and incorporate the first Realme, and subduyd it to hymself by Tyrannye, he would not have it governyd by any other Rule or Lawe, but by his own Will; by which and for th' accomplishment thereof he made it. And therefor, though he had thus made a Realme, holy Scripture denyd to cal hym a Kyng, Quia Rex dicitur a Regendo; Whych thyng he did not, but oppressyd the People by Myght."—SIR JOHN FORTESCUE.

41. Example from Lydgate, a poetical Monk, who died in 1440.

   "Our life here short of wit the great dulnes
    The heuy soule troubled with trauayle,
    And of memorye the glasyng brotelnes,
    Drede and vncunning haue made a strong batail
    With werines my spirite to assayle,
    And with their subtil creping in most queint
    Hath made my spirit in makyng for to feint."
        JOHN LYDGATE: Fall of Princes, Book III, Prol.

42. Example for the reign of Henry V,—from 1422 back to 1413.

"I wolle that the Duc of Orliance be kept stille withyn the Castil of Pontefret, with owte goyng to Robertis place, or to any other disport, it is better he lak his disport then we were disceyved. Of all the remanant dothe as ye thenketh."—Letter of HENRY V.

43. Example for the reign of Henry IV,—from 1413 back to 1400.

"Right heigh and myghty Prynce, my goode and gracious Lorde,—I recommaund me to you as lowly as I kan or may with all my pouer hert, desiryng to hier goode and gracious tydynges of your worshipful astate and welfare."—LORD GREY: Letter to the Prince of Wales: Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 145.

VI. ENGLISH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

44. Reign of Richard II, 1400 back to 1377.—Example written in 1391. "Lytel Lowys my sonne, I perceve well by certaine evidences thyne abylyte to lerne scyences, touching nombres and proporcions, and also well consydre I thy besye prayer in especyal to lerne the tretyse of the astrolabye. Than for as moche as a philosopher saithe, he wrapeth hym in his frende, that condiscendeth to the ryghtfull prayers of his frende: therefore I have given the a sufficient astrolabye for oure orizont, compowned after the latitude of Oxenforde: vpon the whiche by meditacion of this lytell tretise, I purpose to teche the a certame nombre of conclusions, pertainynge to this same instrument."—GEOFFREY CHAUCER: Of the Astrolabe.

45. Example written about 1385—to be compared with that of 1555, on p. 87.

"And thus this companie of muses iblamed casten wrothly the chere dounward to the yerth, and shewing by rednesse their shame, thei passeden sorowfully the thresholde. And I of whom the sight plounged in teres was darked, so that I ne might not know what that woman was, of so Imperial aucthoritie, I woxe all abashed and stonied, and cast my sight doune to the yerth, and began still for to abide what she would doen afterward."—CHAUCER: Version from Boëthius: Johnson's Hist. of E. L., p. 29.

46. Poetical Example—probably written before 1380.

   "O Socrates, thou stedfast champion;
      She ne might nevir be thy turmentour,
    Thou nevir dreddist her oppression,
      Ne in her chere foundin thou no favour,
      Thou knewe wele the disceipt of her colour,
      And that her moste worship is for to lie,
    I knowe her eke a false dissimulour,
      For finally Fortune I doe defie."—CHAUCER.

47. Reign of Edward III, 1377 to 1327.—Example written about 1360.

   "And eke full ofte a littell skare
    Vpon a banke, er men be ware,
    Let in the streme, whiche with gret peine,
    If any man it shall restreine.
    Where lawe failleth, errour groweth;
    He is not wise, who that ne troweth."—SIR JOHN GOWER.

48. Example from Mandeville, the English traveller—written in 1356.

"And this sterre that is toward the Northe, that wee clepen the lode sterre, ne apperethe not to hem. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the lond and the see ben of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of the firmament schewethe in o contree, that schewethe not in another contree. And men may well preven be experience and sotyle compassement of wytt, that zif a man fond passages be schippes, that wolde go to serchen the world, men mighte go be schippe all aboute the world, and aboven and benethen. The whiche thing I prove thus, aftre that I have seyn. * * * Be the whiche I seye zou certeynly, that men may envirowne alle the erthe of alle the world, as wel undre as aboven, and turnen azen to his contree, that hadde companye and schippynge and conduyt: and alle weyes he scholde fynde men, londes, and yles, als wel as in this contree."—SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE; Johnson's Hist. of E. L., p. 26.

49. Example from Rob. Langland's "Vision of Pierce Ploughman," 1350.

   "In the somer season,
    When hot was the Sun,
    I shope me into shroubs,
    As I a shepe were;
    In habit as an harmet,
    Vnholy of werkes,
    Went wyde in this world
    Wonders to heare."

50. Description of a Ship—referred to the reign of Edward II: 1327-1307.

   "Such ne saw they never none,
    For it was so gay begone,
    Every nayle with gold ygrave,
    Of pure gold was his sklave,
    Her mast was of ivory,
    Of samyte her sayle wytly,
    Her robes all of whyte sylk,
    As whyte as ever was ony mylke.
    The noble ship was without
    With clothes of gold spread about
    And her loft and her wyndlace
    All of gold depaynted was."
        ANONYMOUS: Bucke's Gram., p. 143.

51. From an Elegy on Edward I, who reigned till 1307 from 1272.

   "Thah mi tonge were made of stel,
      Ant min herte yzote of bras,
    The goodness myht y never telle,
      That with kyng Edward was:
    Kyng, as thou art cleped conquerour,
      In uch battaille thou hadest prys;
    God bringe thi soule to the honour,
      That ever wes ant ever ys.
    Now is Edward of Carnavan
      Kyng of Engelond al aplyght;
    God lete him never be worse man
      Then his fader, ne lasse myht,
    To holden his pore men to ryht,
      Ant understonde good counsail,
    Al Engelond for to wysse and dyht;
      Of gode knyhtes darh him nout fail."
        ANON.: Percy's Reliques, Vol. ii, p. 10.

VII. ENGLISH OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.

52. Reign of Henry III, 1272 to 1216.—Example from an old ballad entitled Richard of Almaigne; which Percy says was "made by one of the adherents of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, soon after the battle of Lewes, which was fought, May 14, 1264."—Percy's Reliques, Vol. ii.

   "Sitteth alle stille, and herkneth to me;
    The kyng of Almaigne, bi mi leaute,
    Thritti thousent pound askede he
    For te make the pees in the countre,
          Ant so he dude more.
      Richard, thah thou be ever trichard,
          Trichten shalt thou never more."

53. In the following examples, I substitute Roman letters for the Saxon. At this period, we find the characters mixed. The style here is that which Johnson calls "a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English." Of these historical rhymes, by Robert of Gloucester, the Doctor gives us more than two hundred lines; but he dates them no further than to say, that the author "is placed by the criticks in the thirteenth century."—Hist. of Eng. Lang., p. 24.

   "Alfred thys noble man, as in the ger of grace he nom
    Eygte hondred and syxty and tuelue the kyndom.
    Arst he adde at Rome ybe, and, vor ys grete wysdom,
    The pope Leo hym blessede, tho he thuder com,
    And the kynges croune of hys lond, that in this lond gut ys:
    And he led hym to be kyng, ar he kyng were y wys.
    An he was kyng of Engelond, of alle that ther come,
    That vorst thus ylad was of the pope of Rome,
    An suththe other after hym of the erchebyssopes echon."

    "Clere he was god ynou, and gut, as me telleth me,
    He was more than ten ger old, ar he couthe ys abece.
    Ac ys gode moder ofte smale gyftes hym tok,
    Vor to byleue other pie, and loky on ys boke.
    So that by por clergye ys rygt lawes he wonde,
    That neuere er nere y mad to gouerny ys lond."
             ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER: Johnson's Hist. of E. L., p. 25.

54. Reign of John, 1216 back to 1199.—Subject of Christ's Crucifixion.

   "I syke when y singe for sorewe that y se
    When y with wypinge bihold upon the tre,
    Ant se Jhesu the suete ys hert blod for-lete
                           For the love of me;
    Ys woundes waxen wete, thei wepen, still and mete,
                           Marie reweth me."
                               ANON.: Bucke's Gram., p. 142.

VIII. ENGLISH, OR ANGLO-SAXON, OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY.

55. Reign of Richard I, 1199 back to 1189.—Owl and Nightingale.

   "Ich was in one sumere dale,
    In one snive digele pale,
    I herde ich hold grete tale,
    An hule and one nightingale.
    That plait was stif I stare and strong,
    Sum wile softe I lud among.
    An other again other sval
    I let that wole mod ut al.
    I either seide of otheres custe,
    That alere worste that hi wuste
    I hure and I hure of others songe
    Hi hold plaidung futhe stronge."
             ANON.: Bucke's Gram., p. 142.

56. Reign of Henry II, 1189 back to 1154.—Example dated 1180.

   "And of alle than folke
    The wuneden ther on folde,
    Wes thisses landes folke
    Leodene hendest itald;
    And alswa the wimmen
    Wunliche on heowen."
              GODRIC: Bucke's Gram., p. 141.

57. Example from the Saxon Chronicle, written about 1160.

"Micel hadde Henri king gadered gold & syluer, and na god ne dide me for his saule thar of. Tha the king Stephne to Engla-land com, tha macod he his gadering æt Oxene-ford, & thar he nam the biscop Roger of Seres-beri, and Alexander biscop of Lincoln, & te Canceler Roger hife neues, & dide ælle in prisun, til hi jafen up here castles. Tha the suikes undergæton that he milde man was & softe & god, & na justise ne dide; tha diden hi alle wunder." See Johnson's Hist. of the Eng. Language, p. 22.

58. Reign of Stephen, 1154 to 1135.—Example written about this time.

   "Fur in see bi west Spaygne.
    Is a lond ihone Cokaygne.
    There nis lond under heuenriche.
    Of wel of godnis hit iliche.
    Thoy paradis be miri and briyt.
    Cokaygne is of fairer siyt.
    What is ther in paradis.
    Bot grasse and flure and greneris.
    Thoy ther be ioi and gret dute.
    Ther nis met bot ænlic frute.
    Ther nis halle bure no bench.
    Bot watir manis thurst to quench."
                ANON.: Johnson's Hist. Eng. Lang., p. 23.

59. Reign of Henry I, 1135 to 1100.—Part of an Anglo-Saxon Hymn.

   "Heuene & erthe & all that is,
      Biloken is on his honde.
    He deth al that his wille is,
      On sea and ec on londe.

    He is orde albuten orde.
      And ende albuten ende.
    He one is eure on eche stede,
      Wende wer thu wende.

    He is buuen us and binethen,
      Biuoren and ec bihind.
    Se man that Godes wille deth,
      He mai hine aihwar uinde.

    Eche rune he iherth,
      And wot eche dede.
    He durh sighth eches ithanc,
      Wai hwat sel us to rede.

    Se man neure nele don god,
      Ne neure god lif leden,
    Er deth & dom come to his dure,
      He mai him sore adreden.

    Hunger & thurst, hete & chele,
      Ecthe and all unhelthe,
    Durh deth com on this midelard,
      And other uniselthe.

    Ne mai non herte hit ithenche,
      Ne no tunge telle,
    Hu muchele pinum and hu uele,
      Bieth inne helle.

    Louie God mid ure hierte,
      And mid all ure mihte,
    And ure emcristene swo us self,
      Swo us lereth drihte."
                  ANON.: Johnson's Hist. Eng. Lang., p. 21.

IX. ANGLO-SAXON OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY, COMPARED WITH ENGLISH.

60. Saxon,—11th Century.[50]

LUCÆ, CAP. I.

"5. On Herodes dagum Iudea cynincges, wæs sum sacred on naman Zacharias, of Abian tune: and his wif wæs of Aarones dohtrum, and hyre nama waas Elizabeth.

6. Sothlice hig wæron butu rihtwise beforan Gode, gangende on eallum his bebodum and rihtwisnessum, butan wrohte.

7. And hig næfdon nan bearn, fortham the Elizabeth wæs unberende; and hy on hyra dagum butu forth-eodun.

8. Sothlice wæs geworden tha Zacharias hys sacerdhades breac on his gewrixles endebyrdnesse beforan Gode,

9. Æfter gewunan thæs sacerdhades hlotes, he eode that he his offrunge sette, tha he on Godes tempel eode.

10. Eall werod thæs folces wæs ute gebiddende on thære offrunge timan.

11. Tha ætywde him Drihtnes engel standende on thæs weofodes swithran healfe.

12. Tha weard Zacharias gedrefed that geseonde, and him ege onhreas.

13. Tha cwæth se engel him to, Ne ondræd thu the Zacharias; fortham thin ben is gehyred, and thin wif Elizabeth the sunu centh, and thu nemst hys naman Johannes."—Saxon Gospels.

English.—14th Century.

LUK, CHAP. I.

"5. In the dayes of Eroude kyng of Judee ther was a prest Zacarye by name, of the sort of Abia: and his wyf was of the doughtris of Aaron, and hir name was Elizabeth.

6. And bothe weren juste bifore God, goynge in alle the maundementis and justifyingis of the Lord, withouten playnt.

7. And thei hadden no child, for Elizabeth was bareyn; and bothe weren of greet age in her dayes.

8. And it befel that whanne Zacarye schould do the office of presthod in the ordir of his course to fore God,

9. Aftir the custom of the presthood, he wente forth by lot, and entride into the temple to encensen.

10. And al the multitude of the puple was without forth and preyede in the our of encensying.

11. And an aungel of the Lord apperide to him, and stood on the right half of the auter of encense. 12. And Zacarye seyinge was afrayed, and drede fel upon him.

13. And the aungel sayde to him, Zacarye, drede thou not; for thy preier is herd, and Elizabeth thi wif schal bere to thee a sone, and his name schal be clepid Jon."

Wickliffe's Bible, 1380.

English.—17th Century.

LUKE, CHAP. I.

"5. There was in the days of Herod the king of Judea, a certain priest named Zacharias, of the course of Abia: and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron, and her name was Elisabeth.

6. And they were both righteous before God, walking in all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord, blameless.

7. And they had no child, because that Elisabeth was barren; and they both were now well stricken in years.

8. And it came to pass, that while he executed the priest's office before God in the order of his course,

9. According to the custom of the priest's office, his lot was to burn incense when he went into the temple of the Lord.

10. And the whole multitude of the people were praying without at the time of incense.

11. And there appeared unto him an angel of the Lord, standing on the right side of the altar of incense.

12. And when Zacharias saw him, he was troubled, and fear fell upon him.

13. But the angel said unto him, Fear not, Zacharias; for thy prayer is heard, and thy wife Elisabeth shall bear thee a son, and thou shall call his name John."

Common Bible, 1610.

See Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language, in his Quarto
Dictionary.

X. ANGLO-SAXON IN THE TIME OF KING ALFRED.

61. Alfred the Great, who was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother Ethelred, in the year 871, being then twenty-two years old. He had scarcely time to attend the funeral of his brother, before he was called to the field to defend his country against the Danes. After a reign of more than twenty-eight years, rendered singularly glorious by great achievements under difficult circumstances, he died universally lamented, on the 28th of October, A. D. 900. By this prince the university of Oxford was founded, and provided with able teachers from the continent. His own great proficiency in learning, and his earnest efforts for its promotion, form a striking contrast with the ignorance which prevailed before. "In the ninth century, throughout the whole kingdom of the West Saxons, no man could be found who was scholar enough to instruct the young king Alfred, then a child, even in the first elements of reading: so that he was in his twelfth year before he could name the letters of the alphabet. When that renowned prince ascended the throne, he made it his study to draw his people out of the sloth and stupidity in which they lay; and became, as much by his own example as by the encouragement he gave to learned men, the great restorer of arts in his dominions."—Life of Bacon.

62. The language of eulogy must often be taken with some abatement: it does not usually present things in their due proportions. How far the foregoing quotation is true, I will not pretend to say; but what is called "the revival of learning," must not be supposed to have begun at so early a period as that of Alfred. The following is a brief specimen of the language in which that great man wrote; but, printed in Saxon characters, it would appear still less like English.

"On thære tide the Gotan of Siththiu mægthe with Romana rice gewin upahofon. and mith heora cyningum. Rædgota and Eallerica wæron hatne. Romane burig abræcon. and eall Italia rice that is betwux tham muntum and Sicilia tham ealonde in anwald gerehton. and tha ægter tham foresprecenan cyningum Theodric feng to tham ilcan rice se Theodric wæs Amulinga. he wass Cristen. theah he on tham Arrianiscan gedwolan durhwunode. He gehet Romanum his freondscype. swa that hi mostan heora ealdrichta wyrthe beon."—KING ALFRED: Johnson's Hist. of E. L., 4to Dict., p. 17.

CHAPTER VIII.

OF THE GRAMMATICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

"Grammatica quid est? ars rectè scribendi rectèque loquendi; poetarum enarrationem continens; omnium Scientiarum fons uberrimus. * * * Nostra ætas parum perita rerum veterum, nimis brevi gyro grammaticum sepsit; at apud antiques olim tantum auctoritatis hic ordo habuit, ut censores essent et judices scriptorum omnium soli grammatici; quos ob id etiam Criticos vocabant."—DESPAUTER. Præf. ad Synt, fol. 1.

1. Such is the peculiar power of language, that there is scarcely any subject so trifling, that it may not thereby be plausibly magnified into something great; nor are there many things which cannot be ingeniously disparaged till they shall seem contemptible. Cicero goes further: "Nihil est tam incredibile quod non dicendo fiat probabile;"—"There is nothing so incredible that it may not by the power of language be made probable." The study of grammar has been often overrated, and still oftener injuriously decried. I shall neither join with those who would lessen in the public esteem that general system of doctrines, which from time immemorial has been taught as grammar; nor attempt, either by magnifying its practical results, or by decking it out with my own imaginings, to invest it with any artificial or extraneous importance.

2. I shall not follow the footsteps of Neef, who avers that, "Grammar and incongruity are identical things," and who, under pretence of reaching the same end by better means, scornfully rejects as nonsense every thing that others have taught under that name; because I am convinced, that, of all methods of teaching, none goes farther than his, to prove the reproachful assertion true. Nor shall I imitate the declamation of Cardell; who, at the commencement of his Essay, recommends the general study of language on earth, from the consideration that, "The faculty of speech is the medium of social bliss for superior intelligences in an eternal world;" [51] and who, when he has exhausted censure in condemning the practical instruction of others, thus lavishes praise, in both his grammars, upon that formless, void, and incomprehensible theory of his own: "This application of words," says he, "in their endless use, by one plain rule, to all things which nouns can name, instead of being the fit subject of blind cavil, is the most sublime theme presented to the intellect on earth. It is the practical intercourse of the soul at once with its God, and with all parts of his works!"—Cardell's Gram., 12mo, p. 87; Gram., 18mo, p. 49.

3. Here, indeed, a wide prospect opens before us; but he who traces science, and teaches what is practically useful, must check imagination, and be content with sober truth.

   "For apt the mind or fancy is to rove
    Uncheck'd, and of her roving is no end."—MILTON.

Restricted within its proper limits, and viewed in its true light, the practical science of grammar has an intrinsic dignity and merit sufficient to throw back upon any man who dares openly assail it, the lasting stigma of folly and self-conceit. It is true, the judgements of men are fallible, and many opinions are liable to be reversed by better knowledge: but what has been long established by the unanimous concurrence of the learned, it can hardly be the part of a wise instructor now to dispute. The literary reformer who, with the last named gentleman, imagines "that the persons to whom the civilized world have looked up to for instruction in language were all wrong alike in the main points," [52] intends no middle course of reformation, and must needs be a man either of great merit, or of little modesty.

4. The English language may now be regarded as the common inheritance of about fifty millions of people; who are at least as highly distinguished for virtue, intelligence, and enterprise, as any other equal portion of the earth's population. All these are more or less interested in the purity, permanency, and right use of that language; inasmuch as it is to be, not only the medium of mental intercourse with others for them and their children, but the vehicle of all they value, in the reversion of ancestral honour, or in the transmission of their own. It is even impertinent, to tell a man of any respectability, that the study of this his native language is an object of great importance and interest: if he does not, from these most obvious considerations, feel it to be so, the suggestion will be less likely to convince him, than to give offence, as conveying an implicit censure.

5. Every person who has any ambition to appear respectable among people of education, whether in conversation, in correspondence, in public speaking, or in print, must be aware of the absolute necessity of a competent knowledge of the language in which he attempts to express his thoughts. Many a ludicrous anecdote is told, of persons venturing to use words of which they did not know the proper application; many a ridiculous blunder has been published to the lasting disgrace of the writer; and so intimately does every man's reputation for sense depend upon his skill in the use of language, that it is scarcely possible to acquire the one without the other. Who can tell how much of his own good or ill success, how much of the favour or disregard with which he himself has been treated, may have depended upon that skill or deficiency in grammar, of which, as often as he has either spoken or written, he must have afforded a certain and constant evidence.[53]

6. I have before said, that to excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excellence consists; and, as this excellence, whether in the thing itself, or in him that attains to it, is merely comparative, there seems to be no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning may not be carried. In speaking or writing to different persons, and on different subjects, it is necessary to vary one's style with great nicety of address; and in nothing does true genius more conspicuously appear, than in the facility with which it adopts the most appropriate expressions, leaving the critic no fault to expose, no word to amend. Such facility of course supposes an intimate knowledge of all words in common use, and also of the principles on which they are to be combined.

7. With a language which we are daily in the practice of hearing, speaking, reading, and writing, we may certainly acquire no inconsiderable acquaintance, without the formal study of its rules. All the true principles of grammar were presumed to be known to the learned, before they were written for the aid of learners; nor have they acquired any independent authority, by being recorded in a book, and denominated grammar. The teaching of them, however, has tended in no small degree to settle and establish the construction of the language, to improve the style of our English writers, and to enable us to ascertain with more clearness the true standard of grammatical purity. He who learns only by rote, may speak the words or phrases which he has thus acquired; and he who has the genius to discern intuitively what is regular and proper, may have further aid from the analogies which he thus discovers; but he who would add to such acquisitions the satisfaction of knowing what is right, must make the principles of language his study.

8. To produce an able and elegant writer, may require something more than a knowledge of grammar rules; yet it is argument enough in favour of those rules, that without a knowledge of them no elegant and able writer is produced. Who that considers the infinite number of phrases which words in their various combinations may form, and the utter impossibility that they should ever be recognized individually for the purposes of instruction and criticism, but must see the absolute necessity of dividing words into classes, and of showing, by general rules of formation and construction, the laws to which custom commonly subjects them, or from which she allows them in particular instances to deviate? Grammar, or the art of writing and speaking, must continue to be learned by some persons; because it is of indispensable use to society. And the only question is, whether children and youth shall acquire it by a regular process of study and method of instruction, or be left to glean it solely from their own occasional observation of the manner in which other people speak and write.

9. The practical solution of this question belongs chiefly to parents and guardians. The opinions of teachers, to whose discretion the decision will sometimes be left, must have a certain degree of influence upon the public mind; and the popular notions of the age, in respect to the relative value of different studies, will doubtless bias many to the adoption or the rejection of this. A consideration of the point seems to be appropriate here, and I cannot forbear to commend the study to the favour of my readers; leaving every one, of course, to choose how much he will be influenced by my advice, example, or arguments. If past experience and the history of education be taken for guides, the study of English grammar will not be neglected; and the method of its inculcation will become an object of particular inquiry and solicitude. The English language ought to be learned at school or in colleges, as other languages usually are; by the study of its grammar, accompanied with regular exercises of parsing, correcting, pointing, and scanning; and by the perusal of some of its most accurate writers, accompanied with stated exercises in composition and elocution. In books of criticism, our language is already more abundant than any other. Some of the best of these the student should peruse, as soon as he can understand and relish them. Such a course, pursued with regularity and diligence, will be found the most direct way of acquiring an English style at once pure, correct, and elegant.

10. If any intelligent man will represent English grammar otherwise than as one of the most useful branches of study, he may well be suspected of having formed his conceptions of the science, not from what it really is in itself, but from some of those miserable treatises which only caricature the subject, and of which it is rather an advantage to be ignorant. But who is so destitute of good sense as to deny, that a graceful and easy conversation in the private circle, a fluent and agreeable delivery in public speaking, a ready and natural utterance in reading, a pure and elegant style in composition, are accomplishments of a very high order? And yet of all these, the proper study of English grammar is the true foundation. This would never be denied or doubted, if young people did not find, under some other name, better models and more efficient instruction, than what was practised on them for grammar in the school-room. No disciple of an able grammarian can ever speak ill of grammar, unless he belong to that class of knaves who vilify what they despair to reach.

11. By taking proper advantage of the ductility of childhood, intelligent parents and judicious teachers may exercise over the studies, opinions, and habits of youth a strong and salutary control; and it will seldom be found in experience, that those who have been early taught to consider grammatical learning as worthy and manly, will change their opinion in after life. But the study of grammar is not so enticing that it may be disparaged in the hearing of the young, without injury. What would be the natural effect of the following sentence, which I quote from a late well-written religious homily? "The pedagogue and his dunce may exercise their wits correctly enough, in the way of grammatical analysis, on some splendid argument, or burst of eloquence, or thrilling descant, or poetic rapture, to the strain and soul of which not a fibre in their nature would yield a vibration."—New-York Observer, Vol. ix, p. 73.

12. Would not the bright boy who heard this from the lips of his reverend minister, be apt the next day to grow weary of the parsing lesson required by his schoolmaster? And yet what truth is there in the passage? One can no more judge of the fitness of language, without regard to the meaning conveyed by it, than of the fitness of a suit of clothes, without knowing for whom they were intended. The grand clew to the proper application of all syntactical rules, is the sense; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the author's meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved. To parse rightly and fully, is nothing else than to understand rightly and explain fully; and whatsoever is well expressed, it is a shame either to misunderstand or to misinterpret.

13. This study, when properly conducted and liberally pursued, has an obvious tendency to dignify the whole character. How can he be a man of refined literary taste, who cannot speak and write his native language grammatically? And who will deny that every degree of improvement in literary taste tends to brighten and embellish the whole intellectual nature? The several powers of the mind are not so many distinct and separable agents, which are usually brought into exercise one by one; and even if they were, there might be found, in a judicious prosecution of this study, a healthful employment for them all. The imagination, indeed, has nothing to do with the elements of grammar; but in the exercise of composition, young fancy may spread her wings as soon as they are fledged; and for this exercise the previous course of discipline will have furnished both language and taste, as well as sentiment.

14. The regular grammatical study of our language is a thing of recent origin. Fifty or sixty years ago, such an exercise was scarcely attempted in any of the schools, either in this country or in England.[54] Of this fact we have abundant evidence both from books, and from the testimony of our venerable fathers yet living. How often have these presented this as an apology for their own deficiencies, and endeavoured to excite us to greater diligence, by contrasting our opportunities with theirs! Is there not truth, is there not power, in the appeal? And are we not bound to avail ourselves of the privileges which they have provided, to build upon the foundations which their wisdom has laid, and to carry forward the work of improvement? Institutions can do nothing for us, unless the love of learning preside over and prevail in them. The discipline of our schools can never approach perfection, till those who conduct, and those who frequent them, are strongly actuated by that disposition of mind, which generously aspires to all attainable excellence.

15. To rouse this laudable spirit in the minds of our youth, and to satisfy its demands whenever it appears, ought to be the leading objects with those to whom is committed the important business of instruction. A dull teacher, wasting time in a school-room with a parcel of stupid or indolent boys, knows nothing of the satisfaction either of doing his own duty, or of exciting others to the performance of theirs. He settles down in a regular routine of humdrum exercises, dreading as an inconvenience even such change as proficiency in his pupils must bring on; and is well content to do little good for little money, in a profession which he honours with his services merely to escape starvation. He has, however, one merit: he pleases his patrons, and is perhaps the only man that can; for they must needs be of that class to whom moral restraint is tyranny, disobedience to teachers, as often right as wrong; and who, dreading the expense, even of a school-book, always judge those things to be cheapest, which cost the least and last the longest. What such a man, or such a neighbourhood, may think of English grammar, I shall not stop to ask.

16. To the following opinion from a writer of great merit, I am inclined to afford room here, because it deserves refutation, and, I am persuaded, is not so well founded as the generality of the doctrines with which it is presented to the public. "Since human knowledge is so much more extensive than the opportunity of individuals for acquiring it, it becomes of the greatest importance so to economize the opportunity as to make it subservient to the acquisition of as large and as valuable a portion as we can. It is not enough to show that a given branch of education is useful: you must show that it is the most useful that can be selected. Remembering this, I think it would be expedient to dispense with the formal study of English grammar,—a proposition which I doubt not many a teacher will hear with wonder and disapprobation. We learn the grammar in order that we may learn English; and we learn English whether we study grammars or not. Especially we shall acquire a competent knowledge of our own language, if other departments of our education were improved."

17. "A boy learns more English grammar by joining in an hour's conversation with educated people, than in poring for an hour over Murray or Horne Tooke. If he is accustomed to such society and to the perusal of well-written books, he will learn English grammar, though he never sees a word about syntax; and if he is not accustomed to such society and such reading, the 'grammar books' at a boarding-school will not teach it. Men learn their own language by habit, and not by rules: and this is just what we might expect; for the grammar of a language is itself formed from the prevalent habits of speech and writing. A compiler of grammar first observes these habits, and then makes his rules: but if a person is himself familiar with the habits, why study the rules? I say nothing of grammar as a general science; because, although the philosophy of language be a valuable branch of human knowledge, it were idle to expect that school-boys should understand it. The objection is, to the system of attempting to teach children formally that which they will learn practically without teaching."—JONATHAN DYMOND: Essays on Morality, p. 195.

18. This opinion, proceeding from a man who has written upon human affairs with so much ability and practical good sense, is perhaps entitled to as much respect as any that has ever been urged against the study in question. And so far as the objection bears upon those defective methods of instruction which experience has shown to be inefficient, or of little use, I am in no wise concerned to remove it. The reader of this treatise will find their faults not only admitted, but to a great extent purposely exposed; while an attempt is here made, as well as in my earlier grammars, to introduce a method which it is hoped will better reach the end proposed. But it may easily be perceived that this author's proposition to dispense with the formal study of English grammar is founded upon an untenable assumption. Whatever may be the advantages of those purer habits of speech, which the young naturally acquire from conversation with educated people, it is not true, that, without instruction directed to this end, they will of themselves become so well educated as to speak and write grammatically. Their language may indeed be comparatively accurate and genteel, because it is learned of those who have paid some attention to the study; but, as they cannot always be preserved from hearing vulgar and improper phraseology, or from seeing it in books, they cannot otherwise be guarded from improprieties of diction, than by a knowledge of the rules of grammar. One might easily back this position by the citation of some scores of faulty sentences from the pen of this very able writer himself.

19. I imagine there can be no mistake in the opinion, that in exact proportion as the rules of grammar are unknown or neglected in any country, will corruptions and improprieties of language be there multiplied. The "general science" of grammar, or "the philosophy of language," the author seems to exempt, and in some sort to commend; and at the same time his proposition of exclusion is applied not merely to the school-grammars, but a fortiori to this science, under the notion that it is unintelligible to school-boys. But why should any principle of grammar be the less intelligible on account of the extent of its application? Will a boy pretend that he cannot understand a rule of English grammar, because he is told that it holds good in all languages? Ancient etymologies, and other facts in literary history, must be taken by the young upon the credit of him who states them; but the doctrines of general grammar are to the learner the easiest and the most important principles of the science. And I know of nothing in the true philosophy of language, which, by proper definitions and examples, may not be made as intelligible to a boy, as are the principles of most other sciences. The difficulty of instructing youth in any thing that pertains to language, lies not so much in the fact that its philosophy is above their comprehension, as in our own ignorance of certain parts of so vast an inquiry;—in the great multiplicity of verbal signs; the frequent contrariety of practice; the inadequacy of memory; the inveteracy of ill habits; and the little interest that is felt when we speak merely of words.

20. The grammatical study of our language was early and strongly recommended by Locke,[55] and other writers on education, whose character gave additional weight to an opinion which they enforced by the clearest arguments. But either for want of a good grammar, or for lack of teachers skilled in the subject and sensible of its importance, the general neglect so long complained of as a grievous imperfection in our methods of education, has been but recently and partially obviated. "The attainment of a correct and elegant style," says Dr. Blair, "is an object which demands application and labour. If any imagine they can catch it merely by the ear, or acquire it by the slight perusal of some of our good authors, they will find themselves much disappointed. The many errors, even in point of grammar, the many offences against purity of language, which are committed by writers who are far from being contemptible, demonstrate, that a careful study of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at writing it properly."—Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. ix, p. 91.

21. "To think justly, to write well, to speak agreeably, are the three great ends of academic instruction. The Universities will excuse me, if I observe, that both are, in one respect or other, defective in these three capital points of education. While in Cambridge the general application is turned altogether on speculative knowledge, with little regard to polite letters, taste, or style; in Oxford the whole attention is directed towards classical correctness, without any sound foundation laid in severe reasoning and philosophy. In Cambridge and in Oxford, the art of speaking agreeably is so far from being taught, that it is hardly talked or thought of. These defects naturally produce dry unaffecting compositions in the one; superficial taste and puerile elegance in the other; ungracious or affected speech in both."—DR. BROWN, 1757: Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 44.

22. "A grammatical study of our own language makes no part of the ordinary method of instruction, which we pass through in our childhood; and it is very seldom we apply ourselves to it afterward. Yet the want of it will not be effectually supplied by any other advantages whatsoever. Much practice in the polite world, and a general acquaintance with the best authors, are good helps; but alone [they] will hardly be sufficient: We have writers, who have enjoyed these advantages in their full extent, and yet cannot be recommended as models of an accurate style. Much less then will, what is commonly called learning, serve the purpose; that is, a critical knowledge of ancient languages, and much reading of ancient authors: The greatest critic and most able grammarian of the last age, when he came to apply his learning and criticism to an English author, was frequently at a loss in matters of ordinary use and common construction in his own vernacular idiom."—DR. LOWTH, 1763: Pref. to Gram., p. vi.

23. "To the pupils of our public schools the acquisition of their own language, whenever it is undertaken, is an easy task. For he who is acquainted with several grammars already, finds no difficulty in adding one more to the number. And this, no doubt, is one of the reasons why English engages so small a proportion of their time and attention. It is not frequently read, and is still less frequently written. Its supposed facility, however, or some other cause, seems to have drawn upon it such a degree of neglect as certainly cannot be praised. The students in those schools are often distinguished by their compositions in the learned languages, before they can speak or write their own with correctness, elegance, or fluency. A classical scholar too often has his English style to form, when he should communicate his acquisitions to the world. In some instances it is never formed with success; and the defects of his expression either deter him from appearing before the public at all, or at least counteract in a great degree the influence of his work, and bring ridicule upon the author. Surely these evils might easily be prevented or diminished."—DR. BARROW: Essays on Education, London, 1804; Philad., 1825, p. 87.

24. "It is also said that those who know Latin and Greek generally express themselves with more clearness than those who do not receive a liberal education. It is indeed natural that those who cultivate their mental powers, write with more clearness than the uncultivated individual. The mental cultivation, however, may take place in the mother tongue as well as in Latin or Greek. Yet the spirit of the ancient languages, further is declared to be superior to that of the modern. I allow this to be the case; but I do not find that the English style is improved by learning Greek. It is known that literal translations are miserably bad, and yet young scholars are taught to translate, word for word, faithful to their dictionaries. Hence those who do not make a peculiar study of their own language, will not improve in it by learning, in this manner, Greek and Latin. Is it not a pity to hear, what I have been told by the managers of one of the first institutions of Ireland, that it was easier to find ten teachers for Latin and Greek, than one for the English language, though they proposed double the salary to the latter? Who can assure us that the Greek orators acquired their superiority by their acquaintance with foreign languages; or, is it not obvious, on the other hand, that they learned ideas and expressed them in their mother tongue?"—DR. SPURZHEIM: Treatise on Education, 1832, p. 107.

25. "Dictionaries were compiled, which comprised all the words, together with their several definitions, or the sense each one expresses and conveys to the mind. These words were analyzed and classed according to their essence, attributes, and functions. Grammar was made a rudiment leading to the principles of all thoughts, and teaching by simple examples, the general classification of words and their subdivisions in expressing the various conceptions of the mind. Grammar is then the key to the perfect understanding of languages; without which we are left to wander all our lives in an intricate labyrinth, without being able to trace back again any part of our way."—Chazotte's Essay on the Teaching of Languages, p. 45. Again: "Had it not been for his dictionary and his grammar, which taught him the essence of all languages, and the natural subdivision of their component parts, he might have spent a life as long as Methuselah's, in learning words, without being able to attain to a degree of perfection in any of the languages."—Ib., p. 50. "Indeed, it is not easy to say, to what degree, and in how many different ways, both memory and judgement may be improved by an intimate acquaintance with grammar; which is therefore, with good reason, made the first and fundamental part of literary education. The greatest orators, the most elegant scholars, and the most accomplished men of business, that have appeared in the world, of whom I need only mention Cæsar and Cicero, were not only studious of grammar, but most learned grammarians."—DR. BEATTIE: Moral Science, Vol. i, p. 107.

26. Here, as in many other parts of my work, I have chosen to be liberal of quotations; not to show my reading, or to save the labour of composition, but to give the reader the satisfaction of some other authority than my own. In commending the study of English grammar, I do not mean to discountenance that degree of attention which in this country is paid to other languages; but merely to use my feeble influence to carry forward a work of improvement, which, in my opinion, has been wisely begun, but not sufficiently sustained. In consequence of this improvement, the study of grammar, which was once prosecuted chiefly through the medium of the dead languages, and was regarded as the proper business of those only who were to be instructed in Latin and Greek, is now thought to be an appropriate exercise for children in elementary schools. And the sentiment is now generally admitted, that even those who are afterwards to learn other languages, may best acquire a knowledge of the common principles of speech from the grammar of their vernacular tongue. This opinion appears to be confirmed by that experience which is at once the most satisfactory proof of what is feasible, and the only proper test of what is useful.

27. It must, however, be confessed, that an acquaintance with ancient and foreign literature is absolutely necessary for him who would become a thorough philologist or an accomplished scholar; and that the Latin language, the source of several of the modern tongues of Europe, being remarkably regular in its inflections and systematic in its construction, is in itself the most complete exemplar of the structure of speech, and the best foundation for the study of grammar in general. But, as the general principles of grammar are common to all languages, and as the only successful method of learning them, is, to commit to memory the definitions and rules which embrace them, it is reasonable to suppose that the language most intelligible to the learner, is the most suitable for the commencement of his grammatical studies. A competent knowledge of English grammar is also in itself a valuable attainment, which is within the easy reach of many young persons whose situation in life debars them from the pursuit of general literature.

28. The attention which has lately been given to the culture of the English language, by some who, in the character of critics or lexicographers, have laboured purposely to improve it, and by many others who, in various branches of knowledge, have tastefully adorned it with the works of their genius, has in a great measure redeemed it from that contempt in which it was formerly held in the halls of learning. But, as I have before suggested, it does not yet appear to be sufficiently attended to in the course of what is called a liberal education. Compared with, other languages, the English exhibits both excellences and defects; but its flexibility, or power of accommodation to the tastes of different writers, is great; and when it is used with that mastership which belongs to learning and genius, it must be acknowledged there are few, if any, to which it ought on the whole to be considered inferior. But above all, it is our own; and, whatever we may know or think of other tongues, it can never be either patriotic or wise, for the learned men of the United States or of England to pride themselves chiefly upon them.

29. Our language is worthy to be assiduously studied by all who reside where it is spoken, and who have the means and the opportunity to become critically acquainted with it. To every such student it is vastly more important to be able to speak and write well in English, than to be distinguished for proficiency in the learned languages and yet ignorant of his own. It is certain that many from whom better things might be expected, are found miserably deficient in this respect. And their neglect of so desirable an accomplishment is the more remarkable and the more censurable on account of the facility with which those who are acquainted with the ancient languages may attain to excellence in their English style. "Whatever the advantages or defects of the English language be, as it is our own language, it deserves a high degree of our study and attention. * * * Whatever knowledge may be acquired by the study of other languages, it can never be communicated with advantage, unless by such as can write and speak their own language well."—DR. BLAIR: Rhetoric, Lect. ix, p. 91.

30. I am not of opinion that it is expedient to press this study to much extent, if at all, on those whom poverty or incapacity may have destined to situations in which they will never hear or think of it afterwards. The course of nature cannot be controlled; and fortune does not permit us to prescribe the same course of discipline for all. To speak the language which they have learned without study, and to read and write for the most common purposes of life, may be education enough for those who can be raised no higher. But it must be the desire of every benevolent and intelligent man, to see the advantages of literary, as well as of moral culture, extended as far as possible among the people. And it is manifest, that in proportion as the precepts of the divine Redeemer are obeyed by the nations that profess his name, will all distinctions arising merely from the inequality of fortune be lessened or done away, and better opportunities be offered for the children of indigence to adorn themselves with the treasures of knowledge.

31. We may not be able to effect all that is desirable; but, favoured as our country is, with great facilities for carrying forward the work of improvement, in every thing which can contribute to national glory and prosperity, I would, in conclusion of this topic, submit—that a critical knowledge of our common language is a subject worthy of the particular attention of all who have the genius and the opportunity to attain it;—that on the purity and propriety with which American authors write this language, the reputation of our national literature greatly depends;—that in the preservation of it from all changes which ignorance may admit or affectation invent, we ought to unite as having one common interest;—that a fixed and settled orthography is of great importance, as a means of preserving the etymology, history, and identity of words;—that a grammar freed from errors and defects, and embracing a complete code of definitions and illustrations, rules and exercises, is of primary importance to every student and a great aid to teachers;—that as the vices of speech as well as of manners are contagious, it becomes those who have the care of youth, to be masters of the language in its purity and elegance, and to avoid as much as possible every thing that is reprehensible either in thought or expression.

CHAPTER IX.

OF THE BEST METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR.

"Quomodo differunt grammaticus et grammatista? Grammaticus est qui diligenter, acutè, scienterque possit aut dicere aut scribere, et poetas enarrare: idem literatus dicitur. Grammatista est qui barbaris literis obstrepit, cui abusus pro usu est; Græcis Latinam dat etymologiam, et totus in nugis est: Latinè dicitur literator."—DESPAUTER. Synt., fol. 1.

1. It is hardly to be supposed that any person can have a very clear conviction of the best method of doing a thing, who shall not at first have acquired a pretty correct and adequate notion of the thing to be done. Arts must be taught by artists; sciences, by learned men; and, if Grammar is the science of words, the art of writing and speaking well, the best speakers and writers will be the best teachers of it, if they choose to direct their attention to so humble an employment. For, without disparagement of the many worthy men whom choice or necessity has made schoolmasters, it may be admitted that the low estimation in which school-keeping is commonly held, does mostly exclude from it the first order of talents, and the highest acquirements of scholarship. It is one strong proof of this, that we have heretofore been content to receive our digests of English grammar, either from men who had had no practical experience in the labours of a school-room, or from miserable modifiers and abridgers, destitute alike of learning and of industry, of judgement and of skill.

2. But, to have a correct and adequate notion of English grammar, and of the best method of learning or teaching it, is no light attainment. The critical knowledge of this subject lies in no narrow circle of observation; nor are there any precise limits to possible improvement. The simple definition in which the general idea of the art is embraced, "Grammar is the art of writing and speaking correctly," however useful in order to fix the learner's conception, can scarcely give him a better knowledge of the thing itself, than he would have of the art of painting, when he had learned from Dr. Webster, that it is "the art of representing to the eye, by means of figures and colors, any object of sight, and sometimes emotions of the mind." The first would no more enable him to write a sonnet, than the second, to take his master's likeness. The force of this remark extends to all the technical divisions, definitions, rules, and arrangements of grammar; the learner may commit them all to memory, and know but very little about the art.

3. This fact, too frequently illustrated in practice, has been made the basis of the strongest argument ever raised against the study of grammar; and has been particularly urged against the ordinary technical method of teaching it, as if the whole of that laborious process were useless. It has led some men, even of the highest talents, to doubt the expediency of that method, under any circumstances, and either to discountenance the whole matter, or invent other schemes by which they hoped to be more successful. The utter futility of the old accidence has been inferred from it, and urged, even in some well-written books, with all the plausibility of a fair and legitimate deduction. The hardships of children, compelled to learn what they did not understand, have been bewailed in prefaces and reviews; incredible things boasted by literary jugglers, have been believed by men of sense; and the sympathies of nature, with accumulated prejudices, have been excited against that method of teaching grammar, which after all will be found in experience to be at once the easiest, the shortest, and the best. I mean, essentially, the ancient positive method, which aims directly at the inculcation of principles.

4. It has been already admitted, that definitions and rules committed to memory and not reduced to practice, will never enable any one to speak and write correctly. But it does not follow, that to study grammar by learning its principles, or to teach it technically by formal lessons, is of no real utility. Surely not. For the same admission must be made with respect to the definitions and rules of every practical science in the world; and the technology of grammar is even more essential to a true knowledge of the subject, than that of almost any other art. "To proceed upon principles at first," says Dr. Barrow, "is the most compendious method of attaining every branch of knowledge; and the truths impressed upon the mind in the years of childhood, are ever afterwards the most firmly remembered, and the most readily applied."—Essays, p. 84. Reading, as I have said, is a part of grammar; and it is a part which must of course precede what is commonly called in the schools the study of grammar. Any person who can read, can learn from a book such simple facts as are within his comprehension; and we have it on the authority of Dr. Adam, that, "The principles of grammar are the first abstract truths which a young mind can comprehend."—Pref. to Lat. Gram., p. 4.

5. It is manifest, that, with respect to this branch of knowledge, the duties of the teacher will vary considerably, according to the age and attainments of his pupils, or according to each student's ability or inclination to profit by his printed guide. The business lies partly between the master and his scholar, and partly between the boy and his book. Among these it may be partitioned variously, and of course unwisely; for no general rule can precisely determine for all occasions what may be expected from each. The deficiencies of any one of the three must either be supplied by the extraordinary readiness of an other, or the attainment of the purpose be proportionably imperfect. What one fails to do, must either be done by an other, or left undone. After much observation, it seems to me, that the most proper mode of treating this science in schools, is, to throw the labour of its acquisition almost entirely upon the students; to require from them very accurate rehearsals as the only condition on which they shall be listened to; and to refer them to their books for the information which they need, and in general for the solution of all their doubts. But then the teacher must see that he does not set them to grope their way through a wilderness of absurdities. He must know that they have a book, which not only contains the requisite information, but arranges it so that every item of it may be readily found. That knowledge may reasonably be required at their recitations, which culpable negligence alone could have prevented them from obtaining.

6. Most grammars, and especially those which are designed for the senior class of students, to whom a well-written book is a sufficient instructor, contain a large proportion of matter which is merely to be read by the learner. This is commonly distinguished in type from those more important doctrines which constitute the frame of the edifice. It is expected that the latter will receive a greater degree of attention. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal definitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever afterwards be readily applied. Oral instruction may smoothe the way, and facilitate the labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of grammar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. Nor will it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised in learning small portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great nor difficult; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory and strengthen all the faculties of the mind.

7. The objection drawn from the alleged inefficiency of this method, lies solely against the practice of those teachers who disjoin the principles and the exercises of the art; and who, either through ignorance or negligence, impose only such tasks as leave the pupil to suppose, that the committing to memory of definitions and rules, constitutes the whole business of grammar.[56] Such a method is no less absurd in itself, than contrary to the practice of the best teachers from the very origin of the study. The epistle prefixed to King Henry's Grammar almost three centuries ago, and the very sensible preface to the old British Grammar, an octavo reprinted at Boston in 1784, give evidence enough that a better method of teaching has long been known. Nay, in my opinion, the very best method cannot be essentially different from that which has been longest in use, and is probably most known. But there is everywhere ample room for improvement. Perfection was never attained by the most learned of our ancestors, nor is it found in any of our schemes. English grammar can be better taught than it is now, or ever has been. Better scholarship would naturally produce this improvement, and it is easy to suppose a race of teachers more erudite and more zealous, than either we or they.

8. Where invention and discovery are precluded, there is little room for novelty. I have not laboured to introduce a system of grammar essentially new, but to improve the old and free it from abuses. The mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful experience. There is nothing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and example, rule and praxis; which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever desert, with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy. This book itself will make any one a grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practise what it teaches; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest means of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. A hope is also indulged, that this work will be particularly useful to many who have passed the ordinary period allotted to education. Whoever is acquainted with the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will here find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced under its proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, however learned, who, on a perusal of the volume, would not be furnished with some important rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation.

9. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly remember that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well; an art which can no more be acquired without practice, than that of dancing or swimming. And each should ever be careful to perform his part handsomely—without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesitating, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, misquoting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance disagreeable and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved; and the system will be found well calculated to effect that object; because it demands of him, not only to answer questions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical application of what he has just learned. If the class be tolerable readers, and have learned the art of attention, it will not be necessary for the teacher to say much; and in general he ought not to take up the time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend their rehearsals; give the word to the next when any one errs; and order the exercise in such a manner that either his own voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradually correct the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness, understanding well what they say, and making it intelligible to others.

10. Without oral instruction and oral exercises, a correct habit of speaking our language can never be acquired; but written rules, and exercises in writing, are perhaps quite as necessary, for the formation of a good style. All these should therefore be combined in our course of English grammar. And, in order to accomplish two objects at once, the written doctrines, or the definitions and rules of grammar, should statedly be made the subject of a critical exercise in utterance; so that the boy who is parsing a word, or correcting a sentence, in the hearing of others, may impressively realize, that he is then and there exhibiting his own skill or deficiency in oral discourse. Perfect forms of parsing and correcting should be given him as models, with the understanding that the text before him is his only guide to their right application. It should be shown, that in parsing any particular word, or part of speech, there are just so many things to be said of it, and no more, and that these are to be said in the best manner: so that whoever tells fewer, omits something requisite; whoever says more, inserts something irrelevant; and whoever proceeds otherwise, either blunders in point of fact, or impairs the beauty of the expression. I rely not upon what are called "Parsing Tables" but upon the precise forms of expression which are given in the book for the parsing of the several sorts of words. Because the questions, or abstract directions, which constitute the common parsing tables, are less intelligible to the learner than a practical example; and more time must needs be consumed on them, in order to impress upon his memory the number and the sequence of the facts to be stated.

11. If a pupil happen to be naturally timid, there should certainly be no austerity of manner to embarrass his diffidence; for no one can speak well, who feels afraid. But a far more common impediment to the true use of speech, is carelessness. He who speaks before a school, in an exercise of this kind, should be made to feel that he is bound by every consideration of respect for himself, or for those who hear him, to proceed with his explanation or rehearsal, in a ready, clear, and intelligible manner. It should be strongly impressed upon him, that the grand object of the whole business, is his own practical improvement; that a habit of speaking clearly and agreeably, is itself one half of the great art of grammar; that to be slow and awkward in parsing, is unpardonable negligence, and a culpable waste of time; that to commit blunders in rehearsing grammar, is to speak badly about the art of speaking well; that his recitations must be limited to such things as he perfectly knows; that he must apply himself to his book, till he can proceed without mistake; finally, that he must watch and imitate the utterance of those who speak well, ever taking that for the best manner, in which there are the fewest things that could be mimicked.[57]

12. The exercise of parsing should be commenced immediately after the first lesson of etymology—the lesson in which are contained the definitions of the ten parts of speech; and should be carried on progressively, till it embraces all the doctrines which are applicable to it. If it be performed according to the order prescribed in the following work, it will soon make the student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. It asks no aid from a dictionary, if the performer knows the meaning of the words he is parsing; and very little from the teacher, if the forms in the grammar have received any tolerable share of attention. It requires just enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are uttering; while it advances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither wholly extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than a school-boy's conversation, and more ease than a formal recitation, or declamation; and is therefore an exercise well calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in ordinary speech—a species of elocution as valuable as any other.[58]

13. Thus would I unite the practice with the theory of grammar; endeavouring to express its principles with all possible perspicuity, purity, and propriety of diction; retaining, as necessary parts of the subject, those technicalities which the pupil must needs learn in order to understand the disquisitions of grammarians in general; adopting every important feature of that system of doctrines which appears to have been longest and most generally taught; rejecting the multitudinous errors and inconsistencies with which unskillful hands have disgraced the science and perplexed the schools; remodelling every ancient definition and rule which it is possible to amend, in respect to style, or grammatical correctness; supplying the numerous and great deficiencies with which the most comprehensive treatises published by earlier writers, are chargeable; adapting the code of instruction to the present state of English literature, without giving countenance to any innovation not sanctioned by reputable use; labouring at once to extend and to facilitate the study, without forgetting the proper limits of the science, or debasing its style by puerilities.

14. These general views, it is hoped, will be found to have been steadily adhered to throughout the following work. The author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most approved grammars already in use; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It was not his design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established rules. He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from time immemorial; but to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. That which is excellent, may not be perfect; and amendment may be desirable, where subversion would be ruinous. Believing that no theory can better explain the principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known; and has contented himself with attempting little more than to supply the deficiencies of the system, and to free it from the reproach of being itself ungrammatical. This indeed was task enough; for, to him, all the performances of his predecessors seemed meagre and greatly deficient, compared with what he thought needful to be done. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify those doctrines anew; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to offer, on that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge.

15. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with most of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the objects above referred to, might be better effected than they had been in any work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself, that, however this work may yet fall short of possible completeness, the improvements here offered are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean to conceal in any degree his obligations to others, or to indulge in censure without discrimination. He has no disposition to depreciate the labours, or to detract from the merits, of those who have written ably upon this topic. He has studiously endeavoured to avail himself of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. With a view to further improvements in the science, he has also resorted to the original sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically considered what he has seen or heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with some diligence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages. If, therefore, the work now furnished be thought worthy of preference, as exhibiting the best method of teaching grammar; he trusts it will be because it deviates least from sound doctrine, while, by fair criticism upon others, it best supplies the means of choosing judiciously.

16. Of all methods of teaching grammar, that which has come nearest to what is recommended above, has doubtless been the most successful; and whatever objections may have been raised against it, it will probably be found on examination to be the most analogous to nature. It is analytic in respect to the doctrines of grammar, synthetic in respect to the practice, and logical in respect to both. It assumes the language as an object which the learner is capable of conceiving to be one whole; begins with the classification of all its words, according to certain grand differences which make the several parts of speech; then proceeds to divide further, according to specific differences and qualities, till all the classes, properties, and relations, of the words in any intelligible sentence, become obvious and determinate: and he to whom these things are known, so that he can see at a glance what is the construction of each word, and whether it is right or not, is a good grammarian. The disposition of the human mind to generalize the objects of thought, and to follow broad analogies in the use of words, discovers itself early, and seems to be an inherent principle of our nature. Hence, in the language of children and illiterate people, many words are regularly inflected even in opposition to the most common usage.

17. It has unfortunately become fashionable to inveigh against the necessary labour of learning by heart the essential principles of grammar, as a useless and intolerable drudgery. And this notion, with the vain hope of effecting the same purpose in an easier way, is giving countenance to modes of teaching well calculated to make superficial scholars. When those principles are properly defined, disposed, and exemplified, the labour of learning them is far less than has been represented; and the habits of application induced by such a method of studying grammar, are of the utmost importance to the learner. Experience shows, that the task may be achieved during the years of childhood; and that, by an early habit of study, the memory is so improved, as to render those exercises easy and familiar, which, at a later period, would be found very difficult and irksome. Upon this plan, and perhaps upon every other, some words will be learned before the ideas represented by them are fully comprehended, or the things spoken of are fully understood. But this seems necessarily to arise from the order of nature in the development of the mental faculties; and an acquisition cannot be lightly esteemed, which has signally augmented and improved that faculty on which the pupil's future progress in knowledge depends.

18. The memory, indeed, should never be cultivated at the expense of the understanding; as is the case, when the former is tasked with ill-devised lessons by which the latter is misled and bewildered. But truth, whether fully comprehended or not, has no perplexing inconsistencies. And it is manifest that that which does not in some respect surpass the understanding, can never enlighten it—can never awaken the spirit of inquiry or satisfy research. How often have men of observation profited by the remembrance of words which, at the time they heard them, they did not "perfectly understand!" We never study any thing of which we imagine our knowledge to be perfect. To learn, and, to understand, are, with respect to any science or art, one and the same thing. With respect to difficult or unintelligible phraseology alone, are they different. He who by study has once stored his memory with the sound and appropriate language of any important doctrine, can never, without some folly or conceit akin to madness, repent of the acquisition. Milton, in his academy, professed to teach things rather than words; and many others have made plausible profession of the same thing since. But it does not appear, that even in the hands of Milton, the attempt was crowned with any remarkable success. See Dr. Barrow's Essays, p. 85.

19. The vain pretensions of several modern simplifiers, contrivers of machines, charts, tables, diagrams, vincula, pictures, dialogues, familiar lectures, ocular analyses, tabular compendiums, inductive exercises, productive systems, intellectual methods, and various new theories, for the purpose of teaching grammar, may serve to deceive the ignorant, to amuse the visionary, and to excite the admiration of the credulous; but none of these things has any favourable relation to that improvement which may justly be boasted as having taken place within the memory of the present generation. The definitions and rules which constitute the doctrines of grammar, may be variously expressed, arranged, illustrated, and applied; and in the expression, arrangement, illustration, and application of them, there may be room for some amendment; but no contrivance can ever relieve the pupil from the necessity of committing them thoroughly to memory. The experience of all antiquity is added to our own, in confirmation of this; and the judicious teacher, though he will not shut his eyes to a real improvement, will be cautious of renouncing the practical lessons of hoary experience, for the futile notions of a vain projector.

20. Some have been beguiled with the idea, that great proficiency in grammar was to be made by means of a certain fanciful method of induction. But if the scheme does not communicate to those who are instructed by it, a better knowledge of grammar than the contrivers themselves seem to have possessed, it will be found of little use.[59] By the happy method of Bacon, to lead philosophy into the common walks of life, into the ordinary business and language of men, is to improve the condition of humanity; but, in teaching grammar, to desert the plain didactic method of definition and example, rule and praxis, and pretend to lead children by philosophic induction into a knowledge of words, is to throw down the ladder of learning, that boys may imagine themselves to ascend it, while they are merely stilting over the low level upon which its fragments are cast.

21. The chief argument of these inductive grammarians is founded on the principle, that children cannot be instructed by means of any words which they do not perfectly understand. If this principle were strictly true, children could never be instructed by words at all. For no child ever fully understands a word the first time he hears or sees it; and it is rather by frequent repetition and use, than by any other process, that the meaning of words is commonly learned. Hence most people make use of many terms which they cannot very accurately explain, just as they do of many things, the real nature of which they do not comprehend. The first perception we have of any word, or other thing, when presented to the ear or the eye, gives us some knowledge of it. So, to the signs of thought, as older persons use them, we soon attach some notion of what is meant; and the difference between this knowledge, and that which we call an understanding of the word or thing, is, for the most part, only in degree. Definitions and explanations are doubtless highly useful, but induction is not definition, and an understanding of words may be acquired without either; else no man could ever have made a dictionary. But, granting the principle to be true, it makes nothing for this puerile method of induction; because the regular process by definitions and examples is both shorter and easier, as well as more effectual. In a word, this whole scheme of inductive grammar is nothing else than a series of leading questions and manufactured answers; the former being generally as unfair as the latter are silly. It is a remarkable tissue of ill-laid premises and of forced illogical sequences.

22. Of a similar character is a certain work, entitled, "English Grammar on the Productive System: a method of instruction recently adopted in Germany and Switzerland." It is a work which certainly will be "productive" of no good to any body but the author and his publishers. The book is as destitute of taste, as of method; of authority, as of originality. It commences with "the inductive process," and after forty pages of such matter as is described above, becomes a "productive system," by means of a misnamed "RECAPITULATION;" which jumbles together the etymology and the syntax of the language, through seventy-six pages more. It is then made still more "productive" by the appropriation of a like space to a reprint of Murray's Syntax and Exercises, under the inappropriate title, "GENERAL OBSERVATIONS." To Prosody, including punctuation and the use of capitals, there are allotted six pages, at the end; and to Orthography, four lines, in the middle of the volume! (See p. 41.) It is but just, to regard the title of this book, as being at once a libel and a lie; a libel upon the learning and good sense of Woodbridge;[60] and a practical lie, as conveying a false notion of the origin of what the volume contains.

23. What there is in Germany or Switzerland, that bears any resemblance to this misnamed system of English Grammar, remains to be shown. It would be prodigal of the reader's time, and inconsistent with the studied brevity of this work, to expose the fallacy of what is pretended in regard to the origin of this new method. Suffice it to say, that the anonymous and questionable account of the "Productive System of Instruction," which the author has borrowed from a "valuable periodical," to save himself the trouble of writing a preface, and, as he says, to "assist [the reader] in forming an opinion of the comparative merits of the system" is not only destitute of all authority, but is totally irrelevant, except to the whimsical name of his book. If every word of it be true, it is insufficient to give us even the slightest reason to suppose, that any thing analogous to his production ever had existence in either of those countries; and yet it is set forth on purpose to convey the idea that such a system "now predominates" in the schools of both. (See Pref., p. 5.) The infidel Neef, whose new method of education has been tried in our country, and with its promulgator forgot, was an accredited disciple of this boasted "productive school;" a zealous coadjutor with Pestalozzi himself, from whose halls he emanated to "teach the offspring of a free people"—to teach them the nature of things sensible, and a contempt for all the wisdom of books. And what similarity is there between his method of teaching and that of Roswell C. Smith, except their pretence to a common parentage, and that both are worthless?

24. The success of Smith's Inductive and Productive Grammars, and the fame perhaps of a certain "Grammar in Familiar Lectures," produced in 1836 a rival work from the hands of a gentleman in New Hampshire, entitled, "An Analytical Grammar of the English Language, embracing the Inductive and Productive Methods of Teaching, with Familiar Explanations in the Lecture Style" &c. This is a fair-looking duodecimo volume of three hundred pages, the character and pretensions of which, if they could be clearly stated, would throw further light upon the two fallacious schemes of teaching mentioned above. For the writer says, "This grammar professes to combine both the Inductive and Productive methods of imparting instruction, of which much has been said within a few years past"—Preface, p. iv. And again: "The inductive and productive methods of instruction contain the essence of modern improvements."—Gram., p. 139. In what these modern improvements consist, he does not inform us; but, it will be seen, that he himself claims the copyright of all the improvements which he allows to English grammar since the appearance of Murray in 1795. More than two hundred pretenders to such improvements, appear however within the time; nor is the grammarian of Holdgate the least positive of the claimants. This new purveyor for the public taste, dislikes the catering of his predecessor, who poached in the fields of Murray; and, with a tacit censure upon his productions, has honestly bought the rareties which he has served up. In this he has the advantage. He is a better writer too than some who make grammars; though no adept at composition, and a total stranger to method. To call his work a "system" is a palpable misnomer; to tell what it is, an impossibility. It is a grammatical chaos, bearing such a resemblance to Smith's or Kirkham's as one mass of confusion naturally bears to an other, yet differing from both in almost every thing that looks like order in any of the three.

25. The claimant of the combination says, "this new system of English grammar now offered to the public, embraces the principles of a 'Systematic Introduction to English Grammar,' by John L. Parkhurst; and the present author is indebted to Mr. Parkhurst for a knowledge of the manner of applying the principles involved in his peculiar method of teaching grammatical science. He is also under obligations to Mr. Parkhurst for many useful hints received several years since while under his instruction.—The copy right of Parkhurst's Grammar has been purchased by the writer of this, who alone is responsible for the present application of its definitions. Parkhurst's Systematic Introduction to English Grammar has passed through two editions, and is the first improved system of English grammar that has appeared before the public since the first introduction of Lindley Murray's English Grammar."—Sanborn's Gram., Preface, p. iii. What, then, is "THE PRODUCTIVE SYSTEM?" and with whom did it originate? The thousands of gross blunders committed by its professors, prove at least that it is no system of writing grammatically; and, whether it originated with Parkhurst or with Pestalozzi, with Sanborn or with Smith, as it is confessedly a method but "recently adopted," and, so far as appears, never fairly tested, so is it a method that needs only to be known, to be immediately and forever exploded.

26. The best instruction is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill in practice; and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctrines most directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil—which the most effectually conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon blundering ignorance. In the language of some men, there is a vividness, an energy, a power of expression, which penetrates even the soul of dullness, and leaves an impression both of words unknown and of sentiments unfelt before. Such men can teach; but he who kindly or indolently accommodates himself to ignorance, shall never be greatly instrumental in removing it. "The colloquial barbarisms of boys," says Dr. Barrow, "should never be suffered to pass without notice and censure. Provincial tones and accents, and all defects in articulation, should be corrected whenever they are heard; lest they grow into established habits, unknown, from their familiarity, to him who is guilty of them, and adopted by others, from the imitation of his manner, or their respect for his authority."—Barrow's Essays on Education, p. 88.

27. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater importance than that of parsing; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is the practice of correcting false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument; nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of discipline. There is so much to be done, in order to effect what is desirable in the management of these things; and so little prospect that education will ever be generally raised to a just appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind to habits of correct thinking; that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the author cannot but sympathize, in some degree, with the sadness of the learned Sanctius; who tells us, that he had "always lamented, and often with tears, that while other branches of learning were excellently taught, grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so much neglected, and that for this neglect there seemed to be no adequate remedy."—Pref. to Minerva. The grammatical use of language is in sweet alliance with the moral; and a similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the Christian poet:

   "Sacred Interpreter of human thought,
    How few respect or use thee as they ought!"—COWPER.

28. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the unthinking to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable book, which can attract levity to sober reflection, teach thoughtlessness the true meaning of words, raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit which attains to excellency of speech, and cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where teachers themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may be effected by means of better books, if better can be introduced. And what withstands?—Whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And is it arrogant to say there is much? Alas! in regard to this, as well as to many a weightier matter, one may too truly affirm, Multa non sunt sicut multis videntur—Many things are not as they seem to many. Common errors are apt to conceal themselves from the common mind; and the appeal to reason and just authority is often frustrated, because a wrong head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficulties: multiplicity perplexes choice; inconvenience attends change; improvement requires effort; conflicting theories demand examination; the principles of the science are unprofitably disputed; the end is often divorced from the means; and much that belies the title, has been published under the name.

29. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the important exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly written or so negligently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenile orators, little else than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of exercises should be constantly used with his grammar; but he made the examples in the former so dull and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the series agreeably to his direction. The publishing of them in a separate volume, has probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar without them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnishes, are also misplaced; and when found by the learner, are of little use. They are so verbose, awkward, irregular, and deficient, that the pupil must be either a dull boy or utterly ignorant of grammar, if he cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better English. They are also very meagre as a whole, and altogether inadequate to their purpose; many things that frequently occur in the language, not being at all exemplified in them, or even explained in the grammar itself. When we consider how exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully, we cannot think it a light objection that these forms, so often to be repeated, are so badly written. Nor does the objection lie against this writer only: "Ab uno disce omnes." But the reader may demand some illustrations.[61]

30. First—from his etymological parsing: "O Virtue! how amiable thou art!" Here his form for the word Virtue is—"Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, of the third person, in the singular number, and the nominative case."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 2. It should have been—"Virtue is a common noun, personified proper, of the second person, singular number, feminine gender, and nominative case." And then the definitions of all these things should have followed in regular numerical order. He gives the class of this noun wrong, for virtue addressed becomes an individual; he gives the gender wrong, and in direct contradiction to what he says of the word in his section on gender; he gives the person wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun thou, which represents it; he repeats the definite article three times unnecessarily, and inserts two needless prepositions, making them different where the relation is precisely the same: and all this, in a sentence of two lines, to tell the properties of the noun Virtue!—But further: in etymological parsing, the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech, ought to be regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all of them become perfectly familiar; and till he can discern, with the quickness of thought, what alone will be true for the full description of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits; and, on account of this omission, his whole method of etymological parsing is, miserably deficient.[62]

31. Secondly—from his syntactical parsing: "Vice degrades us." Here his form for the word Vice is—"Vice is a common substantive, of the third person, in the singular number, and the nominative case."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 9. Now, when the learner is told that this is the syntactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course conclude, that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is merely, to omit the gender—this being the only difference between the two forms. But even this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing his octavo book of exercises—the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what then? Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymological? Never. But Murray, and all who admire and follow his work, are content to parse many words by halves—making, or pretending to make, a necessary distinction, and yet often omitting, in both parts of the exercise, every thing which constitutes the difference. He should here have said—"Vice is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of degrades; according to the rule which says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is—vice degrades." This is the whole description of the word, with its construction; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished.

32. Thirdly—from his "Mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences:" Take his first example: "The man is prudent which speaks little." (How far silence is prudence, depends upon circumstances: I waive that question.) The learner is here taught to say, "This sentence is incorrect; because which is a pronoun of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender with its antecedent man, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, &c. according to the fifth rule of syntax. Which should therefore be who, a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent man; and the sentence should stand thus: 'The man is prudent who speaks little.'"—Murray's Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 18; Exercises, 12mo, p. xii. Again: "'After I visited Europe, I returned to America.' This sentence," says Murray, "is not correct; because the verb visited is in the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, but prior to the time referred to by the verb returned, to which it relates. By the thirteenth rule of syntax, when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each other, the order of time should be observed. The imperfect tense visited should therefore have been had visited, in the pluperfect tense, representing the action of visiting, not only as past, but also as prior to the time of returning. The sentence corrected would stand thus: 'After I had visited Europe, I returned to America.'"—Gr., ii, p. 19; and Ex. 12mo, p. xii. These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal corrections, and the only ones retained by Alger, in his improved, recopy-righted edition of Murray's Exercises. Yet, in each of them, is the argumentation palpably false! In the former, truly, which should be who; but not because which is "of the neuter gender;" but because the application of that relative to persons, is now nearly obsolete. Can any grammarian forget that, in speaking of brute animals, male or female, we commonly use which, and never who? But if which must needs be neuter, the world is wrong in this.—As for the latter example, it is right as it stands; and the correction is, in some sort, tautological. The conjunctive adverb after makes one of the actions subsequent to the other, and gives to the visiting all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect tense. "After I visited Europe," is equivalent to "When I had visited Europe." The whole argument is therefore void.[63]

33. These few brief illustrations, out of thousands that might be adduced in proof of the faultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show that even in the most popular books, with all the pretended improvements of revisers, the grammar of our language has never been treated with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be supposed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such books as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, in respect to grammar, the consciousness of failure is constantly inducing changes from one system to another, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly to end in the same disappointment; perhaps the practical instructions of an experienced teacher, long and assiduously devoted to the study, may approve themselves to many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance which they require.

34. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of details to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no embellishment. A writer may express them with neatness and perspicuity—their importance alone can commend them to notice. Yet, in drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature, the grammarian may select some gems of thought, which will fasten on the memory a worthy sentiment, or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples have been taken from various authors, and interspersed through the following pages. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost importance, it is especially incumbent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intellectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those whom they instruct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been solicitous to avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader; and of the several thousands of quotations introduced for the illustration or application of the principles of the science, he trusts that the greater part will be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain.

35. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality which are to be commended in works of this sort. What these are, according to his view, he has sufficiently explained in a preceding chapter. And, though he has taken the liberty of a grammarian, to think for himself and write in a style of his own, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which gives law to language. In criticising the critics and grammatists of the schools, he has taken them upon their own ground—showing their errors, for the most part, in contrast with the common principles which they themselves have taught; and has hoped to escape censure, in his turn, not by sheltering himself under the name of a popular master, but by a diligence which should secure to his writings at least the humble merit of self-consistency. His progress in composing this work has been slow, and not unattended with labour and difficulty. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various treatises already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated a subject, he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explanations which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with his ultimate object—the production of a work which should show, both extensively and accurately, what is, and what is not, good English.

36. The great art of meritorious authorship lies chiefly in the condensation of much valuable thought into few words. Although the author has here allowed himself ampler room than before, he has still been no less careful to store it with such information as he trusted would prevent the ingenious reader from wishing its compass less. He has compressed into this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials in comparison with which the book is still exceedingly small. The effort to do this, has greatly multiplied his own labour and long delayed the promised publication; but in proportion as this object has been reached, the time and patience of the student must have been saved. Adequate compensation for this long toil, has never been expected. Whether from this performance any profit shall accrue to the author or not, is a matter of little consequence; he has neither written for bread, nor on the credit of its proceeds built castles in the air. His ambition was, to make an acceptable book, by which the higher class of students might be thoroughly instructed, and in which the eyes of the critical would find little to condemn. He is too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune of authors, to indulge in any confident anticipations of extraordinary success: yet he will not deny that his hopes are large, being conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feeling which cannot fear disappointment. In this temper he would invite the reader to a thorough perusal of these pages.

37. A grammar should speak for itself. In a work of this nature, every word or tittle which does not recommend the performance to the understanding and taste of the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against it. Yet if some small errors shall have escaped detection, let it be recollected that it is almost impossible to compose and print, with perfect accuracy, a work of this size, in which so many little things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. There is no human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle, and minuteness sometimes elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject; but there is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason alluring. "Quo difficilius, hoc præclarius," says Cicero; "The more difficult, the more honourable." The merit of casting up a high-way in a rugged land, is proportionate not merely to the utility of the achievement, but to the magnitude of the obstacles to be overcome. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in public, first gave the author a fondness for grammar; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assiduity which no man will ever imitate for the sake of pecuniary recompense.

CHAPTER X.

OF GRAMMATICAL DEFINITIONS.

"Scientiam autem nusquam esse censebant, nisi in animi motionibus atque rationibus: quâ de causâ definitiones rerum probabant, et has ad omnia, de quibus disceptabatur, adhibebant."—CICERONIS Academica, Lib. i, 9.

1. "The first and highest philosophy," says Puffendorf, "is that which delivers the most accurate and comprehensive definitions of things." Had all the writers on English grammar been adepts in this philosophy, there would have been much less complaint of the difficulty and uncertainty of the study. "It is easy," says Murray, "to advance plausible objections against almost every definition, rule, and arrangement of grammar."—Gram., 8vo, p. 59. But, if this is true, as regards his, or any other work, the reason, I am persuaded, is far less inherent in the nature of the subject than many have supposed.[64] Objectionable definitions and rules are but evidences of the ignorance and incapacity of him who frames them. And if the science of grammar has been so unskillfully treated that almost all its positions may be plausibly impugned, it is time for some attempt at a reformation of the code. The language is before us, and he who knows most about it, can best prescribe the rules which we ought to observe in the use of it. But how can we expect children to deduce from a few particulars an accurate notion of general principles and their exceptions, where learned doctors have so often faltered? Let the abettors of grammatical "induction" answer.

2. Nor let it be supposed a light matter to prescribe with certainty the principles of grammar. For, what is requisite to the performance? To know certainly, in the first place, what is the best usage. Nor is this all. Sense and memory must be keen, and tempered to retain their edge and hold, in spite of any difficulties which the subject may present. To understand things exactly as they are; to discern the differences by which they may be distinguished, and the resemblances by which they ought to be classified; to know, through the proper evidences of truth, that our ideas, or conceptions, are rightly conformable to the nature, properties, and relations, of the objects of which we think; to see how that which is complex may be resolved into its elements, and that which is simple may enter into combination; to observe how that which is consequent may be traced to its cause, and that which is regular be taught by rule; to learn from the custom of speech the proper connexion between words and ideas, so as to give to the former a just application, to the latter an adequate expression, and to things a just description; to have that penetration which discerns what terms, ideas, or things, are definable, and therefore capable of being taught, and what must be left to the teaching of nature: these are the essential qualifications for him who would form good definitions; these are the elements of that accuracy and comprehensiveness of thought, to which allusion has been made, and which are characteristic of "the first and highest philosophy."

3. Again, with reference to the cultivation of the mind, I would add: To observe accurately the appearances of things, and the significations of words; to learn first principles first, and proceed onward in such a manner that every new truth may help to enlighten and strengthen the understanding; and thus to comprehend gradually, according to our capacity, whatsoever may be brought within the scope of human intellect:—to do these things, I say, is, to ascend by sure steps, so far as we may, from the simplest elements of science—which, in fact, are our own, original, undefinable notices of things—towards the very topmost height of human wisdom and knowledge. The ancient saying, that truth lies hid, or in the bottom of a well, must not be taken without qualification; for "the first and highest philosophy" has many principles which even a child may understand. These several suggestions, the first of which the Baron de Puffendorf thought not unworthy to introduce his great work on the Law of Nature and of Nations, the reader, if he please, may bear in mind, as he peruses the following digest of the laws and usages of speech.

4. "Definitions," says Duncan, in his Elements of Logic, "are intended to make known the meaning of words standing for complex ideas;[65] and were we always careful to form those ideas exactly in our minds, and copy our definitions from that appearance, much of the confusion and obscurity complained of in languages might be prevented."—P. 70. Again he says: "The writings of the mathematicians are a clear proof, how much the advancement of human knowledge depends upon a right use of definitions."—P. 72. Mathematical science has been supposed to be, in its own nature, that which is best calculated to develop and strengthen the reasoning faculty; but, as speech is emphatically the discourse of reason, I am persuaded, that had the grammarians been equally clear and logical in their instructions, their science would never have been accounted inferior in this respect. Grammar is perhaps the most comprehensive of all studies; but it is chiefly owing to the unskillfulness of instructors, and to the errors and defects of the systems in use, that it is commonly regarded as the most dry and difficult.

5. "Poor Scaliger (who well knew what a definition should be) from his own melancholy experience exclaimed—'Nihil infelicius grammatico definitore!' Nothing is more unhappy than the grammatical definer."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 238. Nor do our later teachers appear to have been more fortunate in this matter. A majority of all the definitions and rules contained in the great multitude of English grammars which I have examined, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. The nature of their multitudinous faults, I must in general leave to the discernment of the reader, except the passages be such as may be suitably selected for examples of false syntax. Enough, however, will be exhibited, in the course of this volume, to make the foregoing allegation credible; and of the rest a more accurate judgement may perhaps be formed, when they shall have been compared with what this work will present as substitutes. The importance of giving correct definitions to philological terms, and of stating with perfect accuracy whatsoever is to be learned as doctrine, has never been duly appreciated. The grand source of the disheartening difficulties encountered by boys in the study of grammar, lies in their ignorance of the meaning of words. This cause of embarrassment is not to be shunned and left untouched; but, as far as possible, it ought to be removed. In teaching grammar, or indeed any other science, we cannot avoid the use of many terms to which young learners may have attached no ideas. Being little inclined or accustomed to reflection, they often hear, read, or even rehearse from memory, the plainest language that can be uttered, and yet have no very distinct apprehension of what it means. What marvel then, that in a study abounding with terms taken in a peculiar or technical sense, many of which, in the common manuals, are either left undefined, or are explained but loosely or erroneously, they should often be greatly puzzled, and sometimes totally discouraged?

6. Simple ideas are derived, not from teaching, but from sensation or consciousness; but complex ideas, or the notions which we have of such things as consist of various parts, or such as stand in any known relations, are definable. A person can have no better definition of heat, or of motion, than what he will naturally get by moving towards a fire. Not so of our complex or general ideas, which constitute science. The proper objects of scientific instruction consist in those genuine perceptions of pure mind, which form the true meaning of generic names, or common nouns; and he who is properly qualified to teach, can for the most part readily tell what should be understood by such words. But are not many teachers too careless here? For instance: a boy commencing the process of calculation, is first told, that, "Arithmetic is the art of computing by numbers," which sentence he partly understands; but should he ask his teacher, "What is a number, in arithmetic?" what answer will he get? Were Goold Brown so asked, he would simply say, "A number, in arithmetic, is an expression that tells how many;" for every expression that tells how many, is a number in arithmetic, and nothing else is. But as no such definition is contained in the books,[66] there are ten chances to one, that, simple as the matter is, the readiest master you shall find, will give an erroneous answer. Suppose the teacher should say, "That is a question which I have not thought of; turn to your dictionary." The boy reads from Dr. Webster: "NUMBER—the designation of a unit in reference to other units, or in reckoning, counting, enumerating."—"Yes," replies the master, "that is it; Dr. Webster is unrivalled in giving definitions." Now, has the boy been instructed, or only puzzled? Can he conceive how the number five can be a unit? or how the word five, the figure 5, or the numeral letter V, is "the designation of a unit?" He knows that each of these is a number, and that the oral monosyllable five is the same number, in an other form; but is still as much at a loss for a proper answer to his question, as if he had never seen either schoolmaster or dictionary. So is it with a vast number of the simplest things in grammar.

7. Since what we denominate scientific terms, are seldom, if ever, such as stand for ideas simple and undefinable; and since many of those which represent general ideas, or classes of objects, may be made to stand for more or fewer things, according to the author's notion of classification; it is sufficiently manifest that the only process by which instruction can effectually reach the understanding of the pupil and remove the difficulties spoken of, is that of delivering accurate definitions. These are requisite for the information and direction of the learner; and these must be thoroughly impressed upon his mind, as the only means by which he can know exactly how much and what he is to understand by our words. The power which we possess, of making known all our complex or general ideas of things by means of definitions, is a faculty wisely contrived in the nature of language, for the increase and spread of science; and, in the hands of the skillful, it is of vast avail to these ends. It is "the first and highest philosophy," instructing mankind, to think clearly and speak accurately; as well as to know definitely, in the unity and permanence of a general nature, those things which never could be known or spoken of as the individuals of an infinite and fleeting multitude.

8. And, without contradiction, the shortest and most successful way of teaching the young mind to distinguish things according to their proper differences, and to name or describe them aright, is, to tell in direct terms what they severally are. Cicero intimates that all instruction appealing to reason ought to proceed in this manner: "Omnis enim quse à ratione suscipitur de re aliqua institutio, debet à definitione proficisci, ut intelligatur quid sit id, de quo disputetur."—Off. Lib. i, p. 4. Literally thus: "For all instruction which from reason is undertaken concerning any thing, ought to proceed from a definition, that it may be understood what the thing is, about which the speaker is arguing." Little advantage, however, will be derived from any definition, which is not, as Quintilian would have it, "Lucida et succincta rei descriptio,"—"a clear and brief description of the thing."

9. Let it here be observed that scientific definitions are of things, and not merely of words; or if equally of words and things, they are rather of nouns than of the other parts of speech. For a definition, in the proper sense of the term, consists not in a mere change or explanation of the verbal sign, but in a direct and true answer to the question, What is such or such a thing? In respect to its extent, it must with equal exactness include every thing which comes under the name, and exclude every thing which does not come under the name: then will it perfectly serve the purpose for which it is intended. To furnish such definitions, (as I have suggested,) is work for those who are capable of great accuracy both of thought and expression. Those who would qualify themselves for teaching any particular branch of knowledge, should make it their first concern to acquire clear and accurate ideas of all things that ought to be embraced in their instructions. These ideas are to be gained, either by contemplation upon the things themselves as they are presented naturally, or by the study of those books in which they are rationally and clearly explained. Nor will such study ever be irksome to him whose generous desire after knowledge, is thus deservedly gratified.

10. But it must be understood, that although scientific definitions are said to be of things, they are not copied immediately from the real essence of the things, but are formed from the conceptions of the author's mind concerning that essence. Hence, as Duncan justly remarks, "A mistaken idea never fails to occasion a mistake also in the definition." Hence, too, the common distinction of the logicians, between definitions of the name and definitions of the thing, seems to have little or no foundation. The former term they applied to those definitions which describe the objects of pure intellection, such as triangles, and other geometrical figures; the latter, to those which define objects actually existing in external nature. The mathematical definitions, so noted for their certainty and completeness, have been supposed to have some peculiar preëminence, as belonging to the former class. But, in fact the idea of a triangle exists as substantively in the mind, as that of a tree, if not indeed more so; and if I define these two objects, my description will, in either case, be equally a definition both of the name and of the thing; but in neither, is it copied from any thing else than that notion which I have conceived, of the common properties of all triangles or of all trees.

11. Infinitives, and some other terms not called nouns, may be taken abstractly or substantively, so as to admit of what may be considered a regular definition; thus the question, "What is it to read?" is nearly the same as, "What is reading?" "What is it to be wise?" is little different from, "What is wisdom?" and a true answer might be, in either case, a true definition. Nor are those mere translations or explanations of words, with which our dictionaries and vocabularies abound, to be dispensed with in teaching: they prepare the student to read various authors with facility, and furnish him with a better choice of terms, when he attempts to write. And in making such choice, let him remember, that as affectation of hard words makes composition ridiculous, so the affectation of easy and common ones may make it unmanly. But not to digress. With respect to grammar, we must sometimes content ourselves with such explications of its customary terms, as cannot claim to be perfect definitions; for the most common and familiar things are not always those which it is the most easy to define. When Dr. Johnson was asked, "What is poetry?" he replied, "Why, sir, it is easier to tell what it is not. We all know what light is: but it is not easy to tell what it is."—Boswell's Life of Johnson, Vol. iii, p. 402. This was thought by the biographer to have been well and ingeniously said.

12. But whenever we encounter difficulties of this sort, it may be worth while to seek for their cause. If we find it, the understanding is no longer puzzled. Dr. Johnson seemed to his biographer, to show, by this ready answer, the acuteness of his wit and discernment. But did not the wit consist in adroitly excusing himself, by an illusory comparison? What analogy is there between the things which he compares? Of the difficulty of defining poetry, and the difficulty of defining light, the reasons are as different as are the two things themselves, poetry and light. The former is something so various and complex that it is hard to distinguish its essence from its accidents; the latter presents an idea so perfectly simple and unique that all men conceive of it exactly in the same way, while none can show wherein it essentially consists. But is it true, that, "We all know what light is?" Is it not rather true, that we know nothing at all about it, but what it is just as easy to tell as to think? We know it is that reflexible medium which enables us to see; and this is definition enough for all but the natively blind, to whom no definition perhaps can ever convey an adequate notion of its use in respect to sight.

13. If a person cannot tell what a thing is, it is commonly considered to be a fair inference, that he does not know. Will any grammarian say, "I know well enough what the thing is, but I cannot tell?" Yet, taken upon this common principle, the authors of our English grammars, (if in framing their definitions they have not been grossly wanting to themselves in the exercise of their own art,) may be charged, I think, with great ignorance, or great indistinctness of apprehension; and that, too, in relation to many things among the very simplest elements of their science. For example: Is it not a disgrace to a man of letters, to be unable to tell accurately what a letter is? Yet to say, with Lowth, Murray, Churchill, and a hundred others of inferior name, that, "A letter is the first principle or least part of a word," is to utter what is neither good English nor true doctrine. The two articles a and the are here inconsistent with each other. "A letter" is one letter, any letter; but "the first principle of a word" is, surely, not one or any principle taken indefinitely. Equivocal as the phrase is, it must mean either some particular principle, or some particular first principle, of a word; and, taken either way, the assertion is false. For it is manifest, that in no sense can we affirm of each of the letters of a word, that it is "the first principle" of that word. Take, for instance, the word man. Is m the first principle of this word? You may answer, "Yes; for it is the first letter." Is a the first principle? "No; it is the second." But n too is a letter; and is n the first principle? "No; it is the last!" This grammatical error might have been avoided by saying, "Letters are the first principles, or least parts, of words." But still the definition would not be true, nor would it answer the question, What is a letter? The true answer to which is: "A letter is an alphabetic character, which commonly represents some elementary sound of human articulation, or speech."

14. This true definition sufficiently distinguishes letters from the marks used in punctuation, because the latter are not alphabetic, and they represent silence, rather than sound; and also from the Arabic figures used for numbers, because these are no part of any alphabet, and they represent certain entire words, no one of which consists only of one letter, or of a single element of articulation. The same may be said of all the characters used for abbreviation; as, & for and, $ for dollars, or the marks peculiar to mathematicians, to astronomers, to druggists, &c. None of these are alphabetic, and they represent significant words, and not single elementary sounds: it would be great dullness, to assume that a word and an elementary sound are one and the same thing. But the reader will observe that this definition embraces no idea contained in the faulty one to which I am objecting; neither indeed could it, without a blunder. So wide from the mark is that notion of a letter, which the popularity of Dr. Lowth and his copyists has made a hundred-fold more common than any other![67] According to an other erroneous definition given by these same gentlemen, "Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas."—Murray's Gram., p. 22; Kirkham's, 20; Ingersoll's, 7; Alger's, 12; Russell's, 7; Merchant's, 9; Fisk's, 11; Greenleaf's, 20; and many others. See Lowth's Gram., p. 6; from which almost all authors have taken the notion, that words consist of "sounds" only. But letters are no principles or parts of sounds at all; unless you will either have visible marks to be sounds, or the sign to be a principle or part of the thing signified. Nor are they always principles or parts of words: we sometimes write what is not a word; as when, by letters, we denote pronunciation alone, or imitate brute voices. If words were formed of articulate sounds only, they could not exist in books, or be in any wise known to the deaf and dumb. These two primary definitions, then, are both false; and, taken together, they involve the absurdity of dividing things acknowledged to be indivisible. In utterance, we cannot divide consonants from their vowels; on paper, we can. Hence letters are the least parts of written language only; but the least parts of spoken words are syllables, and not letters. Every definition of a consonant implies this.

15. They who cannot define a letter or a word, may be expected to err in explaining other grammatical terms. In my opinion, nothing is well written, that can possibly be misunderstood; and if any definition be likely to suggest a wrong idea, this alone is enough to condemn it: nor does it justify the phraseology, to say, that a more reasonable construction can be put upon it. By Murray and others, the young learner is told, that, "A vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself;" as if a vowel were nothing but a sound, and that a sort of echo, which can utter itself; and next, that, "A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel." Now, by their own showing, every letter is either a vowel or a consonant; hence, according to these definitions, all the letters are articulate sounds. And, if so, what is a "silent letter?" It is a silent articulate sound! Again: ask a boy, "What is a triphthong?" He answers in the words of Murray, Weld, Pond, Smith, Adams, Kirkham, Merchant, Ingersoll, Bacon, Alger, Worcester, and others: "A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner: as eau in beau, iew in view." He accurately cites an entire paragraph from his grammar, but does he well conceive how the three vowels in beau or view are "pronounced in like manner?" Again: "A syllable is a sound, either simple or compound, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 22. This definition resolves syllables into sounds; whereas their true elements are letters. It also mistakes the participle compounded for the adjective compound; whereas the latter only is the true reverse of simple. A compound sound is a sound composed of others which may be separated; a sound compounded is properly that which is made an ingredient with others, but which may itself be simple.

16. It is observable, that in their attempts to explain these prime elements of grammar, Murray, and many others who have copied him, overlook all written language; whereas their very science itself took its origin, name, and nature, from the invention of writing; and has consequently no bearing upon any dialect which has not been written. Their definitions absurdly resolve letters, vowels, consonants, syllables, and words, all into sounds; as if none of these things had any existence on paper, or any significance to those who read in silence. Hence, their explanations of all these elements, as well as of many other things equally essential to the study, are palpably erroneous. I attribute this to the carelessness with which men have compiled or made up books of grammar; and that carelessness to those various circumstances, already described, which have left diligence in a grammarian no hope of praise or reward. Without alluding here to my own books, no one being obliged to accuse himself, I doubt whether we have any school grammar that is much less objectionable in this respect, than Murray's; and yet I am greatly mistaken, if nine tenths of all the definitions in Murray's system are not faulty. "It was this sort of definitions, which made Scaliger say, 'Nihil infelicius definitore grammatico.'"—See Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 351; also Paragraph 5th, above.

17. Nor can this objection be neutralized by saying, it is a mere matter of opinion—a mere prejudice originating in rivalry. For, though we have ample choice of terms, and may frequently assign to particular words a meaning and an explanation which are in some degree arbitrary; yet whenever we attempt to define things under the name which custom has positively fixed upon them, we are no longer left to arbitrary explications; but are bound to think and to say that only which shall commend itself to the understanding of others, as being altogether true to nature. When a word is well understood to denote a particular object or class of objects, the definition of it ought to be in strict conformity to what is known of the real being and properties of the thing or things contemplated. A definition of this kind is a proposition susceptible of proof and illustration; and therefore whatsoever is erroneously assumed to be the proper meaning of such a term, may be refuted. But those persons who take every thing upon trust, and choose both to learn and to teach mechanically, often become so slavishly habituated to the peculiar phraseology of their text-books, that, be the absurdity of a particular expression what it may, they can neither discover nor suspect any inaccuracy in it. It is also very natural even for minds more independent and acute, to regard with some reverence whatsoever was gravely impressed upon them in childhood. Hence the necessity that all school-books should proceed from skillful hands. Instruction should tell things as they are, and never falter through negligence.

18. I have admitted that definitions are not the only means by which a general knowledge of the import of language may be acquired; nor are they the only means by which the acquisition of such knowledge may be aided. To exhibit or point out things and tell their names, constitutes a large part of that instruction by which the meaning of words is conveyed to the young mind; and, in many cases, a mere change or apposition of terms may sufficiently explain our idea. But when we would guard against the possibility of misapprehension, and show precisely what is meant by a word, we must fairly define it. There are, however, in every language, many words which do not admit of a formal definition. The import of all definitive and connecting particles must be learned from usage, translation, or derivation; and nature reserves to herself the power of explaining the objects of our simple original perceptions. "All words standing for complex ideas are definable; but those by which we denote simple ideas, are not. For the perceptions of this latter class, having no other entrance into the mind, than by sensation or reflection, can be acquired only by experience."—Duncan's Logic, p. 63. "And thus we see, that as our simple ideas are the materials and foundation of knowledge, so the names of simple ideas may be considered as the elementary parts of language, beyond which we cannot trace the meaning and signification of words. When we come to them, we suppose the ideas for which they stand to be already known; or, if they are not, experience alone must be consulted, and not definitions or explications."—Ibid., p. 69.

19. But this is no apology for the defectiveness of any definition which might be made correct, or for the effectiveness of our English grammars, in the frequent omission of all explanation, and the more frequent adoption of some indirect form of expression. It is often much easier to make some loose observation upon what is meant by a given word or term in science, than to frame a faultless definition of the thing; because it is easier to refer to some of the relations, qualities, offices, or attributes of things, than to discern wherein their essence consists, so as to be able to tell directly and clearly what they are. The improvement of our grammatical code in this respect, was one of the principal objects which I thought it needful to attempt, when I first took up the pen as a grammarian. I cannot pretend to have seen, of course, every definition and rule which has been published on this subject; but, if I do not misjudge a service too humble for boasting, I have myself framed a greater number of new or improved ones, than all other English grammarians together. And not a few of them have, since their first publication in 1823, been complimented to a place in other grammars than my own. This is in good keeping with the authorship which has been spoken of in an other chapter; but I am constrained to say, it affords no proof that they were well written. If it did, the definitions and rules in Murray's grammar must undoubtedly be thought the most correct that ever have been given: they have been more frequently copied than any others.

20. But I have ventured to suggest, that nine tenths of this author's definitions are bad, or at least susceptible of some amendment. If this can be shown to the satisfaction of the reader, will he hope to find an other English grammar in which the eye of criticism may not detect errors and deficiencies with the same ease? My object is, to enforce attention to the proprieties of speech; and this is the very purpose of all grammar. To exhibit here all Murray's definitions, with criticisms upon them, would detain us too long. We must therefore be content to take a part of them as a sample. And, not to be accused of fixing only upon the worst, we will take a series. Let us then consider in their order his definitions of the nine parts of speech;—for, calling the participle a verb, he reduces the sorts of words to that number. And though not one of his nine definitions now stands exactly as it did in his early editions, I think it may be said, that not one of them is now, if it ever has been, expressed grammatically.

21. FIRST DEFINITION:—"An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point them out, and to show how far their[68] signification extends."—Murray, and others, from, Lowth's Gram., p. 10. This is obscure. In what manner, or in what respect, does an article point out substantives? To point them out as such, or to show which words are substantives, seems at first view to be the meaning intended; but it is said soon after, "A or an is used in a vague sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate; as, 'Give me a book;' 'Bring me an apple.'"—Lowth, p. 11; Murray, p. 31. And again: "It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the thing spoken of."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 170. Now to point out nouns among the parts of speech, and to point out things as individuals of their class, are very different matters; and which of these is the purpose for which articles are used, according to Lowth and Murray? Their definition says the former, their explanations imply the latter; and I am unable to determine which they really meant. The term placed before would have been better than "prefixed;" because the latter commonly implies junction, as well as location. The word "indeterminate" is not a very easy one for a boy; and, when he has found out what it means, he may possibly not know to which of the four preceding nouns it ought to be referred:—"in a vague sense, to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate." What is this "vague sense?" and what is it, that is "indeterminate?"

22. SECOND DEFINITION:—"A Substantive or Noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any notion."—Murray, and others. According to his own syntax, this sentence of Murray's is wrong; for he himself suggests, that when two or more relative clauses refer to the same antecedent, the same pronoun should be used in each. Of clauses connected like these, this is true. He should therefore have said, "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing which exists, or of which we have any notion." His rule, however, though good against a text like this, is utterly wrong in regard to many others, and not very accurate in taking two for a "series" thus: "Whatever relative is used, in one of a series of clauses relating to the same antecedent, the same relative ought, generally to be used in them all. In the following sentence, this rule is violated: 'It is remarkable, that Holland, against which the war was undertaken, and that, in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing.' The clause ought to have been, 'and which in the very beginning.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 155. But both the rule and the example, badly as they correspond, were borrowed from Priestley's Grammar, p. 102, where the text stands thus: "Whatever relative be used, in one of a series of clauses, relating to the same antecedent, the same ought to be used in them all. 'It is remarkable, that Holland,'" &c.

23. THIRD DEFINITION:—"An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, to express its quality."—Lowth, Murray, Bullions, Pond, and others. Here we have the choice of two meanings; but neither of them is according to truth. It seems doubtful whether "its quality" is the adjective's quality, or the substantive's; but in either sense, the phrase is false; for an adjective is added to a noun, not to express any quality either of the adjective or of the noun, but to express some quality of the thing signified by the noun. But the definition is too much restricted; for adjectives may be added to pronouns as well as to nouns, nor do they always express quality.

24. FOURTH DEFINITION:—"A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 25; Murray's, 28 and 50; Felton's, 18; Alger's, 13; Bacon's, 10; and others. The latter part of this sentence is needless, and also contains several errors. 1. The verb avoid is certainly very ill-chosen; because it implies intelligent agency, and not that which is merely instrumental. 2. The article the is misemployed for a; for, "the too frequent repetition," should mean some particular too frequent repetition—an idea not intended here, and in itself not far from absurdity. 3. The phrase, "the same word" may apply to the pronoun itself as well as to the noun: in saying, "I came, I saw, I conquered," there is as frequent a repetition of the same word, as in saying, "Cæsar came, Cæsar saw, Cæsar conquered." If, therefore, the latter part of this definition must be retained, the whole should be written thus: "A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to prevent too frequent a repetition of it."

25. FIFTH DEFINITION:—"A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer"—Lowth, Murray, and others. NOTE:—"A verb may generally be distinguished by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it."—Murray, and others. It is confessedly difficult to give a perfect definition of a verb; and if, with Murray, we will have the participles to be verbs, there must be no small difficulty in forming one that shall be tolerable. Against the foregoing old explanation, it may be objected, that the phrase to suffer, being now understood in a more limited sense than formerly, does not well express the nature or import of a passive verb. I have said, "A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon." Children cannot readily understand, how every thing that is in any way acted upon, may be said to suffer. The participle, I think, should be taken as a distinct part of speech, and have its own definition. The note added by Murray to his definition of a verb, would prove the participle not to be included in this part of speech, and thus practically contradict his scheme. It is also objectionable in respect to construction. The phrase "by its making sense" is at least very questionable English; for "its making" supposes making to be a noun, and "making sense" supposes it to be an active participle. But Lowth says, "Let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its own construction." Nay, the author himself, though he therein contradicts an other note of his own, virtually condemns the phrase, by his caution to the learner against treating words in ing, "as if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 193.

26. SIXTH DEFINITION:—"An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some quality or circumstance respecting it."—Murray's Gram., pp. 28 and 114. See Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 47. This definition contains many errors; some of which are gross blunders. 1. The first word, "An," is erroneously put for The: an adverb is one adverb, not the whole class; and, if, "An adverb is a part of speech," any and every adverb is a part of speech; then, how many parts of speech are there? 2. The word "joined" is not well chosen; for, with the exception of not in cannot, the adverb is very rarely joined to the word to which it relates. 3. The want of a comma before joined, perverts the construction; for the phrase, "speech joined to a verb," is nonsense; and to suppose joined to relate to the noun part, is not much better. 4. The word "and" should be or; because no adverb is ever added to three or four different terms at once. 5. The word "sometimes" should be omitted; because it is needless, and because it is inconsistent with the only conjunction which will make the definition true. 6. The preposition "to" should either be inserted before "an adjective," or suppressed before the term which follows; for when several words occur in the same construction, uniformity of expression is desirable. 7. For the same reason, (if custom may be thus far conformed to analogy,) the article "an" ought, in cases like this, if not always, to be separated from the word other; thus, "An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb." Were the eye not familiar with it, another would be thought as irregular as theother. 8. The word "quality" is wrong; for no adverb ever expresses any quality, as such; qualities are expressed by adjectives, and never, in any direct manner, by adverbs. 9. The "circumstances" which we express by adverbs never belong to the words, as this definition avers that they do, but always to the actions or qualities which the words signify. 10. The pronoun it, according to Murray's second rule of syntax, ought to be them, and so it stands in his own early editions; but if and be changed to or, as I have said it should be, the pronoun it will be right.

27. SEVENTH DEFINITION:—"Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and to show the relation between them."—Lowth, Murray, and others. This is only an observation, not a definition, as it ought to have been; nor does it at all distinguish the preposition from the conjunction. It does not reach the thing in question. Besides, it contains an actual solecism in the expression. The word "between" implies but two things; and the phrase "one another" is not applicable where there are but two. It should be, "to connect words with each other, and to show the relation between them;"—or else, "to connect words with one an other, and to show the relations among them." But the latter mode of expression would not apply to prepositions considered severally, but only to the whole class.

28. EIGHTH DEFINITION:—"A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences; so as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one: it sometimes connects only words."—Murray, and others. Here are more than thirty words, awkwardly and loosely strung together; and all that is said in them, might be much better expressed in half the number. For example: "A Conjunction is a word which connects other terms, and commonly of two sentences makes but one." But verbosity and want of unity are not the worst faults of this definition. We have three others to point out. 1. "A conjunction is" not "a part of speech;" because a conjunction is one conjunction, and a part of speech is a whole class, or sort, of words. A similar error was noticed in Murray's definition of an adverb; and so common has this blunder become, that by a comparison of the definitions which different authors have given of the parts of speech, probably it will be found, that, by some hand or other, every one of the ten has been commenced in this way. 2. The words "or more" are erroneous, and ought to be omitted; for no one conjunction can connect more than two terms, in that consecutive order which the sense requires. Three or more simple sentences may indeed form a compound sentence; but, as they cannot be joined in a cluster, they must have two or more connectives. 3. The last clause erroneously suggests, that any or every conjunction "sometimes connects only words;" but the conjunctions which may connect only words, are not more than five, whereas those which connect only sentences are four times as many.

29. NINTH DEFINITION:—"Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speaker; as, 'O Virtue! how amiable thou art!'"—Murray, and many others. This definition, which has been copied from grammar to grammar, and committed to memory millions of times, is obviously erroneous, and directly contradicted by the example. Interjections, though often enough thrown in between the parts of a discourse, are very rarely "thrown in between the parts of a sentence." They more frequently occur at the beginning of a sentence than any where else; and, in such cases, they do not come under this narrow definition. The author, at the head of his chapter on interjections, appends to this definition two other examples; both of which contradict it in like manner: "Oh! I have alienated my friend."—"Alas! I fear for life." Again: Interjections are used occasionally, in written, as well as in oral discourse; nor are they less indicative of the emotions of the writer, than of those "of the speaker."

30. I have thus exhibited, with all intentional fairness of criticism, the entire series of these nine primary definitions; and the reader may judge whether they sustain the praises which have been bestowed on the book,[69] or confirm the allegations which I have made against it. He will understand that my design is, here, as well as in the body of this work, to teach grammar practically, by rectifying, so far as I may, all sorts of mistakes either in it or respecting it; to compose a book which, by a condensed exposition of such errors as are commonly found in other grammars, will at once show the need we have of a better, and be itself a fit substitute for the principal treatises which it censures. Grammatical errors are universally considered to be small game for critics. They must therefore be very closely grouped together, to be worth their room in this work. Of the tens of thousands who have learned for grammar a multitude of ungrammatical definitions and rules, comparatively few will ever know what I have to say of their acquisitions. But this I cannot help. To the readers of the present volume it is due, that its averments should be clearly illustrated by particular examples; and it is reasonable that these should be taken from the most accredited sources, whether they do honour to their framers or not. My argument is only made so much the stronger, as the works which furnish its proofs, are the more esteemed, the more praised, or the more overrated.

31. Murray tells us, "There is no necessary connexion between words and ideas."—Octavo Gram., Vol. i, p. 139. Though this, as I before observed, is not altogether true, he doubtless had very good reason to distinguish, in his teaching, "between the sign and the thing signified." Yet, in his own definitions and explanations, he frequently confounds these very things which he declares to be so widely different as not even to have a "necessary connexion." Errors of this kind are very common in all our English grammars. Two instances occur in the following sentence; which also contains an error in doctrine, and is moreover obscure, or rather, in its literal sense, palpably absurd: "To substantives belong gender, number, and case; and they are all of the third person when spoken of, and of the second person when spoken to."—Murray's Gram., p. 38; Alger's Murray, 16; Merchant's, 23; Bacon's, 12; Maltby's, 12; Lyon's, 7; Guy's, 4; Ingersoll's, 26; S. Putnam's, 13; T. H. Miller's, 17; Rev. T. Smith's, 13. Who, but a child taught by language like this, would ever think of speaking to a noun? or, that a noun of the second person could not be spoken of? or, that a noun cannot be put in the first person, so as to agree with I or we? Murray himself once taught, that, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person;" and he departed from a true and important principle of syntax, when he altered his rule to its present form. But I have said that the sentence above is obscure, or its meaning absurd. What does the pronoun "they" represent? "Substantives," according to the author's intent; but "gender, number, and case," according to the obvious construction of the words. Let us try a parallel:" To scriveners belong pen, ink, and paper; and they are all of primary importance when there is occasion to use them, and of none at all when they are not needed." Now, if this sentence is obscure, the other is not less so; but, if this is perfectly clear, so that what is said is obviously and only what is intended, then it is equally clear, that what is said in the former, is gross absurdity, and that the words cannot reasonably be construed into the sense which the writer, and his copyists, designed.

32. All Murray's grammars, not excepting the two volumes octavo, are as incomplete as they are inaccurate; being deficient in many things which are of so great importance that they should not be excluded from the very smallest epitome. For example: On the subject of the numbers, he attempted but one definition, and that is a fourfold solecism. Ho speaks of the persons, but gives neither definitions nor explanations. In treating of the genders, he gives but one formal definition. His section on the cases contains no regular definition. On the comparison of adjectives, and on the moods and tenses of verbs, he is also satisfied with a very loose mode of teaching. The work as a whole exhibits more industry than literary taste, more benevolence of heart than distinctness of apprehension; and, like all its kindred and progeny, fails to give to the principles of grammar that degree of clearness of which they are easily susceptible. The student does not know this, but he feels the effects of it, in the obscurity of his own views on the subject, and in the conscious uncertainty with which he applies those principles. In grammar, the terms person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, and many others, are used in a technical and peculiar sense; and, in all scientific works, the sense of technical terms should be clearly and precisely defined. Nothing can be gained by substituting other names of modern invention; for these also would need definitions as much as the old. We want to know the things themselves, and what they are most appropriately called. We want a book which will tell us, in proper order, and in the plainest manner, what all the elements of the science are.

33. What does he know of grammar, who cannot directly and properly answer such questions as these?—"What are numbers, in grammar? What is the singular number? What is the plural number? What are persons, in grammar? What is the first person? What is the second person? What is the third person? What are genders, in grammar? What is the masculine gender? What is the feminine gender? What is the neuter gender? What are cases, in grammar? What is the nominative case? What is the possessive case? What is the objective case?"—And yet the most complete acquaintance with every sentence or word of Murray's tedious compilation, may leave the student at a loss for a proper answer, not only to each of these questions, but also to many others equally simple and elementary! A boy may learn by heart all that Murray ever published on the subject of grammar, and still be left to confound the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic, or the persons in grammar with persons in civil life! Nay, there are among the professed improvers of this system of grammar, men who have actually confounded these things, which are so totally different in their natures! In "Smith's New Grammar on the Productive System," a work in which Murray is largely copied and strangely metamorphosed, there is an abundance of such confusion. For instance: "What is the meaning of the word number? Number means a sum that may be counted."—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 7. From this, by a tissue of half a dozen similar absurdities, called inductions, the novice is brought to the conclusion that the numbers are two—as if there were in nature but two sums that might be counted! There is no end to the sickening detail of such blunders. How many grammars tell us, that, "The first person is the person who speaks;" that, "The second person is the person spoken to;" and that, "the third person is the person spoken of!" As if the three persons of a verb, or other part of speech, were so many intelligent beings! As if, by exhibiting a word in the three persons, (as go, goest, goes,) we put it first into the speaker, then into the hearer, and then into somebody else! Nothing can be more abhorrent to grammar, or to sense, than such confusion. The things which are identified in each of these three definitions, are as unlike as Socrates and moonshine! The one is a thinking being; the other, a mere form peculiar to certain words. But Chandler, of Philadelphia, ("the Grammar King," forsooth!) without mistaking the grammatical persons for rational souls, has contrived to crowd into his definition of person more errors of conception and of language,—more insult to common sense,—than one could have believed it possible to put together in such space. And this ridiculous old twaddle, after six and twenty years, he has deliberately re-written and lately republished as something "adapted to the schools of America." It stands thus: "Person is a distinction which is made in a noun between its representation of its object, either as spoken to, or spoken of."—Chandler's E. Grammar; Edition of 1821, p. 16; Ed. 1847, p. 21.

34. Grammarians have often failed in their definitions, because it is impossible to define certain terms in the way in which the description has been commonly attempted. He who undertakes what is impossible must necessarily fail; and fail too, to the discredit of his ingenuity. It is manifest that whenever a generic name in the singular number is to be defined, the definition must be founded upon some property or properties common to all the particular things included under the term. Thus, if I would define a globe, a wheel, or a pyramid, my description must be taken, not from what is peculiar to one or an other of these things, but from those properties only which are common to all globes, all wheels, or all pyramids. But what property has unity in common with plurality, on which a definition of number may be founded? What common property have the three cases, by which we can clearly define case? What have the three persons in common, which, in a definition of person, could be made evident to a child? Thus all the great classes of grammatical modifications, namely, persons, numbers, genders, cases, moods, and tenses, though they admit of easy, accurate, and obvious definitions in the plural, can scarcely be defined at all in the singular. I do not say, that the terms person, number, gender, case, mood, and tense, ia their technical application to grammar, are all of them equally and absolutely undefinable in the singular; but I say, that no definition, just in sense and suitable for a child, can ever be framed for any one of them. Among the thousand varied attempts of grammarians to explain them so, there are a hundred gross solecisms for every tolerable definition. For this, as I have shown, there is a very simple reason in the nature of the things.

35. But this reason, as well as many other truths equally important and equally clear, our common grammarians, have, so far as I know, every man of them, overlooked. Consequently, even when they were aiming at the right thing, they frequently fell into gross errors of expression; and, what is still more surprising, such errors have been entailed upon the very art of grammar, and the art of authorship itself, by the prevalence of an absurd notion, that modern writers on this subject can be meritorious authors without originality. Hence many a school-boy is daily rehearsing from his grammar-book what he might well be ashamed to have written. For example, the following definition from Murray's grammar, is found in perhaps a dozen other compends, all professing to teach the art of speaking and writing with propriety: "Number is the consideration of an object, as one or more." [70] Yet this short sentence, as I have before suggested, is a fourfold solecism. First, the word "number" is wrong; because those modifications of language, which distinguish unity and plurality, cannot be jointly signified by it. Secondly, the word "consideration" is wrong; because number is not consideration, in any sense which can be put upon the terms: condition, constitution, configuration, or any other word beginning with con, would have done just as well. Thirdly, "the consideration of an object as one," is but idle waste of thought; for, that one thing is one,—that an object is one object,—every child knows by intuition, and not by "consideration." Lastly, to consider "an object as more" than one, is impossible; unless this admirable definition lead us into a misconception in so plain a case! So much for the art of "the grammatical definer."

36. Many other examples, equally faulty and equally common, might, be quoted and criticised for the further proof and illustration of what I have alleged. But the reader will perhaps judge the foregoing to be sufficient. I have wished to be brief, and yet to give my arguments, and the neglected facts upon which they rest, their proper force upon the mind. Against such prejudices as may possibly arise from the authorship of rival publications, or from any interest in the success of one book rather than of an other, let both my judges and me be on our guard. I have intended to be fair; for captiousness is not criticism. If the reader perceives in these strictures any improper bias, he has a sort of discernment which it is my misfortune to lack. Against the compilers of grammars, I urge no conclusions at which any man can hesitate, who accedes to my preliminary remarks upon them; and these may be summed up in the following couplet of the poet Churchill:

   "To copy beauties, forfeits all pretence
    To fame;—to copy faults, is want of sense."

CHAPTER XI.

BRIEF NOTICES OF THE SCHEMES OF CERTAIN GRAMMARS.

"Sed ut perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest: ita, procedente jam opere, minima incipiunt esse quæ prima sunt."—QUINTILIAN. De Inst. Orat., Lib. x, Cap. 1, p. 560.

1. The history of grammar, in the proper sense of the term, has heretofore been made no part of the study. I have imagined that many of its details might be profitable, not only to teachers, but to that class of learners for whose use this work is designed. Accordingly, in the preceding pages, there have been stated numerous facts properly historical, relating either to particular grammars, or to the changes and progress of this branch of instruction. These various details it is hoped will be more entertaining, and perhaps for that reason not less useful, than those explanations which belong merely to the construction and resolution of sentences. The attentive reader must have gathered from the foregoing chapters some idea of what the science owes to many individuals whose names are connected with it. But it seems proper to devote to this subject a few pages more, in order to give some further account of the origin and character of certain books.

2. The manuals by which grammar was first taught in English, were not properly English Grammars. They were translations of the Latin Accidence; and were designed to aid British youth in acquiring a knowledge of the Latin language, rather than accuracy in the use of their own. The two languages were often combined in one book, for the purpose of teaching sometimes both together, and sometimes one through the medium of the other. The study of such works doubtless had a tendency to modify, and perhaps at that time to improve, the English style of those who used them. For not only must variety of knowledge have led to copiousness of expression, but the most cultivated minds would naturally be most apt to observe what was orderly in the use of speech. A language, indeed, after its proper form is well fixed by letters, must resist all introduction of foreign idioms, or become corrupted. Hence it is, that Dr. Johnson avers, "The great pest of speech is frequency of translation. No book was ever turned from one language into another, without imparting something of its native idiom; this is the most mischievous and comprehensive innovation."—Preface to Joh. Dict., 4to, p. 14. Without expressly controverting this opinion, or offering any justification of mere metaphrases, or literal translations, we may well assert, that the practice of comparing different languages, and seeking the most appropriate terms for a free version of what is ably written, is an exercise admirably calculated to familiarize and extend grammatical knowledge.

3. Of the class of books here referrred [sic—KTH] to, that which I have mentioned in an other chapter, as Lily's or King Henry's Grammar, has been by far the most celebrated and the most influential. Concerning this treatise, it is stated, that its parts were not put together in the present form, until eighteen or twenty years after Lily's death. "The time when this work was completed," says the preface of 1793, "has been differently related by writers. Thomas Hayne places it in the year 1543, and Anthony Wood, in 1545. But neither of these accounts can be right; for I have seen a beautiful copy, printed upon vellum, and illuminated, anno 1542, in quarto. And it may be doubted whether this was the first edition."—John Ward, Pref., p. vii. In an Introductory Lecture, read before the University of London in 1828, by Thomas Dale, professor of English literature, I find the following statement: "In this reign,"—the reign of Henry VIII,—"the study of grammar was reduced to a system, by the promulgation of many grammatical treatises; one of which was esteemed of sufficient importance to be honoured with a royal name. It was called, 'The Grammar of King Henry the Eighth;' and to this, 'with other works, the young Shakspeare was probably indebted for some learning and much loyalty.' But the honour of producing the first English grammar is claimed by William Bullokar, who published, in the year 1586, 'A Bref Grammar for English,' being, to use his own words, 'the first Grammar for English that ever waz, except my Grammar at large.'"

4. Ward's preface to Lily commences thus: "If we look back to the origin of our common Latin Grammar, we shall find it was no hasty performance, nor the work of a single person; but composed at different times by several eminent and learned men, till the whole was at length finished, and by the order of King Henry VIII.[,] brought into that form in which it has ever since continued. The English introduction was written by the reverend and learned Dr. John Colet, Dean of St. Paul's, for the use of the school he had lately founded there; and was dedicated by him to William Lily, the first high master of that school, in the year 1510; for which reason it has usually gone by the name of Paul's Accidence. The substance of it remains the same, as at first; though it has been much altered in the manner of expression, and sometimes the order, with other improvements. The English syntax was the work of Lily, as appears by the title in the most ancient editions, which runs thus: Gulielmi Lilii Angli Rudimenta. But it has been greatly improved since his time, both with, regard to the method, and an enlargement of double the quantity."

5. Paul's Accidence is therefore probably the oldest grammar that can now be found in our language. It is not, however, an English grammar; because, though written in antique English, and embracing many things which are as true of our language as of any other, it was particularly designed for the teaching of Latin. It begins thus: "In speech be these eight parts following: Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, declined; Adverb, Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection, undeclined." This is the old platform of the Latin grammarians; which differs from that of the Greek grammars, only in having no Article, and in separating the Interjection from the class of Adverbs. Some Greek grammarians, however, separate the Adjective from the Noun, and include the Participle with the Verb: thus, "There are in Greek eight species of words, called Parts of Speech; viz. Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."—Anthon's Valpy, p. 18. With respect to our language, the plan of the Latin Accidence is manifestly inaccurate; nor can it be applied, without some variation, to the Greek. In both, as well as in all other languages that have Articles, the best amendment of it, and the nearest adherence to it, is, to make the Parts of Speech ten; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection.

6. The best Latin grammarians admit that the Adjective ought not to be called a Noun; and the best Greek grammarians, that the Interjections ought not to be included among Adverbs. With respect to Participles, a vast majority of grammarians in general, make them a distinct species, or part of speech; but, on this point, the English grammarians are about equally divided: nearly one half include them with the verbs, and a few call them adjectives. In grammar, it is wrong to deviate from the old groundwork, except for the sake of truth and improvement; and, in this case, to vary the series of parts, by suppressing one and substituting an other, is in fact a greater innovation, than to make the terms ten, by adding one and dividing an other. But our men of nine parts of speech innovated yet more: they added the Article, as did the Greeks; divided the Noun into Substantive and Adjective; and, without good reason, suppressed the Participle. And, of latter time, not a few have thrown the whole into confusion, to show the world "the order of [their] understanding." What was grammar fifty years ago, some of these have not thought it worth their while to inquire! And the reader has seen, that, after all this, they can complacently talk of "the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to unfortunate innovators."—KIRKHAM'S Gram., p. 10.

7. The old scheme of the Latin grammarians has seldom, if ever, been literally followed in English; because its distribution of the parts of speech, as declined and undeclined, would not be true with respect to the English participle. With the omission of this unimportant distinction, it was, however, scrupulously retained by Dilworth, by the author of the British Grammar, by William Ward, by Buchanan, and by some others now little known, who chose to include both the article and the adjective with the noun, rather than to increase the number of the parts of speech beyond eight. Dr. Priestley says, "I shall adopt the usual distribution of words into eight classes; viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.[71] I do this in compliance with the practice of most Grammarians; and because, if any number, in a thing so arbitrary, must be fixed upon, this seems to be as comprehensive and distinct as any. All the innovation I have made hath been to throw out the Participle, and substitute the Adjective, as more evidently a distinct part of speech."—Rudiments of English Gram., p. 3. All this comports well enough with Dr. Priestley's haste and carelessness; but it is not true, that he either adopted, "the usual distribution of words," or made an other "as comprehensive and distinct as any." His "innovation," too, which has since been countenanced by many other writers, I have already shown to be greater, than if, by a promotion of the article and the adjective, he had made the parts of speech ten. Dr. Beattie, who was Priestley's coeval, and a much better scholar, adopted this number without hesitation, and called every one of them by what is still its right name: "In English there are ten sorts of words, which are all found in the following short sentence; 'I now see the good man coming; but, alas! he walks with difficulty.' I and he are pronouns; now is an adverb; see and walks are verbs; the is an article; good, an adjective; man and difficulty are nouns, the former substantive, the latter abstract; coming is a participle; but, a conjunction; alas! an interjection; with, a preposition. That no other sorts of words are necessary in language, will appear, when we have seen in what respects these are necessary."—Beattie's Moral Science, Vol. i, p. 30. This distribution is precisely that which the best French grammarians have usually adopted.

8. Dr. Johnson professes to adopt the division, the order, and the terms, "of the common grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not be found."—Gram. before 4to Dict., p. 1. But, in the Etymology of his Grammar, he makes no enumeration of the parts of speech, and treats only of articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs; to which if we add the others, according to the common grammarians, or according to his own Dictionary, the number will be ten. And this distribution, which was adopted by Dr. Ash about 1765, by Murray the schoolmaster about 1790, by Caleb Alexander in 1795, and approved by Dr. Adam in 1793, has since been very extensively followed; as may be seen in Dr. Crombie's treatise, in the Rev. Matt. Harrison's, in Dr. Mandeville's reading-books, and in the grammars of Harrison, Staniford, Alden, Coar, John Peirce, E. Devis, C. Adams, D. Adams, Chandler, Comly, Jaudon, Ingersoll, Hull, Fuller, Greenleaf, Kirkham, Ferd. H. Miller, Merchant, Mack, Nutting, Bucke, Beck, Barrett, Barnard, Maunder, Webber, Emmons, Hazen, Bingham, Sanders, and many others. Dr. Lowth's distribution is the same, except that he placed the adjective after the pronoun, the conjunction after the preposition, and, like Priestley, called the participle a verb, thus making the parts of speech nine. He also has been followed by many; among whom are Bicknell, Burn, Lennie, Mennye, Lindley Murray, W. Allen, Guy, Churchill, Wilson, Cobbett, Davis, David Blair, Davenport, Mendenhall, Wilcox, Picket, Pond, Russell, Bacon, Bullions, Brace, Hart, Lyon, Tob. H. Miller, Alger, A. Flint, Folker, S. Putnam, Cooper, Frost, Goldsbury, Hamlin, T. Smith, R. C. Smith, and Woodworth. But a third part of these, and as many more in the preceding list, are confessedly mere modifiers of Murray's compilation; and perhaps, in such a case, those have done best who have deviated least from the track of him whom they professed to follow.[72]

9. Some seem to have supposed, that by reducing the number of the parts of speech, and of the rules for their construction, the study of grammar would be rendered more easy and more profitable to the learner. But this, as would appear from the history of the science, is a mere retrogression towards the rudeness of its earlier stages. It is hardly worth while to dispute, whether there shall be nine parts of speech or ten; and perhaps enough has already been stated, to establish the expediency of assuming the latter number. Every word in the language must be included in some class, and nothing is gained by making the classes larger and less numerous. In all the artificial arrangements of science, distinctions are to be made according to the differences in things; and the simple question here is, what differences among words shall be at first regarded. To overlook, in our primary division, the difference between a verb and a participle, is merely to reserve for a subdivision, or subsequent explanation, a species of words which most grammarians have recognized as a distinct sort in their original classification.

10. It should be observed that the early period of grammatical science was far remote from the days in which English grammar originated. Many things which we now teach and defend as grammar, were taught and defended two thousand years ago, by the philosophers of Greece and Rome. Of the parts of speech, Quintilian, who lived in the first century of our era, gives the following account: "For the ancients, among whom were Aristotle[73] and Theodectes, treated only of verbs, nouns, and conjunctions: as the verb is what we say, and the noun, that of which we say it, they judged the power of discourse to be in verbs, and the matter in nouns, but the connexion in conjunctions. Little by little, the philosophers, and especially the Stoics, increased the number: first, to the conjunctions were added articles; afterwards, prepositions; to nouns, was added the appellation; then the pronoun; afterwards, as belonging to each verb, the participle; and, to verbs in common, adverbs. Our language [i. e., the Latin] does not require articles, wherefore they are scattered among the other parts of speech; but there is added to the foregoing the interjection. But some, on the authority of good authors, make the parts only eight; as Aristarchus, and, in our day, Palæmon; who have included the vocable, or appellation, with the noun, as a species of it. But they who make the noun one and the vocable an other, reckon nine. But there are also some who divide the vocable from the appellation; making the former to signify any thing manifest to sight or touch, as house, bed; and the latter, any thing to which either or both are wanting, as wind, heaven, god, virtue. They have also added the asseveration and the attrectation, which I do not approve. Whether the vocable or appellation should be included with the noun or not, as it is a matter of little consequence, I leave to the decision of others."—See QUINTIL. de Inst. Orat., Lib. i, Cap. 4, §24.

11. Several writers on English grammar, indulging a strange unsettlement of plan, seem not to have determined in their own minds, how many parts of speech there are, or ought to be. Among these are Horne Tooke, Webster, Dalton, Cardell, Green, and Cobb; and perhaps, from what he says above, we may add the name of Priestley. The present disputation about the sorts of words, has been chiefly owing to the writings of Horne Tooke, who explains the minor parts of speech as mere abbreviations, and rejects, with needless acrimony, the common classification. But many have mistaken the nature of his instructions, no less than that of the common grammarians. This author, in his third chapter, supposes his auditor to say, "But you have not all this while informed me how many parts of speech you mean to lay down." To whom he replies, "That shall be as you please. Either two, or twenty, or more." Such looseness comported well enough with his particular purpose; because he meant to teach the derivation of words, and not to meddle at all with their construction. But who does not see that it is impossible to lay down rules for the construction of words, without first dividing them into the classes to which such rules apply? For example: if a man means to teach, that, "A verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number," must he not first show the learner what words are verbs? and ought he not to see in this rule a reason for not calling the participle a verb? Let the careless followers of Lowth and Priestley answer. Tooke did not care to preserve any parts of speech at all. His work is not a system of grammar; nor can it be made the basis of any regular scheme of grammatical instruction. He who will not grant that the same words may possibly be used as different parts of speech, must make his parts of speech either very few or very many. This author says, "I do not allow that any words change their nature in this manner, so as to belong sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another, from the different ways of using them. I never could perceive any such fluctuation in any word whatever."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 68.

12. From his own positive language, I imagine this ingenious author never well considered what constitutes the sameness of words, or wherein lies the difference of the parts of speech; and, without understanding these things, a grammarian cannot but fall into errors, unless he will follow somebody that knows them. But Tooke confessedly contradicts, and outfaces "all other Grammarians" in the passage just cited. Yet it is plain, that the whole science of grammar—or at least the whole of etymology and syntax, which are its two principal parts—is based upon a division of words into the parts of speech; a division which necessarily refers, in many instances, the same words to different sections according to the manner in which they are used. "Certains mots répondent, ainsi au même temps, à diverses parties d'oraison selon que la grammaire les emploie diversement."—Buffier, Art. 150. "Some words, from the different ways in which they are used, belong sometimes to one part of speech, sometimes to another."—M'Culloch's Gram., p. 37. "And so say all other Grammarians."—Tooke, as above.

13. The history of Dr. Webster, as a grammarian, is singular. He is remarkable for his changeableness, yet always positive; for his inconsistency, yet very learned; for his zeal "to correct popular errors," yet often himself erroneous; for his fertility in resources, yet sometimes meagre; for his success as an author, yet never satisfied; for his boldness of innovation, yet fond of appealing to antiquity. His grammars are the least judicious, and at present the least popular, of his works. They consist of four or five different treatises, which for their mutual credit should never be compared: it is impossible to place any firm reliance upon the authority of a man who contradicts himself so much. Those who imagine that the last opinions of so learned a man must needs be right, will do well to wait, and see what will be his last: they cannot otherwise know to what his instructions will finally lead: Experience has already taught him the folly of many of his pretended improvements, and it is probable his last opinions of English grammar will be most conformable to that just authority with which he has ever been tampering. I do not say that he has not exhibited ingenuity as well as learning, or that he is always wrong when he contradicts a majority of the English grammarians; but I may venture to say, he was wrong when he undertook to disturb the common scheme of the parts of speech, as well as when he resolved to spell all words exactly as they are pronounced.

14. It is not commonly known with how rash a hand this celebrated author has sometimes touched the most settled usages of our language. In 1790, which was seven years after the appearance of his first grammar, he published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages, consisting of Essays, moral, historical, political, and literary, which might have done him credit, had he not spoiled his book by a grammatical whim about the reformation of orthography. Not perceiving that English literature, multiplied as it had been within two or three centuries, had acquired a stability in some degree corresponding to its growth, he foolishly imagined it was still as susceptible of change and improvement as in the days of its infancy. Let the reader pardon the length of this digression, if for the sake of any future schemer who may chance to adopt a similar conceit, I cite from the preface to this volume a specimen of the author's practice and reasoning. The ingenious attorney had the good sense quickly to abandon this project, and content himself with less glaring innovations; else he had never stood as he now does, in the estimation of the public. But there is the more need to record the example, because in one of the southern states the experiment has recently been tried again. A still abler member of the same profession, has renewed it but lately; and it is said there are yet remaining some converts to this notion of improvement. I copy literally, leaving all my readers and his to guess for themselves why he spelled "writers" with a w and "riting" without.

15. "During the course of ten or twelv yeers, I hav been laboring to correct popular errors, and to assist my yung brethren in the road to truth and virtue; my publications for theze purposes hav been numerous; much time haz been spent, which I do not regret, and much censure incurred, which my hart tells me I do not dezerv." * * * "The reeder wil observ that the orthography of the volum iz not uniform. The reezon iz, that many of the essays hav been published before, in the common orthography, and it would hav been a laborious task to copy the whole, for the sake of changing the spelling. In the essays, ritten within the last yeer, a considerable change of spelling iz introduced by way of experiment. This liberty waz taken by the writers before the age of queen Elizabeth, and to this we are indeted for the preference of modern spelling over that of Gower and Chaucer. The man who admits that the change of hoasbonde, mynde, ygone, moneth into husband, mind, gone, month, iz an improovment, must acknowlege also the riting of helth, breth, rong, tung, munth, to be an improovment. There iz no alternativ. Every possible reezon that could ever be offered for altering the spelling of wurds, stil exists in full force; and if a gradual reform should not be made in our language, it wil proov that we are less under the influence of reezon than our ancestors."—Noah Webster's Essays, Preface, p. xi.

16. But let us return, with our author, to the question of the parts of speech. I have shown that if we do not mean to adopt some less convenient scheme, we must count them ten, and preserve their ancient order as well as their ancient names.[74] And, after all his vacillation in consequence of reading Horne Tooke, it would not be strange if Dr. Webster should come at last to the same conclusion. He was not very far from it in 1828, as may be shown by his own testimony, which he then took occasion to record. I will give his own words on the point: "There is great difficulty in devising a correct classification of the several sorts of words; and probably no classification that shall be simple and at the same time philosophically correct, can be invented. There are some words that do not strictly fall under any description of any class yet devised. Many attempts have been made and are still making to remedy this evil; but such schemes as I have seen, do not, in my apprehension, correct the defects of the old schemes, nor simplify the subject. On the other hand, all that I have seen, serve only to obscure and embarrass the subject, by substituting new arrangements and new terms which are as incorrect as the old ones, and less intelligible. I have attentively viewed these subjects, in all the lights which my opportunities have afforded, and am convinced that the distribution of words, most generally received, is the best that can be formed, with some slight alterations adapted to the particular construction of the English language."

17. This passage is taken from the advertisement, or preface, to the Grammar which accompanies the author's edition of his great quarto Dictionary. Now the several schemes which bear his own name, were doubtless all of them among those which he had that he had "seen;" so that he here condemns them all collectively, as he had previously condemned some of them at each reformation. Nor is the last exempted. For although he here plainly gives his vote for that common scheme which he first condemned, he does not adopt it without "some slight alterations;" and in contriving these alterations he is inconsistent with his own professions. He makes the parts of speech eight, thus: "1. The name or noun; 2. The pronoun or substitute; 3. The adjective, attribute, or attributive; 4. The verb; 5. The adverb; 6. The preposition; 7. The connective or conjunction; 8. The exclamation or interjection." In his Rudiments of English Grammar, published in 1811, "to unfold the true principles of the language," his parts of speech were seven; "viz. 1. Names or nouns; 2. Substitutes or pronouns; 3. Attributes or adjectives; 4. Verbs, with their participles; 5. Modifiers or adverbs; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives or conjunctions." In his Philosophical and Practical Grammar, published in 1807, a book which professes to teach "the only legitimate principles, and established usages," of the language, a twofold division of words is adopted; first, into two general classes, primary and secondary; then into "seven species or parts of speech," the first two belonging to the former class, the other five to the latter; thus: "1. Names or nouns; 2. Verbs; 3. Substitutes; 4. Attributes; 5. Modifiers; 6. Prepositions; 7. Connectives." In his "Improved Grammar of the English Language," published in 1831, the same scheme is retained, but the usual names are preferred.

18. How many different schemes of classification this author invented, I know not; but he might well have saved himself the trouble of inventing any; for, so far as appears, none of his last three grammars ever came to a second edition. In the sixth edition of his "Plain and Comprehensive Grammar, grounded on the true principles and idioms of the language," a work which his last grammatical preface affirms to have been originally fashioned "on the model of Lowth's," the parts of speech are reckoned "six; nouns, articles, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and abbreviations or particles." This work, which he says "was extensively used in the schools of this country," and continued to be in demand, he voluntarily suppressed; because, after a profitable experiment of four and twenty years, he found it so far from being grounded on "true principles," that the whole scheme then appeared to him incorrigibly bad. And, judging from this sixth edition, printed in 1800, the only one which I have seen, I cannot but concur with him in the opinion. More than one half of the volume is a loose Appendix composed chiefly of notes taken from Lowth and Priestley; and there is a great want of method in what was meant for the body of the work. I imagine his several editions must have been different grammars with the same title; for such things are of no uncommon occurrence, and I cannot otherwise account for the assertion that this book was compiled "on the model of Lowth's, and on the same principles as [those on which] Murray has constructed his."—Advertisement in Webster's Quarto Dict., 1st Ed.

19. In a treatise on grammar, a bad scheme is necessarily attended with inconveniences for which no merit in the execution can possibly compensate. The first thing, therefore, which a skillful teacher will notice in a work of this kind, is the arrangement. If he find any difficulty in discovering, at sight, what it is, he will be sure it is bad; for a lucid order is what he has a right to expect from him who pretends to improve upon all the English grammarians. Dr. Webster is not the only reader of the EPEA PTEROENTA, who has been thereby prompted to meddle with the common scheme of grammar; nor is he the only one who has attempted to simplify the subject by reducing the parts of speech to six. John Dalton of Manchester, in 1801, in a small grammar which he dedicated to Horne Tooke, made them six, but not the same six. He would have them to be, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. This writer, like Brightland, Tooke, Fisher, and some others, insists on it that the articles are adjectives. Priestley, too, throwing them out of his classification, and leaving the learner to go almost through his book in ignorance of their rank, at length assigns them to the same class, in one of his notes. And so has Dr. Webster fixed them in his late valuable, but not faultless, dictionaries. But David Booth, an etymologist perhaps equally learned, in his "Introduction to an Analytical Dictionary of the English Language," declares them to be of the same species as the pronouns; from which he thinks it strange that they were ever separated! See Booth's Introd., p. 21.

20. Now, what can be more idle, than for teachers to reject the common classification of words, and puzzle the heads of school-boys with speculations like these? It is easy to admit all that etymology can show to be true, and still justify the old arrangement of the elements of grammar. And if we depart from the common scheme, where shall we stop? Some have taught that the parts of speech are only five; as did the latter stoics, whose classes, according to Priscian and Harris, were these: articles, nouns appellative, nouns proper, verbs, and conjunctions. Others have made them four; as did Aristotle and the elder stoics, and, more recently, Milnes, Brightland, Harris, Ware, Fisher, and the author of a work on Universal Grammar, entitled Enclytica. Yet, in naming the four, each of these contrives to differ from all the rest! With Aristotle, they are, "nouns, verbs, articles, and conjunctions;" with Milnes, "nouns, adnouns, verbs, and particles;" with Brightland, "names, qualities, affirmations, and particles;" with Harris, "substantives, attributives, definitives, and connectives;" with Ware, "the name, the word, the assistant, the connective;" with Fisher, "names, qualities, verbs, and particles;" with the author of Enclytica, "names, verbs, modes, and connectives." But why make the classes so numerous as four? Many of the ancients, Greeks, Hebrews, and Arabians, according to Quintilian, made them three; and these three, according to Vossius, were nouns, verbs, and particles. "Veteres Arabes, Hebræi, et Græci, tres, non amplius, classes faciebant; l. Nomen, 2. Verbum, 3. Particula seu Dictio."—Voss. de Anal., Lib. i, Cap. 1.

21. Nor is this number, three, quite destitute of modern supporters; though most of these come at it in an other way. D. St. Quentin, in his Rudiments of General Grammar, published in 1812, divides words into the "three general classes" last mentioned; viz., "1. Nouns, 2. Verbs, 3. Particles."—P. 5. Booth, who published the second edition of his etymological work in 1814, examining severally the ten parts of speech, and finding what he supposed to be the true origin of all the words in some of the classes, was led to throw one into an other, till he had destroyed seven of them. Then, resolving that each word ought to be classed according to the meaning which its etymology fixes upon it, he refers the number of classes to nature, thus: "If, then, each [word] has a meaning, and is capable of raising an idea in the mind, that idea must have its prototype in nature. It must either denote an exertion, and is therefore a verb; or a quality, and is, in that case, an adjective; or it must express an assemblage of qualities, such as is observed to belong to some individual object, and is, on this supposition, the name of such object, or a noun. * * * We have thus given an account of the different divisions of words, and have found that the whole may be classed under the three heads of Names, Qualities, and Actions; or Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs."—Introd. to Analyt. Dict., p. 22.

22. This notion of the parts of speech, as the reader will presently see, found an advocate also in the author of the popular little story of Jack Halyard. It appears in his Philosophic Grammar published in Philadelphia in 1827. Whether the writer borrowed it from Booth, or was led into it by the light of "nature," I am unable to say: he does not appear to have derived it from the ancients. Now, if either he or the lexicographer has discovered in "nature" a prototype for this scheme of grammar, the discovery is only to be proved, and the schemes of all other grammarians, ancient or modern, must give place to it. For the reader will observe that this triad of parts is not that which is mentioned by Vossius and Quintilian. But authority may be found for reducing the number of the parts of speech yet lower. Plato, according to Harris, and the first inquirers into language, according to Horne Tooke, made them two; nouns and verbs, which Crombie, Dalton, M'Culloch, and some others, say, are the only parts essentially necessary for the communication of our thoughts. Those who know nothing about grammar, regard all words as of one class. To them, a word is simply a word; and under what other name it may come, is no concern of theirs.

23. Towards this point, tends every attempt to simplify grammar by suppressing any of the ten parts of speech. Nothing is gained by it; and it is a departure from the best authority. We see by what steps this kind of reasoning may descend; and we have an admirable illustration of it in the several grammatical works of William S. Cardell. I shall mention them in the order in which they appeared; and the reader may judge whether the author does not ultimately arrive at the conclusion to which the foregoing series is conducted. This writer, in his Essay on Language, reckons seven parts of speech; in his New-York Grammar, six; in his Hartford Grammar, three principal, with three others subordinate; in his Philadelphia Grammar, three only—nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Here he alleges, "The unerring plan of nature has established three classes of perceptions, and consequently three parts of speech."—P. 171. He says this, as if he meant to abide by it. But, on his twenty-third page, we are told, "Every adjective is either a noun or a participle." Now, by his own showing, there are no participles: he makes them all adjectives, in each of his schemes. It follows, therefore, that all his adjectives, including what others call participles, are nouns. And this reduces his three parts of speech to two, in spite of "the unerring plan of nature!" But even this number is more than he well believed in; for, on the twenty-first page of the book, he affirms, that, "All other terms are but derivative forms and new applications of nouns." So simple a thing is this method of grammar! But Neef, in his zeal for reformation, carries the anticlimax fairly off the brink; and declares, "In the grammar which shall be the work of my pupils, there shall be found no nouns, no pronouns, no articles, no participles, no verbs, no prepositions, no conjunctions, no adverbs, no interjections, no gerunds, not even one single supine. Unmercifully shall they be banished from it."—Neef's Method of Education, p. 60.

24. When Cardell's system appeared, several respectable men, convinced by "his powerful demonstrations," admitted that he had made "many things in the established doctrines of the expounders of language appear sufficiently ridiculous;" [75] and willingly lent him the influence of their names, trusting that his admirable scheme of English grammar, in which their ignorance saw nothing but new truth, would be speedily "perfected and generally embraced." [76] Being invited by the author to a discussion of his principles, I opposed them in his presence, both privately and publicly; defending against him, not unsuccessfully, those doctrines which time and custom have sanctioned. And, what is remarkable, that candid opposition which Cardell himself had treated with respect, and parried in vain, was afterwards, by some of his converts, impeached of all unfairness, and even accused of wanting common sense. "No one," says Niebuhr, "ever overthrew a literary idol, without provoking the anger of its worshipers."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 489. The certificates given in commendation of this "set of opinions," though they had no extensive effect on the public, showed full well that the signers knew little of the history of grammar; and it is the continual repetition of such things, that induces me now to dwell upon its history, for the information of those who are so liable to be deceived by exploded errors republished as novelties. A eulogist says of Cardell, "He had adopted a set of opinions, which, to most of his readers, appeared entirely new." A reviewer proved, that all his pretended novelties are to be found in certain grammars now forgotten, or seldom read. The former replies, Then he [Cardell,] is right—and the man is no less stupid than abusive, who finds fault; for here is proof that the former "had highly respectable authority for almost every thing he has advanced!"—See The Friend, Vol. ii, pp. 105 and 116, from which all the quotations in this paragraph, except one, are taken.

25. The reader may now be curious to know what these doctrines were. They were summed up by the reviewer, thus: "Our author pretends to have drawn principally from his own resources, in making up his books; and many may have supposed there is more novelty in them than there really is. For instance: 1. He classes the articles with adjectives; and so did Brightland, Tooke, Fisher, Dalton, and Webster. 2. He calls the participles, adjectives; and so did Brightland and Tooke. 3. He make the pronouns, either nouns or adjectives; and so did Adam, Dalton, and others. 4. He distributes the conjunctions among the other parts of speech; and so did Tooke. 5. He rejects the interjections; and so did Valla, Sanctius, and Tooke. 6. He makes the possessive case an adjective; and so did Brightland. 7. He says our language has no cases; and so did Harris. 8. He calls case, position; and so did James Brown. 9. He reduces the adjectives to two classes, defining and describing; and so did Dalton. 10. He declares all verbs to be active; and so did Harris, (in his Hermes, Book i, Chap. ix,) though he admitted the expediency of the common division, and left to our author the absurdity of contending about it. Fisher also rejected the class of neuter verbs, and called them all active. 11. He reduces the moods to three, and the tenses to three; and so did Dalton, in the very same words. Fisher also made the tenses three, but said there are no moods in English. 12. He makes the imperative mood always future; and so did Harris, in 1751. Nor did the doctrine originate with him; for Brightland, a hundred years ago, [about 1706,] ascribed it to some of his predecessors. 13. He reduces the whole of our syntax to about thirty lines; and two thirds of these are useless; for Dr. Johnson expressed it quite as fully in ten. But their explanations are both good for nothing; and Wallis, more wisely, omitted it altogether."—The Friend, Vol. ii, p. 59.

26. Dr. Webster says, in a marginal note to the preface of his Philosophical Grammar, "Since the days of Wallis, who published a Grammar of the English Language, in Latin, in the reign of Charles II.[,] from which Johnson and Lowth borrowed most of their rules, little improvement has been made in English grammar. Lowth supplied some valuable criticisms, most of which however respect obsolete phrases; but many of his criticisms are extremely erroneous, and they have had an ill effect, in perverting the true idioms of our language. Priestley furnished a number of new and useful observations on the peculiar phrases of the English language. To which may be added some good remarks of Blair and Campbell, interspersed with many errors. Murray, not having mounted to the original sources of information, and professing only to select and arrange the rules and criticisms of preceding writers, has furnished little or nothing new. Of the numerous compilations of inferior character, it may be affirmed, that they have added nothing to the stock of grammatical knowledge." And the concluding sentence of this work, as well as of his Improved Grammar, published in 1831, extends the censure as follows: "It is not the English language only whose history and principles are yet to be illustrated; but the grammars and dictionaries of all other languages, with which I have any acquaintance, must be revised and corrected, before their elements and true construction can be fully understood." In an advertisement to the grammar prefixed to his quarto American Dictionary, the Doctor is yet more severe upon books of this sort. "I close," says he, "with the single remark, that from all the observations I have been able to make, I am convinced the dictionaries and grammars which have been used in our seminaries of learning for the last forty or fifty years, are so incorrect and imperfect that they have introduced or sanctioned more errors than they have amended; in other words, had the people of England and of these States been left to learn the pronunciation and construction of their vernacular language solely by tradition, and the reading of good authors, the language would have been spoken and written with more purity than it has been and now is, by those who have learned to adjust their language by the rules which dictionaries prescribe."

27. Little and much are but relative terms; yet when we look back to the period in which English grammar was taught only in Latin, it seems extravagant to say, that "little improvement has been made" in it since. I have elsewhere expressed a more qualified sentiment. "That the grammar of our language has made considerable progress since the days of Swift, who wrote a petty treatise on the subject, is sufficiently evident; but whoever considers what remains to be done, cannot but perceive how ridiculous are many of the boasts and felicitations which we have heard on that topic." [77] Some further notice will now be taken of that progress, and of the writers who have been commonly considered the chief promoters of it, but especially of such as have not been previously mentioned in a like connexion. Among these may be noticed William Walker, the preceptor of Sir Isaac Newton, a teacher and grammarian of extraordinary learning, who died in 1684. He has left us sundry monuments of his taste and critical skill: one is his "Treatise of English Particles,"—a work of great labour and merit, but useless to most people now-a-days, because it explains the English in Latin; an other, his "Art of Teaching Improv'd,"—which is also an able treatise, and apparently well adapted to its object, "the Grounding of a Young Scholar in the Latin Tongue." In the latter, are mentioned other works of his, on "Rhetorick, and Logick" which I have not seen.

28. In 1706, Richard Johnson published an octavo volume of more than four hundred pages, entitled, "Grammatical Commentaries; being an Apparatus to a New National Grammar: by way of animadversion upon the falsities, obscurities, redundancies and defects of Lily's System now in use." This is a work of great acuteness, labour, and learning; and might be of signal use to any one who should undertake to prepare a new or improved Latin grammar: of which, in my opinion, we have yet urgent need. The English grammarian may also peruse it with advantage, if he has a good knowledge of Latin—and without such knowledge he must be ill prepared for his task. This work is spoken of and quoted by some of the early English grammarians; but the hopes of the writer do not appear to have been realized. His book was not calculated to supply the place of the common one; for the author thought it impracticable to make a new grammar, suitable for boys, and at the same time to embrace in it proofs sufficient to remove the prejudices of teachers in favour of the old. King Henry's edict in support of Lily, was yet in force, backed by all the partiality which long habit creates; and Johnson's learning, and labour, and zeal, were admired, and praised, and soon forgot.

29. Near the beginning of the last century, some of the generous wits of the reign of Queen Anne, seeing the need there was of greater attention to their vernacular language, and of a grammar more properly English than any then in use, produced a book with which the later writers on the same subjects, would have done well to have made themselves better acquainted. It is entitled "A Grammar of the English Tongue; with the Arts of Logick, Rhetorick, Poetry, &c. Illustrated with useful Notes; giving the Grounds and Reasons of Grammar in General. The Whole making a Compleat System of an English Education. Published by JOHN BRIGHTLAND, for the Use of the Schools of Great Britain and Ireland." It is ingeniously recommended in a certificate by Sir Richard Steele, or the Tattler, under the fictitious name of Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq., and in a poem of forty-three lines, by Nahum Tate, poet laureate to her Majesty. It is a duodecimo volume of three hundred pages; a work of no inconsiderable merit and originality; and written in a style which, though not faultless, has scarcely been surpassed by any English grammarian since. I quote it as Brightland's:[78] who were the real authors, does not appear. It seems to be the work of more than one, and perhaps the writers of the Tattler were the men. My copy is of the seventh edition, London, printed for Henry Lintot, 1746. It is evidently the work of very skillful hands; yet is it not in all respects well planned or well executed. It unwisely reduces the parts of speech to four; gives them new names; and rejects more of the old system than the schools could be made willing to give up. Hence it does not appear to have been very extensively adopted.

30. It is now about a hundred and thirty years, since Dr. Swift, in a public remonstrance addressed to the Earl of Oxford, complained of the imperfect state of our language, and alleged in particular, that "in many instances it offended against every part of grammar." [79] Fifty years afterward, Dr. Lowth seconded this complaint, and pressed it home upon the polite and the learned. "Does he mean," says the latter, "that the English language, as it is spoken by the politest part of the nation, and as it stands in the writings of the most approved authors, often offends against every part of grammar? Thus far, I am afraid the charge is true."—Lowth's Grammar, Preface, p. iv. Yet the learned Doctor, to whom much praise has been justly ascribed for the encouragement which he gave to this neglected study, attempted nothing more than "A Short Introduction to English Grammar;" which, he says, "was calculated for the learner even of the lowest class:" and those who would enter more deeply into the subject, he referred to Harris; whose work is not an English grammar, but "A Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar." Lowth's Grammar was first published in 1758. At the commencement of his preface, the reverend author, after acknowledging the enlargement, polish, and refinement, which the language had received during the preceding two hundred years, ventures to add, "but, whatever other improvements it may have received, it hath made no advances in grammatical accuracy." I do not quote this assertion to affirm it literally true, in all its apparent breadth; but there is less reason to boast of the correctness even now attained, than to believe that the writers on grammar are not the authors who have in general come nearest to it in practice. Nor have the ablest authors always produced the best compends for the literary instruction of youth.

31. The treatises of the learned doctors Harris, Lowth, Johnson, Ash, Priestley, Horne Tooke, Crombie, Coote, and Webster, owe their celebrity not so much to their intrinsic fitness for school instruction, as to the literary reputation of the writers. Of Harris's Hermes, (which, in comparison with our common grammars, is indeed a work of much ingenuity and learning, full of interesting speculations, and written with great elegance both of style and method,) Dr. Lowth says, it is "the most beautiful and perfect example of analysis, that has been exhibited since the days of Aristotle."—Preface to Gram., p. x. But these two authors, if their works be taken together, as the latter intended they should be, supply no sufficient course of English grammar. The instructions of the one are too limited, and those of the other are not specially directed to the subject.

32. Dr. Johnson, who was practically one of the greatest grammarians that ever lived, and who was very nearly coetaneous with both Harris and Lowth, speaks of the state of English grammar in the following terms: "I found our speech copious without order, and energetick without rules: wherever I turned my view, there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to be regulated."—Preface to Dict., p. 1. Again: "Having therefore no assistance but from general grammar, I applied myself to the perusal of our writers; and noting whatever might be of use to ascertain or illustrate any word or phrase, accumulated in time the materials of a dictionary."—Ibid. But it is not given to any one man to do every thing; else, Johnson had done it. His object was, to compile a dictionary, rather than to compose a grammar, of our language. To lexicography, grammar is necessary, as a preparation; but, as a purpose, it is merely incidental. Dr. Priestley speaks of Johnson thus: "I must not conclude this preface, without making my acknowledgements to Mr. Johnson, whose admirable dictionary has been of the greatest use to me in the study of our language. It is pity he had not formed as just, and as extensive an idea of English grammar. Perhaps this very useful work may still be reserved for his distinguished abilities in this way."—Priestley's Grammar, Preface, p. xxiii. Dr. Johnson's English Grammar is all comprised in fourteen pages, and of course it is very deficient. The syntax he seems inclined entirely to omit, as (he says) Wallis did, and Ben Jonson had better done; but, for form's sake, he condescends to bestow upon it ten short lines.

33. My point here is, that the best grammarians have left much to be done by him who may choose to labour for the further improvement of English grammar; and that a man may well deserve comparative praise, who has not reached perfection in a science like this. Johnson himself committed many errors, some of which I shall hereafter expose; yet I cannot conceive that the following judgement of his works was penned without some bias of prejudice: "Johnson's merit ought not to be denied to him; but his dictionary is the most imperfect and faulty, and the least valuable of any[80] of his productions; and that share of merit which it possesses, makes it by so much the more hurtful. I rejoice, however, that though the least valuable, he found it the most profitable: for I could never read his preface without shedding a tear. And yet it must be confessed, that his grammar and history and dictionary of what he calls the English language, are in all respects (except the bulk of the latter[81]) most truly contemptible performances; and a reproach to the learning and industry of a nation which could receive them with the slightest approbation. Nearly one third of this dictionary is as much the language of the Hottentots as of the English; and it would be no difficult matter so to translate any one of the plainest and most popular numbers of the Spectator into the language of this dictionary, that no mere Englishman, though well read in his own language, would he able to comprehend one sentence of it. It appears to be a work of labour, and yet is in truth one of the most idle performances ever offered to the public; compiled by an author who possessed not one single requisite for the undertaking, and (being a publication of a set of booksellers) owing its success to that very circumstance which alone must make it impossible that it should deserve success."—Tooke's Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 182.

34. Dr. Ash's "Grammatical Institutes, or Easy Introduction to Dr. Lowth's English Grammar," is a meagre performance, the ease of which consists in nothing but its brevity. Dr. Priestley, who in the preface to his third edition acknowledges his obligations to Johnson, and also to Lowth, thought it premature to attempt an English grammar; and contented himself with publishing a few brief "Rudiments," with a loose appendix consisting of "Notes and Observations, for the use of those who have made some proficiency in the language." He says, "With respect to our own language, there seems to be a kind of claim upon all who make use of it, to do something for its improvement; and the best thing we can do for this purpose at present, is, to exhibit its actual structure, and the varieties with which it is used. When these are once distinctly pointed out, and generally attended to, the best forms of speech, and those which are most agreeable to the analogy of the language, will soon recommend themselves, and come into general use; and when, by this means, the language shall be written with sufficient uniformity, we may hope to see a complete grammar of it. At present, it is by no means ripe for such a work;[82] but we may approximate to it very fast, if all persons who are qualified to make remarks upon it, will give a little attention to the subject. In such a case, a few years might be sufficient to complete it."—Priestley's Grammar, Preface, p. xv. In point of time, both Ash and Priestley expressly claim priority to Lowth, for their first editions; but the former having allowed his work to be afterwards entitled an Introduction to Lowth's, and the latter having acknowledged some improvements in his from the same source, they have both been regarded as later authors.

35. The great work of the learned etymologist John Horne Tooke, consists of two octavo volumes, entitled, "EPEA PTEROENTA, or the Diversions of Purley." This work explains, with admirable sagacity, the origin and primitive import of many of the most common yet most obscure English words; and is, for that reason, a valuable performance. But as it contains nothing respecting the construction of the language, and embraces no proper system of grammatical doctrines, it is a great error to suppose that the common principles of practical grammar ought to give place to such instructions, or even be modelled according to what the author proves to be true in respect to the origin of particular words. The common grammarians were less confuted by him, than many of his readers have imagined; and it ought not to be forgotten that his purpose was as different from theirs, as are their schemes of Grammar from the plan of his critical "Diversions." In this connexion may be mentioned an other work of similar size and purpose, but more comprehensive in design; the "History of European Languages," by that astonishing linguist the late Dr. Alexander Murray. This work was left unfinished by its lamented author; but it will remain a monument of erudition never surpassed, acquired in spite of wants and difficulties as great as diligence ever surmounted. Like Tooke's volumes, it is however of little use to the mere English scholar. It can be read to advantage only by those who are acquainted with several other languages. The works of Crombie and Coote are more properly essays or dissertations, than elementary systems of grammar.

36. The number of English grammars has now become so very great, that not even a general idea of the comparative merits or defects of each can here be given. I have examined with some diligence all that I have had opportunity to obtain; but have heard of several which I have never yet seen. Whoever is curious to examine at large what has been published on this subject, and thus to qualify himself to judge the better of any new grammar, may easily make a collection of one or two hundred bearing different names. There are also many works not called grammars, from which our copyists have taken large portions of their compilations. Thus Murray confessedly copied from ten authors; five of whom are Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Blair, and Campbell. Dr. Beattie, who acquired great celebrity as a teacher, poet, philosopher, and logician, was well skilled in grammar; but he treated the subject only in critical disquisitions, and not in any distinct elementary work adapted to general use. Sheridan and Walker, being lexicographers, confined themselves chiefly to orthography and pronunciation. Murray derived sundry principles from the writings of each; but the English Grammar prepared by the latter, was written, I think, several years later than Murray's. The learned doctors Blair and Campbell wrote on rhetoric, and not on the elementary parts of grammar. Of the two, the latter is by far the more accurate writer. Blair is fluent and easy, but he furnishes not a little false syntax; Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric is a very valuable treatise. To these, and five or six other authors whom I have noticed, was Lindley Murray "principally indebted for his materials." Thus far of the famous contributors to English grammar. The Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, delivered at Harvard University by John Quincy Adams, and published in two octavo volumes in 1810, are such as do credit even to that great man; but they descend less to verbal criticism, and enter less into the peculiar province of the grammarian, than do most other works of a similar title.

37. Some of the most respectable authors or compilers of more general systems of English grammar for the use of schools, are the writer of the British Grammar, Bicknell, Buchanan, William Ward, Alexander Murray the schoolmaster, Mennye, Fisher, Lindley Murray, Penning, W. Allen, Grant, David Blair, Lennie, Guy, Churchill. To attempt any thing like a review or comparative estimate of these, would protract this introduction beyond all reasonable bounds; and still others would be excluded, which are perhaps better entitled to notice. Of mere modifiers and abridgers, the number is so great, and the merit or fame so little, that I will not trespass upon the reader's patience by any further mention of them or their works. Whoever takes an accurate and comprehensive view of the history and present state of this branch of learning, though he may not conclude, with Dr. Priestley, that it is premature to attempt a complete grammar of the language, can scarcely forbear to coincide with Dr. Barrow, in the opinion that among all the treatises heretofore produced no such grammar is found. "Some superfluities have been expunged, some mistakes have been rectified, and some obscurities have been cleared; still, however, that all the grammars used in our different schools, public as well as private, are disgraced by errors or defects, is a complaint as just as it is frequent and loud."—Barrow's Essays, p. 83.

38. Whether, in what I have been enabled to do, there will be found a remedy for this complaint, must be referred to the decision of others. Upon the probability of effecting this, I have been willing to stake some labour; how much, and with what merit, let the candid and discerning, when they shall have examined for themselves, judge. It is certain that we have hitherto had, of our language, no complete grammar. The need of such a work I suppose to be at this time in no small degree felt, especially by those who conduct our higher institutions of learning; and my ambition has been to produce one which might deservedly stand along side of the Port-Royal Latin and Greek Grammars, or of the Grammaire des Grammaires of Girault Du Vivier. If this work is unworthy to aspire to such rank, let the patrons of English literature remember that the achievement of my design is still a desideratum. We surely have no other book which might, in any sense, have been called "the Grammar of English Grammars;" none, which, either by excellence, or on account of the particular direction of its criticism, might take such a name. I have turned the eyes of Grammar, in an especial manner, upon the conduct of her own household; and if, from this volume, the reader acquire a more just idea of the grammar which is displayed in English grammars, he will discover at least one reason for the title which has been bestowed upon the work. Such as the book is, I present it to the public, without pride, without self-seeking, and without anxiety: knowing that most of my readers will be interested in estimating it justly; that no true service, freely rendered to learning, can fail of its end; and that no achievement merits aught with Him who graciously supplies all ability. The opinions expressed in it have been formed with candour, and are offered with submission. If in any thing they are erroneous, there are those who can detect their faults. In the language of an ancient master, the earnest and assiduous Despauter, I invite the correction of the candid: "Nos quoque, quantumcunque diligentes, cùm a candidis tùm a lividis carpemur: a candidis interdum justè; quos oro, ut de erratis omnibus amicè me admoneant—erro nonnunquam quia homo sum."

GOOLD BROWN.

New York, 1836.

THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.

Grammar, as an art, is the power of reading, writing, and speaking correctly. As an acquisition, it is the essential skill of scholarship. As a study, it is the practical science which teaches the right use of language.

An English Grammar is a book which professes to explain the nature and structure of the English language; and to show, on just authority, what is, and what is not, good English.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, in itself, is the art of reading, writing, and speaking the English language correctly. It implies, in the adept, such knowledge as enables him to avoid improprieties of speech; to correct any errors that may occur in literary compositions; and to parse, or explain grammatically, whatsoever is rightly written.

To read is to perceive what is written or printed, so as to understand the words, and be able to utter them with their proper sounds.

To write is to express words and thoughts by letters, or characters, made with a pen or other instrument.

To speak is to utter words orally, in order that they may be heard and understood.

Grammar, like every other liberal art, can be properly taught only by a regular analysis, or systematic elucidation, of its component parts or principles; and these parts or principles must be made known chiefly by means of definitions and examples, rules and exercises.

A perfect definition of any thing or class of things is such a description of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every thing else, by briefly telling what it is.

An example is a particular instance or model, serving to prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth.

A rule of grammar is some law, more or less general, by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of language.

An exercise is some technical performance required of the learner in order to bring his knowledge and skill into practice.

LANGUAGE, in the primitive sense of the term, embraced only vocal expression, or human speech uttered by the mouth; but after letters were invented to represent articulate sounds, language became twofold, spoken and written, so that the term, language, now signifies, any series of sounds or letters formed into words and employed for the expression of thought.

Of the composition of language we have also two kinds, prose and verse; the latter requiring a certain number and variety of syllables in each line, but the former being free from any such restraint.

The least parts of written language are letters; of spoken language, syllables; of language significant in each part, words; of language combining thought, phrases; of language subjoining sense, clauses; of language coördinating sense, members; of language completing sense, sentences.

A discourse, or narration, of any length, is but a series of sentences; which, when written, must be separated by the proper points, that the meaning and relation of all the words may be quickly and clearly perceived by the reader, and the whole be uttered as the sense requires.

In extended compositions, a sentence is usually less than a paragraph; a paragraph, less than a section; a section, less than a chapter; a chapter, less than a book; a book, less than a volume; and a volume, less than the entire work.

The common order of literary division, then, is; of a large work, into volumes; of volumes, into books; of books, into chapters; of chapters, into sections; of sections, into paragraphs; of paragraphs, into sentences; of sentences, into members; of members, into clauses; of clauses, into phrases; of phrases, into words; of words, into syllables; of syllables, into letters.

But it rarely happens that any one work requires the use of all these divisions; and we often assume some natural distinction and order of parts, naming each as we find it; and also subdivide into articles, verses, cantoes, stanzas, and other portions, as the nature of the subject suggests.

Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and modifications.

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement of words in sentences.

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—In the Introduction to this work, have been taken many views of the study, or general science, of grammar; many notices of its history, with sundry criticisms upon its writers or critics; and thus language has often been presented to the reader's consideration, either as a whole, or with broader scope than belongs to the teaching of its particular forms. We come now to the work of analyzing our own tongue, and of laying down those special rules and principles which should guide us in the use of it, whether in speech or in writing. The author intends to dissent from other grammarians no more than they are found to dissent from truth and reason; nor will he expose their errors further than is necessary for the credit of the science and the information of the learner. A candid critic can have no satisfaction merely in finding fault with other men's performances. But the facts are not to be concealed, that many pretenders to grammar have shown themselves exceedingly superficial in their knowledge, as well as slovenly in their practice; and that many vain composers of books have proved themselves despisers of this study, by the abundance of their inaccuracies, and the obviousness of their solecisms.

OBS. 2.—Some grammarians have taught that the word language is of much broader signification, than that which is given to it in the definition above. I confine it to speech and writing. For the propriety of this limitation, and against those authors who describe the thing otherwise, I appeal to the common sense of mankind. One late writer defines it thus: "LANGUAGE is any means by which one person communicates his ideas to another."—Sanders's Spelling-Book, p. 7. The following is the explanation of an other slack thinker: "One may, by speaking or by writing, (and sometimes by motions,) communicate his thoughts to others. The process by which this is done, is called LANGUAGE.—Language is the expression of thought and feeling."—S. W. Clark's Practical Gram., p. 7. Dr. Webster goes much further, and says, "LANGUAGE, in its most extensive sense, is the instrument or means of communicating ideas and affections of the mind and body, from one animal to another. In this sense, brutes possess the power of language; for by various inarticulate sounds, they make known their wants, desires, and sufferings."— Philosophical Gram., p. 11; Improved Gram., p. 5. This latter definition the author of that vain book, "the District School," has adopted in his chapter on Grammar. Sheridan, the celebrated actor and orthoëpist, though he seems to confine language to the human species, gives it such an extension as to make words no necessary part of its essence. "The first thought," says he, "that would occur to every one, who had not properly considered the point, is, that language is composed of words. And yet, this is so far from being an adequate idea of language, that the point in which most men think its very essence to consist, is not even a necessary property of language. For language, in its full extent, means, any way or method whatsoever, by which all that passes in the mind of one man, may be manifested to another."—Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, p. 129. Again: "I have already shown, that words are, in their own nature, no essential part of language, and are only considered so through custom."—Ib. p. 135.

OBS. 3.—According to S. Kirkham's notion, "LANGUAGE, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men and brutes, communicate to each other their thoughts, affections and desires."—Kirkham's English Gram., p. 16. Again: "The language of brutes consists in the use of those inarticulate sounds by which they express their thoughts and affections."—Ib. To me it seems a shameful abuse of speech, and a vile descent from the dignity of grammar, to make the voices of "brutes" any part of language, as taken in a literal sense. We might with far more propriety raise our conceptions of it to the spheres above, and construe literally the metaphors of David, who ascribes to the starry heavens, both "speech" and "language," "voice" and "words," daily "uttered" and everywhere "heard." See Psalm xix.

OBS. 4.—But, strange as it may seem, Kirkham, commencing his instructions with the foregoing definition of language, proceeds to divide it, agreeably to this notion, into two sorts, natural and artificial; and affirms that the former "is common both to man and brute," and that the language which is peculiar to man, the language which consists of words, is altogether an artificial invention:[83] thereby contradicting at once a host of the most celebrated grammarians and philosophers, and that without appearing to know it. But this is the less strange, since he immediately forgets his own definition and division of the subject, and as plainly contradicts himself. Without limiting the term at all, without excluding his fanciful "language of brutes," he says, on the next leaf, "Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive advancement, varied for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it assumes any and every form which those who make use of it, choose to give it."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 18. This, though scarcely more rational than his "natural language of men and brutes," plainly annihilates that questionable section of grammatical science, whether brutal or human, by making all language a thing "conventional" and "invented." In short, it leaves no ground at all for any grammatical science of a positive character, because it resolves all forms of language into the irresponsible will of those who utter any words, sounds, or noises.

OBS. 5.—Nor is this gentleman more fortunate in his explanation of what may really be called language. On one page, he says, "Spoken language or speech, is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 17. On the next, "The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts to others."—Ib., p. 18. Thus the grammarian who, in the same short paragraph, seems to "defy the ingenuity of man to give his words any other meaning than that which he himself intends them to express," (Ib., p. 19,) either writes so badly as to make any ordinary false syntax appear trivial, or actually conceives man to be the inventor of one of his own faculties. Nay, docs he not make man the contriver of that "natural language" which he possesses "in common with the brutes?" a language "The meaning of which," he says, "all the different animals perfectly understand?"—See his Gram., p. 16. And if this notion again be true, does it not follow, that a horse knows perfectly well what horned cattle mean by their bellowing, or a flock of geese by their gabbling? I should not have noticed these things, had not the book which teaches them, been made popular by a thousand imposing attestations to its excellence and accuracy. For grammar has nothing at all to do with inarticulate voices, or the imaginary languages of brutes. It is scope enough for one science to explain all the languages, dialects, and speeches, that lay claim to reason. We need not enlarge the field, by descending

   "To beasts, whom[84] God on their creation-day
    Created mute to all articulate sound."—Milton.[85]

PART I.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.

CHAPTER I.—OF LETTERS.

A Letter is an alphabetic character, which commonly represents some elementary sound of the human voice, some element of speech.

An elementary sound of the human voice, or an element of speech, is one of the simple sounds which compose a spoken language. The sound of a letter is commonly called its power: when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be silent or mute. The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six; the simple or primary sounds which they represent, are about thirty-six or thirty-seven.

A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance with these four sorts of things; their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms.

The letters are written, or printed, or painted, or engraved, or embossed, in an infinite variety of shapes and sizes; and yet are always the same, because their essential properties do not change, and their names, classes, and powers, are mostly permanent.

The following are some of the different sorts of types, or styles of letters, with which every reader should be early acquainted:—

1. The Roman: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.

2. The Italic: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.

3. The Script: [Script: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.]

4. The Old English: [Old English: A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.]

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—A letter consists not in the figure only, or in the power only, but in the figure and power united; as an ambassador consists not in the man only, or in the commission only, but in the man commissioned. The figure and the power, therefore, are necessary to constitute the letter; and a name is as necessary, to call it by, teach it, or tell what it is. The class of a letter is determined by the nature of its power, or sound; as the ambassador is plenipotentiary or otherwise, according to the extent of his commission. To all but the deaf and dumb, written language is the representative of that which is spoken; so that, in the view of people in general, the powers of the letters are habitually identified with their sounds, and are conceived to be nothing else. Hence any given sound, or modification of sound, which all men can produce at pleasure, when arbitrarily associated with a written sign, or conventional character, constitutes what is called a letter. Thus we may produce the sounds of a, e, o, then, by a particular compression of the organs of utterance, modify them all, into ba, be, bo, or fa, fe, fo; and we shall see that a, e, and o, are letters of one sort, and b and f of an other. By elementary or articulate sounds,[86] then, we mean not only the simple tones of the voice itself, but the modifying stops and turns which are given them in speech, and marked by letters: the real voices constituting vowels; and their modifications, consonants.

OBS. 2.—A mere mark to which no sound or power is ever given, cannot be a letter; though it may, like the marks used for punctuation, deserve a name and a place in grammar. Commas, semicolons, and the like, represent silence, rather than sounds, and are therefore not letters. Nor are the Arabic figures, which represent entire words, nor again any symbols standing for things, (as the astronomic marks for the sun, the moon, the planets,) to be confounded with letters; because the representative of any word or number, of any name or thing, differs widely in its power, from the sign of a simple elementary sound: i. e., from any constituent part of a written word. The first letter of a word or name does indeed sometimes stand for the whole, and is still a letter; but it is so, as being the first element of the word, and not as being the representative of the whole.

OBS. 3.—In their definitions of vowels and consonants, many grammarians have resolved letters into sounds only; as, "A Vowel is an articulate sound," &c.—"A Consonant is an articulate sound," &c.—L. Murray's Gram., p. 7. But this confounding of the visible signs with the things which they signify, is very far from being a true account of either. Besides, letters combined are capable of a certain mysterious power which is independent of all sound, though speech, doubtless, is what they properly represent. In practice, almost all the letters may occasionally happen to be silent; yet are they not, in these cases, necessarily useless. The deaf and dumb also, to whom none of the letters express or represent sounds, may be taught to read and write understandingly. They even learn in some way to distinguish the accented from the unaccented syllables, and to have some notion of quantity, or of something else equivalent to it; for some of them, it is said, can compose verses according to the rules of prosody. Hence it would appear, that the powers of the letters are not, of necessity, identified with their sounds; the things being in some respect distinguishable, though the terms are commonly taken as synonymous. The fact is, that a word, whether spoken or written, is of itself significant, whether its corresponding form be known or not. Hence, in the one form, it may be perfectly intelligible to the illiterate, and in the other, to the educated deaf and dumb; while, to the learned who hear and speak, either form immediately suggests the other, with the meaning common to both.

OBS. 4.—Our knowledge of letters rises no higher than to the forms used by the ancient Hebrews and Phoenicians. Moses is supposed to have written in characters which were nearly the same as those called Samaritan, but his writings have come to us in an alphabet more beautiful and regular, called the Chaldee or Chaldaic, which is said to have been made by Ezra the scribe, when he wrote out a new copy of the law, after the rebuilding of the temple. Cadmus carried the Phoenician alphabet into Greece, where it was subsequently altered and enlarged. The small letters were not invented till about the seventh century of our era. The Latins, or Romans, derived most of their capitals from the Greeks; but their small letters, if they had any, were made afterwards among themselves. This alphabet underwent various changes, and received very great improvements, before it became that beautiful series of characters which we now use, under the name of Roman letters. Indeed these particular forms, which are now justly preferred by many nations, are said to have been adopted after the invention of printing. "The Roman letters were first used by Sweynheim and Pannartz, printers who settled at Rome, in 1467. The earliest work printed wholly in this character in England, is said to have been Lily's or Paul's Accidence, printed by Richard Pinson, 1518. The Italic letters were invented by Aldus Manutius at Rome, towards the close of the fifteenth century, and were first used in an edition of Virgil, in 1501."—Constables Miscellany, Vol. xx, p. 147. The Saxon alphabet was mostly Roman. Not more than one quarter of the letters have other forms. But the changes, though few, give to a printed page a very different appearance. Under William the Conqueror, this alphabet was superseded by the modern Gothic, Old English, or Black letter; which, in its turn, happily gave place to the present Roman. The Germans still use a type similar to the Old English, but not so heavy.

OBS. 5.—I have suggested that a true knowledge of the letters implies an acquaintance with their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms. Under these four heads, therefore, I shall briefly present what seems most worthy of the learner's attention at first, and shall reserve for the appendix a more particular account of these important elements. The most common and the most useful things are not those about which we are in general most inquisitive. Hence many, who think themselves sufficiently acquainted with the letters, do in fact know but very little about them. If a person is able to read some easy book, he is apt to suppose he has no more to learn respecting the letters; or he neglects the minute study of these elements, because he sees what words they make, and can amuse himself with stories of things more interesting. But merely to understand common English, is a very small qualification for him who aspires to scholarship, and especially for a teacher. For one may do this, and even be a great reader, without ever being able to name the letters properly, or to pronounce such syllables as ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, without getting half of them wrong. No one can ever teach an art more perfectly than he has learned it; and if we neglect the elements of grammar, our attainments must needs be proportionately unsettled and superficial.

I. NAMES OF THE LETTERS. The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken
and written in English, are A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Eff, Gee, Aitch, I, Jay,
Kay, Ell, Em, En, O, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee, Double-u, Ex, Wy,
Zee.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—With the learning and application of these names, our literary education begins; with a continual rehearsal of them in spelling, it is for a long time carried on; nor can we ever dispense with them, but by substituting others, or by ceasing to mention the things thus named. What is obviously indispensable, needs no proof of its importance. But I know not whether it has ever been noticed, that these names, like those of the days of the week, are worthy of particular distinction, for their own nature. They are words of a very peculiar kind, being nouns that are at once both proper and common. For, in respect to rank, character, and design, each letter is a thing strictly individual and identical—that is, it is ever one and the same; yet, in an other respect, it is a comprehensive sort, embracing individuals both various and numberless. Thus every B is a b, make it as you will; and can be nothing else than that same letter b, though you make it in a thousand different fashions, and multiply it after each pattern innumerably. Here, then, we see individuality combined at once with great diversity, and infinite multiplicity; and it is to this combination, that letters owe their wonderful power of transmitting thought. Their names, therefore, should always be written with capitals, as proper nouns, at least in the singular number; and should form the plural regularly, as ordinary appellatives. Thus: (if we adopt the names now most generally used in English schools:) A, Aes; Bee, Bees; Cee, Cees; Dee, Dees; E, Ees; Eff, Effs; Gee, Gees; Aitch, Aitches; I, Ies; Jay, Jays; Kay, Kays; Ell, Ells; Em, Ems; En, Ens; O, Oes; Pee, Pees; Kue, Kues; Ar, Ars; Ess, Esses; Tee, Tees; U, Ues; Vee, Vees; Double-u, Double-ues; Ex, Exes; Wy, Wies; Zee, Zees.

OBS. 2.—The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern languages, are mostly framed with reference to their powers, or sounds. Yet is there in English no letter of which the name is always identical with its power: for A, E, I, O, and U, are the only letters which can name themselves, and all these have other sounds than those which their names express. The simple powers of the other letters are so manifestly insufficient to form any name, and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name of each, that did we not know how education has been trifled with, it would be hard to believe even Murray, when he says, "They are frequently confounded by writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings on the name, are often applied to explain the nature of a consonant; and by this means the student is led into error and perplexity."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 8. The confounding of names with the things for which they stand, implies, unquestionably, great carelessness in the use of speech, and great indistinctness of apprehension in respect to things; yet so common is this error, that Murray himself has many times fallen into it.[87] Let the learner therefore be on his guard, remembering that grammar, both in its study and in its practice, requires the constant exercise of a rational discernment. Those letters which name themselves, take for their names those sounds which they usually represent at the end of an accented syllable; thus the names, A, E, I, O, U, are uttered with the sounds given to the same letters in the first syllables of the other names, Abel, Enoch, Isaac, Obed, Urim; or in the first syllables of the common words, paper, penal, pilot, potent, pupil. The other letters, most of which can never be perfectly sounded alone, have names in which their powers are combined with other sounds more vocal; as, Bee, Cee, Dee,—Ell, Em, En,—Jay, Kay, Kue. But in this respect the terms Aitch and Double-u are irregular; because they have no obvious reference to the powers of the letters thus named.

OBS. 3.—Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of by their names; nor can they be spoken of otherwise; yet, as the simple characters are better known and more easily exhibited than their written names, the former are often substituted for the latter, and are read as the words for which they are assumed. Hence the orthography of these words has hitherto been left too much to mere fancy or caprice. Our dictionaries, by a strange oversight or negligence, do not recognize them as words; and writers have in general spelled them with very little regard to either authority or analogy. What they are, or ought to be, has therefore been treated as a trifling question: and, what is still more surprising, several authors of spelling-books make no mention at all of them; while others, here at the very threshold of instruction, teach falsely—giving "he" for Aitch, "er" for Ar, "oo" or "uu" for Double-u, "ye" for Wy, and writing almost all the rest improperly. So that many persons who think themselves well educated, would be greatly puzzled to name on paper these simple elements of all learning. Nay, there can be found a hundred men who can readily write the alphabetic names which were in use two or three thousand years ago in Greece or Palestine, for one who can do the same thing with propriety, respecting those which we now employ so constantly in English:[88] and yet the words themselves are as familiar to every school-boy's lips as are the characters to his eye. This fact may help to convince us, that the grammar of our language has never yet been sufficiently taught. Among all the particulars which constitute this subject, there are none which better deserve to be everywhere known, by proper and determinate names, than these prime elements of all written language.

OBS. 4.—Should it happen to be asked a hundred lustrums hence, what were the names of the letters in "the Augustan age of English literature," or in the days of William the Fourth and Andrew Jackson, I fear the learned of that day will be as much at a loss for an answer, as would most of our college tutors now, were they asked, by what series of names the Roman youth were taught to spell. Might not Quintilian or Varro have obliged many, by recording these? As it is, we are indebted to Priscian, a grammarian of the sixth century, for almost all we know about them. But even the information which may be had, on this point, has been strangely overlooked by our common Latin grammarians.[89] What, but the greater care of earlier writers, has made the Greek names better known or more important than the Latin? In every nation that is not totally illiterate, custom must have established for the letters a certain set of names, which are the only true ones, and which are of course to be preferred to such as are local or unauthorized. In this, however, as in other things, use may sometimes vary, and possibly improve; but when its decisions are clear, no feeble reason should be allowed to disturb them. Every parent, therefore, who would have his children instructed to read and write the English language, should see that in the first place they learn to name the letters as they are commonly named in English. A Scotch gentleman of good education informs me, that the names of the letters, as he first learned them in a school in his own country, were these: "A, Ib, Ec, Id, E, Iff, Ig, Ich, I, Ij, Ik, Ill, Im, In, O, Ip, Kue, Ir, Iss, It, U, Iv, Double-u, Ix, Wy, Iz;" but that in the same school the English names are now used. It is to be hoped, that all teachers will in time abandon every such local usage, and name the letters as they ought to be named; and that the day will come, in which the regular English orthography of these terms, shall be steadily preferred, ignorance of it be thought a disgrace, and the makers of school-books feel no longer at liberty to alter names that are a thousand times better known than their own.

OBS. 5.—It is not in respect to their orthography alone, that these first words in literature demand inquiry and reflection: the pronunciation of some of them has often been taught erroneously, and, with respect to three or four of them, some writers have attempted to make an entire change from the customary forms which I have recorded. Whether the name of the first letter should be pronounced "Aye," as it is in England, "Ah," as it is in Ireland, or "Aw," as it is in Scotland, is a question which Walker has largely discussed, and clearly decided in favour of the first sound; and this decision accords with the universal practice of the schools in America. It is remarkable that this able critic, though he treated minutely of the letters, naming them all in the outset of his "Principles" subsequently neglected the names of them all, except the first and the last. Of Zee, (which has also been called Zed, Zad, Izzard, Uzzard, Izzet, and Iz,)[90] he says, "Its common name is izzard, which Dr. Johnson explains into s hard; if, however, this is the meaning, it is a gross misnomer; for the z is not the hard, but the soft s;[91] but as it has a less sharp, and therefore not so audible a sound, it is not impossible but it may mean s surd. Zed, borrowed from the French, is the more fashionable name of this letter; but, in my opinion, not to be admitted, because the names of the letters ought to have no diversity."—Walker's Principles, No. 483. It is true, the name of a letter ought to be one, and in no respect diverse; but where diversity has already obtained, and become firmly rooted in custom, is it to be obviated by insisting upon what is old-fashioned, awkward, and inconvenient? Shall the better usage give place to the worse? Uniformity cannot be so reached. In this country, both Zed and Izzard, as well as the worse forms Zad and Uzzard, are now fairly superseded by the softer and better term Zee; and whoever will spell aloud, with each of these names, a few such words as dizzy, mizzen, gizzard, may easily perceive why none of the former can ever be brought again into use. The other two, Iz and Izzet, being localisms, and not authorized English, I give up all six; Zed to the French, and the rest to oblivion.

OBS. 6.—By way of apology for noticing the name of the first letter, Walker observes, "If a diversity of names to vowels did not confound us in our spelling, or declaring to each other the component letters of a word, it would be entirely needless to enter into so trifling a question as the mere name of a letter; but when we find ourselves unable to convey signs to each other on account of this diversity of names, and that words themselves are endangered by an improper utterance of their component parts, it seems highly incumbent on us to attempt a uniformity in this point, which, insignificant as it may seem, is undoubtedly the foundation of a just and regular pronunciation."—Dict., under A. If diversity in this matter is so perplexing, what shall we say to those who are attempting innovations without assigning reasons, or even pretending authority? and if a knowledge of these names is the basis of a just pronunciation, what shall we think of him who will take no pains to ascertain how he ought to speak and write them? He who pretends to teach the proper fashion of speaking and writing, cannot deal honestly, if ever he silently prefer a suggested improvement, to any established and undisturbed usage of the language; for, in grammar, no individual authority can be a counterpoise to general custom. The best usage can never be that which is little known, nor can it be well ascertained and taught by him who knows little. Inquisitive minds are ever curious to learn the nature, origin, and causes of things; and that instruction is the most useful, which is best calculated to gratify this rational curiosity. This is my apology for dwelling so long upon the present topic.

OBS. 7.—The names originally given to the letters were not mere notations of sound, intended solely to express or make known the powers of the several characters then in use; nor ought even the modern names of our present letters, though formed with special reference to their sounds, to be considered such. Expressions of mere sound, such as the notations in a pronouncing dictionary, having no reference to what is meant by the sound, do not constitute words at all; because they are not those acknowledged signs to which a meaning has been attached, and are consequently without that significance which is an essential property of words. But, in every language, there must be a series of sounds by which the alphabetical characters are commonly known in speech; and which, as they are the acknowledged names of these particular objects, must be entitled to a place among the words of the language. It is a great error to judge otherwise; and a greater to make it a "trifling question" in grammar, whether a given letter shall be called by one name or by an other. Who shall say that Daleth, Delta, and Dee, are not three real words, each equally important in the language to which it properly belongs? Such names have always been in use wherever literature has been cultivated; and as the forms and powers of the letters have been changed by the nations, and have become different in different languages, there has necessarily followed a change of the names. For, whatever inconvenience scholars may find in the diversity which has thence arisen, to name these elements in a set of foreign terms, inconsistent with the genius of the language to be learned, would surely be attended with a tenfold greater. We derived our letters, and their names too, from the Romans; but this is no good reason why the latter should be spelled and pronounced as we suppose they were spelled and pronounced in Rome.

OBS. 8.—The names of the twenty-two letters in Hebrew, are, without dispute, proper words; for they are not only significant of the letters thus named, but have in general, if not in every instance, some other meaning in that language. Thus the mysterious ciphers which the English reader meets with, and wonders over, as he reads the 119th Psalm, may be resolved, according to some of the Hebrew grammars, as follows:—

[Hebrew: Aleph] Aleph, A, an ox, or a leader; [Hebrew: Beth] Beth, Bee, house; [Hebrew: Gimel] Gimel, Gee, a camel; [Hebrew: Dalet] Daleth, Dee, a door; [Hebrew: he] He, E, she, or behold; [Hebrew: vav] Vau, U, a hook, or a nail; [Hebrew: zajin] Zain, Zee, armour; [Hebrew: het] Cheth, or Heth, Aitch, a hedge; [Hebrew: tet] Teth, Tee, a serpent, or a scroll; [Hebrew: jod] Jod, or Yod, I, or Wy, a hand shut; [Hebrew: kaf] Caph, Cee, a hollow hand, or a cup; [Hebrew: lamed] Lamed, Ell, an ox-goad; [Hebrew: mem] Mem, Em, a stain, or spot; [Hebrew: nun] Nun, En, a fish, or a snake; [Hebrew: samekh] Samech, Ess, a basis, or support; [Hebrew: ayin] Ain, or Oin, O, an eye, or a well; [Hebrew: pe] Pe, Pee, a lip, or mouth; [Hebrew: tsadi] Tzaddi, or Tsadhe, Tee-zee, (i. e. tz, or ts,) a hunter's pole; [Hebrew: qof] Koph, Kue, or Kay, an ape; [Hebrew: resh] Resch, or Resh, Ar, a head; [Hebrew: shin] Schin, or Sin, Ess-aitch, or Ess, a tooth; [Hebrew: tav] Tau, or Thau, Tee, or Tee-aitch, a cross, or mark.

These English names of the Hebrew letters are written with much less uniformity than those of the Greek, because there has been more dispute respecting their powers. This is directly contrary to what one would have expected; since the Hebrew names are words originally significant of other things than the letters, and the Greek are not. The original pronunciation of both languages is admitted to be lost, or involved in so much obscurity that little can be positively affirmed about it; and yet, where least was known, grammarians have produced the most diversity; aiming at disputed sounds in the one case, but generally preferring a correspondence of letters in the other.

OBS. 9.—The word alphabet is derived from the first two names in the following series. The Greek letters are twenty-four; which are formed, named, and sounded, thus:—

[Greek: A a], Alpha, a; [Greek: B, b], Beta, b; [Greek: G g], Gamma, g hard; [Greek: D d], Delta, d; [Greek: E e], Epsilon, e short; [Greek: Z z], Zeta, z; [Greek: Æ æ], Eta, e long; [Greek: TH Th th], Theta, th; [Greek: I i], Iota, i; [Greek K k], Kappa, k; [Greek: L l], Lambda, l; [Greek: M m], Mu, m; [Greek: N n], Nu, n; [Greek: X x], Xi, x; [Greek: O o], Omicron, o short; [Greek: P p], Pi, p; [Greek: R r] Rho, r; [Greek: S s s], Sigma, s; [Greek: T t], Tau, t; [Greek: Y y], Upsilon, u; [Greek: PH ph], Phi, ph; [Greek: CH ch], Chi, ch; [Greek: PS ps], Psi, ps; [Greek: O o], Omega, o long.

Of these names, our English dictionaries explain the first and the last; and Webster has defined Iota, and Zeta, but without reference to the meaning of the former in Greek. Beta, Delta, Lambda, and perhaps some others, are also found in the etymologies or definitions of Johnson and Webster, both of whom spell the word Lambda and its derivative lambdoidal without the silent b, which is commonly, if not always, inserted by the authors of our Greek grammars, and which Worcester, more properly, retains.

OBS. 10.—The reader will observe that the foregoing names, whether Greek or Hebrew, are in general much less simple than those which our letters now bear; and if he has ever attempted to spell aloud in either of those languages, he cannot but be sensible of the great advantage which was gained when to each letter there was given a short name, expressive, as ours mostly are, of its ordinary power. This improvement appears to have been introduced by the Romans, whose names for the letters were even more simple than our own. But so negligent in respect to them have been the Latin grammarians, both ancient and modern, that few even of the learned can tell what they really were in that language; or how they differed, either in orthography or sound, from those of the English or the French, the Hebrew or the Greek. Most of them, however, may yet be ascertained from Priscian, and some others of note among the ancient philologists; so that by taking from later authors the names of those letters which were not used in old times, we can still furnish an entire list, concerning the accuracy of which there is not much room to dispute. It is probable that in the ancient pronunciation of Latin, a was commonly sounded as in father; e like the English a; i mostly like e long; y like i short; c generally and g always hard, as in come and go. But, as the original, native, or just pronunciation of a language is not necessary to an understanding of it when written, the existing nations have severally, in a great measure, accommodated themselves, in their manner of reading this and other ancient tongues.

OBS. 11.—As the Latin language is now printed, its letters are twenty-five. Like the French, it has all that belong to the English alphabet, except the Double-u. But, till the first Punic war, the Romans wrote C for G, and doubtless gave it the power as well as the place of the Gamma or Gimel. It then seems to have slid into K; but they used it also for S, as we do now. The ancient Saxons, generally pronounced C as K, but sometimes as Ch. Their G was either guttural, or like our Y. In some of the early English grammars the name of the latter is written Ghee. The letter F, when first invented, was called, from its shape, Digamma, and afterwards Ef. J, when it was first distinguished from I, was called by the Hebrew name Jod, and afterwards Je. V, when first distinguished from U, was called Vau, then Va, then Ve. Y, when the Romans first borrowed it from the Greeks, was called Ypsilon; and Z, from the same source, was called Zeta; and, as these two letters were used only in words of Greek origin, I know not whether they ever received from the Romans any shorter names. In Schneider's Latin Grammar, the letters are named in the following manner; except Je and Ve, which are omitted by this author: "A, Be, Ce, De, E, Ef, Ge, Ha, I, [Je,] Ka, El, Em, En, O, Pe, Cu, Er, Es, Te, U, [Ve,] Ix, Ypsilon, Zeta." And this I suppose to be the most proper way of writing their names in Latin, unless we have sufficient authority for shortening Ypsilon into Y, sounded as short i, and for changing Zeta into Ez.

OBS. 12.—In many, if not in all languages, the five vowels, A, E, I, O, U, name themselves; but they name themselves differently to the ear, according to the different ways of uttering them in different languages. And as the name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels, that also may be affected in the same manner. But in every language there should be a known way both of writing and of speaking every name in the series; and that, if there is nothing to hinder, should be made conformable to the genius of the language. I do not say that the names above can be regularly declined in Latin; but in English it is as easy to speak of two Dees as of two trees, of two Kays as of two days, of two Exes as of two foxes, of two Effs as of two skiffs; and there ought to be no more difficulty about the correct way of writing the word in the one case, than in the other. In Dr. Sam. Prat's Latin Grammar, (an elaborate octavo, all Latin, published in London, 1722,) nine of the consonants are reckoned mutes; b, c, d, g, p, q, t, j, and v; and eight, semivowels; f, l, m, n, r, s, x, z. "All the mutes," says this author, "are named by placing e after them; as, be, ce, de, ge, except q, which ends in u." See p. 8. "The semivowels, beginning with e, end in themselves; as, ef, ach, el, em, en, er, es, ex, (or, as Priscian will have it, ix,) eds." See p. 9. This mostly accords with the names given in the preceding paragraph; and so far as it does not, I judge the author to be wrong. The reader will observe that the Doctor's explanation is neither very exact nor quite complete: K is a mute which is not enumerated, and the rule would make the name of it Ke, and not Ka;—H is not one of his eight semivowels, nor does the name Ach accord with his rule or seem like a Latin word;—the name of Z, according to his principle, would be Ez and not "Eds," although the latter may better indicate the sound which was then given to this letter.

OBS. 13.—If the history of these names exhibits diversity, so does that of almost all other terms; and yet there is some way of writing every word with correctness, and correctness tends to permanence. But Time, that establishes authority, destroys it also, when he fairly sanctions newer customs. To all names worthy to be known, it is natural to wish a perpetual uniformity; but if any one thinks the variableness of these to be peculiar, let him open the English Bible of the fourteenth century, and read a few verses, observing the names. For instance: "Forsothe whanne Eroude was to bringynge forth hym, in that nigt Petir was slepynge bitwixe tweyno knytis."—Dedis, (i. e., Acts,) xii, 6. "Crist Ihesu that is to demynge the quyke and deed."—2 Tim., iv, 1. Since this was written for English, our language has changed much, and at the same time acquired, by means of the press, some aids to stability. I have recorded above the true names of the letters, as they are now used, with something of their history; and if there could be in human works any thing unchangeable, I should wish, (with due deference to all schemers and fault-finders,) that these names might remain the same forever.

OBS. 14.—If any change is desirable in our present names of the letters, it is that we may have a shorter and simpler term in stead of Double-u. But can we change this well known name? I imagine it would be about as easy to change Alpha, Upsilon, or Omega; and perhaps it would be as useful. Let Dr. Webster, or any defender of his spelling, try it. He never named the English letters rightly; long ago discarded the term Double-u; and is not yet tired of his experiment with "oo;" but thinks still to make the vowel sound of this letter its name. Yet he writes his new name wrong; has no authority for it but his own; and is, most certainly, reprehensible for the innovation.[92] If W is to be named as a vowel, it ought to name itself, as other vowels do, and not to take two Oes for its written name. Who that knows what it is, to name a letter, can think of naming w by double o? That it is possible for an ingenious man to misconceive this simple affair of naming the letters, may appear not only from the foregoing instance, but from the following quotation: "Among the thousand mismanagements of literary instruction, there is at the outset in the hornbook, the pretence to represent elementary sounds by syllables composed of two or more elements; as, Be, Kay, Zed, Double-u, and Aitch. These words are used in infancy, and through life, as simple elements in the process of synthetic spelling. If the definition of a consonant was made by the master from the practice of the child, it might suggest pity for the pedagogue, but should not make us forget the realities of nature."—Dr. Push, on the Philosophy of the Human Voice, p. 52. This is a strange allegation to come from such a source. If I bid a boy spell the word why, he says, "Double-u, Aitch, Wy, hwi;" and knows that he has spelled and pronounced the word correctly. But if he conceives that the five syllables which form the three words, Double-u, and Aitch, and Wy, are the three simple sounds which he utters in pronouncing the word why, it is not because the hornbook, or the teacher of the hornbook, ever made any such blunder or "pretence;" but because, like some great philosophers, he is capable of misconceiving very plain things. Suppose he should take it into his head to follow Dr. Webster's books, and to say, "Oo, he, ye, hwi;" who, but these doctors, would imagine, that such spelling was supported either by "the realities of nature," or by the authority of custom? I shall retain both the old "definition of a consonant," and the usual names of the letters, notwithstanding the contemptuous pity it may excite in the minds of such critics.

II. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS.

The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels and consonants.

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone; as, a, e, o.

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered till joined to a vowel; as, b, c, d.[93]

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. All the other letters are consonants.

W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard in the same syllable; as in wine, twine, whine; ye, yet, youth: in all other cases, these letters are vowels; as in Yssel, Ystadt, yttria; newly, dewy, eyebrow.

CLASSES OF CONSONANTS.

The consonants are divided, with respect to their powers, into semivowels and mutes.

A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted; as, l, n, z, in al, an, az.

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath; as, k, p, t, in ak, ap, at.

The semivowels are, f, h, j, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c and g soft: but w or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel; and the sound of c, f, g, h, j, s, or x, can be protracted only as an aspirate, or strong breath.

Four of the semivowels,—l, m, n, and r,—are termed liquids, on account of the fluency of their sounds; and four others,—v, w, y, and z,—are likewise more vocal than the aspirates.

The mutes are eight;—b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard: three of these,—k, q, and c hard,—sound exactly alike: b, d, and g hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, and, in respect to its principal features sanctioned by almost universal authority; yet if we examine it minutely, either with reference to the various opinions of the learned, or with regard to the essential differences among the things of which it speaks, it will not perhaps be found in all respects indisputably certain. It will however be of use, as a basis for some subsequent rules, and as a means of calling the attention of the learner to the manner in which he utters the sounds of the letters. A knowledge of about three dozen different elementary sounds is implied in the faculty of speech. The power of producing these sounds with distinctness, and of adapting them to the purposes for which language is used, constitutes perfection of utterance. Had we a perfect alphabet, consisting of one symbol, and only one, for each elementary sound; and a perfect method of spelling, freed from silent letters, and precisely adjusted to the most correct pronunciation of words; the process of learning to read would doubtless be greatly facilitated. And yet any attempt toward such a reformation, any change short of the introduction of some entirely new mode of writing, would be both unwise and impracticable. It would involve our laws and literature in utter confusion, because pronunciation is the least permanent part of language; and if the orthography of words were conformed entirely to this standard, their origin and meaning would, in many instances, be soon lost. We must therefore content ourselves to learn languages as they are, and to make the best use we can of our present imperfect system of alphabetic characters; and we may be the better satisfied to do this, because the deficiencies and redundancies of this alphabet are not yet so well ascertained, as to make it certain what a perfect one would be.

OBS. 2.—In order to have a right understanding of the letters, it is necessary to enumerate, as accurately as we can, the elementary sounds of the language; and to attend carefully to the manner in which these sounds are enunciated, as well as to the characters by which they are represented. The most unconcerned observer cannot but perceive that there are certain differences in the sounds, as well as in the shapes, of the letters; and yet under what heads they ought severally to be classed, or how many of them will fall under some particular name, it may occasionally puzzle a philosopher to tell. The student must consider what is proposed or asked, use his own senses, and judge for himself. With our lower-case alphabet before him, he can tell by his own eye, which are the long letters, and which the short ones; so let him learn by his own ear, which are the vowels, and which, the consonants. The processes are alike simple; and, if he be neither blind nor deaf, he can do both about equally well. Thus he may know for a certainty, that a is a short letter, and b a long one; the former a vowel, the latter a consonant: and so of others. Yet as he may doubt whether t is a long letter or a short one, so he may be puzzled to say whether w and y, as heard in we and ye, are vowels or consonants: but neither of these difficulties should impair his confidence in any of his other decisions. If he attain by observation and practice a clear and perfect pronunciation of the letters, he will be able to class them for himself with as much accuracy as he will find in books.

OBS. 3.—Grammarians have generally agreed that every letter is either a vowel or a consonant; and also that there are among the latter some semivowels, some mutes, some aspirates, some liquids, some sharps, some flats, some labials, some dentals, some nasals, some palatals, and perhaps yet other species; but in enumerating the letters which belong to these several classes, they disagree so much as to make it no easy matter to ascertain what particular classification is best supported by their authority. I have adopted what I conceive to be the best authorized, and at the same time the most intelligible. He that dislikes the scheme, may do better, if he can. But let him with modesty determine what sort of discoveries may render our ancient authorities questionable. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided the Greek letters into vowels, semivowels, and mutes, and declared that no syllable could be formed without a vowel. In the opinion of some neoterics, it has been reserved to our age, to detect the fallacy of this. But I would fain believe that the Stagirite knew as well what he was saying, as did Dr. James Rush, when, in 1827, he declared the doctrine of vowels and consonants to be "a misrepresentation." The latter philosopher resolves the letters into "tonics, subtonics, and atonics;" and avers that "consonants alone may form syllables." Indeed, I cannot but think the ancient doctrine better. For, to say that "consonants alone may form syllables," is as much as to say that consonants are not consonants, but vowels! To be consistent, the attempters of this reformation should never speak of vowels or consonants, semivowels or mutes; because they judge the terms inappropriate, and the classification absurd. They should therefore adhere strictly to their "tonics, subtonics, and atonics;" which classes, though apparently the same as vowels, semivowels, and mutes, are better adapted to their new and peculiar division of these elements. Thus, by reforming both language and philosophy at once, they may make what they will of either!

OBS. 4.—Some teach that w and y are always vowels: conceiving the former to be equivalent to oo, and the latter to i or e. Dr. Lowth says, "Y is always a vowel," and "W is either a vowel or a diphthong." Dr. Webster supposes w to be always "a vowel, a simple sound;" but admits that, "At the beginning of words, y is called an articulation or consonant, and with some propriety perhaps, as it brings the root of the tongue in close contact with the lower part of the palate, and nearly in the position to which the close g brings it."—American Dict., Octavo. But I follow Wallis, Brightland, Johnson, Walker, Murray, Worcester, and others, in considering both of them sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. They are consonants at the beginning of words in English, because their sounds take the article a, and not an, before them; as, a wall, a yard, and not, an wall, an yard. But oo or the sound of e, requires an, and not a; as, an eel, an oozy bog.[94] At the end of a syllable we know they are vowels; but at the beginning, they are so squeezed in their pronunciation, as to follow a vowel without any hiatus, or difficulty of utterance; as, "O worthy youth! so young, so wise!"

OBS. 5.—Murray's rule, "W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable, but in every other situation they are vowels," which is found in Comly's book, Kirkham's, Merchant's, Ingersoll's, Fisk's. Hart's, Hiley's, Alger's, Bullions's, Pond's, S. Putnam's, Weld's, and in sundry other grammars, is favourable to my doctrine, but too badly conceived to be quoted here as authority. It undesignedly makes w a consonant in wine, and a vowel in twine; and y a consonant when it forms a syllable, as in dewy: for a letter that forms a syllable, "begins" it. But Kirkham has lately learned his letters anew; and, supposing he had Dr. Rush on his side, has philosophically taken their names for their sounds. He now calls y a "diphthong." But he is wrong here by his own showing: he should rather have called it a triphthong. He says, "By pronouncing in a very deliberate and perfectly natural manner, the letter y, (which is a diphthong,) the unpractised student will perceive, that the sound produced, is compound; being formed, at its opening, of the obscure sound of oo as heard in oo-ze, which sound rapidly slides into that of i, and then advances to that of ee as heard in e-ve, and on which it gradually passes off into silence."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 75. Thus the "unpractised student" is taught that b-y spells bwy; or, if pronounced "very deliberately, boo-i-ee!" Nay, this grammatist makes b, not a labial mute, as Walker, Webster, Cobb, and others, have called it, but a nasal subtonic, or semivowel. He delights in protracting its "guttural murmur;" perhaps, in assuming its name for its sound; and, having proved, that "consonants are capable of forming syllables," finds no difficulty in mouthing this little monosyllable by into b-oo-i-ee! In this way, it is the easiest thing in the world, for such a man to outface Aristotle, or any other divider of the letters; for he makes the sounds by which he judges. "Boy," says the teacher of Kirkham's Elocution, "describe the protracted sound of y."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 110. The pupil may answer, "That letter, sir, has no longer or more complex sound, than what is heard in the word eye, or in the vowel i; but the book which I study, describes it otherwise. I know not whether I can make you understand it, but I will tr-oo-i-ee." If the word try, which the author uses as an example, does not exhibit his "protracted sound of y," there is no word that does: the sound is a mere fiction, originating in strange ignorance.

OBS. 6.—In the large print above, I have explained the principal classes of the letters, but not all that are spoken of in books. It is proper to inform the learner that the sharp consonants are t, and all others after which our contracted preterits and participles require that d should be sounded like t; as in the words faced, reached, stuffed, laughed, triumphed, croaked, cracked, houghed, reaped, nipped, piqued, missed, wished, earthed, betrothed, fixed. The flat or smooth consonants are d, and all others with which the proper sound of d may be united; as in the words, daubed, judged, hugged, thronged, sealed, filled, aimed, crammed, pained, planned, feared, marred, soothed, loved, dozed, buzzed. The labials are those consonants which are articulated chiefly by the lips; among which, Dr. Webster reckons b, f, m, p, and v. But Dr. Rush says, b and m are nasals, the latter, "purely nasal." [95] The dentals are those consonants which are referred to the teeth; the nasals are those which are affected by the nose; and the palatals are those which compress the palate, as k and hard g. But these last-named classes are not of much importance; nor have I thought it worth while to notice minutely the opinions of writers respecting the others, as whether h is a semivowel, or a mute, or neither.

OBS. 7.—The Cherokee alphabet, which was invented in 1821, by See-quo-yah, or George Guess, an ingenious but wholly illiterate Indian, contains eighty-five letters, or characters. But the sounds of the language are much fewer than ours; for the characters represent, not simple tones and articulations, but syllabic sounds, and this number is said to be sufficient to denote them all. But the different syllabic sounds in our language amount to some thousands. I suppose, from the account, that See-quo-yah writes his name, in his own language, with three letters; and that characters so used, would not require, and probably would not admit, such a division as that of vowels and consonants. One of the Cherokees, in a letter to the American Lyceum, states, that a knowledge of this mode of writing is so easily acquired, that one who understands and speaks the language, "can learn to read in a day; and, indeed," continues the writer, "I have known some to acquire the art in a single evening. It is only necessary to learn the different sounds of the characters, to be enabled to read at once. In the English language, we must not only first learn the letters, but to spell, before reading; but in Cherokee, all that is required, is, to learn the letters; for they have syllabic sounds, and by connecting different ones together, a word is formed: in which there is no art. All who understand the language can do so, and both read and write, so soon as they can learn to trace with their fingers the forms of the characters. I suppose that more than one half of the Cherokees can read their own language, and are thereby enabled to acquire much valuable information, with which they otherwise would never have been blessed."—W. S. Coodey, 1831.

OBS. 8.—From the foregoing account, it would appear that the Cherokee language is a very peculiar one: its words must either be very few, or the proportion of polysyllables very great. The characters used in China and Japan, stand severally for words; and their number is said to be not less than seventy thousand; so that the study of a whole life is scarcely sufficient to make a man thoroughly master of them. Syllabic writing is represented by Dr. Blair as a great improvement upon the Chinese method, and yet as being far inferior to that which is properly alphabetic, like ours. "The first step, in this new progress," says he, "was the invention of an alphabet of syllables, which probably preceded the invention of an alphabet of letters, among some of the ancient nations; and which is said to be retained to this day, in Ethiopia, and some countries of India. By fixing upon a particular mark, or character, for every syllable in the language, the number of characters, necessary to be used in writing, was reduced within a much smaller compass than the number of words in the language. Still, however, the number of characters was great; and must have continued to render both reading and writing very laborious arts. Till, at last, some happy genius arose, and tracing the sounds made by the human voice, to their most simple elements, reduced them to a very few vowels and consonants; and, by affixing to each of these, the signs which we now call letters, taught men how, by their combinations, to put in writing all the different words, or combinations of sound, which they employed in speech. By being reduced to this simplicity, the art of writing was brought to its highest state of perfection; and, in this state, we now enjoy it in all the countries of Europe."—Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. VII, p. 68.

OBS. 9.—All certain knowledge of the sounds given to the letters by Moses and the prophets having been long ago lost, a strange dispute has arisen, and been carried on for centuries, concerning this question, "Whether the Hebrew letters are, or are not, all consonants:" the vowels being supposed by some to be suppressed and understood; and not written, except by points of comparatively late invention. The discussion of such a question does not properly belong to English grammar; but, on account of its curiosity, as well as of its analogy to some of our present disputes, I mention it. Dr. Charles Wilson says, "After we have sufficiently known the figures and names of the letters, the next step is, to learn to enunciate or to pronounce them, so as to produce articulate sounds. On this subject, which appears at first sight very plain and simple, numberless contentions and varieties of opinion meet us at the threshold. From the earliest period of the invention of written characters to represent human language, however more or less remote that time may be, it seems absolutely certain, that the distinction of letters into vowels and consonants must have obtained. All the speculations of the Greek grammarians assume this as a first principle." Again: "I beg leave only to premise this observation, that I absolutely and unequivocally deny the position, that all the letters of the Hebrew alphabet are consonants; and, after the most careful and minute inquiry, give it as my opinion, that of the twenty-two letters of which the Hebrew alphabet consists, five are vowels and seventeen are consonants. The five vowels by name are, Aleph, He, Vau, Yod, and Ain."—Wilson's Heb. Gram., pp. 6 and 8.

III. POWERS OF THE LETTERS.

The powers of the letters are properly those elementary sounds which their figures are used to represent; but letters formed into words, are capable of communicating thought independently of sound. The simple elementary sounds of any language are few, commonly not more than thirty-six;[96] but they may be variously combined, so as to form words innumerable. Different vowel sounds, or vocal elements, are produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each; but the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel power.

The vowel sounds which form the basis of the English language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are heard at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel, ell, isle, ill, old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of u in bull.

In the formation of syllables, some of these fourteen primary sounds may be joined together, as in ay, oil, out, owl; and all of them may be preceded or followed by certain motions and positions of the lips and tongue, which will severally convert them into other terms in speech. Thus the same essential sounds may be changed into a new series of words by an f; as, fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, fond, fool, fuse, fuss, full. Again, into as many more with a p; as, pate, pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, pule, purl, pull. Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. About half of them are sometimes words: the rest are seldom, if ever, used alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as plainly as possible: eigh, ~a, ah, awe, =eh, ~e, eye, ~i, oh, ~o, oo, yew, ~u, û. Thus the eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew, are, or may be, words; but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in at, et, it, ot, ut, put, are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants; except the first, which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or a—a sound sometimes given to the word a, perhaps most generally; as in the phrase, "twice ~a day."

The simple consonant sounds in English are twenty-two: they are marked by b, d, f, g hard, h, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zh. But zh is written only to show the sound of other letters; as of s in pleasure, or z in azure.

All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following words: buy, die, fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Again: most of them may be repeated in the same word, if not in the same syllable; as in bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, tittle, thinketh, thither, vivid, witwal, union,[97] dizzies, vision.

With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but complex sounds: hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to dzh; and X, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word, and the latter begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple sound of Z; as in Xerxes, xebec.

The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always the power of k. C is hard, like k, before a, o, and u; and soft, like s, before e, i, and y: thus the syllables, ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, are pronounced, ka, se, si, ko, ku, sy. S before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter; hence the syllables, sca, sce, sci, sco, scu, scy, are sounded, ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh; as in ocean, social. Ch commonly represents the compound sound of tsh; as in church.

G, as well as C, has different sounds before different vowels. G is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and u; and generally soft, like j, before e, i, or y: thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced ga, je, ji, go, gu, jy.

The possible combinations and mutations of the twenty-six letters of our alphabet, are many millions of millions. But those clusters which are unpronounceable, are useless. Of such as may be easily uttered, there are more than enough for all the purposes of useful writing, or the recording of speech.

Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as about six or seven and thirty plain elementary sounds, represented by characters still fewer, we derive such a variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to explain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all men in all ages.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—A knowledge of sounds can be acquired, in the first instance, only by the ear. No description of the manner of their production, or of the differences which distinguish them, can be at all intelligible to him who has not already, by the sense of hearing, acquired a knowledge of both. What I here say of the sounds of the letters, must of course be addressed to those persons only who are able both to speak and to read English. Why then attempt instruction by a method which both ignorance and knowledge on the part of the pupil, must alike render useless? I have supposed some readers to have such an acquaintance with the powers of the letters, as is but loose and imperfect; sufficient for the accurate pronunciation of some words or syllables, but leaving them liable to mistakes in others; extending perhaps to all the sounds of the language, but not to a ready analysis or enumeration of them. Such persons may profit by a written description of the powers of the letters, though no such description can equal the clear impression of the living voice. Teachers, too, whose business it is to aid the articulation of the young, and, by a patient inculcation of elementary principles, to lay the foundation of an accurate pronunciation, may derive some assistance from any notation of these principles, which will help their memory, or that of the learner. The connexion between letters and sounds is altogether arbitrary; but a few positions, being assumed and made known, in respect to some characters, become easy standards for further instruction in respect to others of similar sound.

OBS. 2.—The importance of being instructed at an early age, to pronounce with distinctness and facility all the elementary sounds of one's native language, has been so frequently urged, and is so obvious in itself, that none but those who have been themselves neglected, will be likely to disregard the claims of their children in this respect.[98] But surely an accurate knowledge of the ordinary powers of the letters would be vastly more common, were there not much hereditary negligence respecting the manner in which these important rudiments are learned. The utterance of the illiterate may exhibit wit and native talent, but it is always more or less barbarous, because it is not aided by a knowledge of orthography. For pronunciation and orthography, however they may seem, in our language especially, to be often at variance, are certainly correlative: a true knowledge of either tends to the preservation of both. Each of the letters represents some one or more of the elementary sounds, exclusive of the rest; and each of the elementary sounds, though several of them are occasionally transferred, has some one or two letters to which it most properly or most frequently belongs. But borrowed, as our language has been, from a great variety of sources, to which it is desirable ever to retain the means of tracing it, there is certainly much apparent lack of correspondence between its oral and its written form. Still the discrepancies are few, when compared with the instances of exact conformity; and, if they are, as I suppose they are, unavoidable, it is as useless to complain of the trouble they occasion, as it is to think of forcing a reconciliation. The wranglers in this controversy, can never agree among themselves, whether orthography shall conform to pronunciation, or pronunciation to orthography. Nor does any one of them well know how our language would either sound or look, were he himself appointed sole arbiter of all variances between our spelling and our speech.

OBS. 3.—"Language," says Dr. Rush, "was long ago analyzed into its alphabetic elements. Wherever this analysis is known, the art of teaching language has, with the best success, been conducted upon the rudimental method." * * * "The art of reading consists in having all the vocal elements under complete command, that they may be properly applied, for the vivid and elegant delineation of the sense and sentiment of discourse."—Philosophy of the Voice, p. 346. Again, of "the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements," he says, "The least deviation from the assumed standard converts the listener into the critic; and I am surely speaking within bounds when I say, that for every miscalled element in discourse, ten succeeding words are lost to the greater part of an audience."—Ibid., p. 350. These quotations plainly imply both the practicability and the importance of teaching the pronunciation of our language analytically by means of its present orthography, and agreeably to the standard assumed by the grammarians. The first of them affirms that it has been done, "with the best success," according to some ancient method of dividing the letters and explaining their sounds. And yet, both before and afterwards, we find this same author complaining of our alphabet and its subdivisions, as if sense or philosophy must utterly repudiate both; and of our orthography, as if a ploughman might teach us to spell better: and, at the same time, he speaks of softening his censure through modesty. "The deficiencies, redundancies, and confusion, of the system of alphabetic characters in this language, prevent the adoption of its subdivisions in this essay."—Ib., p. 52. Of the specific sounds given to the letters, he says, "The first of these matters is under the rule of every body, and therefore is very properly to be excluded from the discussions of that philosophy which desires to be effectual in its instruction. How can we hope to establish a system of elemental pronunciation in a language, when great masters in criticism condemn at once every attempt, in so simple and useful a labour as the correction of its orthography!"—P. 256. Again: "I deprecate noticing the faults of speakers, in the pronunciation of the alphabetic elements. It is better for criticism to be modest on this point, till it has the sense or independence to make our alphabet and its uses, look more like the work of what is called—wise and transcendent humanity: till the pardonable variety of pronunciation, and the true spelling by the vulgar, have satirized into reformation that pen-craft which keeps up the troubles of orthography for no other purpose, as one can divine, than to boast of a very questionable merit as a criterion of education."—Ib., p. 383.

OBS. 4.—How far these views are compatible, the reader will judge. And it is hoped he will excuse the length of the extracts, from a consideration of the fact, that a great master of the "pen-craft" here ridiculed, a noted stickler for needless Kays and Ues, now commonly rejected, while he boasts that his grammar, which he mostly copied from Murray's, is teaching the old explanation of the alphabetic elements to "more than one hundred thousand children and youth," is also vending under his own name an abstract of the new scheme of "tonicks, subtonicks, and atonicks;" and, in one breath, bestowing superlative praise on both, in order, as it would seem, to monopolize all inconsistency. "Among those who have successfully laboured in the philological field, Mr. Lindley Murray stands forth in bold relief, as undeniably at the head of the list."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 12. "The modern candidate for oratorical fame, stands on very different, and far more advantageous, ground, than that occupied by the young and aspiring Athenian; especially since a correct analysis of the vocal organs, and a faithful record of their operations, have been given to the world by Dr. James Rush, of Philadelphia—a name that will outlive the unquarried marble of our mountains."—Ibid., p. 29. "But what is to be said when presumption pushes itself into the front ranks of elocution, and thoughtless friends undertake to support it? The fraud must go on, till presumption quarrels, as often happens, with its own friends, or with itself, and thus dissolves the spell of its merits."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 405.

OBS. 5.—The question respecting the number of simple or elementary sounds in our language, presents a remarkable puzzle: and it is idle, if not ridiculous, for any man to declaim about the imperfection of our alphabet and orthography, who does not show himself able to solve it. All these sounds may easily be written in a plain sentence of three or four lines upon almost any subject; and every one who can read, is familiar with them all, and with all the letters. Now it is either easy to count them, or it is difficult. If difficult, wherein does the difficulty lie? and how shall he who knows not what and how many they are, think himself capable of reforming our system of their alphabetic signs? If easy, why do so few pretend to know their number? and of those who do pretend to this knowledge, why are there so few that agree? A certain verse in the seventh chapter of Ezra, has been said to contain all the letters. It however contains no j; and, with respect to the sounds, it lacks that of f, that of th sharp, and that of u in bull. I will suggest a few additional words for these; and then both all the letters, and all the sounds, of the English language, will be found in the example; and most of them, many times over: "'And I, even I, Artaxerxes, the king, do make a decree to all the treasurers' who 'are beyond the river, that whatsoever Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law of the God of heaven, shall require of you, it be done speedily' and faithfully, according to that which he shall enjoin." Some letters, and some sounds, are here used much more frequently than others; but, on an average, we have, in this short passage, each sound five times, and each letter eight. How often, then, does a man speak all the elements of his language, who reads well but one hour!

OBS. 6.—Of the number of elementary sounds in our language, different orthoëpists report differently; because they cannot always agree among themselves, wherein the identity or the simplicity, the sameness or the singleness, even of well-known sounds, consists; or because, if each is allowed to determine these points for himself, no one of them adheres strictly to his own decision. They may also, each for himself, have some peculiar way of utterance, which will confound some sounds which other men distinguish, or distinguish some which other men confound. For, as a man may write a very bad hand which shall still be legible, so he may utter many sounds improperly and still be understood. One may, in this way, make out a scheme of the alphabetic elements, which shall be true of his own pronunciation, and yet have obvious faults when tried by the best usage of English speech. It is desirable not to multiply these sounds beyond the number which a correct and elegant pronunciation of the language obviously requires. And what that number is, it seems to me not very difficult to ascertain; at least, I think we may fix it with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes. But let it be remembered, that all who have hitherto attempted the enumeration, have deviated more or less from their own decisions concerning either the simplicity or the identity of sounds; but, most commonly, it appears to have been thought expedient to admit some exceptions concerning both. Thus the long or diphthongal sounds of I and U, are admitted by some, and excluded by others; the sound of j, or soft g, is reckoned as simple by some, and rejected as compound by others; so a part, if not all, of what are called the long and the short vowels, as heard in ale and ell, arm and am, all and on, isle or eel and ill, tone and tun, pule or pool and pull, have been declared essentially the same by some, and essentially different by others. Were we to recognize as elementary, no sounds but such as are unquestionably simple in themselves, and indisputably different in quality from all others, we should not have more sounds than letters: and this is a proof that we have characters enough, though the sounds are perhaps badly distributed among them.

OBS. 7.—I have enumerated thirty-six well known sounds, which, in compliance with general custom, and for convenience in teaching. I choose to regard as the oral elements of our language. There may be found some reputable authority for adding four or five more, and other authority as reputable, for striking from the list seven or eight of those already mentioned. For the sake of the general principle, which we always regard in writing, a principle of universal grammar, that there can be no syllable without a vowel, I am inclined to teach, with Brightland, Dr. Johnson, L. Murray, and others, that, in English, as in French, there is given to the vowel e a certain very obscure sound which approaches, but amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it is commonly so regarded by the writers of dictionaries. It may be exemplified in the words oven, shovel, able;[99] or in the unemphatic article the before a consonant, as in the sentence, "Take the nearest:" we do not hear it as "thee nearest," nor as "then carest," but more obscurely. There is also a feeble sound of i or y unaccented, which is equivalent to ee uttered feebly, as in the word diversity. This is the most common sound of i and of y. The vulgar are apt to let it fall into the more obscure sound of short u. As elegance of utterance depends much upon the preservation of this sound from such obtuseness, perhaps Walker and others have done well to mark it as e in me; though some suppose it to be peculiar, and others identify it with the short i in fit. Thirdly, a distinction is made by some writers, between the vowel sounds heard in hate and bear, which Sheridan and Walker consider to be the same. The apparent difference may perhaps result from the following consonant r, which is apt to affect the sound of the vowel which precedes it. Such words as bear, care, dare, careful, parent, are very liable to be corrupted in pronunciation, by too broad a sound of the a; and, as the multiplication of needless distinctions should be avoided, I do not approve of adding an other sound to a vowel which has already quite too many. Worcester, however, in his new Dictionary, and Wells, in his new Grammar, give to the vowel A six or seven sounds in lieu of four; and Dr. Mandeville, in his Course of Reading, says, "A has eight sounds."—P. 9.

OBS. 8.—Sheridan made the elements of his oratory twenty-eight. Jones followed him implicitly, and adopted the same number.[100] Walker recognized several more, but I know not whether he has anywhere told us how many there are. Lindley Murray enumerates thirty-six, and the same thirty-six that are given in the main text above. The eight sounds not counted by Sheridan are these: 1. The Italian a, as in far, father, which he reckoned but a lengthening of the a in hat; 2. The short o, as in hot, which he supposed to be but a shortening of the a in hall; 3. The diphthongal i, as in isle, which he thought but a quicker union of the sounds of the diphthong oi, but which, in my opinion, is rather a very quick union of the sounds ah and ee into ay, I;[101] 4. The long u, which is acknowledged to be equal to yu or yew, though perhaps a little different from you or yoo,[102] the sound given it by Walker; 5. The u heard in pull, which he considered but a shortening of oo; 6. The consonant w, which he conceived to be always a vowel, and equivalent to oo; 7. The consonant y, which he made equal to a short ee; 8. The consonant h, which he declared to be no letter, but a mere breathing, In all other respects, his scheme of the alphabetic elements agrees with that which is adopted in this work, and which is now most commonly taught.

OBS. 9.—The effect of Quantity in the prolation of the vowels, is a matter with which every reader ought to be experimentally acquainted. Quantity is simply the time of utterance, whether long or short. It is commonly spoken of with reference to syllables, because it belongs severally to all the distinct or numerable impulses of the voice, and to these only; but, as vowels or diphthongs may be uttered alone, the notion of quantity is of course as applicable to them, as to any of the more complex sounds in which consonants are joined with them. All sounds imply time; because they are the transient effects of certain percussions which temporarily agitate the air, an element that tends to silence. When mighty winds have swept over sea and land, and the voice of the Ocean is raised, he speaks to the towering cliffs in the deep tones of a long quantity; the rolling billows, as they meet the shore, pronounce the long-drawn syllables of his majestic elocution. But see him again in gentler mood; stand upon the beach and listen to the rippling of his more frequent waves: he will teach you short quantity, as well as long. In common parlance, to avoid tediousness, to save time, and to adapt language to circumstances, we usually utter words with great rapidity, and in comparatively short quantity. But in oratory, and sometimes in ordinary reading, those sounds which are best fitted to fill and gratify the ear, should be sensibly protracted, especially in emphatic words; and even the shortest syllable, must be so lengthened as to be uttered with perfect clearness: otherwise the performance will be judged defective.

OBS. 10.—Some of the vowels are usually uttered in longer time than others; but whether the former are naturally long, and the latter naturally short, may be doubted: the common opinion is, that they are. But one author at least denies it; and says, "We must explode the pretended natural epithets short and long given to our vowels, independent on accent: and we must observe that our silent e final lengthens not its syllable, unless the preceding vowel be accented."—Mackintosh's Essay on E. Gram., p. 232. The distinction of long and short vowels which has generally obtained, and the correspondences which some writers have laboured to establish between them, have always been to me sources of much embarrassment. It would appear, that in one or two instances, sounds that differ only in length, or time, are commonly recognized as different elements; and that grammarians and orthoëpists, perceiving this, have attempted to carry out the analogy, and to find among what they call the long vowels a parent sound for each of the short ones. In doing this, they have either neglected to consult the ear, or have not chosen to abide by its verdict. I suppose the vowels heard in pull and pool would be necessarily identified, if the former were protracted or the latter shortened; and perhaps there would be a like coalescence of those heard in of and all, were they tried in the same way, though I am not sure of it. In protracting the e in met, and the i in ship, ignorance or carelessness might perhaps, with the help of our orthoëpists, convert the former word into mate and the latter into sheep; and, as this would breed confusion in the language, the avoiding of the similarity may perhaps be a sufficient reason for confining these two sounds of e and i, to that short quantity in which they cannot be mistaken. But to suppose, as some do, that the protraction of u in tun would identify it with the o in tone, surpasses any notion I have of what stupidity may misconceive. With one or two exceptions, therefore, it appears to me that each of the pure vowel sounds is of such a nature, that it may be readily recognized by its own peculiar quality or tone, though it be made as long or as short as it is possible for any sound of the human voice to be. It is manifest that each of the vowel sounds heard in ate, at, arm, all, eel, old, ooze, us, may be protracted to the entire extent of a full breath slowly expended, and still be precisely the same one simple sound;[103] and, on the contrary, that all but one may be shortened to the very minimum of vocality, and still be severally known without danger of mistake. The prolation of a pure vowel places the organs of utterance in that particular position which the sound of the letter requires, and then holds them unmoved till we have given to it all the length we choose.

OBS. 11.—In treating of the quantity and quality of the vowels, Walker says, "The first distinction of sound that seems to obtrude itself upon us when we utter the vowels, is a long and a short sound, according to the greater or less duration of time taken up in pronouncing them. This distinction is so obvious as to have been adopted in all languages, and is that to which we annex clearer ideas than to any other; and though the short sounds of some vowels have not in our language been classed with sufficient accuracy with their parent long ones, yet this has bred but little confusion, as vowels long and short are always sufficiently distinguishable."—Principles, No. 63. Again: "But though the terms long and short, as applied to vowels, are pretty generally understood, an accurate ear will easily perceive that these terms do not always mean the long and short sounds of the respective vowels to which they are applied; for, if we choose to be directed by the ear, in denominating vowels long or short, we must certainly give these appellations to those sounds only which have exactly the same radical tone, and differ only in the long or short emission of that tone."—Ib., No. 66. He then proceeds to state his opinion that the vowel sounds heard in the following words are thus correspondent: tame, them; car, carry; wall, want; dawn, gone; theme, him; tone, nearly tun; pool, pull. As to the long sounds of i or y, and of u, these two being diphthongal, he supposes the short sound of each to be no other than the short sound of its latter element ee or oo. Now to me most of this is exceedingly unsatisfactory; and I have shown why.

OBS. 12.—If men's notions of the length and shortness of vowels are the clearest ideas they have in relation to the elements of speech, how comes it to pass that of all the disputable points in grammar, this is the most perplexed with contrarieties of opinion? In coming before the world as an author, no man intends to place himself clearly in the wrong; yet, on the simple powers of the letters, we have volumes of irreconcilable doctrines. A great connoisseur in things of this sort, who professes to have been long "in the habit of listening to sounds of every description, and that with more than ordinary attention," declares in a recent and expensive work, that "in every language we find the vowels incorrectly classed"; and, in order to give to "the simple elements of English utterance" a better explanation than others have furnished, he devotes to a new analysis of our alphabet the ample space of twenty octavo pages, besides having several chapters on subjects connected with it. And what do his twenty pages amount to? I will give the substance of them in ten lines, and the reader may judge. He does not tell us how many elementary sounds there are; but, professing to arrange the vowels, long and short, "in the order in which they are naturally found," as well as to show of the consonants that the mutes and liquids form correspondents in regular pairs, he presents a scheme which I abbreviate as follows. VOWELS: 1. A, as in =all and wh~at, or o, as in orifice and n~ot; 2. U—=urn and h~ut, or l=ove and c~ome; 3. O—v=ote and ech~o; 4. A—=ah and h~at; 5. A—h=azy, no short sound; 6. E—=e=el and it; 7. E—m=ercy and m~et; 8. O—pr=ove and ad~o; 9. OO—t=o=ol and f~o~ot; 10. W—vo=w and la~w; 11. Y—(like the first e—) s=yntax and dut~y. DIPHTHONGS: 1. I—as ah-ee; 2. U—as ee-oo; 3. OU—as au-oo. CONSONANTS: 1. Mutes,—c or s, f, h, k or q, p, t, th sharp, sh; 2. Liquids,—l, which has no corresponding mute, and z, v, r, ng, m, n, th flat and j, which severally correspond to the eight mutes in their order; 3. Subliquids,—g hard, b, and d. See "Music of Nature," by William Gardiner, p. 480, and after.

OBS. 13.—Dr. Rush comes to the explanation of the powers of the letters as the confident first revealer of nature's management and wisdom; and hopes to have laid the foundation of a system of instruction in reading and oratory, which, if adopted and perfected, "will beget a similarity of opinion and practice," and "be found to possess an excellence which must grow into sure and irreversible favour."—Phil. of the Voice, p. 404. "We have been willing," he says, "to believe, on faith alone, that nature is wise in the contrivance of speech. Let us now show, by our works of analysis, how she manages the simple elements of the voice, in the production of their unbounded combinations."—Ibid., p. 44. Again: "Every one, with peculiar self-satisfaction, thinks he reads well, and yet all read differently: there is, however, but one mode of reading well."—Ib., p. 403. That one mode, some say, his philosophy alone teaches. Of that, others may judge. I shall only notice here what seems to be his fundamental position, that, on all the vocal elements of language, nature has stamped duplicity. To establish this extraordinary doctrine, he first attempts to prove, that "the letter a, as heard in the word day," combines two distinguishable yet inseparable sounds; that it is a compound of what he calls, with reference to vowels and syllables in general, "the radical and the vanishing movement of the voice,"—a single and indivisible element in which "two sounds are heard continuously successive," the sounds of a and e as in ale and eve. He does not know that some grammarians have contended that ay in day is a proper diphthong, in which both the vowels are heard; but, so pronouncing it himself, infers from the experiment, that there is no simpler sound of the vowel a. If this inference is not wrong, the word shape is to be pronounced sha-epe; and, in like manner, a multitude of other words will acquire a new element not commonly heard in them.

OBS. 14.—But the doctrine stops not here. The philosopher examines, in some similar way, the other simple vowel sounds, and finds a beginning and an end, a base and an apex, a radical and a vanishing movement, to them all; and imagines a sufficient warrant from nature to divide them all "into two parts," and to convert most of them into diphthongs, as well as to include all diphthongs with them, as being altogether as simple and elementary. Thus he begins with confounding all distinction between diphthongs and simple vowels; except that which he makes for himself when he admits "the radical and the vanish," the first half of a sound and the last, to have no difference in quality. This admission is made with respect to the vowels heard in ooze, eel, err, end, and in, which he calls, not diphthongs, but "monothongs." But in the a of ale, he hears =a'-ee; in that of an, ~a'-~e; (that is, the short a followed by something of the sound of e in err;) in that of art, ah'~-e; in that of all, awe'-~e; in the i of isle, =i'-ee; in the o of old, =o'-oo; in the proper diphthong ou, ou'-oo; in the oy of boy, he knows not what. After his explanation of these mysteries, he says, "The seven radical sounds with their vanishes, which have been described, include, as far as I can perceive, all the elementary diphthongs of the English language."—Ib., p. 60. But all the sounds of the vowel u, whether diphthongal or simple, are excluded from his list, unless he means to represent one of them by the e in err; and the complex vowel sound heard in voice and boy, is confessedly omitted on account of a doubt whether it consists of two sounds or of three! The elements which he enumerates are thirty-five; but if oi is not a triphthong, they are to be thirty-six. Twelve are called "Tonics; and are heard in the usual sound of the separated Italics, in the following words: A-ll, a-rt, a-n, a-le, ou-r, i-sle, o-ld, ee-l, oo-ze, e-rr, e-nd, i-n,"—Ib., p. 53. Fourteen are called "Subtonics; and are marked by the separated Italics, in the following words: B-ow, d-are, g-ive, v-ile, z-one, y-e, w-o, th-en, a-z-ure, si-ng, l-ove, m-ay, n-ot, r-oe."—Ib., p. 54. Nine are called "Atonics; they are heard in the words, U-p, ou-t, ar-k, i-f, ye-s, h-e, wh-eat, th-in, pu-sh."—Ib., p. 56. My opinion of this scheme of the alphabet the reader will have anticipated.

IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS.

In printed books of the English language, the Roman characters are generally employed; sometimes, the Italic; and occasionally, the [Font change: Old English]: but in handwriting, [Font change: Script letters] are used, the forms of which are peculiarly adapted to the pen.

Characters of different sorts or sizes should never be needlessly mixed; because facility of reading, as well as the beauty of a book, depends much upon the regularity of its letters.

In the ordinary forms of the Roman letters, every thick stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right downwards, except the middle stroke in Z; and every thin stroke that slants, slants from the left to the right upwards.

Italics are chiefly used to distinguish emphatic or remarkable words: in the Bible, they show what words were supplied by the translators.

In manuscripts, a single line drawn under a word is meant for Italics; a double line, for small capitals; a triple line, for full capitals.

In every kind of type or character, the letters have severally two forms, by which they are distinguished as capitals and small letters. Small letters constitute the body of every work; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. The titles of books, and the heads of their principal divisions, are printed wholly in capitals. Showbills, painted signs, and short inscriptions, commonly appear best in full capitals. Some of these are so copied in books; as, "I found an altar with this inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD."—Acts, xvii, 23. "And they set up over his head, his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS, THE KING OF THE JEWS."—Matt., xxvii, 37.

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.

RULE I.—OF BOOKS.

When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in
their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small; as,
"Pope's Essay on Man"—"the Book of Common Prayer"—"the Scriptures of the
Old and New Testaments." [104]

RULE II.—FIRST WORDS.

The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital; as, "Rejoice evermore. Pray without ceasing. In every thing give thanks: for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus concerning you. Quench not the Spirit. Despise not prophesyings. Prove all things: hold fast that which is good."—1 Thess., v, 16—21.

"14. He has given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: 15. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 16. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for murders: 17. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 18. For imposing taxes on us without our consent:" &c. Declaration of American Independence.

RULE III.—OF THE DEITY.

All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should
begin with capitals; as, "God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being,
Divine Providence, the Messiah, the Comforter, the Father, the Son, the
Holy Spirit, the Lord of Sabaoth."

"The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee."—Moore.

RULE IV.—PROPER NAMES.

Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals; as,
"Saul of Tarsus, Simon Peter, Judas Iscariot, England, London, the Strand,
the Thames, the Pyrenees, the Vatican, the Greeks, the Argo and the
Argonauts."

RULE V.—OF TITLES.

Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to
persons, begin usually with capitals; as, "His Majesty William the Fourth,
Chief Justice Marshall, Sir Matthew Hale, Dr. Johnson, the Rev. Dr.
Chalmers, Lewis the Bold, Charles the Second, James the Less, St.
Bartholomew, Pliny the Younger, Noah Webster, Jun., Esq."

RULE VI.—ONE CAPITAL.

Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their
parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital: as,
"Eastport, Eastville, Westborough, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehall,
Whitechurch, Whitehaven, Whiteplains, Mountmellick, Mountpleasant,
Germantown, Germanflats, Blackrock, Redhook, Kinderhook, Newfoundland,
Statenland, Newcastle, Northcastle, Southbridge, Fairhaven, Dekalb,
Deruyter, Lafayette, Macpherson."

RULE VII.—TWO CAPITALS.

The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two; as, "The chief mountains of Ross-shire are Ben Chat, Benchasker, Ben Golich, Ben Nore, Ben Foskarg, and Ben Wyvis."—Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 311. Write Ben Chasker. So, when the word East, West, North, or South, as part of a name, denotes relative position, or when the word New distinguishes a place by contrast, we have generally separate words and two capitals; as, "East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Bridgewater, South Bridgewater, New Jersey, New Hampshire."

RULE VIII.—COMPOUNDS.

When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound
proper name, it ought to begin with a capital; as, "The United States, the
Argentine Republic, the Peak of Teneriffe, the Blue Ridge, the Little
Pedee, Long Island, Jersey City, Lower Canada, Green Bay, Gretna Green,
Land's End, the Gold Coast."

RULE IX.—APPOSITION.

When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter; as, "The prophet Elisha, Matthew the publican, the brook Cherith, the river Euphrates, the Ohio river, Warren county, Flatbush village, New York city."

RULE X.—PERSONIFICATIONS.

The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital; as, "Upon this, Fancy began again to bestir herself."—Addison. "Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come."—Thomson.

RULE XI.—DERIVATIVES.

Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular
persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals; as,
"Platonic, Newtonian, Greek, or Grecian, Romish, or Roman, Italic, or
Italian, German, or Germanic, Swedish, Turkish, Chinese, Genoese, French,
Dutch, Scotch, Welsh:" so, perhaps, "to Platonize, Grecize, Romanize,
Italicize, Latinize, or Frenchify."

RULE XII.—OF I AND O.

The words I and O should always be capitals; as, "Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem; praise thy God, O Zion."—Psalm cxlvii. "O wretched man that I am!"—"For that which I do, I allow not: for what I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that do I."—Rom., vii, 24 and 15.

RULE XIII.—OF POETRY.

Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital; as,

   "Our sons their fathers' failing language see,
    And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be."—Pope.

Of the exception, some editions of the Psalms in Metre are full of examples; as,

   "Happy the man whose tender care
      relieves the poor distress'd!
    When troubles compass him around,
      the Lord shall give him rest."
             Psalms with Com. Prayer, N. Y., 1819, Ps. xli.

RULE XIV.—OF EXAMPLES.

The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital; as, "Remember this maxim: 'Know thyself.'"—"Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things.'"—"Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods?"—John, x, 34. "Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother."—Luke, xviii, 20.

RULE XV.—CHIEF WORDS.

Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals; and names subscribed frequently have capitals throughout: as, "In its application to the Executive, with reference to the Legislative branch of the Government, the same rule of action should make the President ever anxious to avoid the exercise of any discretionary authority which can be regulated by Congress."—ANDREW JACKSON, 1835.

RULE XVI.—NEEDLESS CAPITALS.

Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use: a century ago books were disfigured by their frequency; as, "Many a Noble Genius is lost for want of Education. Which wou'd then be Much More Liberal. As it was when the Church Enjoy'd her Possessions. And Learning was, in the Dark Ages, Preserv'd almost only among the Clergy."—CHARLES LESLIE, 1700; Divine Right of Tythes, p. 228.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The letters of the alphabet, read by their names, are equivalent to words. They are a sort of universal signs, by which we may mark and particularize objects of any sort, named or nameless; as, "To say, therefore, that while A and B are both quadrangular, A is more or less quadrangular than B, is absurd."—Murray's Gram., p. 50. Hence they are used in the sciences as symbols of an infinite variety of things or ideas, being construed both substantively and adjectively; as, "In ascending from the note C to D, the interval is equal to an inch; and from D to E, the same."—Music of Nature, p. 293. "We have only to imagine the G clef placed below it."—Ib. Any of their forms may be used for such purposes, but the custom of each science determines our choice. Thus Algebra employs small Italics; Music, Roman capitals; Geometry, for the most part, the same; Astronomy, Greek characters; and Grammar, in some part or other, every sort. Examples: "Then comes answer like an ABC book."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 97. "Then comes question like an a, b, c, book.—Shakspeare." See A, B, C, in Johnson's quarto Dict. Better:—"like an A-Bee-Cee book."

   "For A, his magic pen evokes an O,
    And turns the tide of Europe on the foe."—Young.

OBS. 2.—A lavish use of capitals defeats the very purpose for which the letters were distinguished in rank; and carelessness in respect to the rules which govern them, may sometimes misrepresent the writer's meaning. On many occasions, however, their use or disuse is arbitrary, and must be left to the judgement and taste of authors and printers. Instances of this kind will, for the most part, concern chief words, and come under the fifteenth rule above. In this grammar, the number of rules is increased; but the foregoing are still perhaps too few to establish an accurate uniformity. They will however tend to this desirable result; and if doubts arise in their application, the difficulties will be in particular examples only, and not in the general principles of the rules. For instance: In 1 Chron., xxix, 10th, some of our Bibles say, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel our father, for ever and ever." Others say, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel, our Father, for ever and ever." And others, "Blessed be thou, LORD God of Israel our Father, for ever and ever." The last is wrong, either in the capital F, or for lack of a comma after Israel. The others differ in meaning; because they construe the word father, or Father, differently. Which is right I know not. The first agrees with the Latin Vulgate, and the second, with the Greek text of the Septuagint; which two famous versions here disagree, without ambiguity in either.[105]

OBS. 3.—The innumerable discrepancies in respect to capitals, which, to a greater or less extent, disgrace the very best editions of our most popular books, are a sufficient evidence of the want of better directions on this point. In amending the rules for this purpose, I have not been able entirely to satisfy myself; and therefore must needs fail to satisfy the very critical reader. But the public shall have the best instructions I can give. On Rule 1st, concerning Books, it may be observed, that when particular books or writings are mentioned by other terms than their real titles, the principle of the rule does not apply. Thus, one may call Paradise Lost, "Milton's great poem;" or the Diversions of Purley, "the etymological investigations of Horne Tooke." So it is written in the Bible, "And there was delivered unto him the book of the prophet Esaias."—Luke, iv, 17. Because the name of Esaias, or Isaiah, seems to be the only proper title of his book.

OBS. 4.—On Rule 2d, concerning First Words, it may be observed, that the using of other points than the period, to separate sentences that are totally distinct in sense, as is sometimes practised in quoting, is no reason for the omission of capitals at the beginning of such sentences; but, rather, an obvious reason for their use. Our grammarians frequently manufacture a parcel of puerile examples, and, with the formality of apparent quotation, throw them together in the following manner: "He is above disguise;" "we serve under a good master;" "he rules over a willing people;" "we should do nothing beneath our character."—Murray's Gram., p. 118. These sentences, and all others so related, should, unquestionably, begin with capitals. Of themselves, they are distinct enough to be separated by the period and a dash. With examples of one's own making, the quotation points may be used or not, as the writer pleases; but not on their insertion or omission, nor even on the quality of the separating point, depends in all cases the propriety or impropriety of using initial capitals. For example: "The Future Tense is the form of the verb which denotes future time; as, John will come, you shall go, they will learn, the sun will rise to-morrow, he will return next week."—Frazee's Improved Gram., p. 38; Old Edition, 35. To say nothing of the punctuation here used, it is certain that the initial words, you, they, the, and he, should have commenced with capitals.

OBS. 5.—On Rule 3d, concerning Names of Deity, it may be observed, that the words Lord and God take the nature of proper names, only when they are used in reference to the Eternal Divinity. The former, as a title of honour to men, is usually written with a capital; but, as a common appellative, with a small letter. The latter, when used with reference to any fabulous deity, or when made plural to speak of many, should seldom, if ever, begin with a capital; for we do not write with a capital any common name which we do not mean to honour: as, "Though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth—as there be gods many, and lords many."—1 Cor., viii, 5. But a diversity of design or conception in respect to this kind of distinction, has produced great diversity concerning capitals, not only in original writings, but also in reprints and quotations, not excepting even the sacred books. Example: "The Lord is a great God, and a great King above all Gods."—Gurney's Essays, p. 88. Perhaps the writer here exalts the inferior beings called gods, that he may honour the one true God the more; but the Bible, in four editions to which I have turned, gives the word gods no capital. See Psalms, xcv, 3. The word Heaven put for God, begins with a capital; but when taken literally, it commonly begins with a small letter. Several nouns occasionally connected with names of the Deity, are written with a very puzzling diversity: as, "The Lord of Sabaoth;"—"The Lord God of hosts;"—"The God of armies;"—"The Father of goodness;"—"The Giver of all good;"—"The Lord, the righteous Judge." All these, and many more like them, are found sometimes with a capital, and sometimes without. Sabaoth, being a foreign word, and used only in this particular connexion, usually takes a capital; but the equivalent English words do not seem to require it. For "Judge," in the last example, I would use a capital; for "good" and "goodness," in the preceding ones, the small letter: the one is an eminent name, the others are mere attributes. Alger writes, "the Son of Man," with two capitals; others, perhaps more properly, "the Son of man," with one—wherever that phrase occurs in the New Testament. But, in some editions, it has no capital at all.

OBS. 6.—On Rule 4th, concerning Proper Names, it may be observed, that the application of this principle supposes the learner to be able to distinguish between proper names and common appellatives. Of the difference between these two classes of words, almost every child that can speak, must have formed some idea. I once noticed that a very little boy, who knew no better than to call a pigeon a turkey because the creature had feathers, was sufficiently master of this distinction, to call many individuals by their several names, and to apply the common words, man, woman, boy, girl, &c., with that generality which belongs to them. There is, therefore, some very plain ground for this rule. But not all is plain, and I will not veil the cause of embarrassment. It is only an act of imposture, to pretend that grammar is easy, in stead of making it so. Innumerable instances occur, in which the following assertion is by no means true: "The distinction between a common and a proper noun is very obvious."—Kirkham's Gram., p 32. Nor do the remarks of this author, or those of any other that I am acquainted with, remove any part of the difficulty. We are told by this gentleman, (in language incorrigibly bad,) that, "Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common; as, tree, the genus; oak, ash, chestnut, poplar, different species; and red oak, white oak, black oak, varieties."—Ib., p. 32. Now, as it requires but one noun to denote either a genus or a species, I know not how to conceive of those "nouns which denote the genus of things," except as of other confusion and nonsense; and, as for the three varieties of oak, there are surely no "nouns" here to denote them, unless he will have red, white, and black to be nouns. But what shall we say of—"the Red sea, the White sea, the Black sea;" or, with two capitals, "Red Sea, White Sea, Black Sea," and a thousand other similar terms, which are neither proper names unless they are written with capitals, nor written with capitals unless they are first judged to be proper names? The simple phrase, "the united states," has nothing of the nature of a proper name; but what is the character of the term, when written with two capitals, "the United States?" If we contend that it is not then a proper name, we make our country anonymous. And what shall we say to those grammarians who contend, that "Heaven, Hell, Earth, Sun, and Moon, are proper names;" and that, as such, they should be written with capitals? See Churchill's Gram., p. 380.

OBS. 7.—It would seem that most, if not all, proper names had originally some common signification, and that very many of our ordinary words and phrases have been converted into proper names, merely by being applied to particular persons, places, or objects, and receiving the distinction of capitals. How many of the oceans, seas, lakes, capes, islands, mountains, states, counties, streets, institutions, buildings, and other things, which we constantly particularize, have no other proper names than such as are thus formed, and such as are still perhaps, in many instances, essentially appellative! The difficulties respecting these will be further noticed below. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, group, or people; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the Azores, the Andes, the Romans, the Jews, the Jesuits, the Cherokees. This is as good a definition as I can give of a proper noun or name. Thus we commonly distinguish the names of particular persons, places, nations, tribes, or sects, with capitals. Yet we name the sun, the moon, the equator, and many other particular objects, without a capital; for the word the may give a particular meaning to a common noun, without converting it into a proper name: but if we say Sol, for the sun, or Luna, for the moon, we write it with a capital. With some apparent inconsistency, we commonly write the word Gentiles with a capital, but pagans, heathens, and negroes, without: thus custom has marked these names with degradation. The names of the days of the week, and those of the months, however expressed, appear to me to partake of the nature of proper names, and to require capitals: as, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday; or, as the Friends denominate them, Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday, Fourthday, Fifthday, Sixthday, Seventhday. So, if they will not use January, February, &c., they should write as proper names their Firstmonth, Secondmonth, &c. The Hebrew names for the months, were also proper nouns: to wit, Abib, Zif, Sivan, Thamuz, Ab, Elul, Tisri, Marchesvan, Chisleu, Tebeth, Shebat, Adar; the year, with the ancient Jews, beginning, as ours once did, in March.

OBS. 8.—On Rule 5th, concerning Titles of Honour, it may be observed, that names of office or rank, however high, do not require capitals merely as such; for, when we use them alone in their ordinary sense, or simply place them in apposition with proper names, without intending any particular honour, we begin them with a small letter: as, "the emperor Augustus;"—"our mighty sovereign, Abbas Carascan;"—"David the king;"—"Tidal king of nations;"—"Bonner, bishop of London;"—"The sons of Eliphaz, the first-born you of Esau; duke Teman, duke Omar, duke Zepho, duke Kenaz, duke Korah, duke Gatam, and duke Amalek."—Gen., xxxvi, 15. So, sometimes, in addresses in which even the greatest respect is intended to be shown: as, "O sir, we came indeed down at the first time to buy food."—Gen., xliii, 20. "O my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's ears."—Gen., xliv, 18. The Bible, which makes small account of worldly honours, seldom uses capitals under this rule; but, in some editions, we find "Nehemiah the Tirshatha," and "Herod the Tetrarch," each with a needless capital. Murray, in whose illustrations the word king occurs early one hundred times, seldom honours his Majesty with a capital; and, what is more, in all this mawkish mentioning of royalty, nothing is said of it that is worth knowing. Examples: "The king and the queen had put on their robes."—Murray's Gram., p. 154. "The king, with his life-guard, has just passed through the village."—Ib., 150. "The king of Great Britain's dominions."—Ib., 45. "On a sudden appeared the king."—Ib., 146. "Long live the King!"—Ib., 146. "On which side soever the king cast his eyes."—Ib., 156. "It is the king of Great Britain's."—Ib., 176. "He desired to be their king."—Ib., 181. "They desired him to be their king."—Ib., 181. "He caused himself to be proclaimed king."—Ib., 182. These examples, and thousands more as simple and worthless, are among the pretended quotations by which this excellent man, thought "to promote the cause of virtue, as well as of learning!"

OBS. 9.—On Rule 6th, concerning One Capital for Compounds, I would observe, that perhaps there is nothing more puzzling in grammar, than to find out, amidst all the diversity of random writing, and wild guess-work in printing, the true way in which the compound names of places should be written. For example: What in Greek was "ho Areios Pagos," the Martial Hill, occurs twice in the New Testament: once, in the accusative case, "ton Areion Pagan," which is rendered Areopagus; and once, in the genitive, "tou Areiou Pagou," which, in different copies of the English Bible is made Mars' Hill, Mars' hill, Mars'-hill, Marshill, Mars Hill, and perhaps Mars hill. But if Mars must needs be put in the possessive case, (which I doubt,) they are all wrong: for then it should be Mars's Hill; as the name Campus Martins is rendered "Mars's Field," in Collier's Life of Marcus Antoninus. We often use nouns adjectively; and Areios is an adjective: I would therefore write this name Mars Hill, as we write Bunker Hill. Again: Whitehaven and Fairhaven are commonly written with single capitals; but, of six or seven towns called Newhaven or New Haven, some have the name in one word and some in two. Haven means a harbour, and the words, New Haven, written separately, would naturally be understood of a harbour: the close compound is obviously more suitable for the name of a city or town. In England, compounds of this kind are more used than in America; and in both countries the tendency of common usage seems to be, to contract and consolidate such terms. Hence the British counties are almost all named by compounds ending with the word shire; as, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, &c. But the best books we have, are full of discrepancies and errors in respect to names, whether foreign or domestic; as, "Ulswater is somewhat smaller. The handsomest is Derwentwater."—Balbi's Geog., p. 212. "Ulswater, a lake of England," &c. "Derwent-Water, a lake in Cumberland," &c.—Univ. Gazetteer, "Ulleswater, lake, Eng. situated partly in Westmoreland," &c.—Worcester's Gaz. "Derwent Water, lake, Eng. in Cumberland."—Ibid. These words, I suppose, should be written Ullswater and Derwentwater.

OBS. 10.—An affix, or termination, differs from a distinct word; and is commonly understood otherwise, though it may consist of the same letters and have the same sound. Thus, if I were to write Stow Bridge, it would be understood of a bridge; if Stowbridge, of a town: or the latter might even be the name of a family. So Belleisle is the proper name of a strait; and Belle Isle of several different islands in France and America. Upon this plain distinction, and the manifest inconvenience of any violation of so clear an analogy of the language, depends the propriety of most of the corrections which I shall offer under Rule 6th. But if the inhabitants of any place choose to call their town a creek, a river, a harbour, or a bridge, and to think it officious in other men to pretend to know better, they may do as they please. If between them and their correctors there lie a mutual charge of misnomer, it is for the literary world to determine who is right. Important names are sometimes acquired by mere accident. Those which are totally inappropriate, no reasonable design can have bestowed. Thus a fancied resemblance between the island of Aquidneck, in Narraganset Bay, and that of Rhodes, in the Ægean Sea, has at length given to a state, or republic, which lies chiefly on the main land, the absurd name of Rhode Island; so that now, to distinguish Aquidneck itself, geographers resort to the strange phrase, "the Island of Rhode Island."—Balbi. The official title of this little republic, is, "the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." But this name is not only too long for popular use, but it is doubtful in its construction and meaning. It is capable of being understood in four different ways. 1. A stranger to the fact, would not learn from this phrase, that the "Providence Plantations" are included in the "State of Rhode Island," but would naturally infer the contrary. 2. The phrase, "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations," may be supposed to mean "Rhode Island [Plantations] and Providence Plantations." 3. It may be understood to mean "Rhode Island and Providence [i.e., two] Plantations." 4. It may be taken for "Rhode Island" [i.e., as an island,] and the "Providence Plantations." Which, now, of all these did Charles the Second mean, when he gave the colony this name, with his charter, in 1663? It happened that he meant the last; but I doubt whether any man in the state, except perhaps some learned lawyer, can parse the phrase, with any certainty of its true construction and meaning. This old title can never be used, except in law. To write the popular name "Rhodeisland," as Dr. Webster has it in his American Spelling-Book, p. 121, would be some improvement upon it; but to make it Rhodeland, or simply Rhode, would be much more appropriate. As for Rhode Island, it ought to mean nothing but the island; and it is, in fact, an abuse of language to apply it otherwise. In one of his parsing lessons, Sanborn gives us for good English the following tautology: "Rhode Island derived its name from the island of Rhode Island."—Analytical Gram., p. 37. Think of that sentence!

OBS. 11.—On Rules 7th and 8th, concerning Two Capitals for Compounds, I would observe, with a general reference to those compound terms which designate particular places or things, that it is often no easy matter to determine, either from custom or from analogy, whether such common words as may happen to be embraced in them, are to be accounted parts of compound proper names and written with capitals, or to be regarded as appellatives, requiring small letters according to Rule 9th. Again the question may be, whether they ought not to be joined to the foregoing word, according to Rule 6th. Let the numerous examples under these four rules be duly considered: for usage, in respect to each of them, is diverse; so much so, that we not unfrequently find it contradictory, in the very same page, paragraph, or even sentence. Perhaps we may reach some principles of uniformity and consistency, by observing the several different kinds of phrases thus used. 1. We often add an adjective to an old proper name to make a new one, or to serve the purpose of distinction: as, Now York, New Orleans, New England, New Bedford; North America, South America; Upper Canada, Lower Canada; Great Pedee, Little Pedee; East Cambridge, West Cambridge; Troy, West Troy. All names of this class require two capitals: except a few which are joined together; as Northampton, which is sometimes more analogically written North Hampton. 2. We often use the possessive case with some common noun after it; as, Behring's Straits, Baffin's Bay, Cook's Inlet, Van Diemen's Land, Martha's Vineyard, Sacket's Harbour, Glenn's Falls. Names of this class generally have more than one capital; and perhaps all of them should be written so, except such as coalesce; as, Gravesend, Moorestown, the Crowsnest. 3. We sometimes use two common nouns with of between them; as, the Cape of Good Hope, the Isle of Man, the Isles of Shoals, the Lake of the Woods, the Mountains of the Moon. Such nouns are usually written with more than one capital. I would therefore write "the Mount of Olives" in this manner, though it is not commonly found so in the Bible. 4. We often use an adjective and a common noun; as, the Yellow sea, the Indian ocean, the White hills, Crooked lake, the Red river; or, with two capitals, the Yellow Sea, the Indian Ocean, the White Hills, Crooked Lake, the Red River. In this class of names the adjective is the distinctive word, and always has a capital; respecting the other term, usage is divided, but seems rather to favour two capitals. 5. We frequently put an appellative, or common noun, before or after a proper name; as, New York city, Washington street, Plymouth county, Greenwich village. "The Carondelet canal extends from the city of New Orleans to the bayou St. John, connecting lake Pontchartrain with the Mississippi river."—Balbi's Geog. This is apposition. In phrases of this kind, the common noun often has a capital, but it seldom absolutely requires it; and in general a small letter is more correct, except in some few instances in which the common noun is regarded as a permanent part of the name; as in Washington City, Jersey City. The words Mount, Cape, Lake, and Bay, are now generally written with capitals when connected with their proper names; as, Mount Hope, Cape Cod, Lake Erie, Casco Bay. But they are not always so written, even in modern books; and in the Bible we read of "mount Horeb, mount Sinai, mount Zion, mount Olivet," and many others, always with a single capital.

OBS. 12.—In modern compound names, the hyphen is now less frequently used than it was a few years ago. They seldom, if ever, need it, unless they are employed as adjectives; and then there is a manifest propriety in inserting it. Thus the phrase, "the New London Bridge," can be understood only of a new bridge in London; and if we intend by it a bridge in New London, we must say, "the New-London Bridge." So "the New York Directory" is not properly a directory for New York, but a new directory for York. I have seen several books with titles which, for this reason, were evidently erroneous. With respect to the ancient Scripture names, of this class, we find, in different editions of the Bible, as well as in other books, many discrepancies. The reader may see a very fair specimen of them, by comparing together the last two vocabularies of Walker's Key. He will there meet with an abundance of examples like these: "Uz'zen Shérah, Uzzen-shérah; Talitha Cúmi, Talithacúmi; Náthan Mélech, Nathan'-melech; A'bel Mehólath, Abel-mehólah; Házel Elpóni, Hazelepóni; Az'noth Tábor, Asnoth-tábor; Báal Ham'on, Baal-hámon; Hámon Gog, Ham'ongog; Báal Zébub, Bäal'zebub; Shéthar Boz'näi, Shether-boz'näi; Meródach Bal'adan, Merodach-bal'adan." All these glaring inconsistencies, and many more, has Dr. Webster restereotyped from Walker, in his octavo Dictionary! I see no more need of the hyphen in such names, than in those of modern times. They ought, in some instances, to be joined together without it; and, in others, to be written separately, with double capitals. But special regard should be had to the ancient text. The phrase, "Talitha, cumi,"—i. e., "Damsel, arise,"—is found in some Bibles, "Talitha-cumi;" but this form of it is no more correct than either of those quoted above. See Mark, v, 41st, in Griesbach's Greek Testament, where a comma divides this expression.

OBS. 13.—On Rule 10th, concerning Personifications, it may be well to observe, that not every noun which is the name of an object personified, must begin with a capital, but only such as have a resemblance to proper nouns; for the word person itself, or persons, or any other common noun denoting persons or a person, demands no such distinction. And proper names of persons are so marked, not with any reference to personality, but because they are proper nouns—or names of individuals, and not names of sorts. Thus, Æsop's viper and file are both personified, where it is recorded, "'What ails thee, fool?' says the file to the viper;" but the fable gives to these names no capitals, except in the title of the story. It may here be added, that, according to their definitions of personification, our grammarians and the teachers of rhetoric have hitherto formed no very accurate idea of what constitutes the figure. Lindley Murray says, "PERSONIFICATION [,] or PROSOPOPOEIA, is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects."—Octavo Gram., p. 346; Duodecimo, p. 211. Now this is all wrong, doubly wrong,—wrong in relation to what personification is, and wrong too in its specification of the objects which may be personified. For "life and action" not being peculiar to persons, there must be something else than these ascribed, to form the figure; and, surely, the objects which Fancy thinks it right to personify, are not always "inanimate." I have elsewhere defined the thing as follows: "Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities."—Inst., p. 234.

OBS. 14.—On Rule 11th, concerning Derivatives, I would observe, that not only the proper adjectives, to which this rule more particularly refers, but also nouns, and even verbs, derived from such adjectives, are frequently, if not generally, written with an initial capital. Thus, from Greece, we have Greek, Greeks, Greekish, Greekling, Grecise, Grecism, Grecian, Grecians, Grecianize. So Murray, copying Blair, speaks of "Latinised English;" and, again, of style strictly "English, without Scotticisms or Gallicisms."—Mur. Gram., 8vo, p. 295; Blair's Lect., pp. 93 and 94. But it is questionable, how far this principle respecting capitals ought to be carried. The examples in Dr. Johnson's quarto Dictionary exhibit the words, gallicisms, anglicisms, hebrician, latinize, latinized, judaized, and christianized, without capitals; and the words Latinisms, Grecisms, Hebraisms, and Frenchified, under like circumstances, with them. Dr. Webster also defines Romanize, "To Latinize; to conform to Romish opinions." In the examples of Johnson, there is a manifest inconsistency. Now, with respect to adjectives from proper names, and also to the nouns formed immediately from such adjectives, it is clear that they ought to have capitals: no one will contend that the words American and Americans should be written with a small a. With respect to Americanism, Gallicism, and other similar words, there may be some room to doubt. But I prefer a capital for these. And, that we may have a uniform rule to go by, I would not stop here, but would write Americanize and Americanized with a capital also; for it appears that custom is in favour of thus distinguishing nearly all verbs and participles of this kind, so long as they retain an obvious reference to their particular origin. But when any such word ceases to be understood as referring directly to the proper name, it may properly be written without a capital. Thus we write jalap from Jalapa, hermetical from Hermes, hymeneal from Hymen, simony, from Simon, philippic from Philip; the verbs, to hector, to romance, to japan, to christen, to philippize, to galvanize; and the adverbs hermetically and jesuitically, all without a capital: and perhaps judaize, christianize, and their derivatives, may join this class. Dr. Webster's octavo Dictionary mentions "the prussic acid" and "prussian blue," without a capital; and so does Worcester's.

OBS. 15.—On Rule 12th, concerning I and O, it may be observed, that although many who occasionally write, are ignorant enough to violate this, as well as every other rule of grammar, yet no printer ever commits blunders of this sort. Consequently, the few erroneous examples which will be exhibited for correction under it, will not be undesigned mistakes. Among the errors of books, we do not find the printing of the words I and O in small characters; but the confounding of O with the other interjection oh, is not uncommon even among grammarians. The latter has no concern with this rule, nor is it equivalent to the former, as a sign: O is a note of wishing, earnestness, and vocative address; but oh is, properly, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise. In the following example, therefore, a line from Milton is perverted:—

"Oh thou! that with surpassing glory crowned!" —Bucke's Gram., p. 88.

OBS. 16.—On Rule 13th, concerning Poetry, it may be observed, that the principle applies only to regular versification, which is the common form, if not the distinguishing mark, of poetical composition. And, in this, the practice of beginning every line with a capital is almost universal; but I have seen some books in which it was whimsically disregarded. Such poetry as that of Macpherson's Ossian, or such as the common translation of the Psalms, is subjected neither to this rule, nor to the common laws of verse.

OBS. 17.—On Rule 14th, concerning Examples, Speeches, and Quotations, it may be observed, that the propriety of beginning these with a capital or otherwise, depends in some measure upon their form. One may suggest certain words by way of example, (as see, saw, seeing, seen,) and they will require no capital; or he may sometimes write one half of a sentence in his own words, and quote the other with the guillemets and no capital; but whatsoever is cited as being said with other relations of what is called person, requires something to distinguish it from the text into which it is woven. Thus Cobbett observes, that, "The French, in their Bible, say Le Verbe, where we say The Word."—E. Gram., p. 21. Cobbett says the whole of this; but he here refers one short phrase to the French nation, and an other to the English, not improperly beginning each with a capital, and further distinguishing them by Italics. Our common Bibles make no use of the quotation points, but rely solely upon capitals and the common points, to show where any particular speech begins or ends. In some instances, the insufficiency of these means is greatly felt, notwithstanding the extraordinary care of the original writers, in the use of introductory phrases. Murray says, "When a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: as, 'Solomon observes, "that pride goes before destruction."'"—Octavo Gram., p. 284. But, as the word 'that' belongs not to Solomon, and the next word begins his assertion, I think we ought to write it, "Solomon observes, that, 'Pride goeth before destruction.'" Or, if we do not mean to quote him literally, we may omit the guillemets, and say, "Solomon observes that pride goes before destruction."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.

[Fist][The improprieties in the following examples are to be corrected orally by the learner, according to the formules given, or according to others framed from them with such slight changes as the several quotations may require. A correct example will occasionally he admitted for the sake of contrast, or that the learner may see the quoted author's inconsistency. It will also serve as a block over which stupidity may stumble and wake up. But a full explanation of what is intended, will be afforded in the Key.]

UNDER RULE I.—OF BOOKS.

"Many a reader of the bible knows not who wrote the acts of the apostles."—G. B.

[FORMULE OF CORRECTION.—Not proper, because the words, bible, acts, and apostles, here begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 1st, "When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small." Therefore, "Bible" should begin with a capital B; and "Acts" and "Apostles," each with a large A.]

"The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the chronicles."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Neh., xii, 23. "Are they not written in the book of the acts of Solomon?"—SCOTT, ALGER: I Kings, xi, 41. "Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the kings of Israel?"—ALGER: 1 Kings, xxii, 39. "Are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah?"—SCOTT: ib., ver. 45. "Which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms."—SCOTT: Luke, xxiv, 44. "The narrative of which may be seen in Josephus's History of the Jewish wars."—Scott's Preface, p. ix. "This history of the Jewish war was Josephus's first work, and published about A. D. 75."—Note to Josephus. "'I have read,' says Photius, 'the chronology of Justus of Tiberias.'"—Ib., Jos. Life. "A philosophical grammar, written by James Harris, Esquire."—Murray's Gram., p. 34. "The reader is referred to Stroud's sketch of the slave laws."—Anti-Slavery Mag., i, 25. "But God has so made the bible that it interprets itself."—Ib., i, 78. "In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the psalter."—Music of Nature, p. 283. "Gardiner says this of Sternhold; of whom the universal biographical dictionary and the American encyclopedia affirm, that he died in 1549."—Author. "The title of a Book, to wit: 'English Grammar in familiar lectures,'" &c.—Kirkham's Gram., p. 2. "We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's 'Grammar in familiar Lectures.'"—Ib., p. 3. "When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."—Ib., p. 53. "Whenever you parse, you may spread the compendium before you."—Ib., p. 113. "Adelung was the author of a grammatical and critical dictionary of the German language, and other works."—Univ. Biog. Dict. "Alley, William, author of 'the poor man's library,' and a translation of the Pentateuch, died in 1570."—Ib.

UNDER RULE II.—OF FIRST WORDS.

"Depart instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins."—Murray's
Gram., p. 61.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the words improve and forgive begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 2nd, "The first word of every distinct sentence should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Improve" should begin with a capital I; and "Forgive," with a capital F.]

EXAMPLES: "Gold is corrupting; the sea is green; a lion is bold."—Mur. Gram., p. 170; et al. Again: "It may rain; he may go or stay; he would walk; they should learn."—Ib., p. 64; et al. Again: "Oh! I have alienated my friend; alas! I fear for life."—Ib., p. 128; et al. Again: "He went from London to York;" "she is above disguise;" "they are supported by industry."—Ib., p. 28; et al. "On the foregoing examples, I have a word to say. they are better than a fair specimen of their kind, our grammars abound with worse illustrations, their models of English are generally spurious quotations. few of their proof-texts have any just parentage, goose-eyes are abundant, but names scarce. who fathers the foundlings? nobody. then let their merit be nobody's, and their defects his who could write no better."—Author. "goose-eyes!" says a bright boy; "pray, what are they? does this Mr. Author make new words when he pleases? dead-eyes are in a ship, they are blocks, with holes in them, but what are goose-eyes in grammar?" ANSWER: "goose-eyes are quotation points, some of the Germans gave them this name, making a jest of their form, the French call them guillemets, from the name of their inventor."—Author. "it is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular."—Comly's Gram., 12th Ed., p. 126. "ourselves is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural."—Ib., 138. "thee is a personal pronoun, of the second person singular."—Ib., 126. "contentment is a noun common, of the third person singular."—Ib., 128. "were is a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense."—Ib., 129.

UNDER RULE III.—OF DEITY.

"O thou dispenser of life! thy mercies are boundless."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 449.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word dispenser begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 3d, "All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Dispenser" should here begin with a capital D.]

"Shall not the judge of all the earth do right?"—SCOTT: Gen., xviii, 25. "And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."—Murray's Gram., p. 330. "It is the gift of him, who is the great author of good, and the Father of mercies."—Ib., 287. "This is thy god that brought thee up out of Egypt."—SCOTT, ALGER: Neh., ix, 18. "For the lord is our defence; and the holy one of Israel is our king."—See Psalm lxxxix, 18. "By making him the responsible steward of heaven's bounties."—Anti- Slavery Mag., i, 29. "Which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."—SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 Tim., iv, 8. "The cries of them * * * entered into the ears of the Lord of sabaoth."—SCOTT: James, v, 4. "In Horeb, the deity revealed himself to Moses, as the eternal I am, the self-existent one; and, after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with Pharaoh, he renewed his promise to them, by the awful name, jehovah—a name till then unknown, and one which the Jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce."—Author. "And god spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am the lord: and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of god almighty; but by my name jehovah was I not known to them."—See[106] Exod., vi, 2. "Thus saith the lord the king of Israel, and his redeemer the lord of hosts; I am the first, and I am the last; and besides me there is no god."—See Isa., xliv, 6.

   "His impious race their blasphemy renew'd,
    And nature's king through nature's optics view'd."—Dryden, p. 90.

UNDER RULE IV.—OF PROPER NAMES.

"Islamism prescribes fasting during the month ramazan."—Balbi's Geog., p. 17.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word ramazan here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 4th, "Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals." Therefore, "Ramazan" should begin with a capital R. The word is also misspelled: it should rather be Ramadan.]

"Near mecca, in arabia, is jebel nor, or the mountain of light, on the top of which the mussulmans erected a mosque, that they might perform their devotions where, according to their belief, mohammed received from the angel gabriel the first chapter of the Koran."—Author. "In the kaaba at mecca, there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt, which the mohammedans venerate as the gift of gabriel to abraham, but their ancestors once held it to be an image of remphan, or saturn; so 'the image which fell down from jupiter,' to share with diana the homage of the ephesians, was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone."—Id. "When the lycaonians, at lystra, took paul and barnabas to be gods, they called the former mercury, on account of his eloquence, and the latter jupiter, for the greater dignity of his appearance."—Id. "Of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century, but few have come down to us; yet we have in those of barnabas, clement of rome, hermas, ignatius, and polycarp, very certain evidence of the authenticity of the New Testament, and the New Testament is a voucher for the old."—Id.

"It is said by tatian, that theagenes of rhegium, in the time of cambyses, stesimbrotus the thracian, antimachus the colophonian, herodotus of halicarnassus, dionysius the olynthian, ephorus of cumæ, philochorus the athenian, metaclides and chamæleon the peripatetics, and zenodotus, aristophanes, callimachus, erates, eratosthenes, aristarchus, and apollodorus, the grammarians, all wrote concerning the poetry, the birth, and the age of homer." See Coleridge's Introd., p. 57. "Yet, for aught that now appears, the life of homer is as fabulous as that of hercules; and some have even suspected, that, as the son of jupiter and alcmena, has fathered the deeds of forty other herculeses, so this unfathered son of critheis, themisto, or whatever dame—this melesigenes, mæonides, homer—the blind schoolmaster, and poet, of smyrna, chios, colophon, salamis, rhodes, argos, athens, or whatever place—has, by the help of lycurgus, solon, pisistratus, and other learned ancients, been made up of many poets or homers, and set so far aloft and aloof on old parnassus, as to become a god in the eyes of all greece, a wonder in those of all Christendom."—Author.

   "Why so sagacious in your guesses?
    Your effs, and tees, and arrs, and esses?"—Swift.

UNDER RULE V.—OF TITLES.

"The king has conferred on him the title of duke."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 193.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word duke begins with a small letter.
But, according to Rule 5th, "Titles of office or honour, and epithets of
distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals." Therefore,
"Duke" should here begin with a capital D.]

"At the court of queen Elizabeth."—Murray's Gram.; 8vo, p. 157; 12mo, p. 126; Fisk's, 115; et al. "The laws of nature are, truly, what lord Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws of laws."—Murray's Key, p. 260. "Sixtus the fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books."—Ib., p. 257. "Who at that time made up the court of king Charles the second."—Murray's Gram., p. 314. "In case of his majesty's dying without issue."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 181. "King Charles the first was beheaded in 1649."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 45. "He can no more impart or (to use lord Bacon's word,) transmit convictions."—Kirkham's Eloc., p. 220. "I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor."—Murray's Gram., p. 176. "We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his country."—Ib., p. 177. "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of Llandaff's excellent book;" "The Lord mayor of London's authority."—Ib., p. 176. "Why call ye me lord, lord, and do not the things which I say?"—See GRIESBACH: Luke, vi, 46. "And of them he chose twelve, whom also he named apostles."—SCOTT: Luke, vi, 13. "And forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, master; and kissed him."—See the Greek: Matt., xxvi, 49. "And he said, Nay, father Abraham: but if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent."—Luke, xvi, 30.

UNDER RULE VI.—OF ONE CAPITAL.

"Fall River, a village in Massachusetts, population 3431."—See Univ.
Gaz., p. 416.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the name Fall River is here written in two parts, and with two capitals. But, according to Rule 6th, "Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital." Therefore, Fallriver, as the name of a town, should be one word, and retain but one capital.]

"Dr. Anderson died at West Ham, in Essex, in 1808."—Biog. Dict. "Mad River, [the name of] two towns in Clark and Champaign counties, Ohio."—Williams's Universal Gazetteer. "White Creek, town of Washington county, N. York."—Ib. "Salt Creek, the name of four towns in different parts of Ohio."—Ib. "Salt Lick, a town of Fayette county, Pennsylvania."—Ib. "Yellow Creek, a town of Columbiana county, Ohio."—Ib. "White Clay, a hundred of New Castle county, Delaware."—Ib. "Newcastle, town and halfshire of Newcastle county, Delaware."—Ib. "Sing-Sing, a village of West Chester county, New York, situated in the town of Mount Pleasant."—Ib. "West Chester, a county of New York; also a town in Westchester county."—Ib. "West Town, a village of Orange county, New York."—Ib. "White Water, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio."—Ib. "White Water River, a considerable stream that rises in Indiana, and flowing southeasterly, unites with the Miami, in Ohio."—Ib. "Black Water, a village of Hampshire, in England, and a town in Ireland."—Ib. "Black Water, the name of seven different rivers in England, Ireland, and the United States."—Ib. "Red Hook, a town of Dutchess county, New York, on the Hudson."—Ib. "Kinderhook, a town of Columbia county, New York, on the Hudson."—Ib. "New Fane, a town of Niagara county, New York."—Ib. "Lake Port, a town of Chicot county, Arkansas."—Ib. "Moose Head Lake, the chief source of the Kennebeck, in Maine."—Ib. "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, population (in 1830) 2,959."—Ib., p. 408. "Mc Donough, a county of Illinois, with a courthouse, at Macomb."—Ib., p. 185. "Half-Moon, the name of two towns, in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the West Indies."—See Worcester's Gaz. "Le Boeuf, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania, near a small lake of the same name."—Ib. "Charles City, James City, Elizabeth City, names of counties in Virginia, not cities, nor towns."—See Univ. Gaz. "The superior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called Stroud water."—Balbi's Geog., p. 223.

UNDER RULE VII.—TWO CAPITALS.

"The Forth rises on the north side of Benlomond, and runs easterly."—Glas. Geog.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the name "Benlomond" is compounded under one capital, contrary to the general analogy of other similar terms. But, according to Rule 7th, "The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two." Therefore, "Ben Lomond" should be written with two capitals and no hyphen.]

"The red granite of Ben-nevis is said to be the finest in the world."—Ib., ii, 311. "Ben-more, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the level of the sea."—Ib., 313. "The height of Benclough is 2,420 feet."—Ib.. "In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Ormod, Ben Clibeg, Ben Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal."—Ib., 311. "Benvracky is 2,756 feet high; Ben-ledi, 3,009; and Benvoirlich, 3,300."—Ib., 313. "The river Dochart gives the name of Glendochart to the vale through which it runs."—Ib., 314. "About ten miles from its source, the Tay diffuses itself into Lochdochart."—Geog. altered. LAKES:—"Lochard, Loch-Achray, Loch-Con, Loch-Doine, Loch-Katrine, Loch-Lomond, Loch-Voil."—Scott's Lady of the Lake. GLENS:—"Glenfinlas, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, Ross-dhu, Leven-glen, Strath-Endrick, Strath-Gartney, Strath-Ire."—Ib. MOUNTAINS:—"Ben-an, Benharrow, Benledi, Ben-Lomond, Benvoirlich, Ben-venue, and sometimes Benvenue."—Ib. "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the Low-countries."—Murray's Sequel, p. 322. "And Pharaoh-nechoh made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king."—SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 Kings, xxiii, 34. "Those who seem so merry and well pleased, call her Good Fortune; but the others, who weep and wring their hands, Bad-fortune."—Collier's Tablet of Cebes.

UNDER RULE VIII.—OF COMPOUNDS.

"When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the valley of salt."—SCOTT: Ps. lx, title.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the words valley and salt begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 8th, "When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital." Therefore, "Valley" should here begin with a capital V, and "Salt" with a capital S.]

"Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill and said," &c.—SCOTT: Acts, xvii, 22. "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called the mount of Olives."—Luke, xxi, 37. "Abgillus, son of the king of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy land with Charlemagne."—Univ. Biog. Dict. "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the Grain coast from the Ivory coast."—Dict. of Geog., p. 125. "The North Esk, flowing from Loch-lee, falls into the sea three miles north of Montrose."—Ib., p. 232. "At Queen's ferry, the channel of the Forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts."—Ib., p. 233. "The Chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel ridge, ten miles further west."—Balbi's Geog., p. 65. "Washington City, the metropolis of the United States of America."—W.'s Univ. Gaz., p. 380. "Washington city, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826."—Ib., p. 408. "The loftiest peak of the white mountains, in new Hampshire, is called mount Washington."—Author. "Mount's bay, in the west of England, lies between the land's end and lizard point."—Id. "Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica."—Dict. of Geog. "Rhodes, an island of the Egean sea, the largest and most easterly of the Cyclades."—Ib. "But he overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Red sea."—BRUCE'S BIBLE: Ps. cxxxvi, 15. "But they provoked him at the sea, even at the Red sea."—SCOTT: Ps. cvi, 7.[107]

UNDER RULE IX.—OF APPOSITION.

"At that time, Herod the Tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus."—ALGER: Matt., xiv, 1.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word Tetrarch begins with a capital letter. But, according to Rule 8th, "When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter." Therefore, "tetrarch" should here begin with a small t.]

"Who has been more detested than Judas the Traitor?"—Author. "St. Luke, the Evangelist, was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul."—Id. "Luther, the Reformer, began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences."—Id. "The Poet Lydgate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440."—Id. "The Grammarian Varro, 'the most learned of the Romans,' wrote three books when he was eighty years old."—Id. "John Despauter, the great Grammarian of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1520."—Id. "Nero, the Emperor and Tyrant of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death."—Id. "Cicero the Orator, 'the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64."—Id. "Euripides, the Greek Tragedian, was born in the Island of Salamis, B. C. 476."—Id. "I will say unto God my Rock, Why hast thou forgotten me?"—SCOTT: Ps. xlii, 9. "Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York City."—Univ. Gaz. "When the son of Atreus, King of Men, and the noble Achilles first separated."—Coleridge's Introd., p. 83.

   "Hermes, his Patron-God, those gifts bestow'd,
    Whose shrine with weaning lambs he wont to load."
        —POPE: Odys., B. 19.

UNDER RULE X.—OF PERSONIFICATIONS.

"But wisdom is justified of all her children."—SCOTT, ALGER: Luke, vii, 35.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word wisdom begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Wisdom" should here begin with a capital W.]

"Fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine gender."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 37. "Go to your natural religion; lay before her Mahomet, and his disciples."—Blair's Rhetoric, p. 157: see also Murray's Gram., i, 347. "O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?"—1 Cor., xv, 55; Murray's Gram., p. 348; English Reader, 31; Merchant's Gram., 212. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon."—SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Matt., vi, 24. "Ye cannot serve God and mammon."—IIDEM: Luke, xvi, 13. "This house was built as if suspicion herself had dictated the plan."—See Key. "Poetry distinguishes herself from prose, by yielding to a musical law."—See Key. "My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: 'My name is religion. I am the offspring of truth and love, and the parent of benevolence, hope, and joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called superstition: she is the child of discontent, and her followers are fear and sorrow.'"—See Key. "Neither hope nor fear could enter the retreats; and habit had so absolute a power, that even conscience, if religion had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance."—See Key.

   "In colleges and halls in ancient days,
    There dwelt a sage called discipline."—Wayland's M. Sci., p. 368.

UNDER RULE XI.—OF DERIVATIVES.

"In English, I would have gallicisms avoided."—FELTON: Johnson's Dict.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word gallicisms here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 11th, "Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Gallicisms" should begin with a capital G.]

"Sallust was born in Italy, 85 years before the christian era."—Murray's Seq., p. 357. "Dr. Doddridge was not only a great man, but one of the most excellent and useful christians, and christian ministers."—Ib., 319. "They corrupt their style with untutored anglicisms."—MILTON: in Johnson's Dict. "Albert of Stade, author of a chronicle from the creation to 1286, a benedictine of the 13th century."—Universal Biog. Dict. "Graffio, a jesuit of Capua in the 16th century, author of two volumes on moral subjects."—Ib. "They frenchify and italianize words whenever they can."—See Key. "He who sells a christian, sells the grace of God."—Anti-Slavery Mag., p. 77. "The first persecution against the christians, under Nero, began A. D. 64."—Gregory's Dict. "P. Rapin, the jesuit, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman writers."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 171. "The Roman poet and epicurean philosopher Lucretius has said," &c.—Cohen's Florida, p. 107. Spell "calvinistic, atticism, gothicism, epicurism, jesuitism, sabianism, socinianism, anglican, anglicism, anglicize, vandalism, gallicism, romanize."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, 130-133. "The large ternate bat."—Webster's Dict. w. ROSSET; Bolles's Dict., w. ROSET.

   "Church-ladders are not always mounted best
    By learned clerks, and latinists profess'd."—Cowper.

UNDER RULE XII.—OF I AND O.

"Fall back, fall back; i have not room:—o! methinks i see a couple whom i should know."—Lucian, varied.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word I, which occurs three times, and the word O, which occurs once, are here printed in letters of the lower case.[108] But, according to Rule 12th, "The words I and O should always be capitals." Therefore, each should be changed to a capital, as often as it occurs.]

"Nay, i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did; but all these are to no purpose: the world will not live, think, or love, as i do."—Swift, varied. "Whither, o! whither shall i fly? o wretched prince! o cruel reverse of fortune! o father Micipsa! is this the consequence of thy generosity?"—Sallust, varied. "When i was a child, i spake as a child, i understood as a child, i thought as a child; but when i became a man, i put away childish things."—1 Cor., xiii, 11, varied. "And i heard, but i understood not: then said i, o my Lord, what shall be the end of these things?"—Dan., xii, 8, varied. "Here am i; i think i am very good, and i am quite sure i am very happy, yet i never wrote a treatise in my life."—Few Days in Athens, varied. "Singular, Vocative, o master; Plural, Vocative, o masters."—Bicknell's Gram., p. 30.

   "I, i am he; o father! rise, behold
    Thy son, with twenty winters now grown old!"—See Pope's Odyssey.

UNDER RULE XIII.—OF POETRY.

   "Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
    lie in three words—health, peace, and competence;
    but health consists with temperance alone,
    and peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own."
        Pope's Essay on Man, a fine London Edition.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the last three lines of this example begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 18th, "Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the words, "Lie," "But," and "And," at the commencement of these lines, should severally begin with the capitals L, B, and A.]

"Observe the language well in all you write, and swerve not from it in your loftiest flight. The smoothest verse and the exactest sense displease us, if ill English give offence: a barbarous phrase no reader can approve; nor bombast, noise, or affectation love. In short, without pure language, what you write can never yield us profit or delight. Take time for thinking, never work in haste; and value not yourself for writing fast." See Dryden's Art of Poetry:—British Poets, Vol. iii, p. 74.

UNDER RULE XIV.—OF EXAMPLES.

"The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality: as, 'she is rather profuse in her expenses.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 47.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word she begins with a small letter.
But, according to Rule 14th, "The first word of a full example, of a
distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital."
Therefore, the word "She" should here begin with a capital S.]

"Neither imports not either; that is, not one nor the other: as, 'neither of my friends was there.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 56. "When we say, 'he is a tall man,' 'this is a fair day,' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather."—Ib., p. 47. "We more readily say, 'A million of men,' than 'a thousand of men.'"—Ib., p. 169. "So in the instances, 'two and two are four;' 'the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books.'"—Ib., p. 124. "The adjective may frequently either precede or follow it [the verb]: as, 'the man is happy;' or, 'happy is the man:' 'The interview was delightful;' or, 'delightful was the interview.'"—Ib., p. 168. "If we say, 'he writes a pen,' 'they ran the river, 'the tower fell the Greeks,' 'Lambeth is Westminster-abbey,' [we speak absurdly;] and, it is evident, there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word: as thus, 'He writes with a pen;' 'they ran towards the river;' 'the tower fell upon the Greeks;' 'Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey.'"—Ib., p. 118. "Let me repeat it;—he only is great, who has the habits of greatness."—Murray's Key, 241. "I say not unto thee, until seven times; but, until seventy times seven."—See Matt., xviii, 22.

   "The Panther smil'd at this; and when, said she,
    Were those first councils disallow'd by me?"—Dryden, p. 95.

UNDER RULE XV.—OF CHIEF WORDS.

"The supreme council of the nation is called the divan."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word divan begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 15th, "Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals." Therefore, "Divan" should here begin with a capital D.]

"The British parliament is composed of kings, lords, and commons."—Murray's Key, p. 184. "A popular orator in the House of Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases."—See Campbell's Rhet., p. 169; Murray's Gram., 364. "They may all be taken together, as one name; as, the house of commons."— Merchant's School Gram., p. 25. "Intrusted to persons in whom the parliament could confide."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 202. "For 'The Lords' house,' it were certainly better to say, 'The house of lords;' and, in stead of 'The commons' vote,' to say, 'The votes of the commons.'"—See ib., p. 177, 4th Amer. Ed.; also Priestley's Gram., p. 69. "The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 152; Priestley's Gram., 188. "Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes; figures of words, and figures of thought. The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes."—Blair's Rhet., p. 132. "Perhaps figures of imagination, and figures of passion, might be a more useful distribution."—Ib., p. 133. "Hitherto we have considered sentences, under the heads of perspicuity, unity, and strength."—Ib., p. 120.

   "The word is then depos'd, and in this view,
    You rule the scripture, not the scripture you."—Dryden, p. 95.

UNDER RULE XVI.—OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS.

"Be of good cheer: It is I; be not afraid."—ALGER: Matt., xiv, 27.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word It begins with a capital I, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th, "Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, 'it' should here begin with a small letter, as Dr. Scott has it.]

"Between passion and lying, there is not a Finger's breadth."—Murray's Key, p. 240. "Can our Solicitude alter the course, or unravel the intricacy, of human events?"—Ib., p. 242. "The last edition was carefully compared with the Original M. S."—Ib., p. 239. "And the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the King of the Jews?"—ALGER: Matt., xxvii, 11. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame, that say, Aha, Aha!"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Ps., lxx, 3. "Let them be desolate for a reward of their shame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!"—IB.: Ps., xl, 15. "What think ye of Christ? whose Son is he? They say unto him, The Son of David. He saith unto them, How then doth David in Spirit call him Lord?"—SCOTT: Matt., xxii, 42, 43. "Among all Things in the Universe, direct your Worship to the Greatest; And which is that? 'T is that Being which Manages and Governs all the Rest."—Meditations of M. Aurelius Antoninus, p. 76. "As for Modesty and Good Faith, Truth and Justice, they have left this wicked World and retired to Heaven: And now what is it that can keep you here?"—Ib., p. 81.

   "If Pulse of Terse, a Nation's Temper shows,
    In keen Iambics English Metre flows."—Brightland's Gram., p. 151.

PROMISCUOUS ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.

LESSON I.—MIXED.

"Come, gentle spring, Ethereal mildness, come."—Gardiner's Music of
Nature, p. 411.

[FORMULES.—1. Not proper, because the word spring begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore "Spring" should here begin with a capital S.

2. Not proper again, because the word Ethereal begins with a capital E, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th. "Capitals are improper whenever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, "ethereal" should here begin with a small letter.]

As, "He is the Cicero of his age; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Cæsars."—Murray's Gram., p. 36. "In the History of Henry the fourth, by father Daniel, we are surprized at not finding him the great man."—Priestley's Gram., p. 151. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man."—Murray's Gram., p. 172; Ingersoll's, 187; Fisk's, 99. "Do not those same poor peasants use the Lever and the Wedge, and many other instruments?"—Murray, 288; from Harris, 293. "Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of Liquors; Geometry, for the measuring of Estates; Astronomy, for the making of Almanacks; and Grammar, perhaps, for the drawing of Bonds and Conveyances."—Harris's Hermes, p. 295. "The wars of Flanders, written in Latin by Famianus Strada, is a book of some note."—Blair's Rhet., p. 364. "William is a noun.—why? was is a verb.—why? a is an article.—why? very is an adverb.—why?" &c.—Merchant's School Gram., p. 20. "In the beginning was the word, and that word was with God, and God was that word."—Gwilt's Saxon Gram., p. 49. "The greeks are numerous in thessaly, macedonia, romelia, and albania."—Balbi, varied. "He is styled by the Turks, Sultan (Mighty) or Padishah (lord)."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "I will ransom them from the power of the grave; I will redeem them from death: O death, I will be thy plagues;[109] O grave, I will be thy destruction."—SCOTT, ALGER, ET AL.: Hosea, xiii, 14. "Silver and Gold have I none; but such as I have, give I unto thee."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 321. "Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine."—Ib., p. 342. "In the Attic Commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public."—Ib., p. 316. "They assert that, in the phrases, 'give me that,' 'this is John's,' and 'such were some of you,' the words in italics are pronouns: but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns; 'this book is instructive,' 'some boys are ingenious,' 'my health is declining,' 'our hearts are deceitful,' &c."—Ib., p. 58. "And the coast bends again to the northwest, as far as Far Out head."—Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 308. Dr. Webster, and other makers of spelling-books, very improperly write "sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday," without capitals.—See Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book p. 85. "The commander in chief of the Turkish navy is styled the capitan-pasha."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the father of spirits, and live?"—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Heb., xii, 9. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the Father of Spirits, and live?"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Heb., xii, 9. "He was more anxious to attain the character of a Christian hero."—Murray's Sequel, p. 308. "Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is mount Zion."—Psalms, xlviii, 2. "The Lord is my Helper, and I will not fear what man shall do unto me."—SCOTT: Heb., xiii, 6. "Make haste to help me, O LORD my Salvation."—SCOTT: Ps., xxxviii, 22.

   "The City, which Thou seest, no other deem
    Than great and glorious Rome, Queen of the Earth."
                              Harris's Hermes, p. 49.

LESSON II.—MIXED.

"That range of hills, known under the general name of mount Jura."—Priestley's Gram., p. 110. "He rebuked the Red sea also, and it was dried up."—SCOTT: Ps., cvi, 9. "Jesus went unto the mount of Olives."—John, viii, 1. "Milton's book, in reply to the Defence of the king, by Salmasius, gained him a thousand pounds from the parliament, and killed his antagonist with vexation."—See Murray's Sequel, 343. "Mandeville, sir John, an Englishman, famous for his travels, born about 1300, died in 1372."—Biog. Dict. "Ettrick pen, a mountain in Selkirkshire, Scotland, height 2,200 feet."—Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 312. "The coast bends from Dungsbyhead in a northwest direction to the promontory of Dunnet head."—Ib., p. 307. "Gen. Gaines ordered a detachment of near 300 men, under the command of Major Twiggs, to surround and take an Indian Village, called Fowl Town, about fourteen miles from fort Scott."—Cohen's Florida, p. 41. "And he took the damsel by the hand, and said unto her, Talitha Cumi."—ALGER: Mark, v, 4. "On religious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language is attended with peculiar force."—Murray's Gram., p. 318. "Contemplated with gratitude to their Author, the Giver of all Good."—Ib., p. 289. "When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth."—Ib., p. 171; Fisk, 98; Ingersoll, 186. "See the lecture on verbs, rule XV. note 4."—Fisk's E. Gram., p. 117. "At the commencement of lecture II. I informed you that Etymology treats, 3dly, of derivation."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 171. "This VIII. lecture is a very important one."—Ib., p. 113. "Now read the XI. and XII. lectures four or five times over."—Ib., p. 152. "In 1752, he was advanced to the bench, under the title of lord Kames."—Murray's Sequel, p. 331. "One of his maxims was, 'know thyself.'"—Lempriere's Dict., n. Chilo. "Good master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?"—See Matt., xix, 16. "His best known works, however, are 'anecdotes of the earl of Chatham,' 2 vols. 4to., 3 vols. 8vo., and 'biographical, literary, and political anecdotes of several of the most eminent persons of the present age; never before printed,' 3 vols. 8vo. 1797."—Univ. Biog. Dict., n. Almon. "O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?"—Merchant's School Gram., p. 172. "O sleep, O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.—SINGER'S SHAK. Sec. Part of Hen. IV, Act iii. "Sleep, gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.—Dodd's Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 129.

   "And Peace, O, Virtue! Peace is all thy own."—Pope's Works, p. 379.
    "And peace, O virtue! peace is all thy own."—Murray's Gram., ii, 16.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"Fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a Christian pastor. His book entitled 'An explication of the Maxims of the Saints concerning the interior life,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy."—Murray's Sequel, p. 321. "When natural religion, who before was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the centurion's voice."—Blair's Rhet., p. 157. "You cannot deny, that the great mover and author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude, or connexion, with the things signified."—Berkley's Minute Philosopher, p. 169. "The name of this letter is double U, its form, that of a double V."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 19. "Murray, in his spelling book, wrote 'Charles-Town' with a Hyphen and two Capitals."—See p. 101. "He also wrote 'european' without a capital."—See p. 86. "They profess themselves to be pharisees, who are to be heard and not imitated."—Calvin's Institutes, Ded., p. 55. "Dr. Webster wrote both 'Newhaven' and 'Newyork' with single capitals."—See his American Spelling-Book, p. 111. "Gayhead, the west point of Martha's Vineyard."—Williams's Univ. Gaz. Write "Craborchard, Eggharbor, Longisland, Perthamboy, Westhampton, Littlecompton, Newpaltz, Crownpoint, Fellspoint, Sandyhook, Portpenn, Portroyal. Portobello, and Portorico."—Webster's American Spelling-Book, 127-140. Write the names of the months: "january, february, march, april, may, june, july, august, september, october, november, december."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book, 21-40. Write the following names and words properly: "tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday, saturn;—christ, christian, christmas, christendom, michaelmas, indian, bacchanals;—Easthampton, omega, johannes, aonian, levitical, deuteronomy, european."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book, sundry places.

   "Eight Letters in some Syllables we find,
    And no more Syllables in Words are joined."
                        Brightland's Gram., p. 61.

CHAPTER II.—OF SYLLABLES.

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound; and is either a word, as, a, an, ant; or a part of a word, as di in dial.

In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds, or separate impulses of the voice; as, gram-ma-ri-an.

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable; and a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable.

Every vowel, except w, may form a syllable of itself; but the consonants belong to the vowels or diphthongs; and without a vowel no syllable can be formed.

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. In oe or æ, old or foreign, the characters often unite.

A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded; as, oi in voice, ow in vow.

An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded; as, oa in loaf, eo in people.

A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, eau in beau, iew in view, oeu in manoeuvre.

A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded; as, uoy in buoy.

An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in beauty, iou in anxious. The diphthongs in English are twenty-nine; embracing all but six of the thirty-five possible combinations of two vowels: aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,—ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,—ia, ie, (ii,) io, (iu, iw, iy,)—oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow, oy,—ua, ue, ui, uo, (uu, uw,) uy.

Ten of these diphthongs, being variously sounded, may be either proper or improper; to wit, ay,—ie,—oi, ou, ow,—ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.

The proper diphthongs appear to be thirteen; ay,—ia, ie, io,—oi, ou, ow, oy,—ua, ue, ui, uo, uy: of which combinations, only three, ia, io, and oy, are invariably of this class.

The improper diphthongs are twenty-six; aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,—ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,—ie,—oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow,—ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.

The only proper triphthong in English is uoy, as in buoy, buoyant, buoyancy; unless uoi in quoit may be considered a parallel instance.

The improper triphthongs are sixteen; awe, aye,—eau, eou, ewe, eye,—ieu, iew, iou,—oeu, owe,—uai, uaw, uay, uea, uee.

SYLLABICATION.

In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear; it may however be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following rules.

RULE I.—CONSONANTS.

Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance; as, An-ax-ag'-o-ras, ap-os-tol'-i-cal.[110]

RULE II.—VOWELS.

Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables; as, A-cka'-i-a, A-o'-ni-an, a-e'-ri-al.

RULE III.—TERMINATIONS.

Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they have been added; as, harm-less, great-ly, connect-ed: thus count-er and coun-ter are different words.

RULE IV.—PREFIXES.

Prefixes, in general, form separate syllables; as, mis-place, out-ride, up-lift: but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case may be otherwise; thus, re-create, and rec'-reate, re-formation, and ref-ormation, are words of different import.

RULE V.—COMPOUNDS.

Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them; as, boat-swain, foot-hold, never-the-less.

RULE VI.—LINES FULL.

At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable must never be broken.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The doctrine of English syllabication is attended with some difficulties; because its purposes are various, and its principles, often contradictory. The old rules, borrowed chiefly from grammars of other languages, and still retained in some of our own, are liable to very strong objections.[111] By aiming to divide on the vowels, and to force the consonants, as much as possible, into the beginning of syllables, they often pervert or misrepresent our pronunciation. Thus Murray, in his Spelling-Book, has "gra-vel, fi-nish, me-lon, bro-ther, bo-dy, wi-dow, pri-son, a-va-rice, e-ve-ry, o-ran-ges, e-ne-my, me-di-cine, re-pre-sent, re-so-lu-tion," and a multitude of other words, divided upon a principle by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error respecting their sounds. This method of division is therefore particularly reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation of words; for which reason, it has been generally abandoned in our modern spelling-books and dictionaries: the authors of which have severally aimed at some sort of compromise between etymology and pronunciation; but they disagree so much, as to the manner of effecting it, that no two of them will be found alike, and very few, if any, entirely consistent with themselves.

OBS. 2.—The object of syllabication may be any one of the following four; 1. To enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them; 2. To show the derivation or composition of words; 3. To exhibit the exact pronunciation of words; 4. To divide words properly, when it is necessary to break them at the ends of lines. With respect to the first of these objects, Walker observes, "When a child has made certain advances in reading, but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words, it may not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him, that a consonant between two vowels must go to the latter, and that two consonants coming together must be divided. Farther than this it would be absurd to go with a child."—Walker's Principles, No. 539. Yet, as a caution be it recorded, that, in 1833, an itinerant lecturer from the South, who made it his business to teach what he calls in his title-page, "An Abridgment of Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the Letters,"—an Abridgement, which, he says in his preface, "will be found to contain, it is believed, all the important rules that are established by Walker, and to carry his principles farther than he himself has done"—befooled the Legislature of Massachusetts, the School Committee and Common Council of Boston, the professor of elocution at Harvard University, and many other equally wise men of the east, into the notion that English pronunciation could be conveniently taught to children, in "four or five days," by means of some three or four hundred rules of which the following is a specimen: "RULE 282. When a single consonant is preceded by a vowel under the preantepenultimate accent, and is followed by a vowel that is succeeded by a consonant, it belongs to the accented vowel."—Mulkey's Abridgement of Walker's Rules, p. 34.

OBS. 3.—A grosser specimen of literary quackery, than is the publication which I have just quoted, can scarcely be found in the world of letters. It censures "the principles laid down and illustrated by Walker," as "so elaborate and so verbose as to be wearisome to the scholar and useless to the child;" and yet declares them to be, "for the most part, the true rules of pronunciation, according to the analogy of the language."—Mulkey's Preface, p. 3. It professes to be an abridgement and simplification of those principles, especially adapted to the wants and capacities of children; and, at the same time, imposes upon the memory of the young learner twenty-nine rules for syllabication, similar to that which I have quoted above; whereas Walker himself, with all his verbosity, expressly declares it "absurd," to offer more than one or two, and those of the very simplest character. It is to be observed that the author teaches nothing but the elements of reading; nothing but the sounds of letters and syllables; nothing but a few simple fractions of the great science of grammar: and, for this purpose, he would conduct the learner through the following particulars, and have him remember them all: 1. Fifteen distinctions respecting the "classification and organic formation of the letters." 2. Sixty-three rules for "the sounds of the vowels, according to their relative positions." 3. Sixty-four explanations of "the different sounds of the diphthongs." 4. Eighty-nine rules for "the sounds of the consonants, according to position." 5. Twenty-three heads, embracing a hundred and fifty-six principles of accent. 6. Twenty-nine "rules for dividing words into syllables." 7. Thirty-three "additional principles;" which are thrown together promiscuously, because he could not class them. 8. Fifty-two pages of "irregular Words," forming particular exceptions to the foregoing rules. 9. Twenty-eight pages of notes extracted from Walker's Dictionary, and very prettily called "The Beauties of Walker." All this is Walker simplified for children!

OBS. 4.—Such is a brief sketch of Mulkey's system of orthoëpy; a work in which "he claims to have devised what has heretofore been a desideratum—a mode by which children in our common schools may be taught the rules for the pronunciation of their mother tongue."—Preface, p. 4. The faults of the book are so exceedingly numerous, that to point them out, would be more toil, than to write an accurate volume of twice the size. And is it possible, that a system like this could find patronage in the metropolis of New England, in that proud centre of arts and sciences, and in the proudest halls of learning and of legislation? Examine the gentleman's credentials, and take your choice between the adoption of his plan, as a great improvement in the management of syllables, and the certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them. Unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary quackery, the authorities I have mentioned did extensively patronize the scheme; and the Common Council of that learned city did order, November 14th, 1833, "That the School Committee be and they are hereby authorized to employ Mr. William Mulkey to give a course of Lectures on Orthoëpy to the several instructors of the public schools, and that the sum of five hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose, and that the same amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund."—See Mulkey's Circular.

OBS. 5.—Pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good spelling-book; a book in which the words are arranged according to their analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies, dictionaries, and glossaries, may also be serviceable to those who are sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them. With regard to the first of the abovenamed purposes of syllabication, I am almost ready to dissent even from the modest opinion of Walker himself; for ignorance can only guess at the pronunciation of words, till positive instruction comes in to give assurance; and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules suggested by Walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as correct him. With regard to the second purpose, that of showing the derivation or composition of words, it is plain, that etymology, and not pronunciation, must here govern the division; and that it should go no further than to separate the constituent parts of each word; as, ortho-graphy, theo-logy. But when we divide for the third purpose, and intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word, we must, if possible, divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recompose the word, when put together again; as, or-thog-ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy. This being the most common purpose of syllabication, perhaps it would be well to give it a general preference; and adopt it whenever we can, not only in the composing of spelling-books and dictionaries, but also in the dividing of words at the ends of lines.

OBS. 6.—Dr. Lowth says, "The best and easiest rule, for dividing the syllables in spelling, is, to divide them as they are naturally divided in a right pronunciation; without regard to the derivation of words, or the possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a syllable."—Lowth's Gram., p. 5. And Walker approves of the principle, with respect to the third purpose mentioned above: "This," says that celebrated orthoëpist, "is the method adopted by those who would convey the whole sound, by giving distinctly every part; and, when this is the object of syllabication, Dr. Lowth's rule is certainly to be followed."—Walker's Principles,—No. 541. But this rule, which no one can apply till he has found out the pronunciation, will not always be practicable where that is known, and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable. For example: the words colonel, venison, transition, propitious, cannot be so divided as to exhibit their pronunciation; and, in such as acid, magic, pacify, legible, liquidate, it may not be best to follow the rule, because there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first syllables of these words with c, g, and q, especially at the end of a line. The rule for terminations may also interfere with this, called "Lowth's;" as in sizable, rising, dronish.

OBS. 7.—For the dividing of words into syllables, I have given six rules, which are perhaps as many as will be useful. They are to be understood as general principles; and, as to the exceptions to be made in their application, or the settling of their conflicting claims to attention, these may be left to the judgement of each writer. The old principle of dividing by the eye, and not by the ear, I have rejected; and, with it, all but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose. "The divisions of the letters into syllables, should, unquestionably, be the same in written, as in spoken language; otherwise the learner is misguided, and seduced by false representations into injurious errors."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 37. Through the influence of books in which the words are divided according to their sounds, the pronunciation of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform; and it may perhaps be reasonably hoped, that the general adoption of this method of syllabication, and a proper exposition of the occasional errors of ignorance, will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the instability of the principle. For the old grammarians urged, that the scholar who had learned their rules should "strictly conform to them; and that he should industriously avoid that random Method of dividing by the Ear, which is subject to mere jumble, as it must be continually fluctuating according to the various Dialects of different Countries."—British Grammar, p. 47.

OBS. 8.—The important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly conducted. In many of our schools, it may be observed that the teacher, in giving out the words to be spelled, is not always careful to utter them with what he knows to be their true sounds, but frequently accommodates his pronunciation to the known or supposed ignorance of the scholar; and the latter is still more frequently allowed to hurry through the process, without putting the syllables together as he proceeds; and, sometimes, without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all. Merely to pronounce a word and then name its letters, is an exceedingly imperfect mode of spelling; a mode in which far more is lost in respect to accuracy of speech, than is gained in respect to time. The syllables should not only be distinctly formed and pronounced, but pronounced as they are heard in the whole word; and each should be successively added to the preceding syllables, till the whole sound is formed by the reunion of all its parts. For example: divisibility. The scholar should say, "Dee I, de; Vee I Ess, viz, de-viz; I, de-viz-e; Bee I Ell, bil, de-viz-e-bil; I, de-viz-e-bil-e; Tee Wy, te, de-viz-e-bil-e-te." Again: chicanery. "Cee Aitch I, she; Cee A, ka, she-ka; En E Ar, nur, she-ka-nur; Wy, she-ka-nur-e." One of the chief advantages of oral spelling, is its tendency to promote accuracy of pronunciation; and this end it will reach, in proportion to the care and skill with which it is conducted. But oral spelling should not be relied on as the sole means of teaching orthography. It will not be found sufficient. The method of giving out words for practical spelling on slates or paper, or of reading something which is to be written again by the learner, is much to be commended, as a means of exercising those scholars who are so far advanced as to write legibly. This is called, in the schools, dictation.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS IN SYLLABICATION.

LESSON I.—CONSONANTS.

1. Correct the division of the following words of two syllables: "ci-vil, co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, hea-ven, hea-vy, ho-ney, le-mon, li-nen, mea-dow, mo-ney, ne-ver, o-live, o-range, o-ther, phea-sant, plea-sant, pu-nish, ra-ther, rea-dy, ri-ver, ro-bin, scho-lar, sho-vel, sto-mach, ti-mid, whe-ther."—Murray's Spelling-Book, N. Y., 1819, p. 43-50.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the v in ci-vil, the l in co-lour, the p in co-py, &c., are written with the following vowel, but spoken with that which precedes. But, according to Rule 1st, "Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance." Therefore, these words should be divided thus: civ-il, col-our, cop-y, &c.]

2. Correct the division of the following words of three syllables: "be-ne-fit, ca-bi-net, ca-nis-ter, ca-ta-logue, cha-rac-ter, cha-ri-ty, co-vet-ous, di-li-gence, di-mi-ty, e-le-phant, e-vi-dent, e-ver-green, fri-vo-lous, ga-ther-ing, ge-ne-rous, go-vern-ess, go-vern-or, ho-nes-ty, ka-len-dar, la-ven-der, le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, me-mo-ry, mi-nis-ter, mo-dest-ly, no-vel-ty, no-bo-dy, pa-ra-dise, po-ver-ty, pre-sent-ly, pro-vi-dence, pro-per-ly, pri-son-er, ra-ven-ous, sa-tis-fy, se-ve-ral, se-pa-rate, tra-vel-ler, va-ga-bond;—con-si-der, con-ti-nue, de-li-ver, dis-co-ver, dis-fi-gure, dis-ho-nest, dis-tri-bute, in-ha-bit, me-cha-nic, what-e-ver;—re-com-mend, re-fu-gee, re-pri-mand."—Murray: ib., p. 67-83.

3. Correct the division of the following words of four syllables: "ca-ter-pil-lar, cha-ri-ta-ble, di-li-gent-ly, mi-se-ra-ble, pro-fit-a-ble, to-le-ra-ble;—be-ne-vo-lent, con-si-der-ate, di-mi-nu-tive, ex-pe-ri-ment, ex-tra-va-gant, in-ha-bi-tant, no-bi-li-ty, par-ti-cu-lar, pros-pe-ri-ty, ri-di-cu-lous, sin-ce-ri-ty;—de-mon-stra-tion, e-du-ca-tion, e-mu-la-tion, e-pi-de-mic, ma-le-fac-tor, ma-nu-fac-ture, me-mo-ran-dum, mo-de-ra-tor, pa-ra-ly-tic, pe-ni-ten-tial, re-sig-na-tion, sa-tis-fac-tion, se-mi-co-lon."—Murray: ib., p. 84-87.

4. Correct the division of the following words of five syllables: "a-bo-mi-na-ble, a-po-the-ca-ry, con-sid-e-ra-ble, ex-pla-na-to-ry, pre-pa-ra-to-ry;—a-ca-de-mi-cal, cu-ri-o-si-ty, ge-o-gra-phi-cal, ma-nu-fac-to-ry, sa-tis-fac-to-ry, me-ri-to-ri-ous;—cha-rac-te-ris-tic, e-pi-gram-ma-tic, ex-pe-ri-ment-al, po-ly-syl-la-ble, con-sid-e-ra-tion." —Murray: ib., p. 87-89.

5. Correct the division of the following proper names: "He-len, Leo-nard,
Phi-lip, Ro-bert, Ho-race, Tho-mas;—Ca-ro-line, Ca-tha-rine, Da-ni-el,
De-bo-rah, Do-ro-thy, Fre-de-rick, I-sa-bel, Jo-na-than, Ly-di-a,
Ni-cho-las, O-li-ver, Sa-mu-el, Si-me-on, So-lo-mon, Ti-mo-thy,
Va-len-tine;—A-me-ri-ca, Bar-tho-lo-mew, E-li-za-beth, Na-tha-ni-el,
Pe-ne-lo-pe, The-o-phi-lus."—Murray: ib., p. 98-101.

LESSON II.—MIXED.

1. Correct the division of the following words, by Rule 1st: "cap-rice, es-teem, dis-es-teem, ob-lige;—az-ure, mat-ron, pat-ron, phal-anx, sir-en, trait-or, trench-er, barb-er, burn-ish, garn-ish, tarn-ish, varn-ish, mark-et, musk-et, pamph-let;—brave-ry, knave-ry, siave-ry, eve-ning, scene-ry, bribe-ry, nice-ty, chi-cane-ry, ma-chine-ry, im-age-ry;— as-y-lum, hor-i-zon,—fi-nan-cier, he-ro-ism,—sar-don-yx, scur-ril-ous,— com-e-di-an, post-e-ri-or."—Webster's Spelling-Books.

2. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 2d: "oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate;—am-bro-sia, cha-mel-ion, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry;—an-nun-ciate, e-nun-ciate, ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, in-gra-tiate, in-i-tiate, li-cen-tiate, ne-go-tiate, no-vi-ciate, of-fi-ciate, pro-pi-tiate, sub-stan-tiate."—Webster: Old Spelling-Book, 86-91; New, 121-128.

3. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 3d: "dres-ser, has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam-per, han-dy, dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book. Again: "eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy."—Webster.

4. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 4th: "aw-ry,"—Webster's Old Book, 52; "ath-wart,"—Ib., 93; "pros-pect-ive,"—Ib., 66; "pa-renth-e-sis,"—Ib., 93; "res-ist-i-bil-ity,"—Webster's New Book, 93; "hem-is-pher-ic,"—Ib., 130; "mo-nos-tich, he-mis-tick," [112]—Walker's Dict., 8vo; Cobb, 33; "tow-ards,"—Cobb, 48.

5. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 5th: "E'n-gland,"—Murray's Spelling-Book, p. 100; "a-no-ther,"—Ib., 71; "a-noth-er,"—Emerson, 76; "Be-thes-da, Beth-a-ba-ra,"—Webster, 141; Cobb, 159.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

1. Correct the division of the following words, according to their derivation: "ben-der, bles-sing, bras-sy, chaf-fy, chan-ter, clas-per, craf-ty, cur-dy, fen-der, fil-my, fus-ty, glas-sy, graf-ter, gras-sy, gus-ty, ban-ded, mas-sy, mus-ky, rus-ty, swel-ling, tel-ler, tes-ted, thrif-ty, ves-ture."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book.

2. Correct the division of the following words, so as to give no wrong notion of their derivation and meaning: "barb-er, burn-ish, brisk-et, cank-er, chart-er, cuck-oo, furn-ish, garn-ish, guil-ty, hank-er, lust-y, port-al, tarn-ish, test-ate, test-y, trait-or, treat-y, varn-ish, vest-al, di-urn-al, e-tern-al, in-fern-al, in-tern-al, ma-tern-al, noc-turn-al, pa-tern-al."—Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book.

3. Correct the division of the following words, so as to convey no wrong idea of their pronunciation: "ar-mo-ry, ar-te-ry, butch-er-y, cook-e-ry, eb-o-ny, em-e-ry, ev-e-ry, fel-o-ny, fop-pe-ry, flip-pe-ry, gal-le-ry, his-to-ry, liv-e-ry. lot-te-ry, mock-e-ry, mys-te-ry, nun-ne-ry, or-re-ry, pil-lo-ry, quack-e-ry, sor-ce-ry, witch-e-ry."—Ib., 41-42.

4. Correct the division of the following words, and give to n before k the sound of ng: "ank-le, bask-et, blank-et, buck-le, cack-le, crank-le, crink-le, east-er, fick-le, freck-le, knuck-le, mark-et, monk-ey, port-ress, pick-le, poult-ice, punch-eon, qua-drant, qua-drate, squa-dron, rank-le, shack-le, sprink-le, tink-le, twink-le, wrink-le."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book.

5. Correct the division of the following words, with a proper regard to Rules 1st and 3d: "a-scribe, bland-ish, bran-chy, clou-dy, dus-ty, drea-ry, eve-ning, faul-ty, fil-thy, fros-ty, gau-dy, gloo-my, heal-thy, hear-ken, hear-ty, hoa-ry, lea-ky, loung-er, mar-shy, migh-ty, mil-ky, naugh-ty, pas-sing, pit-cher, rea-dy, roc-ky, spee-dy, stea-dy, stor-my, thirs-ty, thor-ny, trus-ty, ves-try, wes-tern, weal-thy."—Emerson's Spelling-Book, 17-44.

CHAPTER III.—OF WORDS.

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as simple or compound. The former division is called their species; the latter, their figure.

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler word in the language; as, harm, great, connect.

A derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler word in the language; as, harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected.

A simple word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words; as, watch, man, house, tower, never, the, less.

A compound word is one that is composed of two or more simple words; as, watchman, watchhouse, watchtower, nevertheless.

Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, bookseller, schoolmaster: others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen; as, good-natured, negro-merchant.

RULES FOR THE FIGURE OF WORDS.

RULE I.—COMPOUNDS.

Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. Thus, steamboat, railroad, red-hot, well-being, new-coined, are preferable to the phrases, steam boat, rail road, red hot, well being, new coined; and toward us is better than the old phrase, to us ward.

RULE II.—SIMPLES.

When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided. Thus, the compound instead is not to be commended, because the simple phrase, in stead of, is exactly like the other phrases, in lieu of, in place of, in room of, in which we write no compound.

RULE III.—THE SENSE.

Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require. Thus, a glass house is a house made of glass, but a glasshouse is a house in which glass is made; so a negro merchant is a coloured trader, but a negro-merchant is a man who buys and sells negroes.

RULE IV.—ELLIPSES.

When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. Thus, "six or seventeen" should not be said for "sixteen or seventeen;" nor ought we to say, "calf, goat, and sheepskins" for "calfskins, goatskins, and sheepskins" In the latter instance, however, it might be right to separate all the words; as in the phrase, "soup, coffee, and tea houses."—Liberator, x, 40.

RULE V.—THE HYPHEN.

When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as to-day, to-night, to-morrow; or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, as first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, garlic-eater, butterfly-shell, the hyphen should be inserted between them.

RULE VI.—NO HYPHEN.

When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them. Churchill, after much attention to this subject, writes thus: "The practical instruction of the countinghouse imparts a more thorough knowledge of bookkeeping, than all the fictitious transactions of a mere schoolbook, however carefully constructed to suit particular purposes."—New Gram., p. vii. But counting-house, having more stress on the last syllable than on the middle one, is usually written with the hyphen; and book-keeping and school-book, though they may not need it, are oftener so formed than otherwise.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Words are the least parts of significant language; that is, of language significant in each part; for, to syllables, taken merely as syllables, no meaning belongs. But, to a word, signification of some sort or other, is essential; there can be no word without it; for a sign or symbol must needs represent or signify something. And as I cannot suppose words to represent external things, I have said "A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the sign of some idea." But of what ideas are the words of our language significant? Are we to say, "Of all ideas;" and to recognize as an English word every syllable, or combination of syllables, to which we know a meaning is attached? No. For this, in the first place, would confound one language with an other; and destroy a distinction which must ever be practically recognized, till all men shall again speak one language. In the next place, it would compel us to embrace among our words an infinitude of terms that are significant only of local ideas, such as men any where or at any time may have had concerning any of the individuals they have known, whether persons, places, or things. But, however important they may be in the eyes of men, the names of particular persons, places, or things, because they convey only particular ideas, do not properly belong to what we call our language. Lexicographers do not collect and define proper names, because they are beyond the limits of their art, and can be explained only from history. I do not say that proper names are to be excluded from grammar; but I would show wherein consists the superiority of general terms over these. For if our common words did not differ essentially from proper names, we could demonstrate nothing in science: we could not frame from them any general or affirmative proposition at all; because all our terms would be particular, and not general; and because every individual thing in nature must necessarily be for ever itself only, and not an other.

OBS. 2.—Our common words, then, are the symbols neither of external particulars, nor merely of the sensible ideas which external particulars excite in our minds, but mainly of those general or universal ideas which belong rather to the intellect than to the senses. For intellection differs from sensation, somewhat as the understanding of a man differs from the perceptive faculty of a brute; and language, being framed for the reciprocal commerce of human minds, whose perceptions include both, is made to consist of signs of ideas both general and particular, yet without placing them on equal ground. Our general ideas—that is, our ideas conceived as common to many individuals, existing in any part of time, past, present, or future—such, for example, as belong to the words man, horse, tree, cedar, wave, motion, strength, resist—such ideas, I say, constitute that most excellent significance which belongs to words primarily, essentially, and immediately; whereas, our particular ideas, such as are conceived only of individual objects, which arc infinite in number and ever fleeting, constitute a significance which belongs to language only secondarily, accidentally, and mediately. If we express the latter at all, we do it either by proper names, of which but very few ever become generally known, or by means of certain changeable limitations which are added to our general terms; whereby language, as Harris observes, "without wandering into infinitude, contrives how to denote things infinite."—Hermes, p. 345. The particular manner in which this is done, I shall show hereafter, in Etymology, when I come to treat of articles and definitives.

OBS. 3.—If we examine the structure of proper names, we shall find that most of them are compounds, the parts of which have, in very many instances, some general signification. Now a complete phrase commonly conveys some particular notion or conception of the mind; but, in this case, the signification of the general terms is restricted by the other words which are added to them. Thus smith is a more general term than goldsmith; and goldsmith is more general than a goldsmith; a goldsmith, than the goldsmith; the goldsmith, than one Goldsmith; one Goldsmith, than Mr. Goldsmith; Mr. Goldsmith, than Oliver Goldsmith. Thus we see that the simplest mode of designating particular persons or objects, is that of giving them proper names; but proper names must needs be so written, that they may be known as proper names, and not be mistaken for common terms. I have before observed, that we have some names which are both proper and common; and that these should be written with capitals, and should form the plural regularly. It is surprising that the Friends, who are in some respects particularly scrupulous about language, should so generally have overlooked the necessity there is, of compounding their numerical names of the months and days, and writing them uniformly with capitals, as proper names. For proper names they certainly are, in every thing but the form, whenever they are used without the article, and without those other terms which render their general idea particular. And the compound form with a capital, is as necessary for Firstday, Secondday, Thirdday, &c., as for Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, &c. "The first day of the week,"—"The seventh day of the month,"—"The second month of summer,"—"The second month in the year," &c., are good English phrases, in which any compounding of the terms, or any additional use of capitals, would be improper; but, for common use, these phrases are found too long and too artificial. We must have a less cumbersome mode of specifying the months of the year and the days of the week. What then? Shall we merely throw away the terms of particularity, and, without substituting in their place the form of proper names, apply general terms to particular thoughts, and insist on it that this is right? And is not this precisely what is done by those who reject as heathenish the ordinary names of the months and days, and write "first day," for Sunday, in stead of "the first day of the week;" or "second month," for February, in stead of "the second month in the year;" and so forth? This phraseology may perhaps be well understood by those to whom it is familiar, but still it is an abuse of language, because it is inconsistent with the common acceptation of the terms. Example: "The departure of a ship will take place every sixth day with punctuality."—Philadelphia Weekly Messenger. The writer of this did not mean, "every Friday;" and it is absurd for the Friends so to understand it, or so to write, when that is what they mean.

OBS. 4.—In the ordinary business of life, it is generally desirable to express our meaning as briefly as possible; but legal phraseology is always full to the letter, and often redundant. Hence a merchant will write, "Nov. 24, 1837," or, "11 mo. 24th, 1837;" but a conveyancer will have it, "On the twenty-fourth day of November, one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven;"—or, perhaps, "On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven." Accordingly we find that, in common daily use, all the names of the months, except March, May, June, and July, are abbreviated; thus, Jan., Feb., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. And sometimes even the Arabic number of the year is made yet shorter; as '37 for 1837; or 1835-6-7, for 1835, 1836, and 1837. In like manner, in constructing tables of time, we sometimes denote the days of the week by the simple initials of their names; as, S. for Sunday, M. for Monday, &c. But, for facility of abbreviation, the numerical names, whether of the months or of the days, are perhaps still more convenient. For, if we please, we may put the simple Arabic figures for them; though it is better to add d. for day, and mo. for month: as, 1 d., 2 d., 3 d., &c.;—1 mo., 2 mo., 3 mo., &c.:—or more compactly thus: 1d., 2d., 3d., &c.;—1mo., 2mo., 3mo., &c. But, take which mode of naming we will, our ordinary expression of these things should be in neither extreme, but should avoid alike too great brevity and too great prolixity; and, therefore, it is best to make it a general rule in our literary compositions, to use the full form of proper names for the months and days, and to denote the years by Arabic figures written in full.

OBS. 5.—In considering the nature of words, I was once a little puzzled with a curious speculation, if I may not term it an important inquiry, concerning the principle of their identity. We often speak of "the same words," and of "different words;" but wherein does the sameness or the difference of words consist? Not in their pronunciation; for the same word may be differently pronounced; as, p=at'ron or p=a'tron, m=at'ron or m=a'tron. Not in their orthography; for the same word may be differently spelled; as, favour or favor, music or musick, connexion or connection. Not in their form of presentation; for the same word may be either spoken or written; and speech and writing present what we call the same words, in two ways totally different. Not in their meaning; for the same word may have different meanings, and different words may signify precisely the same thing. This sameness of words, then, must consist in something which is to be reconciled with great diversity. Yet every word is itself, and not an other: and every word must necessarily have some property peculiar to itself, by which it may be easily distinguished from every other. Were it not so, language would be unintelligible. But it is so; and, therefore, to mistake one word for an other, is universally thought to betray great ignorance or great negligence, though such mistakes are by no means of uncommon occurrence. But that the question about the identity of words is not a very easy one, may appear from the fact, that the learned often disagree about it in practice; as when one grammarian will have an and a to be two words, and an other will affirm them to be only different forms of one and the same word.

OBS. 6.—Let us see, then, if amidst all this diversity we can find that principle of sameness, by which a dispute of this kind ought to be settled. Now, although different words do generally differ in orthography, in pronunciation, and in meaning, so that an entire sameness implies one orthography, one pronunciation, and one meaning; yet some diversity is allowed in each of these respects, so that a sign differing from an other only in one, is not therefore a different word, or a sign agreeing with an other only in one, is not therefore the same word. It follows thence, that the principle of verbal identity, the principle which distinguishes every word from every other, lies in neither extreme: it lies in a narrower compass than in all three, and yet not singly in any one, but jointly in any two. So that signs differing in any two of these characteristics of a word, are different words; and signs agreeing in any two, are the same word. Consequently, if to any difference either of spelling or of sound we add a difference of signification everybody will immediately say, that we speak or write different words, and not the same: thus dear, beloved, and deer, an animal, are two such words as no one would think to be the same; and, in like manner, use, advantage, and use, to employ, will readily be called different words. Upon this principle, an and a are different words; yet, in conformity to old usage, and because the latter is in fact but an abridgement of the former, I have always treated them as one and the same article, though I have nowhere expressly called them the same word. But, to establish the principle above named, which appears to me the only one on which any such question can be resolved, or the identity of words be fixed at all, we must assume that every word has one right pronunciation, and only one; one just orthography, and only one; and some proper signification, which, though perhaps not always the same, is always a part of its essence. For when two words of different meaning are spelled or pronounced alike, not to maintain the second point of difference, against the double orthography or the double pronunciation of either, is to confound their identity at once, and to prove by the rule that two different words are one and the same, by first absurdly making them so.

OBS. 7.—In no part of grammar is usage more unsettled and variable than in that which relates to the figure of words. It is a point of which modern writers have taken but very little notice. Lily, and other ancient Latin grammarians, reckoned both species and figure among the grammatical accidents of nearly all the different parts of speech; and accordingly noticed them, in their Etymology, as things worthy to be thus made distinct topics, like numbers, genders, cases, moods, tenses, &c. But the manner of compounding words in Latin, and also in Greek, is always by consolidation. No use appears to have been made of the hyphen, in joining the words of those languages, though the name of the mark is a Greek compound, meaning "under one." The compounding of words is one principal means of increasing their number; and the arbitrariness with which that is done or neglected in English, is sufficient of itself to make the number of our words a matter of great uncertainty. Such terms, however, having the advantage of explaining themselves in a much greater degree than others, have little need of definition; and when new things are formed, it is very natural and proper to give them new names of this sort: as, steamboat, railroad. The propriety or impropriety of these additions to the language, is not to be determined by dictionaries; for that must be settled by usage before any lexicographer will insert them. And so numerous, after all, are the discrepancies found in our best dictionaries, that many a word may have its day and grow obsolete, before a nation can learn from them the right way of spelling it; and many a fashionable thing may go entirely out of use, before a man can thus determine how to name it. Railroads are of so recent invention that I find the word in only one dictionary; and that one is wrong, in giving the word a hyphen, while half our printers are wrong, in keeping the words separate because Johnson did not compound them. But is it not more important, to know whether we ought to write railroad, or rail-road, or rail road, which we cannot learn from any of our dictionaries, than to find out whether we ought to write rocklo, or roquelo, or roquelaur, or roquelaure, which, in some form or other, is found in them all? The duke of Roquelaure is now forgotten, and his cloak is out of fashion.

OBS. 8.—No regular phrase, as I have taught in the second rule above, should be needlessly converted into a compound word, either by tacking its parts together with the hyphen, or by uniting them without a hyphen; for, in general, a phrase is one thing, and a word is an other: and they ought to be kept as distinct as possible.[113] But, when a whole phrase takes the relation of an adjective, the words must be compounded, and the hyphen becomes necessary; as, "An inexpressibly apt bottle-of-small-beer comparison."—Peter Pindar. The occasions for the compounding of words, are in general sufficiently plain, to any one who knows what is intended to be said; but, as we compound words, sometimes with the hyphen, and sometimes without, there is no small difficulty in ascertaining when to use this mark, and when to omit it. "Some settled rule for the use of the hyphen on these occasions, is much wanted. Modern printers have a strange predilection for it; using it on almost every possible occasion. Mr. L. Murray, who has only three lines on the subject, seems inclined to countenance this practice; which is, no doubt, convenient enough for those who do not like trouble. His words are: 'A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words: as, Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.' Of his six examples, Johnson, our only acknowledged standard, gives the first and third without any separation between the syllables, lapdog, preexistence; his second and fifth as two distinct words each, tea pot, to morrow; and his sixth as three words, mother in law: so that only his fourth has the sanction of the lexicographer. There certainly can be no more reason for putting a hyphen after the common prefixes, than before the common affixes, ness, ly, and the rest."—Churchill's Gram., p. 374.

OBS. 9.—Again: "While it would be absurd, to sacrifice the established practice of all good authors to the ignorance of such readers [as could possibly mistake for a diphthong the two contiguous vowels in such words as preexistence, cooperate, and reenter]; it would unquestionably be advantageous, to have some principle to guide us in that labyrinth of words, in which the hyphen appears to have been admitted or rejected arbitrarily, or at hap-hazard. Thus, though we find in Johnson, alms-basket, alms-giver, with the hyphen; we have almsdeed, almshouse, almsman, without: and many similar examples of an unsettled practice might be adduced, sufficient to fill several pages. In this perplexity, is not the pronunciation of the words the best guide? In the English language, every word of more than one syllable is marked by an accent on some particular syllable. Some very long words indeed admit a secondary accent on another syllable; but still this is much inferior, and leaves one leading accent prominent: as in expos'tulatory. Accordingly, when a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, as night'cap, bed'stead, broad'sword, the two words have coalesced completely into one, and no hyphen should be admitted. On the other hand, when each of the radical words has an accent, as Chris'tian-name', broad'-shoul'dered, I think the hyphen should be used. Good'-na'tured is a compound epithet with two accents, and therefore requires the hyphen: in good nature, good will, and similar expressions, good is used simply as an adjective, and of course should remain distinct from the noun. Thus, too, when a noun is used adjectively, it should remain separate from the noun it modifies; as, a gold ring, a silver buckle. When two numerals are employed to express a number, without a conjunction between them, it is usual to connect them by a hyphen; as, twenty-five, eighty-four: but when the conjunction is inserted, the hyphen is as improper as it would be between other words connected by the conjunction. This, however, is a common abuse; and we often meet with five-&-twenty, six-&-thirty, and the like."—Ib., p. 376. Thus far Churchill: who appears to me, however, too hasty about the hyphen in compound numerals. For we write one hundred, two hundred, three thousand, &c., without either hyphen or conjunction; and as five-and-twenty is equivalent to twenty-five, and virtually but one word, the hyphen, if not absolutely necessary to the sense, is certainly not so very improper as he alleges. "Christian name" is as often written without the hyphen as with it, and perhaps as accurately.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS IN THE FIGURE, OR FORM, OF WORDS.

UNDER RULE I.—OF COMPOUNDS.

"Professing to imitate Timon, the man hater."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 161.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the compound term manhater is here made two words. But, according to Rule 1st, "Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart." Therefore, manhater should be written as one word.]

"Men load hay with a pitch fork."—Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 40. "A pear tree grows from the seed of a pear."—Ib., p. 33. "A tooth brush is good to brush your teeth."—Ib., p. 85. "The mail is opened at the post office."—Ib., p. 151. "The error seems to me two fold."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 230. "To pre-engage means to engage before hand."—Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 82. "It is a mean act to deface the figures on a mile stone."—Ib., p. 88. "A grange is a farm and farm house."—Ib., p. 118. "It is no more right to steal apples or water melons, than money."—Ib., p. 118. "The awl is a tool used by shoemakers, and harness makers."—Ib., p. 150. "Twenty five cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar."—Ib., p. 107. "The blowing up of the Fulton at New York was a terrible disaster."—Ib., p. 54. "The elders also, and the bringers up of the children, sent to Jehu."—SCOTT: 2 Kings, x, 5. "Not with eye service, as men pleasers."—Bickersteth, on Prayer, p. 64. "A good natured and equitable construction of cases."—Ash's Gram., p. 138. "And purify your hearts, ye double minded."—Gurney's Portable Evidences, p. 115. "It is a mean spirited action to steal; i. e. to steal is a mean spirited action."—Grammar of Alex. Murray, the schoolmaster, p. 124. "There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is a kin to the subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue."—Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 71. "To bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday life."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 459. "The common place, stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced."—Ib., i, 494. "She formed a very singular and unheard of project."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. "He had many vigilant, though feeble talented, and mean spirited enemies."—ROBERTS VAUX: The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 74. "These old fashioned people would level our psalmody," &c.—Music of Nature, p. 292. "This slow shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony."—Ib., p. 398. "So we are assured from Scripture it self."—Harris's Hermes, p. 300. "The mind, being disheartened, then betakes its self to trifling."—R. Johnson's Pref. to Gram. Com. "Whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them."—Beacon, p. 115: SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: John, xx, 23. "Tarry we our selves how we will."—Walker's English Particles, p. 161. "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear your self, nor want a voucher."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 33. "Whereas song never conveys any of the above named sentiments."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 424. "I go on horse back."—Guy's Gram., p. 54. "This requires purity, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or new coined words."—Adam's Gram., p. 242; Gould's, 234. "May the Plough share shine."—White's Eng. Verb, p. 161. "Which way ever we consider it."—Locke, on Ed., p. 83.

   "Where e'er the silent (e) a Place obtains,
    The Voice foregoing, Length and softness gains."
        —Brightland's Gr., p. 15.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLES.

"It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed."—Kirkham's
Gram., p. 83.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because abovenamed is here unnecessarily made a compound. But, according to Rule 2d, "When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided." Therefore, above and named should here have been written as two words.]

"After awhile they put us out among the rude multitude."—Fox's Journal. Vol. i, p. 169. "It would be ashame, if your mind should falter and give in."—Collier's Meditations of Antoninus, p. 94. "They stared awhile in silence one upon another."—Rasselas, p. 73. "After passion has for awhile exercised its tyrannical sway."—Murray's Gram., ii, 135 and 267. "Though set within the same general-frame of intonation."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 339. "Which do not carry any of the natural vocal-signs of expression."—Ib., p. 329. "The measurable constructive-powers of a few associable constituents."—Ib., p. 343. "Before each accented syllable or emphatic monosyllabic-word."—Ib., p. 364. "One should not think too favourably of oneself."—See Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 154. "Know ye not your ownselves, how that Jesus Christ is in you."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 355. "I judge not my ownself, for I know nothing of my ownself."— Wayland's Moral Science, p. 84. "Though they were in such a rage, I desired them to tarry awhile."—Josephus, Vol. v, p. 179. "A instead of an is now used before words beginning with a long."—Murray's Gram., p. 31. "John will have earned his wages the next new-year's day."—Murray's Gram., p. 82. "A new-year's-gift is a present made on the first day of the year."—See Johnson, Walker, Webster, et al. "When he sat on the throne, distributing new-year's-gifts."—STILLINGFLEET, in Johnson's Dict. "St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'- fables."—Author. "The world, take it altogether, is but one."— Collier's Antoninus, B. vii, Sec. 9. "In writings of this stamp we must accept of sound instead of sense."—Murray's Gram., p. 298. "A male-child, A female-child, Male-descendants, Female-descendants."— Goldsbury's C. S. Gram., p. 13; Rev. T. Smith's Gram., p. 15. "Male-servants, Female-servants. Male-relations, Female-relations."— Felton's Gram., p. 15.

   "Reserved and cautious, with no partial aim,
    My muse e'er sought to blast another's fame."—Lloyd, p. 162.

UNDER RULE III.—THE SENSE.

"Our discriminations of this matter have been but four footed instincts."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 291.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the term four footed is made two words, as if the instincts were four and footed. But, according to Rule 3d, "Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together, or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require." Therefore, four-footed, as it here means quadruped, or having four feet, should be one word.]

"He is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear free born men at his table."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 128. "To the short seeing eye of man, the progress may appear little."—The Friend, Vol. ix, p. 377. "Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the stepping stone to individual distinction."—Town's Analysis, p. 5. "A tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels."—Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 44. "The beams of a wood-house are held up by the posts and joists."—Ib., p. 39. "What you mean by future tense adjective, I can easily understand."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. ii, p. 450. "The town has been for several days very well behaved."—Spectator, No. 532. "A rounce is the handle of a printing press."—Webster's' Dict.; also El. Spelling-Book, p. 118. "The phraseology we call thee and thouing is not in so common use with us, as the tutoyant among the French."—Walker's Dict., w. Thy. "Hunting, and other out door sports, are generally pursued."—Balbi's Geog., p. 227. "Come unto me, all ye that labour and are heavy laden."—SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: Matt., xi, 28. "God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son to save it."—Barclay's Works, i, p. 71. See SCOTT'S BIBLE: John, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a prayer hearing God: Nineveh repented, and was spared."—N. Y. Observer, Vol. x, p. 90. "These are well pleasing to God, in all ranks and relations."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 73. "Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle."—Numb., xvii, 13. "The words coalesce, when they have a long established association."— Murray's Gram., p. 169. "Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will go in to them."—OLD BIBLE: Ps., cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of God coming into him."—See Acts, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be considered in a two fold light."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 108. "We commonly write two fold, three fold, four fold, and so on up to ten fold, without a hyphen; and, after that, we use one."—Author. See Matt., xiii, 8. "When the first mark is going off, he cries turn! the glass holder answers done!"—Bowditch's Nav., p. 128. "It is a kind of familiar shaking hands with all the vices."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 170. "She is a good natured woman;" "James is self opinionated;" "He is broken hearted."—Wright's Gram., p. 147. "These three examples apply to the present tense construction only."—Ib., p. 65. "So that it was like a game of hide and go seek."—Edward's First Lessons in Grammar, p. 90.

   "That lowliness is young ambition's ladder,
    Whereto the climber upward turns his face."—Bucke's Gram., p. 97.

UNDER RULE IV.—OF ELLIPSES.

"This building serves yet for a school and a meeting-house."

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the compound word schoolhouse is here divided to avoid a repetition of the last half. But, according to Rule 4th, "When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word." Therefore, "school" should be "schoolhouse;" thus, "This building serves yet for a schoolhouse and a meeting-house."]

"Schoolmasters and mistresses of honest friends [are] to be encouraged."—N. E. Discipline, p. xv. "We never assumed to ourselves a faith or worship-making-power."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 83. "Pot and pearl ashes are made from common ashes."—Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 69. "Both the ten and eight syllable verses are iambics."—Blair's Gram., p. 121. "I say to myself, thou, he says to thy, to his self; &c."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. ii p. 121. "Or those who have esteemed themselves skilful, have tried for the mastery in two or four horse chariots."—Zenobia, Vol. i, p. 152. "I remember him barefooted and headed, running through the streets."—Castle Rackrent, p. 68. "Friends have the entire control of the school and dwelling-houses."—The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 231. "The meeting is held at the first mentioned place in the first month, at the last in the second, and so on."—Ib., p. 167. "Meetings for worship are held at the same hour on first and fourth days."—Ib., p. 230. "Every part of it, inside and out, is covered with gold leaf."—Ib., p. 404. "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the last seventh day in second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh month."—Ib., p. 87. "Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third fifth day in each month, at ten o'clock; meetings for worship at the same hour on first and fifth days."—Ib., p. 231. "Ketch, a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-mast."—Webster's Dict., "I only mean to suggest a doubt, whether nature has enlisted herself as a Cis or Trans-Atlantic partisan?"— Jefferson's Notes, p. 97. "By large hammers, like those used for paper and fullingmills, they beat their hemp."—MORTIMER: in Johnson's Dict. "Ant-hill, or Hillock, n. s. The small protuberances of earth, in which ants make their nests."—Ib. "It became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms called pro-names or nouns."—Enclytica, p. 16.

   "Obscur'd, where highest woods, impenetrable
    To star or sun-light, spread their umbrage broad."—Milton.

UNDER RULE V.—THE HYPHEN.

"Evilthinking; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle thinking; singular number;" &c.—Churchill's Gram., p. 180.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the word evilthinking, which has more than one accented syllable, is here compounded without the hyphen. But, according to Rule 5th, "When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, or when each retains its original accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that is movable, the hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore, the hyphen should be used in this word; thus, evil-thinking.]

"Evilspeaking; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle speaking."—Ib. "I am a tall, broadshouldered, impudent, black fellow."—SPECTATOR: in Johnson's Dict. "Ingratitude! thou marblehearted fiend."—SHAK.: ib. "A popular licence is indeed the manyheaded tyranny."—SIDNEY: ib. "He from the manypeopled city flies."—SANDYS: ib. "He manylanguaged nations has surveyed."—POPE: ib. "The horsecucumber is the large green cucumber, and the best for the table."—MORTIMER: ib. "The bird of night did sit, even at noonday, upon the market-place."—SHAK.: ib. "These make a general gaoldelivery of souls, not for punishment."—SOUTH: ib. "Thy air, thou other goldbound brow, is like the first."—SHAK.: ib. "His person was deformed to the highest degree; flatnosed, and blobberlipped."—L'ESTRANGE: ib. "He that defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a bloodshedder."—ECCLUS., xxxiv, 22: ib. "Bloodyminded, adj. from bloody and mind. Cruel; inclined to blood-shed."—See Johnson's Dict. "Bluntwitted lord, ignoble in demeanour."—SHAK.: ib. "A young fellow with a bobwig and a black silken bag tied to it."—SPECTATOR: ib. "I have seen enough to confute all the boldfaced atheists of this age."—BRAMHALL: ib. "Before milkwhite, now purple with love's wound."—SHAK: ib. "For what else is a redhot iron than fire? and what else is a burning coal than redhot wood?"—NEWTON: ib. "Pollevil is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume in the horse's poll, or nape of the neck just between the ears."—FARRIER: ib.

   "Quick-witted, brazenfac'd, with fluent tongues,
    Patient of labours, and dissembling wrongs."—DRYDEN: ib.

UNDER RULE VI.—NO HYPHEN.

"From his fond parent's eye a tear-drop fell."—Snelling's Gift for
Scribblers, p. 43.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the word tear-drop, which has never any other than a full accent on the first syllable, is here compounded with the hyphen. But, according to Rule 6th, "When a compound has but one accented syllable in pronunciation, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them." Therefore, teardrop should be made a close compound.]

"How great, poor jack-daw, would thy sufferings be!"—Ib., p. 29. "Placed like a scare-crow in a field of corn."—Ib., p. 39. "Soup for the alms-house at a cent a quart."—Ib., p. 23. "Up into the watch-tower get, and see all things despoiled of fallacies."—DONNE: Johnson's Dict., w. Lattice. "In the day-time she sitteth in a watchtower, and flieth most by night."—BACON: ib., w. Watchtower. "In the daytime Fame sitteth in a watch-tower, and flieth most by night."—ID.: ib., w. Daytime. "The moral is the first business of the poet, as being the ground-work of his instruction."—DRYDEN: ib., w. Moral. "Madam's own hand the mouse-trap baited."—PRIOR: ib., w. Mouse-trap. "By the sinking of the air-shaft the air hath liberty to circulate."—RAY: ib., w. Airshaft. "The multiform and amazing operations of the air-pump and the loadstone."—WATTS: ib., w. Multiform. "Many of the fire-arms are named from animals."—Ib., w. Musket. "You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an eel-skin."—SHAK.: ib., w. Truss. "They may serve as land-marks to shew what lies in the direct way of truth."—LOCKE: ib., w. Landmark. "A pack-horse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road."—Id. ib., w. Lane. "A mill-horse, still bound to go in one circle."—SIDNEY: ib., w. Mill-horse. "Of singing birds they have linnets, goldfinches, ruddocks, Canary-birds, black-birds, thrushes, and divers others."—CAREW: ib., w. Goldfinch. "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, blackbirds, thrushes, and divers others."—ID.: ib., w. Blackbird. "Of singing birds, they have linnets, gold-finches, ruddocks, canary birds, blackbirds, thrushes, and divers other."—ID.: ib., w. Canary bird. "Cartrage, or Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with gun-powder."—Johnson's Dict., 4to.

   "Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,
    The time of night when Troy was set on fire,
    The tune when screech-owls cry, and ban-dogs howl."
             SHAKSPEARE: ib., w. Silent.

    "The time when screech-owls cry, and bandogs howl."
             IDEM.: ib., w. Bandog.

PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN THE FIGURE OF WORDS.

LESSON I.—MIXED.

"They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones."—Old Adage. "If a man profess Christianity in any manner or form soever."—Watts, p. 5. "For Cassius is a weary of the world."—SHAKSPEARE: in Kirkham's Elocution, p. 67. "By the coming together of more, the chains were fastened on."—Walker's Particles, p. 223. "Unto the carrying away of Jerusalem captive in the fifth month."—Jer., i, 3. "And the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad."—Numbers, xxxiv, 8. "And the goings out of it shall be at Hazar-enan."—Ib., ver. 9. "For the taking place of effects, in a certain particular series."—Dr. West, on Agency, p. 39. "The letting go of which was the occasion of all that corruption."—Dr. J. Owen. "A falling off at the end always hurts greatly."—Blair's Lect., p. 126. "A falling off at the end is always injurious."—Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 127. "As all holdings forth were courteously supposed to be trains of reasoning."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 333. "Whose goings forth have been from of old, from everlasting."— Micah, v, 2. "Some times the adjective becomes a substantive."— Bradley's Gram., p. 104. "It is very plain, I consider man as visited a new."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 331. "Nor do I any where say, as he falsely insinuates."—Ib., p. 331. "Every where, any where, some where, no where."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 55. "The world hurries off a pace, and time is like a rapid river."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 58. "But to now model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 102. "The south east winds from the ocean invariably produce rain."—Webster's Essays, p. 369. "North west winds from the high lands produce cold clear weather."—Ib. "The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to English men."—Priestley's Gram., p. 155. "The ground floor of the east wing of Mulberry street meeting house was filled."—The Friend, vii, 232. "Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made at the glass houses."—Red Book, p. 131.

   "The lights and shades, whose well accorded strife
    Gives all the strength and colour of our life."
        —Murray's Gram., p. 54; Fisk's, 65.

LESSON II.—MIXED.

"In the twenty and seventh year of Asa king of Judah did Zimri reign seven days in Tirzah."—1 Kings, xvi, 15. "In the thirty and first year of Asa king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel."—Ib., xvi, 23. "He cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule of three sum."—Foreign Quarterly Review. "The best cod are those known under the name of Isle of Shoals dun fish."—Balbi's Geog., p. 26. "The soldiers, with down cast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 142. "His head was covered with a coarse worn out piece of cloth."—Ib., p. 124. "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand heavy armed Spartans."—Ib., p. 38. "But he laid them by unopened; and, with a smile, said, 'Business to morrow.'"—Ib., p. 7. "Chester monthly meeting is held at Moore's town, the third day following the second second day."—The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 124. "Eggharbour monthly meeting is held the first second day."—Ib., p. 124. "Little Egg Harbour Monthly Meeting is held at Tuckerton on the second fifth day in each month."—Ib., p. 231. "At three o'clock, on first day morning the 24th of eleventh month, 1834," &c.—Ib., p. 64. "In less than one-fourth part of the time usually devoted."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 4. "The pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much."—Ib., p. 11. "The painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage."—Ib., p. 28. "In an ancient English version of the New-Testament."—Ib., p. 74. "The little boy was bare headed."—Red Book, p. 36. "The man, being a little short sighted, did not immediately know him."—Ib., p. 40. "Picture frames are gilt with gold."—Ib., p. 44. "The park keeper killed one of the deer."—Ib., p. 44. "The fox was killed near the brick kiln."—Ib., p. 46. "Here comes Esther, with her milk pail."—Ib., p. 50. "The cabinet maker would not tell us."—Ib., p. 60. "A fine thorn hedge extended along the edge of the hill."—Ib., p. 65. "If their private interests should be ever so little affected."—Ib., p. 73. "Unios are fresh water shells, vulgarly called fresh water clams."—Ib., p. 102.

   "Did not each poet mourn his luckless doom,
    Jostled by pedants out of elbow room."—Lloyd, p. 163.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"The captive hovers a-while upon the sad remains."—PRIOR: in Johnson's Dict., w. Hover. "Constantia saw that the hand writing agreed with the contents of the letter."—ADDISON: ib., w. Hand. "They have put me in a silk night-gown, and a gaudy fool's cap."—ID.: ib., w. Nightgown. "Have you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has saved that clod-pated, numskull'd ninnyhammer of yours from ruin, and all his family?"—ARBUTHNOT: ib., w. Ninnyhammer. "A noble, that is, six, shillings and eightpence, is, and usually hath been paid."—BACON: ib., w. Noble. "The king of birds thick feather'd and with full-summed wings, fastened his talons east and west."—HOWELL: ib., w. Full-summed. "To morrow. This is an idiom of the same kind, supposing morrow to mean originally morning: as, to night, to day."—Johnson's Dict., 4to. "To-day goes away and to-morrow comes."—Id., ib., w. Go, No. 70. "Young children, who are try'd in Go carts, to keep their steps from sliding."—PRIOR: ib., w. Go-cart. "Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but goers backward."—SHAK.: ib., w. Goer. "Heaven's golden winged herald late he saw, to a poor Galilean virgin sent."—CRASHAW: ib., w. Golden. "My penthouse eye-brows and my shaggy beard offend your sight."—DRYDEN: ib., w. Penthouse. "The hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horse-flesh."— L'ESTRANGE: ib., w. Nag. "A broad brimmed hat ensconced each careful head."—Snelling's Gift, p. 63. "With harsh vibrations of his three stringed lute."—Ib., p. 42. "They magnify a hundred fold an author's merit."—Ib., p. 14. "I'll nail them fast to some oft opened door."—Ib., p. 10. "Glossed over only with a saint-like show, still thou art bound to vice."—DRYDEN: in Johnson's Dict., w. Gloss. "Take of aqua-fortis two ounces, of quick-silver two drachms."—BACON: ib., w. Charge. "This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the sun-shine."—NEWTON: ib., w. Rainbow.

   "Not but there are, who merit other palms;
    Hopkins and Stern hold glad the heart with Psalms."
                       British Poets, Lond., 1800, Vol. vi, p. 405.

CHAPTER IV.—OF SPELLING.

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters. This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling-book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of written rules; because what is proper or improper, depends chiefly upon usage.

The orthography of our language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as are spelled with uniformity, and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful.

The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of service to those who wish to be accurate.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

RULE I.—FINAL F, L, OR S.

Monosyllables ending in f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant; as staff, mill, pass—muff, knell, gloss—off, hiss, puss.

EXCEPTIONS.—The words clef, if, and of, are written with single f; and as, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, us, pus, and thus, with single s. So bul, for the flounder; nul, for no, in law; sol, for sou or sun; and sal, for salt, in chemistry, have but the single l.

OBS.—Because sal, salis, in Latin, doubles not the l, the chemists write salify, salifiable, salification, saliferous, saline, salinous, saliniform, salifying, &c., with single l, contrary to Rule 3d. But in gas they ought to double the s; for this is a word of their own inventing. Neither have they any plea for allowing it to form gases and gaseous with the s still single; for so they make it violate two general rules at once. If the singular cannot now be written gass, the plural should nevertheless be gasses, and the adjective should be gasseous, according to Rule 3d.

RULE II.—OTHER FINALS.

Words ending in any other consonant than f, l, or s, do not double the final letter; as, mob, nod, dog, sum, sun, cup, cur, cut, fix, whiz.

EXCEPTIONS.—We double the consonant in abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, jagg, ragg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr, and some proper names. But we have also ab (from) and ad (to) for prefixes; and jag, rag, in, bur, and but, are other words that conform to the rule.

RULE III.—DOUBLING.

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel: as, rob, robbed, robber; fop, foppish, foppery; squat, squatter, squatting; thin, thinner, thinnest; swim, swimmer, swimming; commit, committeth, committing, committed, committer, committees; acquit, acquittal, acquittance, acquitted, acquitting, acquitteth.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled: thus, from mix, we have mixed, mixing, and mixer. 2. When the derivative retains not the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always doubled: as, prefer', pref'erence, pref'erable; refer', ref'erence, ref'erable, or refer'rible; infer', in'ference, in'ferable, or infer'rible; transfer', a trans'fer, trans'ferable, or transfer'rible. 3. But letters doubled in Latin, are usually doubled in English, without regard to accent, or to any other principle: as, Britain, Britan'nic, Britannia; appeal, appel'lant; argil, argil'laus, argilla'ceous; cavil, cav'illous, cavilla'tion; excel', ex'cellent, ex'cellence; inflame', inflam'mable, inflamma'tion. See Observations 13 and 14, p. 199.

RULE IV.—NO DOUBLING.

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable: as, toil, toiling; oil, oily; visit, visited; differ, differing; peril, perilous; viol, violist; real, realize, realist; dial, dialing, dialist; equal, equalize, equality; vitriol, vitriolic, vitriolate.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. The final l of words ending in el, must be doubled before an other vowel, lest the power of the e be mistaken, and a syllable be lost: as, travel, traveller; duel, duellist; revel, revelling; gravel, gravelly; marvel, marvellous. Yet the word parallel, having three Ells already, conforms to the rule in forming its derivatives; as, paralleling, paralleled, and unparalleled. 2. Contrary to the preceding rule, the preterits, participles, and derivative nouns, of the few verbs ending in al, il, or ol, unaccented,—namely, equal, rival, vial, marshal, victual, cavil, pencil, carol, gambol, and pistol,—are usually allowed to double the l, though some dissent from the practice: as, equalled, equalling; rivalled, rivalling; cavilled, cavilling, caviller; carolled, carolling, caroller. 3. When ly follows l, we have two Ells of course, but in fact no doubling: as, real, really; oral, orally; cruel, cruelly; civil, civilly; cool, coolly; wool, woolly. 4. Compounds, though they often remove the principal accent from the point of duplication, always retain the double letter: as, wit'snapper, kid'napper,[114] grass'hopper, duck'-legged, spur'galled, hot'spurred, broad'-brimmed, hare'-lipped, half-witted. So, compromitted and manumitted; but benefited is different.

RULE V.—FINAL CK.

Monosyllables and English verbs end not with c, but take ck for double c; as, rack, wreck, rock, attack: but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the k, and common use discards it; as, Italic, maniac, music, public.

EXCEPTIONS.—The words arc, part of a circle; orc, the name of a fish; lac, a gum or resin; and sac, or soc, a privilege, in old English law, are ended with c only. Zinc is, perhaps, better spelled zink; marc, mark; disc, disk; and talc, talck.

RULE VI.—RETAINING.

Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination, not beginning with the same letter;[115] as in the following derivatives: wooer, seeing, blissful, oddly, gruffly, equally, shelly, hilly, stiffness, illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness, smallness, drollness, freeness, grassless, passless, carelessness, recklessness, embarrassment, enfeoffment, agreement, agreeable.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. Certain irregular derivatives in d or t, from verbs ending in ee, ll, or ss, (as fled from flee, sold from sell, told from tell, dwelt from dwell, spelt from spell, spilt from spill, shalt from shall, wilt from will, blest from bless, past from pass,) are exceptions to the foregoing rule. 2. If the word pontiff is properly spelled with two Effs, its eight derivatives are also exceptions to this rule; for they are severally spelled with one; as, pontific, pontifical, pontificate, &c. 3. The words skillful, skillfully, willful, willfully, chillness, tallness, dullness, and fullness, have generally been allowed to drop the second l, though all of them might well be made to conform to the general rule, agreeably to the orthography of Webster.

RULE VII.—RETAINING.

Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes: as, see, foresee; feoff, enfeoff; pass, repass; press, depress; miss, amiss; call, recall; stall, forestall; thrall, inthrall; spell, misspell; tell, foretell; sell, undersell; add, superadd; snuff, besnuff; swell, overswell.

OBSERVATION.—The words enroll, unroll, miscall, befall, befell, bethrall, reinstall, disinthrall, fulfill, and twibill, are very commonly written with one l, and made exceptions to this rule; but those authors are in the right who retain the double letter.

RULE VIII.—FINAL LL.

Final ll is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in l, must be terminated with a single l: as, cabal, logical, appal, excel, rebel, refel, dispel, extol, control, mogul, jackal, rascal, damsel, handsel, tinsel, tendril, tranquil, gambol, consul.

OBSERVATION.—The words annul, until, distil, extil, and instil, are also properly spelled with one l; for the monosyllables null, till, and still are not really their roots, but rather derivatives, or contractions of later growth. Webster, however, prefers distill, extill, and instill with ll; and some have been disposed to add the other two.

RULE IX.—FINAL E.

The final e of a primitive word, when this letter is mute or obscure, is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel: as, remove, removal; rate, ratable; force, forcible; true, truism; rave, raving; sue, suing; eye, eying; idle, idling; centre, centring.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g: as, trace, traceable; change, changeable; outrage, outrageous. 2. So, from shoe, we write shoeing, to preserve the sound of the root; from hoe, hoeing, by apparent analogy; and, from singe, singeing; from swinge, swingeing; from tinge, tingeing; that they may not be confounded with singing, swinging, and tinging. 3. To compounds and prefixes, as firearms, forearm, anteact, viceagent, the rule does not apply; and final ee remains double, by Rule 6th, as in disagreeable, disagreeing.

RULE X.—FINAL E.

The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant: as, pale, paleness; edge, edgeless; judge, judgeship; lodge, lodgement; change, changeful; infringe, infringement.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted; as in duly, truly, awful, argument; but much more frequently retained; as in dueness, trueness, blueness, bluely, rueful, dueful, shoeless, eyeless. 2. The word wholly is also an exception to the rule, for nobody writes it wholely. 3. Some will have judgment, abridgment, and acknowledgment, to be irreclaimable exceptions; but I write them with the e, upon the authority of Lowth, Beattie, Ainsworth, Walker, Cobb, Chalmers, and others: the French "jugement," judgement, always retains the e.

RULE XI—FINAL Y.

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into i before an additional termination: as, merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable; contrary, contrariness, contrarily.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. This rule applies to derivatives, but not to compounds: thus, we write merciful, and mercy-seat; penniless, and pennyworth; scurviness, and scurvy-grass; &c. But ladyship and goodyship, being unlike secretariship and suretiship; handicraft and handiwork,[116] unlike handygripe and handystroke; babyship and babyhood, unlike stateliness and likelihood; the distinction between derivatives and compounds, we see, is too nice a point to have been always accurately observed. 2. Before ing or ish, the y is retained to prevent the doubling of i: as, pity, pitying; baby, babyish. 3. Words ending in ie, dropping the e by Rule 9th, change the i into y, for the same reason: as, die, dying; vie, vying; lie, lying.

RULE XII—FINAL Y.

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i before any additional termination: as, day, days; key, keys; guy, guys; valley, valleys; coy, coyly; cloy, cloys, cloyed; boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy, annoyer, annoyance; joy, joyless, joyful.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. From lay, pay, say, and stay, are formed laid, paid, said, and staid; but the regular words, layed, payed, stayed, are sometimes used. 2. Raiment, contracted from arrayment, is never written with the y. 3. Daily is more common than the regular form dayly; but gayly, gayety, and gayness, are justly superseding gaily and gaiety.

RULE XIII.—IZE AND ISE.

Words ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take the z in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination; and the s in monosyllables, and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes: as, gormandise, apologize, brutalize, canonize, pilgrimize, philosophize, cauterize, anathematize, sympathize, disorganize, with z;[117] rise, arise, disguise, advise, devise, supervise, circumcise, despise, surmise, surprise, comprise, compromise, enterprise, presurmise, with s.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. Advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise,[118] exercise, exorcise, and merchandise, are most commonly written with s and size, assize, capsize, analyze, overprize, detonize, and recognize, with z. How many of them are real exceptions to the rule, it is difficult to say. 2. Prise, a thing taken, and prize, to esteem; apprise, to inform, and apprize, to value, or appraise, are often written either way, without this distinction of meaning, which some wish to establish. 3. The want of the foregoing rule has also made many words variable, which ought, unquestionably, to conform to the general principle.

RULE XIV.—COMPOUNDS.

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them: as, wherein, horseman, uphill, shellfish, knee-deep, kneedgrass, kneading-trough, innkeeper, skylight, plumtree, mandrill.

EXCEPTIONS.—1. In permanent compounds, or in any derivatives of which, they are not the roots, the words full and all drop one l; as, handful, careful, fulfil, always, although, withal; in temporary compounds, they retain both; as, full-eyed, chock-full,[119] all-wise, save-all. 2. So the prefix mis, (if from miss, to err,) drops one s; but it is wrong to drop them both, as in Johnson's "mispell" and "mispend," for misspell and misspend. 3. In the names of days, the word mass also drops one s; as, Christmas, Candlemas, Lammas. 4. The possessive case often drops the apostrophe; as in herdsman, kitesfoot. 5. One letter is dropped, if three of the same kind come together: as, Rosshire, chaffinch; or else a hyphen is used: as, Ross-shire, ill-looking, still-life. 6. Chilblain, welcome, and welfare, drop one l. 7. Pastime drops an s. 8. Shepherd, wherever, and whosever, drop an e; and wherefore and therefore assume one.

RULE XV.—USAGE.

Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned: as, "The brewer grinds his malt before he brues his beer."—Red Book, p. 38.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The foregoing rules aim at no wild and impracticable reformation of our orthography; but, if carefully applied, they will do much to obviate its chief difficulties. Being made variable by the ignorance of some writers and the caprice of others, our spelling is now, and always has been, exceedingly irregular and unsettled. Uniformity and consistency can be attained in no other way, than by the steady application of rules and principles; and these must be made as few and as general as the case will admit, that the memory of the learner may not be overmatched by their number or complexity. Rules founded on the analogy of similar words, and sanctioned by the usage of careful writers, must be taken as our guides; because common practice is often found to be capricious, contradictory, and uncertain. That errors and inconsistencies abound, even in the books which are proposed to the world as standards of English orthography, is a position which scarcely needs proof. It is true, to a greater or less extent, of all the spelling-books and dictionaries that I have seen, and probably of all that have ever been published. And as all authors are liable to mistakes, which others may copy, general rules should have more weight than particular examples to the contrary. "The right spelling of a word may be said to be that which agrees the best with its pronunciation, its etymology, and with the analogy of the particular class of words to which it belongs."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 647.

OBS. 2.—I do not deny that great respect is due to the authority of our lexicographers, or that great improvement was made in the orthography of our language when Dr. Johnson put his hand to the work. But sometimes one man's authority may offset an other's; and he that is inconsistent with himself, destroys his own: for, surely, his example cannot be paramount to his principles. Much has been idly said, both for and against the adoption of Johnson's Dictionary, or Webster's, as the criterion of what is right or wrong in spelling; but it would seem that no one man's learning is sufficiently extensive, or his memory sufficiently accurate, to be solely relied on to furnish a standard by which we may in all cases be governed. Johnson was generally right; but, like other men, he was sometimes wrong. He erred sometimes in his principles, or in their application; as when he adopted the k in such words as rhetorick, and demoniack; or when he inserted the u in such words as governour, warriour, superiour. Neither of these modes of spelling was ever generally adopted, in any thing like the number of words to which he applied them; or ever will be; though some indiscreet compilers are still zealously endeavouring to impose them upon the public, as the true way of spelling. He also erred sometimes by accident, or oversight; as when he spelled thus: "recall and miscal, inthrall and bethral, windfall and downfal, laystall and thumbstal, waterfall and overfal, molehill and dunghil, windmill and twibil, uphill and downhil." This occasional excision of the letter l is reprehensible, because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are necessary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the compound. Walker censures it as a "ridiculous irregularity," and lays the blame of it on the "printers," and yet does not venture to correct it! See Johnson's Dictionary, first American edition, quarto; Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, under the word Dunghil; and his Rhyming Dictionary, Introd., p. xv.

OBS. 3.—"Dr. Johnson's Dictionary" has been represented by some as having "nearly fixed the external form of our language." But Murray, who quotes this from Dr. Nares, admits, at the same time, that, "The orthography of a great number of English words, is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction."—Gram., p. 25. And, after commending this work of Johnson's, as A STANDARD, from which, "it is earnestly to be hoped, that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to innovate," he adds, "This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical inconsistencies which ought to be rectified: such as, immovable, moveable; chastely, chastness; fertileness, fertily; sliness, slyly; fearlessly, fearlesness; needlessness, needlesly."—Ib. In respect to the final ck and our, he also intentionally departs from THE STANDARD which he thus commends; preferring, in that, the authority of Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, from which he borrowed his rules for spelling. For, against the use of k at the end of words from the learned languages, and against the u in many words in which Johnson used it, we have the authority, not only of general usage now, but of many grammarians who were contemporary with Johnson, and of more than a dozen lexicographers, ancient or modern, among whom is Walker himself. In this, therefore, Murray's practice is right, and his commended standard dictionary, wrong.

OBS. 4.—Of words ending in or or our, we have about three hundred and twenty; of which not more than forty can now with any propriety be written with the latter termination. Aiming to write according to the best usage of the present day, I insert the u in so many of these words as now seem most familiar to the eye when so written; but I have no partiality for any letters that can well be spared; and if this book should ever, by any good fortune, happen to be reprinted, after honour, labour, favour, behaviour, and endeavour, shall have become as unfashionable as authour, errour, terrour, and emperour, are now, let the proof-reader strike out the useless letter not only from these words, but from all others which shall bear an equally antiquated appearance.

OBS. 5.—I have suggested the above-mentioned imperfections in Dr. Johnson's orthography, merely to justify the liberty which I take of spelling otherwise; and not with any view to give a preference to that of Dr. Webster, who is now contending for the honour of having furnished a more correct standard. For the latter author, though right in some things in which the former was wrong, is, on the whole, still more erroneous and inconsistent. In his various attempts at reformation in our orthography, he has spelled many hundreds of words in such a variety of ways, that he knows not at last which of them is right, and which are wrong. But in respect to definitions, he has done good service to our literature; nor have his critics been sufficiently just respecting what they call his "innovations." See Cobb's Critical Review of the Orthography of Webster. To omit the k from such words as publick, or the u from such as superiour, is certainly no innovation; it is but ignorance that censures the general practice, under that name. The advocates for Johnson and opponents of Webster, who are now so zealously stickling for the k and the u in these cases, ought to know that they are contending for what was obsolete, or obsolescent, when Dr. Johnson was a boy.

OBS. 6.—I have before observed that some of the grammarians who were contemporary with Johnson, did not adopt his practice respecting the k or the u, in publick, critick, errour, superiour, &c. And indeed I am not sure there were any who did. Dr. Johnson was born in 1709, and he died in 1784. But Brightland's Grammar, which was written during the reign of Queen Anne, who died in 1714, in treating of the letter C, says, "If in any Word the harder Sound precedes (e), (i), or (y), (k) is either added or put in its Place; as, Skill, Skin, Publick: And tho' the additional (k) in the foregoing Word be an old Way of Spelling, yet it is now very justly left off, as being a superfluous Letter; for (c) at the End is always hard."—Seventh Edition, Lond., 1746, p. 37.

OBS. 7.—The three grammars of Ash, Priestley, and Lowth, all appeared, in their first editions, about one time; all, if I mistake not, in the year 1763; and none of these learned doctors, it would seem, used the mode of spelling now in question. In Ash, of 1799, we have such orthography as this: "Italics, public, domestic, our traffic, music, quick; error, superior, warrior, authors, honour, humour, favour, behaviour." In Priestley, of 1772: "Iambics, dactyls, dactylic, anapæstic, monosyllabic, electric, public, critic; author, emperor's, superior; favour, labours, neighbours, laboured, vigour, endeavour; meagre, hillock, bailiwick, bishoprick, control, travelling." In Lowth, of 1799: "Comic, critic, characteristic, domestic; author, favor, favored, endeavored, alledging, foretells." Now all these are words in the spelling of which Johnson and Webster contradict each other; and if they are not all right, surely they would not, on the whole, be made more nearly right, by being conformed to either of these authorities exclusively. For THE BEST USAGE is the ultimate rule of grammar.

OBS. 8.—The old British Grammar, written before the American Revolution, and even before "the learned Mr. Samuel Johnson" was doctorated, though it thus respectfully quotes that great scholar, does not follow him in the spelling of which I am treating. On the contrary, it abounds with examples of words ending in ic and or, and not in ick and our, as he wrote them; and I am confident, that, from that time to this, the former orthography has continued to be more common than his. Walker, the orthoëpist, who died in 1807, yielded the point respecting the k, and ended about four hundred and fifty words with c in his Rhyming Dictionary; but he thought it more of an innovation than it really was. In his Pronouncing Dictionary, he says, "It has been a custom, within these twenty years, to omit the k at the end of words, when preceded by c. This has introduced a novelty into the language, which is that of ending a word with an unusual letter," &c. "This omission of k is, however, too general to be counteracted, even by the authority of Johnson; but it is to be hoped it will be confined to words from the learned languages."— Walker's Principles of Pronunciation, No. 400. The tenth edition of Burn's Grammar, dated 1810, says, "It has become customary to omit k after c at the end of dissyllables and trisyllables, &c. as music, arithmetic, logic; but the k is retained in monosyllables; as, back, deck, rick, &c."—P. 25. James Buchanan, of whose English Syntax there had been five American editions in 1792, added no k to such words as didactic, critic, classic, of which he made frequent use; and though he wrote honour, labour, and the like, with u, as they are perhaps most generally written now, he inserted no u in error, author, or any of those words in which that letter would now be inconsistent with good taste.

OBS. 9.—Bicknell's Grammar, of 1790, treating of the letter k, says, "And for the same reason we have dropt it at the end of words after c, which is there always hard; as in publick, logick, &c. which are more elegantly written public, logic."—Part ii, p. 13. Again: "It has heretofore joined with c at the end of words; as publick, logick; but, as before observed, being there quite superfluous, it is now left out"—Ib., p. 16. Horne Tooke's orthography was also agreeable to the rule which I have given on this subject. So is the usage of David Booth: "Formerly a k was added, as, rustick, politick, Arithmetick, &c. but this is now in disuse."—Booth's Introd. to Dict., Lond., 1814, p. 80.

OBS. 10.—As the authors of many recent spelling-books—Cobb, Emerson, Burhans, Bolles, Sears, Marshall, Mott, and others—are now contending for this "superfluous letter," in spite of all the authority against it, it seems proper briefly to notice their argument, lest the student be misled by it. It is summed up by one of them in the following words: "In regard to k after c at the end of words, it may be sufficient to say, that its omission has never been attempted, except in a small portion of the cases where it occurs; and that it tends to an erroneous pronunciation of derivatives, as in mimick, mimicking, where, if the k were omitted, it would read mimicing; and as c before i is always sounded like s, it must be pronounced mimising. Now, since it is never omitted in monosyllables, where it most frequently occurs, as in block, clock, &c., and can be in a part only of polysyllables, it is thought better to preserve it in all cases, by which we have one general rule, in place of several irregularities and exceptions that must follow its partial omission."—Bolles's Spelling-Book, p. 2. I need not tell the reader that these two sentences evince great want of care or skill in the art of grammar. But it is proper to inform him, that we have in our language eighty-six monosyllables which end with ck, and from them about fifty compounds or derivatives, which of course keep the same termination. To these may be added a dozen or more which seem to be of doubtful formation, such as huckaback, pickapack, gimcrack, ticktack, picknick, barrack, knapsack, hollyhock, shamrock, hammock, hillock, hammock, bullock, roebuck. But the verbs on which this argument is founded are only six; attack, ransack, traffick, frolick, mimick, and physick; and these, unquestionably, must either be spelled with the k, or must assume it in their derivatives. Now that useful class of words which are generally and properly written with final c, are about four hundred and fifty in number, and are all of them either adjectives or nouns of regular derivation from the learned languages, being words of more than one syllable, which have come to us from Greek or Latin roots. But what has the doubling of c by k, in our native monosyllables and their derivatives, to do with all these words of foreign origin? For the reason of the matter, we might as well double the l, as our ancestors did, in naturall, temporall, spirituall, &c.

OBS. 11.—The learner should observe that some letters incline much to a duplication, while gome others are doubled but seldom, and some, never. Thus, among the vowels, ee and oo occur frequently; aa is used sometimes; ii, never—except in certain Latin words, (wherein the vowels are separately uttered,) such as Horatii, Veii, iidem, genii. Again, the doubling of u is precluded by the fact that we have a distinct letter called Double-u, which was made by joining two Vees, or two Ues, when the form for u was v. So, among the consonants, f, l, and s, incline more to duplication, than any others. These letters are double, not only at the end of those monosyllables which have but one vowel, as staff, mill, pass; but also under some other circumstances. According to general usage, final f is doubled after a single vowel, in almost all cases; as in bailiff, caitiff, plaintiff, midriff, sheriff, tariff, mastiff: yet not in calif, which is perhaps better written caliph. Final l, as may be seen by Rule 8th, admits not now of a duplication like this; but, by the exceptions to Rule 4th, it is frequently doubled when no other consonant would be; as in travelling, grovelling; unless, (contrary to the opinion of Lowth, Walker, and Webster,) we will have fillipping, gossipping, and worshipping, to be needful exceptions also.

OBS. 12.—Final s sometimes occurs single, as in alas, atlas, bias; and especially in Latin words, as virus, impetus; and when it is added to form plurals, as verse, verses: but this letter, too, is generally doubled at the end of primitive words of more than one syllable; as in carcass, compass, cuirass, harass, trespass, embarrass. On the contrary, the other consonants are seldom doubled, except when they come under Rule 3d. The letter p, however, is commonly doubled, in some words, even when it forms a needless exception to Rule 4th; as in the derivatives from fillip, gossip, and perhaps also worship. This letter, too, was very frequently doubled in Greek; whence we have, from the name of Philip of Macedon, the words Philippic and Philippize, which, if spelled according to our rule for such derivatives, would, like galloped and galloper, siruped and sirupy, have but one p. We find them so written in some late dictionaries. But if fillipped, gossipped, and worshipped, with the other derivatives from the same roots, are just and necessary exceptions to Rule 4th, (which I do not admit,) so are these; and for a much stronger reason, as the classical scholar will think. In our language, or in words purely English, the letters h, i, j, k, q, v, w, x, and y, are, properly speaking, never doubled. Yet, in the forming of compounds, it may possibly happen, that two Aitches, two Kays, or even two Double-ues or Wies, shall come together; as in withhold, brickkiln, slowwoorm, bayyarn.

OBS. 13.—There are some words—as those which come from metal, medal, coral, crystal, argil, axil, cavil, tranquil, pupil, papil—in which the classical scholar is apt to violate the analogy of English derivation, by doubling the letter l, because he remembers the ll of their foreign roots, or their foreign correspondents. But let him also remember, that, if a knowledge of etymology may be shown by spelling metallic, metalliferous, metallography, metallurgic, metallurgist, metallurgy, medallic, medallion, crystallize, crystalline, argillous, argillaceous, axillar, axillary, cavillous, cavillation, papillate, papillous, papillary, tranquillity, and pupillary, with double l, ignorance of it must needs be implied in spelling metaline, metalist, metaloid, metaloidal, medalist, coralaceous, coraline, coralite, coralinite, coraloid, coraloidal, crystalite, argilite, argilitic, tranquilize, and pupilage, in like manner. But we cannot well double the l in the former, and not in the latter words. Here is a choice of difficulties. Etymology must govern orthography. But what etymology? our own, or that which is foreign? If we say, both, they disagree; and the mere English scholar cannot know when, or how far, to be guided by the latter. If a Latin diminutive, as papilla from papula or papa, pupillus from pupus, or tranquillus from trans and quietus, happen to double an l, must we forever cling to the reduplication, and that, in spite of our own rules to the contrary? Why is it more objectionable to change pupillaris to pupilary, than pupillus to pupil? or, to change tranquillitas to tranquility, than tranquillus to tranquil? And since papilous, pupilage, and tranquilize are formed from the English words, and not directly from the Latin, why is it not as improper to write them with double l, as to write perilous, vassalage, and civilize, in the same manner?

OBS. 14.—If the practice of the learned would allow us to follow the English rule here, I should incline to the opinion, that all the words which I have mentioned above, ought to be written with single l. Ainsworth exhibits the Latin word for coral in four forms, and the Greek word in three. Two of the Latin and two of the Greek have the l single; the others double it. He also spells "coraliticus" with one l, and defines it "A sort of white marble, called coraline." [120] The Spaniards, from whose medalla, we have medal; whose argil[121] is arcilla, from the Latin argilla; and to whose cavilar, Webster traces cavil; in all their derivatives from these Latin roots, metallum, metal—coralium, corallium, curalium, or corallum, coral—crystallus or crystallum, crystal—pupillus, pupil—and tranquillus, tranquil—follow their own rules, and write mostly with single l: as, pupilero, a teacher; metalico, metalic; corolina (fem.) coraline; cristalino, crystaline; crystalizar, crystalize; traquilizar, tranquilize; and tranquilidad, tranquility. And if we follow not ours, when or how shall the English scholar ever know why we spell as we do? For example, what can he make of the orthography of the following words, which I copy from our best dictionaries: equip', eq'uipage; wor'ship, wor'shipper;—peril, perilous; cavil, cavillous;[122]—libel, libellous; quarrel, quarrelous;—opal, opaline; metal, metalline;[123]—coral, coralliform; crystal, crystalform;—dial, dialist; medal, medallist;—rascal, rascalion; medal, medallion;—moral, moralist, morality; metal, metallist, metallurgy;—civil, civilize, civility; tranquil, tranquillize, tranquillity;—novel, novelism, novelist, novelize; grovel, grovelling, grovelled, groveller?

OBS. 15.—The second clause of Murray's or Walker's 5th Rule for spelling, gives only a single l to each of the derivatives above named.[124] But it also treats in like manner many hundreds of words in which the l must certainly be doubled. And, as neither "the Compiler," nor any of his copiers, have paid any regard to their own principle, neither their doctrine nor their practice can be of much weight either way. Yet it is important to know to what words the rule is, or is not, applicable. In considering this vexatious question about the duplication of l, I was at first inclined to admit that, whenever final l has become single in English by dropping the second l of a foreign root, the word shall resume the ll in all derivatives formed from it by adding a termination beginning with a vowel; as, beryllus, beryl, berylline. This would, of course, double the l in nearly all the derivatives from metal, medal, &c. But what says Custom? She constantly doubles the l in most of them; but wavers in respect to some, and in a few will have it single. Hence the difficulty of drawing a line by which we may abide without censure. Pu'pillage and pu'pillary, with ll, are according to Walker's Rhyming Dictionary; but Johnson spells them pu'pilage and pu'pilary, with single l; and Walker, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, has pupilage with one l, and pupillary with two. Again: both Johnson's and the Pronouncing Dictionary, give us medallist and metallist with ll, and are sustained by Webster and others; but Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary, writes them medalist and metalist, with single l, like dialist, formalist, cabalist, herbalist, and twenty other such words. Further: Webster doubles the l in all the derivatives of metal, medal, coral, axil, argil, and papil; but writes it single in all those of crystal, cavil, pupil, and tranquil—except tranquillity.

OBS. 16.—Dr. Webster also attempts, or pretends, to put in practice the hasty proposition of Walker, to spell with single l all derivatives from words ending in l not under the accent. "No letter," says Walker, "seems to be more frequently doubled improperly than l. Why we should write libelling, levelling, revelling, and yet offering, suffering, reasoning, I am totally at a loss to determine; and, unless l can give a better plea than any other letter in the alphabet, for being doubled in this situation, I must, in the style of Lucian, in his trial of the letter T, declare for an expulsion."—Rhyming Dict., p. x. This rash conception, being adopted by some men of still less caution, has wrought great mischief in our orthography. With respect to words ending in el, it is a good and sufficient reason for doubling the l, that the e may otherwise be supposed servile and silent. I have therefore made this termination a general exception to the rule against doubling. Besides, a large number of these words, being derived from foreign words in which the l was doubled, have a second reason for the duplication, as strong as that which has often induced these same authors to double that letter, as noticed above. Such are bordel, chapel, duel, fardel, gabel, gospel, gravel, lamel, label, libel, marvel, model, novel, parcel, quarrel, and spinel. Accordingly we find, that, in his work of expulsion, Dr. Webster has not unfrequently contradicted himself, and conformed to usage, by doubling the l where he probably intended to write it single. Thus, in the words bordeller, chapellany, chapelling, gospellary, gospeller, gravelly, lamellate, lamellar, lamellarly, lamelliform, and spinellane, he has written the l double, while he has grossly corrupted many other similar words by forbearing the reduplication; as, traveler, groveling, duelist, marvelous, and the like. In cases of such difficulty, we can never arrive at uniformity and consistency of practice, unless we resort to principles, and such principles as can be made intelligible to the English scholar. If any one is dissatisfied with the rules and exceptions which I have laid down, let him study the subject till he can furnish the schools with better.

OBS. 17.—We have in our language a very numerous class of adjectives ending in able or ible, as affable, arable, tolerable, admissible, credible, infallible, to the number of nine hundred or more. In respect to the proper form and signification of some of these, there occurs no small difficulty. Able is a common English word, the meaning of which is much better understood than its origin. Horne Tooke supposes it to have come from the Gothic noun abal, signifying strength; and consequently avers, that it "has nothing to do with the Latin adjective habilis, fit, or able, from which our etymologists erroneously derive it."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 450. This I suppose the etymologists will dispute with him. But whatever may be its true derivation, no one can well deny that able, as a suffix, belongs most properly, if not exclusively, to verbs; for most of the words formed by it, are plainly a sort of verbal adjectives. And it is evident that this author is right in supposing that English words of this termination, like the Latin verbals in bilis, have, or ought to have, such a signification as may justify the name which he gives them, of "potential passive adjectives;" a signification in which the English and the Latin derivatives exactly correspond. Thus dis'soluble or dissolv'able does not mean able to dissolve, but capable of being dissolved; and divisible or dividable does not mean able to divide, but capable of being divided.

OBS. 18.—As to the application of this suffix to nouns, when we consider the signification of the words thus formed, its propriety may well be doubted. It is true, however, that nouns do sometimes assume something of the nature of verbs, so as to give rise to adjectives that are of a participial character; such, for instance, as sainted, bigoted, conceited, gifted, tufted. Again, of such as hard-hearted, good-natured, cold-blooded, we have an indefinite number. And perhaps, upon the same principle, the formation of such words as actionable, companionable, exceptionable, marketable, merchantable, pasturable, treasonable, and so forth, may be justified, if care be taken to use them in a sense analogous to that of the real verbals. But, surely, the meaning which is commonly attached to the words amicable, changeable, fashionable, favourable, peaceable, reasonable, pleasurable, seasonable, suitable, and some others, would never be guessed from their formation. Thus, suitable means fitting or suiting, and not able to suit, or capable of being suited.

OBS. 19.—Though all words that terminate in able, used as a suffix, are properly reckoned derivatives, rather than compounds, and in the former class the separate meaning of the parts united is much less regarded than in the latter; yet, in the use of words of this formation, it would be well to have some respect to the general analogy of their signification as stated above; and not to make derivatives of the same fashion convey meanings so very different as do some of these. Perhaps it is from some general notion of their impropriety, that several words of this doubtful character have already become obsolete, or are gradually falling into disuse: as, accustomable, chanceable, concordable, conusable, customable, behoovable, leisurable, medicinable, personable, powerable, razorable, shapable, semblable, vengeable, veritable. Still, there are several others, yet currently employed, which might better perhaps, for the same reason, give place to more regular terms: as, amicable, for friendly or kind; charitable, for benevolent or liberal; colourable, for apparent or specious; peaceable, for peaceful or unhostile; pleasurable, for pleasing or delightful; profitable, for gainful or lucrative; sociable, for social or affable; reasonable, for rational or just.

OBS. 20.—In respect to the orthography of words ending in able or ible, it is sometimes difficult to determine which of these endings ought to be preferred; as whether we ought to write tenable or tenible, reversable or reversible, addable or addible. In Latin, the termination is bilis, and the preceding vowel is determined by the conjugation to which the verb belongs. Thus, for verbs of the first conjugation, it is a; as, from arare, to plough, arabilis, arable, tillable. For the second conjugation, it is i; as, from doc=ere, to teach, docibilis, or docilis, docible or docile, teachable. For the third conjugation, it is i; as, from vend=ere, to sell, vendibilis, vendible, salable. And, for the fourth conjugation, it is i; as, from sepelire, to bury, sepelib~ilis, sep'elible,[125] buriable. But from solvo and volvo, of the third conjugation, we have ubilis, uble; as, solubilis, sol'uble, solvible or solvable; volubilis, vol'uble, rollable. Hence the English words, rev'oluble, res'oluble, irres'oluble, dis'soluble, indis'soluble, and insol'uble. Thus the Latin verbals in bilis, are a sufficient guide to the orthography of all such words as are traceable to them; but the mere English scholar cannot avail himself of this aid; and of this sort of words we have a much greater number than were ever known in Latin. A few we have borrowed from the French: as, tenable, capable, preferable, convertible; and these we write as they are written in French. But the difficulty lies chiefly in those which are of English growth. For some of them are formed according to the model of the Latin verbals in ibilis; as forcible, coercible, reducible, discernible; and others are made by simply adding the suffix able; as traceable, pronounceable, manageable, advisable, returnable. The last are purely English; and yet they correspond in form with such as come from Latin verbals in abilis.

OBS. 21.—From these different modes of formation, with the choice of different roots, we have sometimes two or three words, differing in orthography and pronunciation, but conveying the same meaning; as, divis'ible and divi'dable, des'picable and despi'sable, ref'erable and refer'rible, mis'cible and mix'able, dis'soluble, dissol'vible, and dissol'vable. Hence, too, we have some words which seem to the mere English scholar to be spelled in a very contradictory manner, though each, perhaps, obeys the law of its own derivation; as, peaceable and forcible, impierceable and coercible, marriageable and corrigible, damageable and eligible, changeable and tangible, chargeable and frangible, fencible and defensible, pref'erable and referrible, conversable and reversible, defendable and descendible, amendable and extendible, bendable and vendible, dividable and corrodible, returnable and discernible, indispensable and responsible, advisable and fusible, respectable and compatible, delectable and collectible, taxable and flexible.

OBS. 22.—The American editor of the Red Book, to whom all these apparent inconsistencies seemed real blunders, has greatly exaggerated this difficulty in our orthography, and charged Johnson and Walker with having written all these words and many more, in this contradictory manner, "without any apparent reason!" He boldly avers, that, "The perpetual contradictions of the same or like words, in all the books, show that the authors had no distinct ideas of what is right, and what is wrong;" and ignorantly imagines, that, "The use of ible rather than able, in any case, originated in the necessity of keeping the soft sound of c and g, in the derivatives; and if ible was confined to that use, it would be an easy and simple rule."—Red Book, p. 170. Hence, he proposes to write peacible for peaceable, tracible for traceable, changible for changeable, managible for manageable; and so for all the rest that come from words ending in ce or ge. But, whatever advantage there might be in this, his "easy and simple rule" would work a revolution for which the world is not yet prepared. It would make audible audable, fallible fallable, feasible feasable, terrible terrable, horrible horrable, &c. No tyro can spell in a worse manner than this, even if he have no rule at all. And those who do not know enough of Latin grammar to profit by what I have said in the preceding observation, may console themselves with the reflection, that, in spelling these difficult words entirely by guess, they will not miss the way more than some have done who pretended to be critics. The rule given by John Burn, for able and ible, is less objectionable; but it is rendered useless by the great number of its exceptions.

OBS. 23.—As most of the rules for spelling refer to the final letters of our primitive words, it may be proper for the learner to know and remember, that not all the letters of the alphabet can assume that situation, and that some of them terminate words much more frequently than others. Thus, in Walker's Rhyming Dictionary, the letter a ends about 220 words; b, 160; c, 450; d, 1550; e, 7000; f, 140; g, 280; h, 400; i, 29; j, none; k, 550; l, 1900; m, 550; n, 3300; o, 200; p, 450; q, none; r, 2750; s, 3250; t, 3100; u, 14; v, none; w, 200; x, 100; y, 5000; z, 5. We have, then, three consonants, j, q, and v, which never end a word. And why not? With respect to j and v, the reason is plain from their history. These letters were formerly identified with i and u, which are not terminational letters. The vowel i ends no pure English word, except that which is formed of its own capital I; and the few words which end with u are all foreign, except thou and you. And not only so, the letter j is what was formerly called i consonant; and v is what was called u consonant. But it was the initial i and u, or the i and u which preceded an other vowel, and not those which followed one, that were converted into the consonants j and v. Hence, neither of these letters ever ends any English word, or is ever doubled. Nor do they unite with other consonants before or after a vowel: except that v is joined with r in a few words of French origin, as livre, manoeuvre; or with l in some Dutch names, as Watervleit. Q ends no English word, because it is always followed by u. The French termination que, which is commonly retained in pique, antique, critique, opaque, oblique, burlesque, and grotesque, is equivalent to k; hence we write packet, lackey, checker, risk, mask, and mosk, rather than paquet, laquey, chequer, risque, masque, and mosque. And some authors write burlesk and grotesk, preferring k to que.

OBS. 24.—Thus we see that j, q, and v, are, for the most part, initial consonants only. Hence there is a harshness, if not an impropriety, in that syllabication which some have recently adopted, wherein they accommodate to the ear the division of such words as maj-es-ty, proj-ect, traj-ect,—eq-ui-ty, liq-ui-date, ex-cheq-uer. But v, in a similar situation, has now become familiar; as in ev-er-y, ev-i-dence: and it may also stand with l or r, in the division of such words as solv-ing and serv-ing. Of words ending in ive, Walker exhibits four hundred and fifty—exactly the same number that he spells with ic. And Horne Tooke, who derives ive from the Latin ivus, (q. d. vis,) and ic from the Greek [Greek: ikos], (q. d. [Greek: ischus]) both implying power, has well observed that there is a general correspondence of meaning between these two classes of adjectives—both being of "a potential active signification; as purgative, vomitive, operative, &c.; cathartic, emetic, energetic, &c."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 445. I have before observed, that Tooke spelled all this latter class of words without the final k; but he left it to Dr. Webster to suggest the reformation of striking the final e from the former.

OBS. 25.—In Dr. Webster's "Collection of Essays and Fugitiv Peeces," published in 1790, we find, among other equally ingenious improvements of our orthography, a general omission of the final e in all words ending in ive, or rather of all words ending in ve, preceded by a short vowel; as, "primitiv, derivativ, extensiv, positiv, deserv, twelv, proov, luv, hav, giv, liv." This mode of spelling, had it been adopted by other learned men, would not only have made v a very frequent final consonant, but would have placed it in an other new and strange predicament, as being subject to reduplication. For he that will write hav, giv, and liv, must also, by a general rule of grammar, write havving, givving, and livving. And not only so, there will follow also, in the solemn style of the Bible, a change of givest, livest, giveth, and liveth, into givvest, livvest, givveth, and livveth. From all this it may appear, that a silent final e is not always quite so useless a thing as some may imagine. With a levity no less remarkable, does the author of the Red Book propose at once two different ways of reforming the orthography of such words as pierceable, manageable, and so forth; in one of which, the letter j would be brought into a new position, and subjected sometimes to reduplication. "It would be a useful improvement to change this c into s, and g into j;" as, piersable, manajable, &c. "Or they might assume i;" as, piercibe, managible, &c.—Red Book, p. 170. Now would not this "useful improvement" give us such a word as allejjable? and would not one such monster be more offensive than all our present exceptions to Rule 9th? Out upon all such tampering with orthography!

OBS. 26.—If any thing could arrest the folly of innovators and dabbling reformers, it would be the history of former attempts to effect improvements similar to theirs. With this sort of history every one would do well to acquaint himself, before he proceeds to disfigure words by placing their written elements in any new predicament. If the orthography of the English language is ever reduced to greater regularity than it now exhibits, the reformation must be wrought by those who have no disposition either to exaggerate its present defects, or to undertake too much. Regard must be had to the origin, as well as to the sounds, of words. To many people, all silent letters seem superfluous; and all indirect modes of spelling, absurd. Hence, as the learner may perceive, a very large proportion of the variations and disputed points in spelling, are such as refer to the silent letters, which are retained by some writers and omitted by others. It is desirable that such as are useless and irregular should be always omitted; and such as are useful and regular always retained. The rules which I have laid down as principles of discrimination, are such as almost every reader will know to be generally true, and agreeable to present usage, though several of them have never before been printed in any grammar. Their application will strike out some letters which are often written, and retain some which are often omitted; but, if they err on either hand, I am confident they err less than any other set of rules ever yet formed for the same purpose. Walker, from whom Murray borrowed his rules for spelling, declares for an expulsion of the second l from traveller, gambolled, grovelling, equalling, cavilling, and all similar words; seems more willing to drop an l from illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness, and drollness, than to retain both in smallness, tallness, chillness, dullness, and fullness; makes it one of his orthographical aphorisms, that, "Words taken into composition often drop those letters which were superfluous in their simples; as, Christmas, dunghil, handful;" and, at the same time, chooses rather to restore the silent e to the ten derivatives from move and prove, from which Johnson dropped it, than to drop it from the ten similar words in which that author retained it! And not only so, he argues against the principle of his own aphorism; and says, "It is certainly to be feared that, if this pruning of our words of all the superfluous letters, as they are called, should be much farther indulged, we shall quickly antiquate our most respectable authors, and irreparably maim our language."—Walker's Rhyming Dict., p. xvii.

OBS. 27.—No attempt to subject our orthography to a system of phonetics, seems likely to meet with general favour, or to be free from objection, if it should. For words are not mere sounds, and in their orthography more is implied than in phonetics, or phonography. Ideographic forms have, in general, the advantage of preserving the identity, history, and lineage of words; and these are important matters in respect to which phonetic writing is very liable to be deficient. Dr. Johnson, about a century ago, observed, "There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages, was at first very various and uncertain, and [is] as yet sufficiently irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this is to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which is changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the number of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the orthography of a new language to be formed by a synod of grammarians upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion and perplexity of such an alteration?"—Johnson's Grammar before Quarto Dict., p. 4.

OBS. 28.—Among these reformers of our alphabet and orthography, of whose schemes he gives examples, the Doctor mentions, first, "Sir Thomas Smith, secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth, a man of real learning, and much practised in grammatical disquisitions;" who died in 1597;—next, "Dr. Gill, the celebrated master of St. Paul's School in London;" who died in 1635;—then, "Charles Butler, a man who did not want an understanding which might have qualified him for better employment;" who died in 1647;—and, lastly, "Bishop Wilkins, of Chester, a learned and ingenious critic, who is said to have proposed his scheme, without expecting to be followed;" he died in 1672.

OBS. 29.—From this time, there was, so far as I know, no noticeable renewal of such efforts, till about the year 1790, when, as it is shown above on page 134 of my Introduction, Dr. Webster, (who was then only "Noah Webster, Jun., attorney at law,") attempted to spell all words as they are spoken, without revising the alphabet—a scheme which his subsequent experience before many years led him to abandon. Such a reformation was again attempted, about forty years after, by an other young lawyer, the late lamented Thomas S. Grimke, of South Carolina, but with no more success. More recently, phonography, or phonetic writing, has been revived, and to some extent spread, by the publications of Isaac Pitman, of Bath, England, and of Dr. Andrew Comstock, of Philadelphia. The system of the former has been made known in America chiefly by the lectures and other efforts of Andrews and Boyle, of Dr. Stone, a citizen of Boston, and of E. Webster, a publisher in Philadelphia.

OBS. 30.—The pronunciation of words being evidently as deficient in regularity, in uniformity, and in stability, as is their orthography, if not more so, cannot be conveniently made the measure of their written expression. Concerning the principle of writing and printing by sounds alone, a recent writer delivers his opinion thus: "Let me here observe, as something not remote from our subject, but, on the contrary, directly bearing upon it, that I can conceive no [other] method of so effectually defacing and barbarizing our English tongue, no [other] scheme that would go so far to empty it, practically at least and for us, of all the hoarded wit, wisdom, imagination, and history which it contains, to cut the vital nerve which connects its present with the past, as the introduction of the scheme of 'phonetic spelling,' which some have lately been zealously advocating among us; the principle of which is, that all words should be spelt according as they are sounded, that the writing should be, in every case, subordinated to the speaking. The tacit assumption that it ought so to be, is the pervading error running through the whole system."—R. C. Trench, on the Study of Words, p. 177.

OBS. 31.—The phonographic system of stenography, tachygraphy, or short-hand writing, is, I incline to believe, a very great improvement upon the earlier methods. It is perhaps the most reliable mode of taking down speeches, sermons, or arguments, during their delivery, and reporting them for the press; though I cannot pronounce upon this from any experience of my own in the practice of the art. And it seems highly probable, if it has not been fully proved, that children may at first be taught to read more readily, and with better articulation, from phonetic print, or phonotypy, as it has been called, than from books that exhibit words in their current or established orthography. But still it is questionable whether it is not best for them to learn each word at first by its peculiar or ideographic form—the form in which they must ultimately learn to read it, and which indeed constitutes its only orthography.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS IN SPELLING.

UNDER RULE I.—OF FINAL F, L, OR S.

"He wil observe the moral law, in hiz conduct."—Webster's Essays, p. 320.

[FORMULES—1. Not proper, because the word "wil" is here spelled with one l. But, according to Rule 1st, "Monosyllables ending in f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant." Therefore, this l should be doubled; thus, will.

2. Not proper again, because the word "hiz" is here spelled with z. But, according to the exceptions to Rule 1st, "The words as, gas, has, was, yes, his, &c., are written with single s." Therefore, this z should be s; thus, his.]

"A clif is a steep bank, or a precipitous rock."—See Rhyming Dict. "A needy man's budget is ful of schemes."—Old Adage. "Few large publications in this country wil pay a printer."—Noah Webster's Essays, p. x. "I shal, with cheerfulness, resign my other papers to oblivion."—Ib., p. x. "The proposition waz suspended til the next session of the legislature."—Ib., p. 362. "Tenants for life wil make the most of lands for themselves."—Ib., p. 366. "While every thing iz left to lazy negroes, a state wil never be wel cultivated."—Ib., p. 367. "The heirs of the original proprietors stil hold the soil."—Ib., p. 349. "Say my annual profit on money loaned shal be six per cent."—Ib., p. 308. "No man would submit to the drudgery of business, if he could make money az fast by lying stil."—Ib., p. 310. "A man may az wel feed himself with a bodkin, az with a knife of the present fashion."—Ib., p. 400. "The clothes wil be ill washed, the food wil be badly cooked; and you wil be ashamed of your wife, if she iz not ashamed of herself."—Ib., p. 404. "He wil submit to the laws of the state, while he iz a member of it."—Ib., p. 320. "But wil our sage writers on law forever think by tradition?"—Ib., p. 318. "Some stil retain a sovereign power in their territories."—Ib., p. 298. "They sel images, prayers, the sound of bels, remission of sins, &c."—Perkins's Theology, p. 401. "And the law had sacrifices offered every day for the sins of al the people."—Ib., p. 406. "Then it may please the Lord, they shal find it to be a restorative."—Ib., p. 420. "Perdition is repentance put of til a future day."—Old Maxim. "The angels of God, which wil good and cannot wil evil, have nevertheless perfect liberty of wil."—Perkins's Theology, p. 716. "Secondly, this doctrine cuts off the excuse of al sin."—Ib., p. 717. "Knel, the sound of a bell rung at a funeral."—Johnson and Walker.

   "If gold with dros or grain with chaf you find,
    Select—and leave the chaf and dros behind."—Author.

UNDER RULE II.—OF OTHER FINALS.

"The mobb hath many heads, but no brains."—Old Maxim.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "mobb" is here spelled with double b. But, according to Rule 2d, "Words ending in any other consonant than f, l, or s, do not double the final letter." Therefore, this b should be single: thus, mob.]

"Clamm, to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter."—Johnson's Dict. "Whurr, to pronounce the letter r with too much force."—Ib. "Flipp, a mixed liquor, consisting of beer and spirits sweetened."—Ib. "Glynn, a hollow between two mountains, a glen."—Churchill's Grammar, p. 22. "Lamm, to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon."—Walker's Dict. "Bunn, a small cake, a simnel, a kind of sweet bread."—See ib. "Brunett, a woman with a brown complexion."—Ib. and Johnson's Dict. "Wad'sett, an ancient tenure or lease of land in the Highlands of Scotland."—Webster's Dict. "To dodd sheep, is to cut the wool away about their tails."—Ib. "In aliquem arietare, CIC. To run full but at one."—Walker's Particles, p. 95. "Neither your policy nor your temper would permitt you to kill me."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 427. "And admitt none but his own offspring to fulfill them."—Ib., i, 437. "The summ of all this Dispute is, that some make them Participles," &c.—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 352. "As, the whistling of winds, the buz and hum of insects, the hiss of serpents, the crash of falling timber."—Blair's Rhet., p. 129; Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 247; Gould's, 238. "Vann, to winnow, or a fan for winnowing."—Walker's Rhyming Dict. "Creatures that buz, are very commonly such as will sting."—Author "Begg, buy, or borrow; butt beware how you find."—Id. "It is better to have a house to lett, than a house to gett."—Id. "Let not your tongue cutt your throat."—Old Precept. "A little witt will save a fortunate man."—Old Adage. "There is many a slipp 'twixt the cup and the lipp."—Id. "Mothers' darlings make but milksopp heroes."—Id. "One eye-witness is worth tenn hearsays."—Id.

   "The judge shall jobb, the bishop bite the town,
    And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown."—POPE:
       in Joh. Dict., w. Pack.

UNDER RULE III.—OF DOUBLING.

"Friz, to curl; frized, curled; frizing, curling."—Webster's Dict., 8vo.
Ed. of 1829.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the words "frized" and "frizing" are here spelled with the single z, of their primitive friz. But, according to Rule 3d, "Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel." Therefore, this z should be doubled; thus, frizzed, frizzing.]

"The commercial interests served to foster the principles of Whigism."—Payne's Geog., Vol. ii, p. 511. "Their extreme indolence shuned every species of labour."—Robertson's Amer., Vol. i, p. 341. "In poverty and stripedness they attend their little meetings."—The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 256. "In guiding and controling[126] the power you have thus obtained."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 15. "I began, Thou beganest, He began; We began, You began, They began."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 92. "Why does began change its ending; as, I began, Thou beganest?"—Ib., p. 93. "Truth and conscience cannot be controled by any methods of coercion."—Hints on Toleration, p. xvi. "Dr. Webster noded, when he wrote 'knit, kniter, and knitingneedle' without doubling the t."—See El. Spelling-Book, 1st Ed., p. 136. "A wag should have wit enough to know when other wags are quizing him."—G. Brown. "Bon'y, handsome, beautiful, merry."—Walker's Rhyming Dict. "Coquetish, practicing coquetry; after the manner of a jilt."—Webster's Dict. "Potage, a species of food, made of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water."—See ib. "Potager, from potage, a porringer, a small vessel for children's food."—See ib., and Worcester's. "Compromit, compromited, compromiting; manumit, manumitted, manumitting."—Webster. "Inferible; that may be inferred or deduced from premises."—Red Book, p. 228. "Acids are either solid, liquid, or gaseous."—Gregory's Dict., art. Chemistry. "The spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the gases."—Ib. "Do we sound gases and gaseous like cases and caseous? No: they are more like glasses and osseous."—G. Brown. "I shall not need here to mention Swiming, when he is of an age able to learn."—Locke, on Ed., p. 12. "Why do lexicographers spell thinnish and mannish with two Ens, and dimish and ramish with one Em, each?"—See Johnson and Webster. "Gas forms the plural regularly, gases."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 38. "Singular, Gas; Plural, Gases."—S. W. Clark's Gram., p. 47. "These are contractions from sheded, bursted."—Hiley's Grammar, p. 45. "The Present Tense denotes what is occuring at the present time."—Day's Gram., p. 36, and p. 61. "The verb ending in eth is of the solemn or antiquated style; as, he loveth, he walketh, he runeth."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 34.

   "Thro' freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings,
    Degrading nobles and controling kings."—Murray's Sequel, p. 292.

UNDER RULE IV.—NO DOUBLING.

"A bigotted and tyrannical clergy will be feared."—Brown's Estimate,
Vol. ii, p. 78.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the final t of bigot is here doubled in "bigotted." But, according to Rule 4th, "A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable." Therefore, this t should be single; thus, bigoted.]

"Jacob worshipped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staff."—Key in Merchant's Gram., p. 185. "For it is all marvelously destitute of interest."—Merchant's Criticisms. "As, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses."—Murray's Gram., 12mo, p. 42. "Gossipping and lying go hand in hand."—Old Maxim. "The substance of the Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley was, with singular industry, gossipped by the present precious secretary of war, in Payne the bookseller's shop."—See Key. "Worship makes worshipped, worshipper, worshipping; gossip, gossipped, gossipper, gossipping; fillip, fillipped, fillipper, fillipping."—Nixon's Parser, p. 72. "I became as fidgetty as a fly in a milk-jug."—Blackwood's Mag., Vol. xl, p. 674. "That enormous error seems to be rivetted in popular opinion."—Webster's Essays, p. 364. "Whose mind iz not biassed by personal attachments to a sovereign."—Ib., p. 318. "Laws against usury originated in a bigotted prejudice against the Jews."—Ib., p. 315. "The most criticcal period of life iz usually between thirteen and seventeen."—Ib., p. 388. "Generallissimo, the chief commander of an army or military force."—See El. Spelling-Book, p. 93. "Tranquillize, to quiet, to make calm and peaceful."—Ib., p. 133. "Pommeled, beaten, bruised; having pommels, as a sword or dagger."—Webster and Chalmers. "From what a height does the jeweler look down upon his shoemaker!"—Red Book, p. 108. "You will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow traveler."—Ib., p. 155. "I observe that you have written the word counseled with one l only."—Ib., p. 173. "They were offended at such as combatted these notions."—Robertson's America, Vol. ii, p. 437. "From libel, come libeled, libeler, libeling, libelous; from grovel, groveled, groveler, groveling; from gravel, graveled and graveling."—See Webster's Dict. "Wooliness, the state of being woolly."—Ib. "Yet he has spelled chappelling, bordeller, medallist, metalline, metallist, metallize, clavellated, &c. with ll, contrary to his rule."—Cobb's Review of Webster, p. 11. "Again, he has spelled cancelation and snively with single l, and cupellation, pannellation, wittolly, with ll."—Ib. "Oilly, fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib."—Rhyming Dict. "Medallist, one curious in medals; Metallist, one skilled in metals."—Johnson, Webster, Worcester, Cobb, et al. "He is benefitted."—Town's Spelling-Book, p. 5. "They traveled for pleasure."—S. W. Clark's Gram., p. 101.

   "Without you, what were man? A groveling herd,
    In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd."
        —Beattie's Minstrel, p. 40.

UNDER RULE V.—OF FINAL CK.

"He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critick."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 10.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "critick" is here spelled with a final k. But, according to Rule 5th, "Monosyllables and English verbs end not with c, but take ck for double c; as, rack, wreck, rock, attack: but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the k, and common use discards it." Therefore, this k should be omitted; thus, critic.]

"The leading object of every publick speaker should be to persuade."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 153. "May not four feet be as poetick as five; or fifteen feet, as poetick as fifty?"—Ib., p. 146. "Avoid all theatrical trick and mimickry, and especially all scholastick stiffness."—Ib., p. 154. "No one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing, or in musick, or in mathematicks, or logick, without long and close application to the subject."—Ib., p. 152. "Caspar's sense of feeling, and susceptibility of metallick and magnetick excitement were also very extraordinary."—Ib., p. 238. "Authorship has become a mania, or, perhaps I should say, an epidemick."—Ib., p. 6. "What can prevent this republick from soon raising a literary standard?"—Ib., p. 10. "Courteous reader, you may think me garrulous upon topicks quite foreign to the subject before me."—Ib., p. 11. "Of the Tonick, Subtonick, and Atoniek elements."—Ib., p. 15. "The subtonick elements are inferiour to the tonicks in all the emphatick and elegant purposes of speech."—Ib., p. 32. "The nine atonicks, and the three abrupt subtonicks cause an interruption to the continuity of the syllabick impulse."—Ib., p. 37. "On scientifick principles, conjunctions and prepositions are but one part of speech."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 120. "That some inferior animals should be able to mimic human articulation, will not seem wonderful."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 2.

   "When young, you led a life monastick,
    And wore a vest ecelesiastick;
    Now, in your age, you grow fantastick."—Johnson's Dict.

UNDER RULE VI.—OF RETAINING.

"Fearlesness, exemption from fear, intrepidity."—Johnson's Dict.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "fearlesness" is here allowed to drop one s of fearless. But, according to Rule 6th, "Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination not beginning with the same letter." Therefore, the other s should be inserted; thus, fearlessness.]

"Dreadlesness; fearlesness, intrepidity, undauntedness."—Johnson's Dict. "Regardlesly, without heed; Regardlesness, heedlessness, inattention."—Ib. "Blamelesly, innocently; Blamlesness, innocence."—Ib. "That is better than to be flattered into pride and carelesness."—TAYLOR: Joh. Dict. "Good fortunes began to breed a proud recklesness in them."—SIDNEY: ib. "See whether he lazily and listlesly dreams away his time."—LOCKE: ib. "It may be, the palate of the soul is indisposed by listlesness or sorrow."—TAYLOR: ib. "Pitilesly, without mercy; Pitilesness, unmercifulness."—Johnson. "What say you to such as these? abominable, accordable, agreable, &c."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. ii, p. 432. "Artlesly; naturally, sincerely, without craft."—Johnson. "A chilness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever."—Murray's Key, p. 167. "Smalness; littleness, minuteness, weakness."—Rhyming Dict. "Gall-less, a. free from gall or bitterness."—Webster's Dict. "Talness; height of stature, upright length with comparative slenderness."—See Johnson et al. "Wilful; stubborn, contumacious, perverse, inflexible."—Id. "He guided them by the skilfulness of his hands."—Psal. lxxviii, 72. "The earth is the Lord's and the fulness thereof."—Murray's Key, p. 172. "What is now, is but an amasment of imaginary conceptions."—GLANVILLE: Joh. Dict. "Embarrasment; perplexity, entanglement."—See Littleton's Dict. "The second is slothfulness, whereby they are performed slackly and carelesly."—Perkins's Theology, p. 729. "Instalment; induction into office; part of a large sum of money, to be paid at a particular time."—See Johnson's Dict. "Inthralment; servitude, slavery."—Ib.

   "I, who at some times spend, at others spare,
    Divided between carelesness and care."—Pope.

UNDER RULE VII.—OF RETAINING.

"Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels."—Murray's
Gram., p. 88; Ingersoll's, 136; Fisk's, 78; Jaudon's, 59; A.
Flint's, 42; Wright's, 90; Bullions's, 32.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "foretels" does not here retain the double l of tell. But, according to Rule 7th, "Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes." Therefore, the other l should be inserted; thus, foretells.]

"There are a few compound irregular verbs, as befal, bespeak, &c."—Ash's Gram., p. 46. "That we might frequently recal it to our memory."—Calvin's Institutes, p. 112. "The angels exercise a constant solicitude that no evil befal us."—Ib., p. 107. "Inthral; to enslave, to shackle, to reduce to servitude."—Walker's Dict. "He makes resolutions, and fulfils them by new ones."—Red Book, p. 138. "To enrol my humble name upon the list of authors on Elocution."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 12. "Forestal; to anticipate, to take up beforehand."—Walker's Rhym. Dict. "Miscal; to call wrong, to name improperly."—Johnson. "Bethral; to enslave, to reduce to bondage."—See id. "Befal; to happen to, to come to pass."—Rhym. Dict. "Unrol; to open what is rolled or convolved."—Johnson. "Counterrol; to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds."—See id. "As Sisyphus uprols a rock, which constantly overpowers him at the summit."—Author. "Unwel; not well, indisposed, not in good health."—See Red Book, p. 336. "Undersel; to defeat by selling for less, to sell cheaper than an other."—See id., p. 332. "Inwal; to enclose or fortify with a wall."—See id., p. 295. "Twibil; an instrument with two bills, or with a point and a blade; a pickaxe, a mattock, a halberd, a battle-axe."—See Dict. "What you miscal their folly, is their care."—Dryden. "My heart will sigh when I miscal it so."—Shakspeare. "But if the arrangement recal one set of ideas more readily than another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 130.

   "'Tis done; and since 'tis done, 'tis past recal;
    And since 'tis past recal, must be forgotten."—Dryden.

UNDER RULE VIII.—OF FINAL LL.

"The righteous is taken away from the evill to come."—Perkins's Works, p. 417.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "evill" is here written with final ll. But, according to Rule 8th, "Final ll is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in l, must be terminated with a single l." Therefore, one l should be here omitted; thus, evil.]

"Patroll; to go the rounds in a camp or garrison, to march about and observe what passes."—Webster's Amer. Dict., 8vo. "Marshall; the chief officer of arms, one who regulates rank and order."—See Bailey's Dict. "Weevill; a destructive grub that gets among corn."—See Rhym. Dict. "It much excells all other studies and arts."—Walker's Particles, p. 217. "It is essentiall to all magnitudes, to be in one place."—Perkins's Works, p. 403. "By nature I was thy vassall, but Christ hath redeemed me."—Ib., p. 404. "Some, being in want, pray for temporall blessings."—Ib., p. 412. "And this the Lord doth, either in temporall or spirituall benefits."—Ib., p. 415. "He makes an idoll of them, by setting his heart on them."—Ib., p. 416. "This triall by desertion serveth for two purposes."—Ib., p. 420. "Moreover, this destruction is both perpetuall and terrible."—Ib., p. 726. "Giving to severall men several gifts, according to his good pleasure."—Ib., p. 731. "Untill; to some time, place, or degree, mentioned."—See Red Book, p. 330. "Annull; to make void, to nullify, to abrogate, to abolish." "Nitric acid combined with argill, forms the nitrate of argill."—Gregory's Dict., art. Chemistry.

   "Let modest Foster, if he will, excell
    Ten Metropolitans in preaching well."—Pope, p. 414.

UNDER RULE IX.—OF FINAL E.

"Adjectives ending in able signify capacity; as, comfortable, tenable, improvable."—Priestley's Gram., p. 33.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "improveable" here retains the final e of improve. But, according to Rule 9th, "The final e of a primitive word is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel." Therefore, this e should be omitted; thus, improvable.]

"Their mildness and hospitality are ascribeable to a general administration of religious ordinances."—Webster's Essays, p. 336. "Retrench as much as possible without obscureing the sense."—James Brown's Amer. Gram., 1821, p. 11. "Changable, subject to change; Unchangeable, immutable."—Walker's Rhym. Dict. "Tameable, susceptive of taming; Untameable, not to be tamed."—Ib. "Reconcileable, Unreconcileable, Reconcileableness; Irreconcilable, Irreconcilably, Irreconcilableness."—Johnson's Dict. "We have thought it most adviseable to pay him some little attention."— Merchants Criticisms. "Proveable, that may be proved; Reprovable. blameable, worthy of reprehension."—Walker's Dict. "Moveable and Immovable, Moveably and Immovably, Moveables and Removal, Moveableness and Improvableness, Unremoveable and Unimprovable, Unremoveably and Removable, Proveable and Approvable, Irreproveable and Reprovable, Unreproveable and Improvable, Unimproveableness and Improvably."—Johnson's Dict. "And with this cruelty you are chargable in some measure yourself."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 94. "Mothers would certainly resent it, as judgeing it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex."—British Gram., Pref., p. xxv. "Titheable, subject to the payment of tithes; Saleable, vendible, fit for sale; Loseable, possible to be lost; Sizeable, of reasonable bulk or size."—Walker's Rhyming Dict. "When he began this custom, he was puleing and very tender."—Locke, on Ed., p. 8.

   "The plate, coin, revenues, and moveables,
    Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd."—Shak.

UNDER RULE X.—OF FINAL E.

"Diversly; in different ways, differently, variously."—Rhym. Dict., and Webster's.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "Diversly" here omits the final e of its primitive word, diverse. But, according to Rule 10th, "The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant." Therefore, this e should be retained; thus, Diversely.]

"The event thereof contains a wholsome instruction."—Bacon's Wisdom of the Ancients, p. 17. "Whence Scaliger falsly concluded that articles were useless."—Brightland's Gram., p. 94. "The child that we have just seen is wholesomly fed."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 187. "Indeed, falshood and legerdemain sink the character of a prince."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 5. "In earnest, at this rate of managment, thou usest thyself very coarsly."—Ib., p. 19. "To give them an arrangment and diversity, as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit"—Murray's Pref. to Ex., p. vi. "Alger's Grammar is only a trifling enlargment of Murray's little Abridgment."—Author. "You ask whether you are to retain or omit the mute e in the word judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, lodgment, adjudgment, and prejudgment."—Red Book, p. 172. "Fertileness, fruitfulness; Fertily, fruitfully, abundantly."—Johnson's Dict. "Chastly, purely, without contamination; Chastness, chastity, purity."—Ib., and Walker's. "Rhymster, n. One who makes rhymes; a versifier; a mean poet."—Johnson and Webster. "It is therefore an heroical achievment to dispossess this imaginary monarch."—Berkley's Minute Philos., p. 151. "Whereby, is not meant the Present Time, as he imagins, but the Time Past."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 344 "So far is this word from affecting the noun, in regard to its definitness, that its own character of definitness or indefinitness, depends upon the name to which it is prefixed."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 20.

   "Satire, by wholsome Lessons, wou'd reclaim,
    And heal their Vices to secure their Fame."
        —Brightland's Gr., p. 171.

UNDER RULE XI.—OF FINAL Y.

"Solon's the veryest fool in all the play."—Dryden, from Persius, p. 475.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "veryest" here retains the final y of its primitive very. But, according to Rule 13th, "The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into i before an additional termination." Therefore, this y should be changed to i; thus, veriest.]

"Our author prides himself upon his great slyness and shrewdness."—Merchant's Criticisms. "This tense, then, implys also the signification of Debeo."—B. Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 300. "That may be apply'd to a Subject, with respect to something accidental."—Ib., p. 133. "This latter accompanys his Note with a distinction."—Ib., p. 196. "This Rule is defective, and none of the Annotators have sufficiently supply'd it."—Ib., p. 204. "Though the fancy'd Supplement of Sanctius, Scioppius, Vossius, and Mariangelus, may take place."—Ib., p. 276. "Yet as to the commutableness of these two Tenses, which is deny'd likewise, they are all one."—Ib., p. 311. "Both these Tenses may represent a Futurity implyed by the dependence of the Clause."—Ib., p. 332. "Cry, cries, crying, cried, crier, decrial; Shy, shyer, shyest, shyly, shyness; Fly, flies, flying, flier, high-flier; Sly, slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness; Spy, spies, spying, spied, espial; Dry, drier, driest, dryly, dryness."—Cobb's Dict. "Cry, cried, crying, crier, cryer, decried, decrier, decrial; Shy, shyly, shily, shyness, shiness; Fly, flier, flyer, high-flyer; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness, slyness; Ply, plyer, plying, pliers, complied, compiler; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly, dryness."—Webster's Dict., 8vo. "Cry, crier, decrier, decrial; Shy, shily, shyly, shiness, shyness; Fly, flier, flyer, high-flier; Sly, slily, slyly, sliness, slyness; Ply, pliers, plyers, plying, complier; Dry, drier, dryer, dryly, dryness."—Chalmers's Abridgement of Todd's Johnson. "I would sooner listen to the thrumming of a dandyzette at her piano."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 24. "Send her away; for she cryeth after us."—Felton's Gram., p. 140. "IVYED, a. Overgrown with ivy."—Todd's Dict., and Webster's.

   "Some dryly plain, without invention's aid,
    Write dull receipts how poems may be made."—Pope.

UNDER RULE XII.—OF FINAL Y.

"The gaiety of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age."—Mur.
Key, p. 175.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "gaiety" does not here retain the final y of the primitive word gay. But, according to Rule 12th, "The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i before an additional termination." Therefore, this y should be retained; thus, gayety.]

"In the storm of 1703, two thousand stacks of chimnies were blown down, in and about London."—See Red Book, p. 112. "And the vexation was not abated by the hacknied plea of haste."—Ib., p. 142. "The fourth sin of our daies is lukewarmness."—Perkins's Works, p. 725. "God hates the workers of iniquity, and destroies them that speak lies."—Ib., p. 723. "For, when he laies his hand upon us, we may not fret."—Ib., p. 726. "Care not for it; but if thou maiest be free, choose it rather."—Ib., p. 736. "Alexander Severus saith, 'He that buieth, must sell: I will not suffer buyers and sellers of offices.'"—Ib., p. 737. "With these measures fell in all monied men."—SWIFT: Johnson's Dict. "But rattling nonsense in full vollies breaks."—POPE: ib., w. Volley. "Vallies are the intervals betwixt mountains."—WOODWARD: ib. "The Hebrews had fifty-two journies or marches."—Wood's Dict. "It was not possible to manage or steer the gallies thus fastened together."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 106. "Turkies were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of America."—See Gregory's Dict. "I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkies."—See Key. "Men worked at embroidery, especially in abbies."—Constable's Miscellany, Vol. xxi, p. 101. "By which all purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all monies they lay out."—TEMPLE: Johnson's Dict. "He would fly to the mines and the gallies for his recreation."—SOUTH: Ib.

"Here pullies make the pond'rous oak ascend."—GAY: ib.

    ——————"You need my help, and you say,
    Shylock, we would have monies."—SHAKSPEARE: ib.

UNDER RULE XIII.—OF IZE AND ISE.

"Will any able writer authorise other men to revise his works?"—Author.

[FORMULES.—1. Not proper, because the word "authorise" is here written with s in the last syllable, in stead of z. But, according to Rule 13th, "Words ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take the z in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination." Therefore, this s should be z; thus, authorize.

2. Not proper again, because the word "revize" is here written with z in the last syllable, in lieu of s. But, according to Rule 13th, "Words ending in ize or ise sounded alike, as in wise and size, generally take the s, in monosyllables, and all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes." Therefore, this z should be s; thus, revise.]

"It can be made as strong and expressive as this Latinised English."—Murray's Gram., p. 295. "Governed by the success or the failure of an enterprize."—Ib., Vol. ii, pp. 128 and 259. "Who have patronised the cause of justice against powerful oppressors."—Ib., pp. 94 and 228; Merchant, p. 199. "Yet custom authorises this use of it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 148. "They surprize myself, * * * and I even think the writers themselves will be surprized."—Ib., Pref., p. xi. "Let the interest rize to any sum which can be obtained."—Webster's Essays, p. 310. "To determin what interest shall arize on the use of money."—Ib., p. 313. "To direct the popular councils and check a rizing opposition."—Ib., p. 335. "Five were appointed to the immediate exercize of the office."—Ib., p. 340. "No man ever offers himself [as] a candidate by advertizing."—Ib., p. 344. "They are honest and economical, but indolent, and destitute of enterprize."—Ib., p. 347. "I would however advize you to be cautious."—Ib., p. 404. "We are accountable for whatever we patronise in others."—Murray's Key, p. 175. "After he was baptised, and was solemnly admitted into the office."—Perkins's Works, p. 732. "He will find all, or most of them, comprized in the Exercises."—British Gram., Pref., p. v. "A quick and ready habit of methodising and regulating their thoughts."—Ib., p. xviii. "To tyrannise over the time and patience of his reader."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. iii. "Writers of dull books, however, if patronised at all, are rewarded beyond their deserts."—Ib., p. v. "A little reflection, will show the reader the propriety and the reason for emphasising the words marked."—Ib., p. 163. "The English Chronicle contains an account of a surprizing cure."—Red Book, p. 61. "Dogmatise, to assert positively; Dogmatizer, an asserter, a magisterial teacher."—Chalmers's Dict. "And their inflections might now have been easily analysed."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 113. "Authorize, disauthorise, and unauthorized; Temporize, contemporise, and extemporize."—Walkers Dict. "Legalize, equalise, methodise, sluggardize, womanise, humanize, patronise, cantonize, gluttonise, epitomise, anatomize, phlebotomise, sanctuarise, characterize, synonymise, recognise, detonize, colonise."—Ibid.

   "This BEAUTY Sweetness always must comprize,
    Which from the Subject, well express'd will rise."
        —Brightland's Gr., p. 164.

UNDER RULE XIV.—OF COMPOUNDS.

"The glory of the Lord shall be thy rereward."—COMMON BIBLES: Isa., lviii, 8.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the compound word "rereward" has not here the orthography of the two simple words rear and ward, which compose it. But, according to Rule 14th, "Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them." And, the accent being here unfixed, a hyphen is proper. Therefore, this word should be spelled thus, rear-ward.]

"A mere vaunt-courier to announce the coming of his master."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 49. "The parti-coloured shutter appeared to come close up before him."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 233. "When the day broke upon this handfull of forlorn but dauntless spirits."—Ib., p. 245. "If, upon a plumbtree, peaches and apricots are ingrafted, no body will say they are the natural growth of the plumbtree."—Berkley's Minute Philos., p. 45. "The channel between Newfoundland and Labrador is called the Straits of Bellisle."—Worcester's Gaz. "There being nothing that more exposes to Headach." [127]—Locke, on Education, p. 6. "And, by a sleep, to say we end the heartach."—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "He that sleeps, feels not the toothach."—ID., ibid. "That the shoe must fit him, because it fitted his father and granfather."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 431. "A single word, mispelt, in a letter, is sufficient to show, that you have received a defective education."—Bucke's Gram., p. 3. "Which mistatement the committee attributed to a failure of memory."—Professors' Reasons, p. 14. "Then he went through the Banquetting-House to the scaffold."— Smollett's England, Vol. iii, p. 345. "For the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and skoolmaster."—Webster's Essays, p. 355. "They however knew that the lands were claimed by Pensylvania."—Ib., p. 357. "But if you ask a reason, they immediately bid farewel to argument."—Red Book, p. 80. "Whom resist stedfast in the faith."—SCOTT: 1 Peter, v, 9. "And they continued stedfastly in the apostles' doctrine."—Acts, ii, 42. "Beware lest ye also fall from your own stedfastness."—2 Peter, iii, 17. "Galiot, or galliott, a Dutch vessel, carrying a main-mast and a mizen-mast."—Web. Dict. "Infinitive, to overflow; Preterit, overflowed; Participle, overflown."—Cobbett's E. Gram., (1818,) p. 61. "After they have mispent so much precious Time."—British Gram., p. xv. "Some say, two handsfull; some, two handfulls; and others, two handfull."— Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 106. "Lapfull, as much as the lap can contain."—Webster's Octavo Dict. "Darefull, full of defiance."— Walker's Rhym. Dict. "The road to the blissfull regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 167. "Mis-spel is mis-spell in every Dictionary which I have seen."—Barnes's Red Book. p. 303. "Downfal; ruin, calamity, fall from rank or state."—Johnson's Dict. "The whole legislature likewize acts az a court."—Webster's Essays, p. 340. "It were better a milstone were hanged about his neck."—Perkins's Works, p. 731. "Plum-tree, a tree that produces plums; Hog-plumbtree, a tree."—Webster's Dict. "Trisyllables ending in re or le, accent the first syllable."—Murray's Gram., p. 238.

   "It happen'd on a summer's holiday,
    That to the greenwood shade he took his way."
        —Churchill's Gr., p. 135.

UNDER RULE XV.—OF USAGE.

"Nor are the modes of the Greek tongue more uniform."—Murray's Gram., p. 112.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "modes" is here written for moods, which is more common among the learned, and usually preferred by Murray himself. But, according to Rule 15th, "Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned." Therefore, the latter form should be preferred; thus, moods, and not modes.]

"If we analize a conjunctive preterite, the rule will not appear to hold."—Priestley's Gram., p. 118. "No landholder would have been at that expence."—Ib., p. 116. "I went to see the child whilst they were putting on its cloaths."—Ib., p. 125. "This stile is ostentatious, and doth not suit grave writing."—Ib., p. 82. "The king of Israel, and Jehosophat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."—Mur. Gram., p. 165, twice; Merchant's, 89; Churchill's, 300. "The king of Israel, and Jehosaphat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."—Lowth's Gram., p. 90; Harrison's, 99; Churchill's, 138; Wright's, 148. "Lisias, speaking of his friends, promised to his father, never to abandon them."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, pp. 121 and 253. "Some, to avoid this errour, run into it's opposite."—Churchill's Gram., p. 199. "Hope, the balm of life, sooths us under every misfortune."—Merchants Key, p. 204. "Any judgement or decree might be heerd and reversed by the legislature."—Webster's Essays, p. 340. "A pathetic harang wil skreen from punishment any knave."—Ib., p. 341. "For the same reezon, the wimen would be improper judges."—Ibid. "Every person iz indulged in worshiping az he pleezes."—Ib., p. 345. "Most or all teechers are excluded from genteel company."—Ib., p. 362. "The Kristian religion, in its purity, iz the best institution on erth."—Ib., p. 364. "Neether clergymen nor human laws hav the leest authority over the conscience."—Ib., p. 363. "A gild is a society, fraternity, or corporation."—Red Book, p. 83. "Phillis was not able to unty the knot, and so she cut it."—Ib., p. 46. "An aker of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches."—Ib., p. 93. "Oker is a fossil earth combined with the oxid of some metal."—Ib., p. 96. "Genii, when denoting ærial spirits: Geniuses, when signifying persons of genius."—Mur.'s Gram., i, p. 42. "Genii, when denoting æriel spirits; Geniuses, when signifying persons of genius."—Frost's Gram., p. 9. "Genius, Plu. geniuses, men of wit; but genii, ærial beings."—Nutting's Gram., p. 18. "Aerisius, king of Argos, had a beautiful daughter, whose name was Danæ."—Classic Tales, p. 109. "Phæton was the son of Apollo and Clymene."—Ib., p. 152. "But, after all, I may not have reached the intended Gaol."—Buchanan's Syntax, Pref., p. xxvii. "'Pitticus was offered a large sum.' Better: 'A large sum was offered to Pitticus.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 187. "King Missipsi charged his sons to respect the senate and people of Rome."—See ib., p. 161. "For example: Gallileo invented the telescope."—Ib., pp. 54 and 67. "Cathmor's warriours sleep in death."—Ib., p. 54. "For parsing will enable you to detect and correct errours in composition."—Ib., p. 50.

   "O'er barren mountains, o'er the flow'ry plain,
    Extends thy uncontroul'd and boundless reign."—Dryden.

PROMISCUOUS ERRORS IN SPELLING.

LESSON I.—MIXED.

"A bad author deserves better usage than a bad critick."—POPE: Johnson's Dict., w. Former. "Produce a single passage superiour to the speech of Logan, a Mingo chief, delivered to Lord Dunmore, when governour of Virginia."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 247. "We have none synonimous to supply its place."—Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 48. "There is a probability that the effect will be accellerated."—Ib., p. 48. "Nay, a regard to sound hath controuled the public choice."—Ib., p. 46. "Though learnt from the uninterrupted use of gutterel sounds."—Ib., p. 5. "It is by carefully filing off all roughness and inequaleties, that languages, like metals, must be polished."—Ib., p. 48. "That I have not mispent my time in the service of the community."—Buchanan's Syntax, Pref., p. xxviii. "The leaves of maiz are also called blades."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 43. "Who boast that they know what is past, and can foretel what is to come."—Robertson's Amer., Vol. i, p. 360. "Its tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities."— Abbott's Teacher, p. 18. "Sentences constructed with the Johnsonian fullness and swell."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 130. "The privilege of escaping from his prefatory dullness and prolixity."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. iv. "But in poetry this characteristick of dulness attains its full growth."—Ib., p. 72. "The leading characteristick consists in an increase of the force and fullness."—Ib., p. 71. "The character of this opening fulness and feebler vanish."—Ib., p. 31. "Who, in the fullness of unequalled power, would not believe himself the favourite of heaven?"—Ib., p. 181. "They marr one another, and distract him."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 433. "Let a deaf worshipper of antiquity and an English prosodist settle this."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 140. "This phillipic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence."— Merchant's Criticisms. "We here saw no inuendoes, no new sophistry, no falsehoods."—Ib. "A witty and humourous vein has often produced enemies."—Murray's Key, p. 173. "Cry holla! to thy tongue, I pr'ythee: it curvetts unseasonably."—Shak. "I said, in my slyest manner, 'Your health, sir.'"—Blackwood's Mag., Vol. xl, p. 679. "And attornies also travel the circuit in pursute of business."—Red Book, p. 83. "Some whole counties in Virginia would hardly sel for the valu of the dets du from the inhabitants."—Webster's Essays, p. 301. "They were called the court of assistants, and exercized all powers legislativ and judicial."—Ib., p. 340. "Arithmetic is excellent for the guaging of liquors."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 288. "Most of the inflections may be analysed in a way somewhat similar."—Ib., p. 112.

   "To epithets allots emphatic state,
    Whilst principals, ungrac'd, like lacquies wait."
        —C. Churchill's Ros., p. 8.

LESSON II.—MIXED.

"Hence it [less] is a privative word, denoting destitution; as, fatherless, faithless, pennyless."—Webster's Dict., w. Less. "Bay; red, or reddish, inclining to a chesnut color."—Same. "To mimick, to imitate or ape for sport; a mimic, one who imitates or mimics."—Ib. "Counterroil, a counterpart or copy of the rolls; Counterrolment, a counter account."—Ib. "Millenium, the thousand years during which Satan shall be bound."—Ib. "Millenial, pertaining to the millenium, or to a thousand years."—Ib. "Thraldom; slavery, bondage, a state of servitude."—See Johnson's Dict. "Brier, a prickly bush; Briery, rough, prickly, full of briers; Sweetbriar, a fragrant shrub."—See Johnson, Walker, Chalmers, Webster, and others. "Will, in the second and third Persons, barely foretels."—British Gram., p. 132. "And therefor there is no Word false, but what is distinguished by Italics."—Ib., Pref., p. v. "What should be repeted is left to their Discretion."—Ib., p. iv. "Because they are abstracted or seperated from material Substances."—Ib., p. ix. "All Motion is in Time, and therefor, where-ever it exists, implies Time as its Concommitant."—Ib., p. 140. "And illiterate grown persons are guilty of blameable spelling."—Ib., Pref., p. xiv. "They wil always be ignorant, and of ruf uncivil manners."—Webster's Essays, p. 346. "This fact wil hardly be beleeved in the northern states."—Ib., p. 367. "The province however waz harrassed with disputes."—Ib., p. 352. "So little concern haz the legislature for the interest of lerning."—Ib., p. 349. "The gentlemen wil not admit that a skoolmaster can be a gentleman."—Ib., p. 362. "Such absurd qui-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided."—Churchill's Gram., p. 205. "When we say, 'a man looks slyly;' we signify, that he assumes a sly look."—Ib., p. 339. "Peep; to look through a crevice; to look narrowly, closely, or slyly."—Webster's Dict. "Hence the confession has become a hacknied proverb."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 110. "Not to mention the more ornamental parts of guilding, varnish, &c."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 20. "After this system of self-interest had been rivetted."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 136. "Prejudice might have prevented the cordial approbation of a bigotted Jew."—SCOTT: on Luke, x.

   "All twinkling with the dew-drop sheen,
    The briar-rose fell in streamers green."—Lady of the Lake, p. 16.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"The infinitive mode has commonly the sign to before it."—Harrison's Gram., p. 25. "Thus, it is adviseable to write singeing, from the verb to singe, by way of distinction from singing, the participle of the verb to sing."—Ib., p. 27. "Many verbs form both the preterite tense and the preterite participle irregularly."—Ib., p. 28. "Much must be left to every one's taste and judgment."—Ib., p. 67. "Verses of different lengths intermixed form a Pindarick poem."—Priestley's Gram., p. 44. "He'll surprize you."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 88. "Unequalled archer! why was this concealed?"—KNOWLES: ib., p. 102. "So gaily curl the waves before each dashing prow."—BYRON: ib., p. 104. "When is a dipthong called a proper dipthong?"—Infant School Gram., p. 11. "How many ss would goodness then end with? Three."—Ib., p. 33. "Q. What is a tripthong? A. A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner."—Bacon's Gram., p. 7. "The verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken seperately."—Ib., p. 47. "The cubic foot of matter which occupies the center of the globe."—Cardell's Gram., 18mo, p. 47. "The wine imbibes oxigen, or the acidifying principle, from the air."—Ib., p. 62. "Charcoal, sulphur, and niter, make gun powder."—Ib., p. 90. "It would be readily understood, that the thing so labeled, was a bottle of Madeira wine."—Ib., p. 99. "They went their ways, one to his farm, an other to his merchandize."—Ib., p. 130. "A dipthong is the union of two vowels, sounded by a single impulse of the voice."—Russell's Gram., p. 7. "The professors of the Mahommedan religion are called Mussulmans."—Maltby's Gram., p. 73. "This shews that let is not a sign of the imperative mood, but a real verb."—Ib., p. 51. "Those preterites and participles, which are first mentioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible."—Ib., p. 47. "Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er and est; and dyssyllables by more and most."—Ib., p. 19. "This termination, added to a noun, or adjective, changes it into a verb: as modern, to modernise; a symbol, to symbolize."—Churchill's Gram., p. 24. "An Abridgment of Murray's Grammar, with additions from Webster, Ash, Tooke, and others."—Maltby's title-page. "For the sake of occupying the room more advantagously, the subject of Orthography is merely glanced at."—Nutting's Gram., p. 5. "So contended the accusers of Gallileo."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., 12mo, 1839, p. 380. "Murray says, 'They were traveling past when we met them.'"—Peirce, ib., p. 361. "They fulfil the only purposes for which they are designed."—Ib., p. 359. "On the fulfillment of the event."—Ib., p. 175. "Fullness consists in expressing every idea."—Ib., p. 291. "Consistently with fulness and perspicuity."—Ib., p. 337. "The word verriest is a gross corruption; as, 'He is the verriest fool on earth.'"—Wright's Gram., p. 202. "The sound will recal the idea of the object."—Hiley's Gram., p. 142. "Formed for great enterprizes."—Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram., p. 153. "The most important rules and definitions are printed in large type, italicised."—Hart's Gram., p. 3. "HAMLETTED, a. Accustomed to a hamlet; countrified."— Bolles's Dict., and Chalmers's. "Singular, spoonful, cup-full, coach-full, handful; plural, spoonfuls, cup-fulls, coach-fulls, handfuls."—Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 27.

   "Between Superlatives and following Names,
    OF, by Grammatick Right, a Station claims."
        —Brightland's Gram., p. 146.

CHAPTER V.—QUESTIONS.

ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.

[Fist][The student ought to be able to answer with readiness, and in the words of the book, all the following questions on grammar. And if he has but lately commenced the study, it may be well to require of him a general rehearsal of this kind, before he proceeds to the correction of any part of the false grammar quoted in the foregoing chapters. At any rate, he should be master of so many of the definitions and rules as precede the part which he attempts to correct; because this knowledge is necessary to a creditable performance of the exercise. But those who are very quick at reading, may perform it tolerably, by consulting the book at the time, for what they do not remember. The answers to these questions will embrace all the main text of the work; and, if any further examination be thought necessary, extemporaneous questions may be framed for the purpose.]

LESSON I.—GRAMMAR.

1. What is the name, or title, of this book? 2. What is Grammar? 3. What is an English Grammar? 4. What is English Grammar, in itself? and what knowledge does it imply? 5. If grammar is the art of reading, writing, and speaking, define these actions. What is it, to read? 6. What is it, to write? 7. What is it, to speak? 8. How is grammar to be taught, and by what means are its principles to be made known? 9. What is a perfect definition? 10. What is an example, as used in teaching? 11. What is a rule of grammar? 12. What is an exercise? 13. What was language at first, and what is it now? 14. Of what two kinds does the composition of language consist? and how do they differ? 15. What are the least parts of language? 16. What has discourse to do with sentences? or sentences, with points? 17. In extended compositions, what is the order of the parts, upwards from a sentence? 18. What, then, is the common order of literary division, downwards, throughout? 19. Are all literary works divided exactly in this way? 20. How is Grammar divided? 21. Of what does Orthography treat? 22. Of what does Etymology treat? 23. Of what does Syntax treat? 24. Of what does Prosody treat?

PART FIRST, ORTHOGRAPHY.

LESSON II.—LETTERS.

1. Of what does Orthography treat? 2. What is a letter? 3. What is an elementary sound of human voice, or speech? 4. What name is given to the sound of a letter? and what epithet, to a letter not sounded? 5. How many letters are there in English? and how many sounds do they represent? 6. In what does a knowledge of the letters consist? 7. What variety is there in the letters? and how are they always the same? 8. What different sorts of types, or styles of letters, are used in English? 9. What are the names of the letters in English? 10. What are their names in both numbers, singular and plural? 11. Into what general classes are the letters divided? 12. What is a vowel? 13. What is a consonant? 14. What letters are vowels? and what, consonants? 15. When are w and y consonants? and when, vowels? 16. How are the consonants divided? 17. What is a semivowel? 18. What is a mute? 19. What letters are reckoned semivowels? and how many of these are aspirates? 20. What letters are called liquids? and why? 21. What letters are reckoned mutes? and which of them are imperfect mutes?

LESSON III.—SOUNDS.

1. What is meant, when we speak of the powers of the letters? 2. Are the sounds of a language fewer than its words? 3. How are different vowel sounds produced? 4. What are the vowel sounds in English? 5. How may these sounds be modified in the formation of syllables? 6. Can you form a word upon each by means of an f? 7. Will you try the series again with a p? 8. How may the vowel sounds be written? and how uttered when they are not words? 9. Which of the vowel sounds form words? and what of the rest? 10. How many and what are the consonant sounds in English? 11. In what series of words may all these sounds be heard? 12. In what series of words may each of them be heard two or three times? 13. What is said of the sounds of j and x? 14. What is said of the sounds of c and g? 15. What is said of sc, or s before c? 16. What, of ce, ci, and ch? 17. What sounds has the consonant g? 18. In how many different ways can the letters of the alphabet be combined? 19. What do we derive from these combinations of sounds and characters?

LESSON IV.—CAPITALS.

1. What characters are employed in English? 2. Why should the different sorts of letters be kept distinct? 3. What is said of the slanting strokes in Roman letters? 4. For what purpose are Italics chiefly used? 5. In preparing a manuscript, how do we mark these things for the printer? 6. What distinction of form belongs to each of the letters? 7. What is said of small letters? and why are capitals used? 8. What things are commonly exhibited wholly in capitals? 9. How many rules for capitals are given in this book? and what are their titles? 10. What says Rule 1st of books? 11. What says Rule 2d of first words? 12. What says Rule 3d of names of Deity? 13. What says Rule 4th of proper names? 14. What says Rule 5th of titles? 15. What says Rule 6th of one capital? 16. What says Rule 7th of two capitals? 17. What says Rule 8th of compounds? 18. What says Rule 9th of apposition? 19. What says Rule 10th of personifications? 20. What says Rule 11th of derivatives? 21. What says Rule 12th of I and O? 22. What says Rule 13th of poetry? 23. What says Rule 14th of examples? 24. What says Rule 15th of chief words? 25. What says Rule 16th of needless capitals?

[Now turn to the first chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]

LESSON V.—SYLLABLES.

1. What is a syllable? 2. Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear? 3. Under what names are words classed according to the number of their syllables? 4. Which of the letters can form syllables of themselves? and which cannot? 5. What is a diphthong? 6. What is a proper diphthong? 7. What is an improper diphthong? 8. What is a triphthong? 9. What is a proper triphthong? 10. What is an improper triphthong? 11. How many and what are the diphthongs in English? 12. How many and which of these are so variable in sound that they may be either proper or improper diphthongs? 13. How many and what are the proper diphthongs? 14. How many and what are the improper diphthongs? 15. Are proper triphthongs numerous in our language? 16. How many and what are the improper triphthongs? 17. What guide have we for dividing words into syllables? 18. How many special rules of syllabication are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 19. What says Rule 1st of consonants? 20. What says Rule 2d of vowels? 21. What says Rule 3d of terminations? 22. What says Rule 4th of prefixes? 23. What says Rule 5th of compounds? 24. What says Rule 6th of lines full?

[Now turn to the second chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]

LESSON VI.—WORDS.

1. What is a word? 2. How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure? 3. What is a primitive word? 4. What is a derivative word? 5. What is a simple word? 6. What is a compound word? 7. How do permanent compounds differ from others? 8. How many rules for the figure of words are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 9. What says Rule 1st of compounds? 10. What says Rule 2d of simples? 11. What says Rule 3d of the sense? 12. What says Rule 4th of ellipses? 13. What says Rule 5th of the hyphen? 14. What says Rule 6th of no hyphen?

[Now turn to the third chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules.]

LESSON VII.—SPELLING.

1. What is spelling? 2. How is this art to be acquired? and why so? 3. Why is it difficult to learn to spell accurately? 4. Is it then any disgrace to spell words erroneously? 5. What benefit may be expected from the rules for spelling? 6. How many rules for spelling are given in this book? and what are their titles, or subjects? 7. What says Rule 1st of final f, l, or s? 8. Can you mention the principal exceptions to this rule? 9. What says Rule 2d of other finals? 10. Are there any exceptions to this rule? 11. What says Rule 3d of the doubling of consonants? 12. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 13. What says Rule 4th against the doubling of consonants? 14. Under what four heads are the apparent exceptions to this Rule noticed? 15. What says Rule 5th of final ck? 16. What monosyllables, contrary to this rule, end with c only? 17. What says Rule 6th of the retaining of double letters before affixes? 18. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 19. What says Rule 7th of the retaining of double letters after prefixes? 20. What observation is made respecting exceptions to this rule?

LESSON VIII.—SPELLING.

21. What says Rule 8th of final ll, and of final l single? 22. What words does this rule claim, which might seem to come under Rule 7th? and why? 23. What says Rule 9th of final e omitted? 24. Under what three heads are the exceptions, real or apparent, here noticed? 25. What says Rule 10th of final e retained? 26. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 27. What says Rule 11th of final y changed? 28. Under what three heads are the limits and exceptions to this rule noticed? 29. What says Rule 12th of final y unchanged? 30. Under what three heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 31. What says Rule 13th of the terminations ize and ise? 32. Under what three heads are the apparent exceptions to this rule noticed? 33. What says Rule 14th of compounds? 34. Under what seven heads are the exceptions to this rule noticed? 35. What says Rule 15th of usage, as a law of spelling?

[Now turn to the fourth chapter of Orthography, and correct the improprieties there quoted for the practical application of these rules and their exceptions.]

CHAPTER VI.—FOR WRITING.

EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY.

[Fist] [The following examples of false orthography are inserted here, and not explained in the general Key, that they may he corrected by the pupil in writing. Some of the examples here quoted are less inaccurate than others, but all of them, except a few shown in contrast, are, in some respect or other, erroneous. It is supposed, that every student who can answer the questions contained in the preceding chapter, will readily discern wherein the errors lie, and be able to make the necessary corrections.]

EXERCISE I.—CAPITALS.

"Alexander the great killed his friend Clitus."—Harrison's Gram., p. 68. "The words in italics are parsed in the same manner."—Maltby's Gram., p. 69. "It may be read by those who do not understand latin."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 262. "A roman s being added to a word in italics or small capitals."—Churchill's Gram., p. 215. "This is not simply a gallicism, but a corruption of the French on; itself a corruption."— Ib., p. 228. "The Gallicism, 'it is me,' is perpetually striking the ear in London."—Ib., p. 316. "'Almost nothing,' is a common Scotticism, equally improper: it should be, 'scarcely any thing.'"—Ib., p. 333. "To use learn for teach, is a common Scotticism, that ought to be carefully avoided."—See ib., p. 261. "A few observations on the subjunctive mood as it appears in our English bible."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 40. "The translators of the bible, have confounded two tenses, which in the original are uniformly kept distinct."—Ib., p. 40. "More like heaven on earth, than the holy land would have been."—Anti-Slavery Mag., Vol. i, p. 72. "There is now extant a poetical composition, called the golden verses of Pythagoras."— Lempriere's Dict. "Exercise of the Mind upon Theorems of Science, like generous and manly Exercise of the Body, tends to call forth and strengthen Nature's original Vigour."—Harris's Hermes, p. 295. "O that I could prevail on Christians to melt down, under the warm influence of brotherly love, all the distinctions of methodists, independents, baptists, anabaptists, arians, trinitarians, unitarians, in the glorious name of christians."—KNOX: Churchill's Gram., p. 173. "Pythagoras long ago remarked, 'that ability and necessity dwell near each other.'"—Student's Manual, p. 285.

   "The Latin Writers Decency neglect,
    But modern Readers challenge more Respect."
        —Brightland's Gram., p. 172.

EXERCISE II.—SYLLABLES.

1. Correct Bolles, in the division of the following words: "Del-ia, Jul-ia, Lyd-ia, heigh-ten, pat-ron, ad-roit, worth-y, fath-er, fath-er-ly, mar-chi-o-ness, i-dent-ic-al, out-ra-ge-ous, ob-nox-i-ous, pro-di-gi-ous, tre-mend-ous, ob-liv-i-on, pe-cul-i-ar."—Revised Spelling-Book: New London, 1831.

2. Correct Sears, in the division of the following words: "A-quil-a, hear-ty, drea-ry, wor-my, hai-ry, thor-ny, phil-os-o-phy, dis-cov-e-ry, re-cov-e-ry, ad-diti-on, am-biti-on, au-spici-ous, fac-titi-ous, fla-giti-ous, fru-iti-on, sol-stiti-al, ab-o-liti-on."—Standard Spelling-Book: "New Haven," 1826.

3. Correct Bradley, in the division of the following words: "Jes-ter, rai-ny, forg-e-ry, fin-e-ry, spic-e-ry, brib-e-ry, groc-e-ry, chi-can-e-ry, fer-riage, line-age, cri-ed, tri-ed, sù-ed, slic-ed, forc-ed, pledg-ed, sav-ed, dup-ed, strip-ed, touch-ed, trounc-ed."—Improved Spelling-Book: Windsor, 1815.

4. Correct Burhans, in the division of the following words: "Boar-der, brigh-ten, cei-ling, frigh-ten, glea-ner, lea-kage, suc-ker, mos-sy, fros-ty, twop-ence, pu-pill-ar-y, crit-i-call-y, gen-er-all-y, lit-er-all-y, log-i-call-y, trag-i-call-y, ar-ti-fici-al, po-liti-call-y, sloth-full-y, spite-full-y, re-all-y, sui-ta-ble, ta-mea-ble, flumm-er-y, nesc-i-ence, shep-her-dess, trav-ell-er, re-pea-ter, re-pressi-on, suc-cessi-on, un-lear-ned."—Critical Pronouncing Spelling-Book:[128] Philadelphia, 1823.

5. Correct Marshall, in the division of the following words: "Trench-er, trunch-eon, dros-sy, glos-sy, glas-sy, gras-sy, dres-ses, pres-ses, cal-ling, chan-ging, en-chan-ging, con-ver-sing, mois-ture, join-ture, qua-drant, qua-drate, trans-gres-sor, dis-es-teem."—New Spelling-Book: New York, 1836.

6. Correct Emerson, in the division of the following words: "Dus-ty mis-ty, mar-shy, mil-ky, wes-tern, stor-my, nee-dy, spee-dy, drea-ry, fros-ty, pas-sing, roc-ky, bran-chy, bland-ish, pru-dish, eve-ning, a-noth-er."—National Spelling-Book: Boston, 1828.

   "Two Vowels meeting, each with its full Sound,
    Always to make Two Syllables are bound."—Brightland's Gram., p. 64.

EXERCISE III.—FIGURE OF WORDS.

"I was surprised by the return of my long lost brother."—Parker's Exercises in English Composition, p. 5. "Such singular and unheard of clemency cannot be passed over by me in silence."—Ib., p. 10. "I perceive my whole system excited by the potent stimulus of sun-shine."—Ib., p. 11. "To preserve the unity of a sentence, it is sometimes necessary to employ the case absolute, instead of the verb and conjunction."—Ib., p. 17. "Severity and hard hearted opinions accord with the temper of the times."—Ib., p. 18. "That poor man was put into the mad house."—Ib., p. 22. "This fellow must be put into the poor house."—Ib. p. 22. "I have seen the breast works and other defences of earth, that were thrown up."—Ib., p. 24. "Cloven footed animals are enabled to walk more easily on uneven ground."—Ib., p. 25. "Self conceit blasts the prospects of many a youth."—Ib., p. 26. "Not a moment should elapse without bringing some thing to pass."—Ib., p. 36. "A school master decoyed the children of the principal citizens into the Roman camp."—Ib., p. 39. "The pupil may now write a description of the following objects. A school room. A steam boat. A writing desk. A dwelling house. A meeting house. A paper mill. A grist mill. A wind mill."—Ib., p. 45. "Every metaphor should be founded on a resemblance which is clear and striking; not far fetched, nor difficult to be discovered."—Ib., p. 49. "I was reclining in an arbour overhung with honey suckle and jessamine of the most exquisite fragrance."—Ib., p. 51. "The author of the following extract is speaking of the slave trade."—Ib., p. 60. "The all wise and benevolent Author of nature has so framed the soul of man, that he cannot but approve of virtue."—Ib., p. 74. "There is something of self denial in the very idea of it."—Ib., p. 75. "Age therefore requires a well spent youth to render it happy."—Ib., p. 76. "Pearl-ash requires much labour in its extraction from ashes."—Ib., p. 91. "Club, or crump, footed, Loripes; Rough, or leather, footed, Plumipes."—Ainsworth's Dict.

   "The honey-bags steal from the humble bees,
    And for night-tapers crop their waxen thighs."
        —SHAK.: Joh.'s Dict., w. Glowworm.

   "The honeybags steal from the bumblebees,
    And for night tapers crop their waxen thighs."
        —SHAK.: Joh.'s Dict., w. Humblebee.

   "The honey bags steal from the humble-bees,
    And, for night tapers crop their waxen thighs."
        —Dodd's Beauties of Shak., p. 51.

EXERCISE IV.—SPELLING.

"His antichamber, and room of audience, are little square chambers wainscoted."—ADDISON: Johnson's Dict., w. Antechamber. "Nobody will deem the quicksighted amongst them to have very enlarged views of ethicks."—LOCKE: Ib., w. Quicksighted. "At the rate of this thick-skulled blunderhead, every plow-jobber shall take upon him to read upon divinity."—L'ESTRANGE: Ib., m. Blunderhead. "On the topmast, the yards, and boltsprit would I flame distinctly."—SHAK.: Ib., w. Bowsprit. "This is the tune of our catch plaid by the picture of nobody."—ID.: Ib., w. Nobody. "Thy fall hath left a kind of blot to mark the fulfraught man."—ID.: Ib., w. Fulfraught. "Till blinded by some Jack o'Lanthorn sprite."—Snelling's Gift, p. 62. "The beauties you would have me eulogise."—Ib., p. 14. "They rail at me—I gaily laugh at them."—Ib., p. 13. "Which the king and his sister had intrusted to him withall."—Josephus, Vol. v, p. 143. "The terms of these emotions are by no means synonimous."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 336. "Lillied, adj. Embellished with lilies."—Chalmers's Dict. "They seize the compendious blessing without exertion and without reflexion."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 428. "The first cry that rouses them from their torpour, is the cry that demands their blood."—Ib., p. 433. "It meets the wants of elementary schools and deserves to be patronised."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 5. "Whose attempts were paralysed by the hallowed sound."—Music of Nature, p. 270. "It would be an amusing investigation to analyse their language."—Ib., p. 200. "It is my father's will that I should take on me the hostess-ship of the day."—SHAK.: in Johnson's Dict. "To retain the full apprehension of them undiminisht."—Phil. Museum., Vol. i, p. 458. "The ayes and noes were taken in the House of Commons."—Anti-Slavery Mag., Vol. i, p. 11. "Derivative words are formed by adding letters or syllables to primatives."—Davenport's Gram., p. 7. "The minister never was thus harrassed himself."—Nelson, on Infidelity, p. 6. "The most vehement politician thinks himself unbiassed in his judgment."—Ib., p. 17. "Mistress-ship, n. Female rule or dominion."—Webster's Dict.

   "Thus forced to kneel, thus groveling to embrace,
    The scourge and ruin of my realm and race."
        —POPE: Ash's Gram., p. 83.

EXERCISE V.—MIXED ERRORS.

"The quince tree is of a low stature; the branches are diffused and crooked."—MILLER: Johnson's Dict. "The greater slow worm, called also the blindworm, is commonly thought to be blind, because of the littleness of his eyes."—GREW: ib. "Oh Hocus! where art thou? It used to go in another guess manner in thy time."—ARBUTHNOT: ib. "One would not make a hotheaded crackbrained coxcomb forward for a scheme of moderation."—ID.: ib. "As for you, colonel huff-cap, we shall try before a civil magistrate who's the greatest plotter."—DRYDEN: ib., w. Huff. "In like manner, Actions co-alesce with their Agents, and Passions with their Patients."—Harris's Hermes, p. 263. "These Sentiments are not unusual even with the Philosopher now a days."—Ib., p. 350. "As if the Marble were to fashion the Chizzle, and not the Chizzle the Marble."—Ib., p. 353. "I would not be understood, in what I have said, to undervalue Experiment."—Ib., p. 352. "How therefore is it that they approach nearly to Non-Entity's?"—Ib., p. 431. "Gluttonise, modernise, epitomise, barbarise, tyranise."—Churchill's Gram., pp. 31 and 42. "Now fair befal thee and thy noble house!"—SHAK.: ib., p. 241. "Nor do I think the error above-mentioned would have been so long indulged," &c.—Ash's Gram., p. 4. "The editor of the two editions above mentioned was pleased to give this little manuel to the public," &c.—Ib., p. 7. "A Note of Admiration denotes a modelation of the voice suited to the expression."—Ib., p. 16. "It always has some respect to the power of the agent; and is therefore properly stiled the potential mode."—Ib., p. 29. "Both these are supposed to be synonomous expressions."—Ib., p. 105. "An expence beyond what my circumstances admit."—DODDRIDGE: ib., p. 138. "There are four of them: the Full-Point, or Period; the Colon; the Semi-Colon; the Comma."—Cobbett's E. Gram., N. Y., 1818, p. 77. "There are many men, who have been at Latin-Schools for years, and who, at last, cannot write six sentences in English correctly."—Ib., p. 39. "But, figures of rhetorick are edge tools, and two edge tools too."—Ib., p. 182. "The horse-chesnut grows into a goodly standard."—MORTIMER: Johnson's Dict. "Whereever if is to be used."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 175.

   "Peel'd, patch'd, and pyebald, linsey-woolsey brothers."
        —POPE: Joh. Dict., w., Mummer.

   "Peel'd, patch'd, and piebald, linsey-woolsey brothers."
        —ID.: ib., w. Piebald.

EXERCISE VI.—MIXED ERRORS.

"Pied, adj. [from pie.] Variegated; partycoloured."—Johnson's Dict. "Pie, [pica, Lat.] A magpie; a party-coloured bird."—Ib. "Gluy, adj. [from glue.] Viscous; tenacious; glutinous."—Ib. "Gluey, a. Viscous, glutinous. Glueyness. n. The quality of being gluey."—Webster's Dict. "Old Euclio, seeing a crow-scrat[129] upon the muck-hill, returned in all haste, taking it for an ill sign."—BURTON: Johnson's Dict. "Wars are begun by hairbrained[130] dissolute captains."—ID.: ib. "A carot is a well known garden root."—Red Book, p. 60. "Natural philosophy, metaphysicks, ethicks, history, theology, and politicks, were familiar to him."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 209. "The words in Italicks and capitals, are emphatick."—Ib., p. 210. "It is still more exceptionable; Candles, Cherrys, Figs, and other sorts of Plumbs, being sold by Weight, and being Plurals."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 135. "If the End of Grammar be not to save that Trouble, and Expence of Time, I know not what it is good for."—Ib., p. 161. "Caulce, Sheep Penns, or the like, has no Singular, according to Charisius."—Ib., p. 194. "These busibodies are like to such as reade bookes with intent onely to spie out the faults thereof"—Perkins's Works, p. 741. "I think it every man's indispensible duty, to do all the service he can to his country."—Locke, on Ed., p. 4. "Either fretting it self into a troublesome Excess, or flaging into a downright want of Appetite."—Ib., p. 23. "And nobody would have a child cramed at breakfast."—Ib., p. 23. "Judgeship and judgment, lodgable and alledgeable, alledgement and abridgment, lodgment and infringement, enlargement and acknowledgment."—Webster's Dict., 8vo. "Huckster, n. s. One who sells goods by retail, or in small quantities; a pedler."—Johnson's Dict.

   "He seeks bye-streets, and saves th' expensive coach."
        —GAY: ib., w. Mortgage.

   "He seeks by-streets, and saves th' expensive coach."
        —GAY: ib., w. By-street.

EXERCISE VII.—MIXED ERRORS.

"Boys like a warm fire in a wintry day."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 62. "The lilly is a very pretty flower."—Ib., p. 62. "The potatoe is a native plant of America."—Ib., p. 60. "An anglicism is a peculiar mode of speech among the English."—Ib., p. 136. "Black berries and raspberries grow on briars."—Ib., p. 150. "You can broil a beef steak over the coals of fire."—Ib., p. 38. "Beef'-steak, n. A steak or slice of beef for broiling."—Webster's Dict. "Beef'steak, s. a slice of beef for broiling."—Treasury of Knowledge. "As he must suffer in case of the fall of merchandize, he is entitled to the corresponding gain if merchandize rises."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 258. "He is the worshipper of an hour, but the worldling for life."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 424. "Slyly hinting something to the disadvantage of great and honest men."—Webster's Essays, p. 329. "'Tis by this therefore that I Define the Verb; namely, that it is a Part of Speech, by which something is apply'd to another, as to its Subject."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 255. "It may sometimes throw a passing cloud over the bright hour of gaiety."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 178. "To criticize, is to discover errors; and to crystalize implies to freeze or congele."—Red Book, p. 68. "The affectation of using the preterite instead of the participle, is peculiarly aukward; as, he has came."—Priestley's Grammar, p. 125. "They are moraly responsible for their individual conduct."—Cardell's El. Gram., p. 21. "An engine of sixty horse power, is deemed of equal force with a team of sixty horses."—Red Book, p. 113. "This, at fourpence per ounce, is two shillings and fourpence a week, or six pounds, one shining and four pence a year."—Ib., p. 122. "The tru meening of parliament iz a meeting of barons or peers."—Webster's Essays, p. 276. "Several authorities seem at leest to favor this opinion."—Ib., p. 277. "That iz, az I hav explained the tru primitiv meening of the word."—Ib., p. 276. "The lords are peers of the relm; that iz, the ancient prescriptiv judges or barons."—Ib., p. 274.

   "Falshood is folly, and 'tis just to own
    The fault committed; this was mine alone."
        —Pope, Odys., B. xxii, l. 168.

EXERCISE VIII—MIXED ERRORS.

"A second verb so nearly synonimous with the first, is at best superfluous."—Churchill's Gram., p. 332. "Indicate it, by some mark opposite [to] the word misspelt."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 74. "And succesfully controling the tendencies of mind."—Ib., p. 24. "It [the Monastick Life] looks very like what we call Childrens-Play."—[LESLIE'S] Right of Tythes, p. 236. "It seems rather lik Playing of Booty, to Please those Fools and Knaves."—Ib., Pref., p. vi. "And first I Name Milton, only for his Name, lest the Party should say, that I had not Cousider'd his Performance against Tythes."—Ib., p. iv. "His Fancy was too Predominant for his Judgment. His Talent lay so much in Satyr that he hated Reasoning."—Ib., p. iv. "He has thrown away some of his Railery against Tythes, and the Church then underfoot."—Ib., p. v. "They Vey'd with one another in these things."—Ib., p. 220. "Epamanondas was far the most accomplished of the Thebans."—Cooper's New Gram., p. 27. "Whoever and Whichever, are thus declined. Sing. and Plur. nom. whoever, poss. whoseever, obj. whomever. Sing. and Plu. nom. whichever, poss. whoseever, obj. whichever."—Ib., p. 38. "WHEREEVER, adv. [where and ever.] At whatever place."—Webster's Dict. "They at length took possession of all the country south of the Welch mountains."—Dobson's Comp. Gram., p. 7. "Those Britains, who refused to submit to the foreign yoke, retired into Wales."—Ib., p. 6. "Religion is the most chearful thing in the world."—Ib., p. 43. "Two means the number two compleatly, whereas second means only the last of two, and so of all the rest."—Ib., p. 44. "Now send men to Joppa, and call for one Simon, whose sirname is Peter."—Ib., p. 96. (See Acts, x, 5.) "In French words, we use enter instead of inter; as, entertain, enterlace, enterprize."—Ib., p. 101. "Amphiology, i. e. a speech of uncertain or doubtful meaning."—Ib., p. 103. "Surprize; as, hah! hey day! what! strange!"—Ib., p. 109. "Names of the letters: ai bee see dee ee ef jee aitch eye jay kay el em en o pee cue ar ess tee you voe double u eks wi zed."—Rev. W. Allen's Gram., p. 3.

   "I, O, and U, at th' End of Words require,
    The silent (e), the same do's (va) desire."
        —Brightland's Gram., p. 15.

EXERCISE IX.—MIXED ERRORS.

"And is written for eacend, adding, ekeing."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 222. "The Hindus have changed ai into e, sounded like e in where."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 121. "And therefor I would rather see the cruelest usurper than the mildest despot."— Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 430. "Sufficiently distinct to prevent our marveling."—Ib., i, 477. "Possessed of this preheminence he disregarded the clamours of the people."—Smollett's England, Vol. iii, p. 222. "He himself, having communicated, administered the sacrament to some of the bye-standers."—Ib., p. 222. "The high fed astrology which it nurtured, is reduced to a skeleton on the leaf of an almanac."—Cardell's Gram., p. 6. "Fulton was an eminent engineer: he invented steam boats."—Ib., p. 30. "Then, in comes the benign latitude of the doctrine of goodwill."—SOUTH: in Johnson's Dict. "Being very lucky in a pair of long lanthorn-jaws, he wrung his face into a hideous grimace."—SPECTATOR: ib. "Who had lived almost four-and-twenty years under so politick a king as his father."—BACON: ib., w. Lowness. "The children will answer; John's, or William's, or whose ever it may be."—Infant School Gram., p. 32. "It is found tolerably easy to apply them, by practising a little guess work."—Cardell's Gram., p. 91. "For between which two links could speech makers draw the division line?"—Ib., p. 50. "The wonderful activity of the rope dancer who stands on his head."—Ib., p. 56. "The brilliancy which the sun displays on its own disk, is sun shine."—Ib., p. 63. "A word of three syllables is termed a trisyllable."—Murray's Gram., p. 23; Coar's, 17; Jaudon's, 13; Comly's, 8; Cooper's, New Gr., 8; Kirkham's, 20; Picket's, 10; Alger's, 12; Blair's, 1; Guy's, 2; Bolles's Spelling-Book, 161. See Johnson's Dict. "A word of three syllables is termed a trissyllable."—British Gram., p. 33; Comprehensive Gram., 23; Bicknell's, 17; Allen's, 31; John Peirce's, 149; Lennie's, 5; Maltby's, 8; Ingersoll's, 7; Bradley's, 66; Davenport's, 7; Bucke's, 16; Bolles's Spelling-Book, 91. See Littleton's Lat. Dict. (1.) "Will, in the first Persons, promises or threatens: But in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells."—British Gram., p. 132. (2.) "Will, in the first Persons, promises or threatens; but in the second and third Persons, it barely foretells."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 41. (3.) "Will, in the first person, promises, engages, or threatens. In the second and third persons, it merely foretels."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 59. (4.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretells."—Lowth's Gram., p. 41. (5.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising; in the second and third person, only foretels."—Murray's Gram., p. 88; Ingersoll's, 136; Fisk's, 78; A. Flint's, 42; Bullions's, 32; Hamlin's, 41; Cooper's Murray, 50. [Fist] Murray's Second Edition has it "foretells." (6.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, expresses resolution and promising. In the second and third persons it only foretells."—Comly's Gram., p. 38; E. Devis's, 51; Lennie's, 22. (7.) "Will, in the first person, promises. In the second and third persons, it simply foretels."—Maltby's Gram., p. 24. (8.) "Will, in the first person implies resolution and promising; in the second and third, it foretells."—Cooper's New Gram., p. 51. (9.) "Will, in the first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third persons, only foretels: shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens."—Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 83. (10.) "In the first person shall foretels, and will promises or threatens; but in the second and third persons will foretels, and shall promises or threatens."—Blair's Gram., p. 65.

   "If Mævius scribble in Apollo's spight,
    There are who judge still worse than he can write."—Pope.

EXERCISE X.—MIXED ERRORS.

"I am liable to be charged that I latinize too much."—DRYDEN: in Johnson's Dict. "To mould him platonically to his own idea."—WOTTON: ib. "I will marry a wife as beautiful as the houries, and as wise as Zobeide."—Murray's E. Reader, p. 148. "I will marry a wife, beautiful as the Houries."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 65. "The words in italics are all in the imperative mood."—Maltby's Gram., p. 71. "Words Italicised, are emphatick, in various degrees."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 173. "Wherever two gg's come together, they are both hard."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 5. "But these are rather silent (o)'s than obscure (u)'s."—Brightland's Gram., p. 19. "That can be Guest at by us, only from the Consequences."—Right of Tythes, p. viii. "He says he was glad that he had Baptized so few; And asks them, Were ye Baptised in the Name of Paul?"—Ib., p. ix. "Therefor he Charg'd the Clergy with the Name of Hirelings."—Ib., p. viii. "On the fourth day before the first second day in each month."—The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 230. "We are not bound to adhere for ever to the terms, or to the meaning of terms, which were established by our ancestors."—Murray's Gram., p. 140. "O! learn from him to station quick eyed Prudence at the helm."—Frosts El. of Gram., p. 104. "It pourtrays the serene landscape of a retired village."—Music of Nature, p. 421. "By stating the fact, in a circumlocutary manner."—Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 33. "Time as an abstract being is a non-entity."—Ib., p. 29. "From the difficulty of analysing the multiplied combinations of words."—Ib., p. 19. "Drop those letters that are superfluous, as: handful, foretel."—Cooper's Plain & Pract. Gram., p. 10. "Shall, in the first person, simply foretells."—Ib., p. 51. "And the latter must evidently be so too, or, at least, cotemporary, with the act."—Ib., p. 60. "The man has been traveling for five years."—Ib., p. 77. "I shall not take up time in combatting their scruples."—Blair's Rhet., p. 320. "In several of the chorusses of Euripides and Sophocles, we have the same kind of lyric poetry as in Pindar."—Ib., p. 398. "Until the Statesman and Divine shall unite their efforts in forming the human mind, rather than in loping its excressences, after it has been neglected."—Webster's Essays, p. 26. "Where conviction could be followed only by a bigotted persistence in error."—Ib., p. 78. "All the barons were entitled to a seet in the national council, in right of their baronys."—Ib., p. 260. "Some knowledge of arithmetic is necessary for every lady."—Ib., p. 29. "Upon this, [the system of chivalry,] were founded those romances of night-errantry."—Blair's Rhet., p. 374. "The subject is, the atchievements of Charlemagne and his Peers, or Paladins."—Ib., p. 374. "Aye, aye; this slice to be sure outweighs the other."—Blair's Reader, p. 31. "In the common phrase, good-bye, bye signifies passing, going. The phrase signifies, a good going, a prosperous passage, and is equivalent to farewell."—Webster's Dict. "Good-by, adv.—a contraction of good be with you—a familiar way of bidding farewell."—See Chalmers's Dict. "Off he sprung, and did not so much as stop to say good bye to you."—Blair's Reader, p. 16. "It no longer recals the notion of the action."—Barnard's Gram., p. 69.

   "Good-nature and good-sense must ever join;
    To err, is human; to forgive, divine."—Pope, Ess. on Crit.

EXERCISE XI.—MIXED ERRORS.

"The practices in the art of carpentry are called planeing, sawing, mortising, scribing, moulding, &c."—Blair's Reader, p. 118. "With her left hand, she guides the thread round the spindle, or rather round a spole which goes on the spindle."—Ib., p. 134. "Much suff'ring heroes next their honours claim."—POPE: Johnson's Dict., w. Much. "Vein healing verven, and head purging dill."—SPENSER: ib., w. Head. "An, in old English, signifies if; as, 'an it please your honor.'"—Webster's Dict. "What, then, was the moral worth of these renouned leaders?"—M'Ilvaine's Lect., p. 460. "Behold how every form of human misery is met by the self denying diligence of the benevolent."—Ib., p. 411. "Reptiles, bats, and doleful creatures—jackalls, hyenas, and lions—inhabit the holes, and caverns, and marshes of the desolate city."—Ib., p. 270. "ADAYS, adv. On or in days; as, in the phrase, now adays."—Webster's Dict. "REFEREE, one to whom a thing is referred; TRANSFERREE, the person to whom a transfer is made."—Ib. "The Hospitallers were an order of knights who built a hospital at Jerusalem for pilgrims."—Ib. "GERARD, Tom, or Tung, was the institutor and first grand master of the knights hospitalers: he died in 1120."—Biog. Dict. "I had a purpose now to lead our many to the holy land."—SHAK.: in Johnson's Dict. "He turned their heart to hate his people, to deal subtilly with his servants."—Psalms, cv, 25. "In Dryden's ode of Alexander's Feast, the line, 'Faln, faln, faln, faln,' represents a gradual sinking of the mind."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 71. "The first of these lines is marvelously nonsensical."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 117. "We have the nicely chiseled forms of an Apollo and a Venus, but it is the same cold marble still."—Christian Spect., Vol. viii, p. 201. "Death waves his mighty wand and paralyses all."—Bucke's Gram., p. 35. "Fear God. Honor the patriot. Respect virtue."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 216. "Pontius Pilate being Governour of Judea, and Herod being Tetrarch of Galilee."—Ib., p. 189. See Luke, iii, 1. "AUCTIONEER, n. s. The person that manages an auction."—Johnson's Dict. "The earth put forth her primroses and days-eyes, to behold him."—HOWEL: ib. "Musselman, not being a compound of man, is musselmans in the plural."—Lennie's Gram., p. 9. "The absurdity of fatigueing them with a needless heap of grammar rules."—Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 147. "John was forced to sit with his arms a kimbo, to keep them asunder."—ARBUTHNOT: Joh. Dict. "To set the arms a kimbo, is to set the hands on the hips, with the elbows projecting outward."—Webster's Dict. "We almost uniformly confine the inflexion to the last or the latter noun."—Maunder's Gram., p. 2. "This is all souls day, fellows! Is it not?"—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "The english physicians make use of troy-weight."—Johnson's Dict. "There is a certain number of ranks allowed to dukes, marquisses, and earls."—PEACHAM: ib., w. Marquis.

   "How could you chide the young good natur'd prince,
    And drive him from you with so stern an air."
             —ADDISON: ib., w. Good, 25.

EXERCISE XII.—MIXED ERRORS.

"In reading, every appearance of sing-song should be avoided."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 75. "If you are thoroughly acquainted with the inflexions of the verb."—Ib., p. 53. "The preterite of read is pronounced red."—Ib., p. 48. "Humility opens a high way to dignity."—Ib., p. 15. "What is intricate must be unraveled."—Ib., p. 275. "Roger Bacon invented gun powder, A. D. 1280."—Ib., p. 277. "On which ever word we lay the emphasis."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 243; 12mo, p. 195. "Each of the leaders was apprized of the Roman invasion."—Nixon's Parser, p. 123. "If I say, 'I gallopped from Islington to Holloway;' the verb is intransitive: if, 'I gallopped my horse from Islington to Holloway;' it is transitive."—Churchill's Gram., p. 238. "The reasonableness of setting a part one day in seven."—The Friend, Vol. iv, p. 240. "The promoters of paper money making reprobated this act."—Webster's Essays, p. 196. "There are five compound personal pronouns, which are derived from the five simple personal pronouns by adding to some of their cases the syllable self; as, my-self, thy-self, him-self, her-self, it-self."—Perley's Gram., p. 16. "Possessives, my-own, thy-own, his-own, her-own, its-own, our-own, your-own, their-own."—Ib., Declensions. "Thy man servant and thy maid servant may rest, as well as thou."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 160. "How many right angles has an acute angled triangle?"—Ib., p. 220. "In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha."—Ib., p. 148. "In the days of Jorum, king of Israel, Elisha, the prophet flourished."—Ib., p. 133. "Lodgable, a. Capable of affording a temporary abode."—Webster's Octavo Dict.—"Win me into the easy hearted man."—Johnson's Quarto Dict. "And then to end life, is the same as to dye."—Milnes's Greek Gram., p. 176. "Those usurping hectors who pretend to honour without religion, think the charge of a lie a blot not to be washed out but by blood."—SOUTH: Joh. Dict. "His gallies attending him, he pursues the unfortunate."—Nixon's Parser, p. 91. "This cannot fail to make us shyer of yielding our assent."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 117. "When he comes to the Italicised word, he should give it such a definition as its connection with the sentence may require."—Claggett's Expositor, p. vii. "Learn to distil from your lips all the honies of persuasion."—Adams's Rhetoric, Vol. i, p. 31. "To instill ideas of disgust and abhorrence against the Americans."—Ib., ii, 300. "Where prejudice has not acquired an uncontroled ascendency."—Ib., i, 31. "The uncontrolable propensity of his mind was undoubtedly to oratory."—Ib., i, 100. "The Brutus is a practical commentary upon the dialogues and the orator."—Ib., i, 120. "The oratorical partitions are a short elementary compendium."—Ib., i, 130. "You shall find hundreds of persons able to produce a crowd of good ideas upon any subject, for one that can marshall them to the best advantage."—Ib., i, 169. "In this lecture, you have the outline of all that the whole course will comprize."—Ib., i, 182. "He would have been stopped by a hint from the bench, that he was traveling out of the record."—Ib., i, 289. "To tell them that which should befal them in the last days."—Ib., ii, 308. "Where all is present, there is nothing past to recal."—Ib., ii, 358. "Whose due it is to drink the brimfull cup of God's eternal vengeance."—Law and Grace, p. 36.

   "There, from the dead, centurions see him rise,
    See, but struck down with horrible surprize!"—Savage.

"With seed of woes my heart brimful is charged."—SIDNEY: Joh. Dict.

"Our legions are brimful, our cause is ripe."—SHAKSPEARE: ib.

PART II.

ETYMOLOGY.

ETYMOLOGY treats of the different parts of speech, with their classes and modifications.

The Parts of Speech are the several kinds, or principal classes, into which words are divided by grammarians.

Classes, under the parts of speech, are the particular sorts into which the several kinds of words are subdivided.

Modifications are inflections, or changes, in the terminations, forms, or senses, of some kinds of words.

CHAPTER I.—PARTS OF SPEECH.

The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are ten; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection.

1. THE ARTICLE.

An Article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification: as, The air, the stars; an island, a ship.

2. THE NOUN.

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, George, York, man, apple, truth.

3. THE ADJECTIVE.

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality: as, A wise man; a new book. You two are diligent.

4. THE PRONOUN.

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun: as, The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them well.

5. THE VERB.

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon: as,
I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou lovest, he loves.

6. THE PARTICIPLE.

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb: thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled.

7. THE ADVERB.

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are now here, studying very diligently.

8. THE CONJUNCTION.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou and he are happy, because you are good."—L. Murray.

9. THE PREPOSITION.

A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun; as, The paper lies before me on the desk.

10. THE INTERJECTION.

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The first thing to be learned in the study of this the second part of grammar, is the distribution of the words of the language into those principal sorts, or classes, which are denominated the Parts of Speech. This is a matter of some difficulty. And as no scheme which can be adopted, will be in all cases so plain that young beginners will not occasionally falter in its application, the teacher may sometimes find it expedient to refer his pupils to the following simple explanations, which are designed to aid their first and most difficult steps.

How can we know to what class, or part of speech, any word belongs? By learning the definitions of the ten parts of speech, and then observing how the word is written, and in what sense it is used. It is necessary also to observe, so far as we can, with what other words each particular one is capable of making sense.

1. Is it easy to distinguish an ARTICLE? If not always easy, it is generally so: the, an, and a, are the only English words called articles, and these are rarely any thing else. Because an and a have the same import, and are supposed to have the same origin, the articles are commonly reckoned two, but some count them as three.

2. How can we distinguish a NOUN? By means of the article before it, if there is one; as, the house, an apple, a book; or, by adding it to the phrase, "I mentioned;" as, "I mentioned peace;"—"I mentioned war;"—"I mentioned slumber." Any word which thus makes complete sense, is, in that sense, a noun; because a noun is the name of any thing which can thus be mentioned by a name. Of English nouns, there are said to be as many as twenty-five or thirty thousand.

3. How can we distinguish an ADJECTIVE? By putting a noun after it, to see if the phrase will be sense. The noun thing, or its plural things, will suit almost any adjective; as, A good thing—A bad thing—A little thing—A great thing—Few things—Many things—Some things—Fifty things. Of adjectives, there are perhaps nine or ten thousand.

4. How can we distinguish a PRONOUN? By observing that its noun repeated makes the same sense. Thus, the example of the pronoun above, "The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them well,"—very clearly means, "The boy loves the boy's book; the boy has long lessons, and the boy learns those lessons well." Here then, by a disagreeable repetition of two nouns, we have the same sense without any pronoun; but it is obvious that the pronouns form a better mode of expression, because they prevent this awkward repetition. The different pronouns in English are twenty-four; and their variations in declension are thirty-two: so that the number of words of this class, is fifty-six.

5. How can we distinguish a VERB? By observing that it is usually the principal word in the sentence, and that without it there would be no assertion. It is the word which expresses what is affirmed or said of the person or thing mentioned; as, "Jesus wept."—"Felix trembled."—"The just shall live by faith." It will make sense when inflected with the pronouns; as, I write, thou writ'st, he writes; we write, you write, they write.—I walk, thou walkst, he walks; we walk, you walk, they walk. Of English verbs, some recent grammarians compute the number at eight thousand; others formerly reckoned them to be no more than four thousand three hundred.[131]

6. How can we distinguish a PARTICIPLE? By observing its derivation from the verb, and then placing it after to be or having; as, To be writing, Having written—To be walking, Having walked—To be weeping, Having wept—To be studying, Having studied. Of simple participles, there are twice as many as there are of simple or radical verbs; and the possible compounds are not less numerous than the simples, but they are much less frequently used.

7. How can we distinguish an ADVERB? By observing that it answers to the question, When? Where? How much? or How?—or serves to ask it; as, "He spoke fluently." How did he speak? Fluently. This word fluently is therefore an adverb: it tells how he spoke. Of adverbs, there are about two thousand six hundred; and four fifths of them end in ly.

8. How can we distinguish a CONJUNCTION? By observing what words or terms it joins together, or to what other conjunction it corresponds; as, "Neither wealth nor honor can heal a wounded conscience."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 16. Or, it may be well to learn the whole list at once: And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so: Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas. Of conjunctions, there are these twenty-nine in common use, and a few others now obsolete.

9. How can we distinguish a PREPOSITION? By observing that it will govern the pronoun them, and is not a verb or a participle; as, About them—above them—across them—after them—against them—amidst them—among them—around them—at them—Before them—behind them—below them—beneath them—beside them—between them—beyond them—by them—For them—from them—In them—into them, &c. Of the prepositions, there are about sixty now in common use.

10. How can we distinguish an INTERJECTION? By observing that it is an independent word or sound, uttered earnestly, and very often written with the note of exclamation; as Lo! behold! look! see! hark! hush! hist! mum! Of interjections, there are sixty or seventy in common use, some of which are seldom found in books.

OBS. 2.—An accurate knowledge of words, and of their changes, is indispensable to a clear discernment of their proper combinations in sentences, according to the usage of the learned. Etymology, therefore, should be taught before syntax; but it should be chiefly taught by a direct analysis of entire sentences, and those so plainly written that the particular effect of every word may be clearly distinguished, and the meaning, whether intrinsic or relative, be discovered with precision. The parts of speech are usually named and defined with reference to the use of words in sentences; and, as the same word not unfrequently stands for several different parts of speech, the learner should be early taught to make for himself the proper application of the foregoing distribution, without recurrence to a dictionary, and without aid from his teacher. He who is endeavouring to acquaint himself with the grammar of a language which he can already read and understand, is placed in circumstances very different from those which attend the school-boy who is just beginning to construe some sentences of a foreign tongue. A frequent use of the dictionary may facilitate the progress of the one, while it delays that of the other. English grammar, it is hoped, may be learned directly from this book alone, with better success than can be expected when the attention of the learner is divided among several or many different works.

OBS. 3.—Dr. James P. Wilson, in speaking of the classification of words, observes, "The names of the distributive parts should either express, distinctly, the influence, which each class produces on sentences; or some other characteristic trait, by which the respective species of words may be distinguished, without danger of confusion. It is at least probable, that no distribution, sufficiently minute, can ever be made, of the parts of speech, which shall be wholly free from all objection. Hasty innovations, therefore, and crude conjectures, should not be permitted to disturb that course of grammatical instruction, which has been advancing in melioration, by the unremitting labours of thousands, through a series of ages."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 66. Again: "The number of the parts of speech may be reduced, or enlarged, at pleasure; and the rules of syntax may be accommodated to such new arrangement. The best grammarians find it difficult, in practice, to distinguish, in some instances, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; yet their effects are generally distinct. This inconvenience should be submitted to, since a less comprehensive distribution would be very unfavourable to a rational investigation of the meaning of English sentences."—Ib., p. 68. Again: "As and so have been also deemed substitutes, and resolved into other words. But if all abbreviations are to be restored to their primitive parts of speech, there will be a general revolution in the present systems of grammar; and the various improvements, which have sprung from convenience, or necessity, and been sanctioned by the usage of ancient times, must be retrenched, and anarchy in letters universally prevail."—Ib., p. 114.

OBS. 4.—I have elsewhere sufficiently shown why ten parts of speech are to be preferred to any other number, in English; and whatever diversity of opinion there may be, respecting the class to which some particular words ought to be referred, I trust to make it obvious to good sense, that I have seldom erred from the course which is most expedient. 1. Articles are used with appellative nouns, sometimes to denote emphatically the species, but generally to designate individuals. 2. Nouns stand in discourse for persons, things, or abstract qualities. 3. Adjectives commonly express the concrete qualities of persons or things; but sometimes, their situation or number. 4. Pronouns are substitutes for names, or nouns; but they sometimes represent sentences. 5. Verbs assert, ask, or say something; and, for the most part, express action or motion. 6. Participles contain the essential meaning of their verbs, and commonly denote action, and imply time; but, apart from auxiliaries, they express that meaning either adjectively or substantively, and not with assertion. 7. Adverbs express the circumstances of time, of place, of degree, and of manner; the when, the where, the how much, and the how. 8. Conjunctions connect, sometimes words, and sometimes sentences, rarely phrases; and always show, either the manner in which one sentence or one phrase depends upon an other, or what connexion there is between two words that refer to a third. 9. Prepositions express the correspondent relations of things to things, of thoughts to thoughts, or of words to words; for these, if we speak truly, must be all the same in expression. 10. Interjections are either natural sounds or exclamatory words, used independently, and serving briefly to indicate the wishes or feelings of the speaker.

OBS. 5.—In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified, and each is pointed out by the figure placed over the word:—

1 2 9 2 5 1 2 3 9 2 1 2 6 "The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; a faculty bestowed 9 4 9 4 3 2 9 1 3 8 7 3 on him by his beneficent Creator, for the greatest and most excellent 2 8 10 7 7 5 4 5 4 9 1 3 9 uses; but, alas! how often do we pervert it to the worst of 2 purposes!"—See Lowth's Gram., p. 1.

In this sentence, which has been adopted by Murray, Churchill, and others, we have the following parts of speech: 1. The words the, a, and an, are articles. 2. The words power, speech, faculty, man, faculty, Creator, uses, and purposes, are nouns. 3. The words peculiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, and worst, are adjectives. 4. The words him, his, we, and it, are pronouns. 5. The words is, do, and pervert, are verbs. 6. The word bestowed is a participle. 7. The words most, how, and often, are adverbs. 8. The words and and but are conjunctions. 9. The words of, on, to, by, for, to, and of, are prepositions. 10. The word alas! is an interjection.

OBS. 6.—In speaking or writing, we of course bring together the different parts of speech just as they happen to be needed. Though a sentence of ordinary length usually embraces more than one half of them, it is not often that we find them all in so small a compass. Sentences sometimes abound in words of a particular kind, and are quite destitute of those of some other sort. The following examples will illustrate these remarks. (1) ARTICLES: "A square is less beautiful than a circle; and the reason seems to be, that the attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square, whereas the circumference of a circle, being a single object, makes one entire impression."—Kames, Elements of Criticism, Vol. i, p. 175. (2.) NOUNS: "A number of things destined for the same use, such as windows, chairs, spoons, buttons, cannot be too uniform; for, supposing their figure to be good, utility requires uniformity."—Ib., i, 176. (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Hence nothing just, proper, decent, beautiful, proportioned, or grand, is risible."—Ib., i, 229. (4.) PRONOUNS: "I must entreat the courteous reader to suspend his curiosity, and rather to consider what is written than who they are that write it."—Addison, Spect., No. 556. (5.) VERBS: "The least consideration will inform us how easy it is to put an ill-natured construction upon a word; and what perverse turns and expressions spring from an evil temper. Nothing can be explained to him who will not understand, nor will any thing appear right to the unreasonable."—Cecil. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "The Scriptures are an authoritative voice, reproving, instructing, and warning the world; and declaring the only means ordained and provided for escaping the awful penalties of sin."—G. B. (7.) ADVERBS: "The light of Scripture shines steadily, purely, benignly, certainly, superlatively."—Dr. S. H. Cox. (8.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Quietness and silence both become and befriend religious exercises. Clamour and violence often hinder, but never further, the work of God."—Henry's Exposition. (9.) PREPOSITIONS: "He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures."—Dec. of Indep. (10.) INTERJECTIONS: "Oh, my dear strong-box! Oh, my lost guineas! Oh, poor, ruined, beggared old man! Boo! hoo! hoo!"—MOLIERE: Burgh's Art of Speaking, p. 266.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, or of some related word or words, according to the definitions and rules of grammar. Parsing is to grammar what ciphering is to arithmetic.

A Praxis is a method of exercise, or a form of grammatical resolution, showing the learner how to proceed. The word is Greek, and literally signifies action, doing, practice, or formal use.

PRAXIS I—ETYMOLOGICAL.

_In the first Praxis, it is required of the pupil—merely to distinguish and define the different parts of speech.

The definitions to be given in the First Praxis, are one, and only one, for each word, or part of speech. Thus_:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him."

The is an article. 1.[132] An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification.

Patient is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.

Ox is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

Submits is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

The is an article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification.

Yoke is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

And is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Meekly is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Performs is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

The is an article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification.

Labour is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

Required is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Him is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"A nimble tongue often trips. The rule of the tongue is a great attainment. The language of truth is direct and plain. Truth is never evasive. Flattery is the food of vanity. A virtuous mind loathes flattery. Vain persons are an easy prey to parasites. Vanity easily mistakes sneers for smiles. The smiles of the world are deceitful. True friendship hath eternal views. A faithful friend is invaluable. Constancy in friendship denotes a generous mind. Adversity is the criterion of friendship. Love and fidelity are inseparable. Few know the value of a friend till they lose him. Justice is the first of all moral virtues. Let justice hold, and mercy turn, the scale. A judge is guilty who connives at guilt. Justice delayed is little better than justice denied. Vice is the deformity of man. Virtue is a source of constant cheerfulness. One vice is more expensive than many virtues. Wisdom, though serious, is never sullen. Youth is the season of improvement."—Dillwyn's Reflections, pp. 4-27.

   "Oh! my ill-chang'd condition! oh, my fate!
    Did I lose heaven for this?"—Cowley's Davideis.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"So prone is man to society, and so happy in it, that, to relish perpetual solitude, one must be an angel or a brute. In a solitary state, no creature is more timid than man; in society, none more bold. The number of offenders lessens the disgrace of the crime; for a common reproach is no reproach. A man is more unhappy in reproaching himself when guilty, than in being reproached by others when innocent. The pains of the mind are harder to bear than those of the body. Hope, in this mixed state of good and ill, is a blessing from heaven: the gift of prescience would be a curse. The first step towards vice, is to make a mystery of what is innocent: whoever loves to hide, will soon or late have reason to hide. A man who gives his children a habit of industry, provides for them better than by giving them a stock of money. Our good and evil proceed from ourselves: death appeared terrible to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato."—Home's Art of Thinking, pp. 26-53.

   "O thou most high transcendent gift of age!
    Youth from its folly thus to disengage."—Denham's Age.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it."—Murray's Ex., p. 5. "Better is a little with content, than a great deal with anxiety. A little attention will rectify some errors. Unthinking persons care little for the future."—See ib. "Still waters are commonly deepest. He laboured to still the tumult. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid."—Ib. "Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones."—Ib. "The hail was very destructive. Hail, virtue! source of every good. We hail you as friends."—Ib., p. 6. "Much money makes no man happy. Think much, and speak little. He has seen much of the world."—See ib. "Every being loves its like. We must make a like space between the lines. Behave like men. We are apt to like pernicious company."—Ib. "Give me more love, or more disdain."—Carew. "He loved Rachel more than Leah."—Genesis. "But how much that more is; he hath no distinct notion."—Locke.

   "And my more having would be as a sauce
    To make me hunger more."—Shakspeare.

CHAPTER II.—ARTICLES.

An Article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification: as, The air, the stars; an island, a ship.

An and a, being equivalent in meaning, are commonly reckoned one and the same article. An is used in preference to a, whenever the following word begins with a vowel sound; as, An art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. A is used in preference to an, whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, A man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and y, even when expressed by other letters, require a and not an before them.

A common noun, when taken in its widest sense, usually admits no article: as, "A candid temper is proper for man; that is, for all mankind."—Murray.

In English, nouns without any article, or other definitive, are often used in a sense indefinitely partitive: as, "He took bread, and gave thanks."—Acts. That is, "some bread." "To buy food are thy servants come."—Genesis. That is, "some food." "There are fishes that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy region."—Locke's Essay, p. 322. That is, "some fishes."

"Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied, are used without articles: as, 'This is not beer, but water;' 'This is not brass, but steel.'"—See Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 5.

An or a before the genus, may refer to a whole species; and the before the species, may denote that whole species emphatically: as, "A certain bird is termed the cuckoo, from the sound which it emits."—Blair.

But an or a is commonly used to denote individuals as unknown, or as not specially distinguished from others: as, "I see an object pass by, which I never saw till now; and I say, 'There goes a beggar with a long beard.'"—Harris.

And the is commonly used to denote individuals as known, or as specially distinguished from others: as, "The man departs, and returns a week after; and I say, 'There goes the beggar with the long beard.'"—Id.

The article the is applied to nouns of cither number: as, "The man, the men;" "The good boy, the good boys."

The is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns: as, "The young are slaves to novelty; the old, to custom."—Ld. Kames.

The article an or a implies unity, or one, and of course belongs to nouns of the singular number only; as, A man,—An old man,—A good boy.

An or a, like one, sometimes gives a collective meaning to an adjective of number, when the noun following is plural; as, A few days,—A hundred men,—One hundred pounds sterling.

Articles should be inserted as often as the sense requires them; as, "Repeat the preterit and [the] perfect participle of the verb to abide."—Error in Merchant's American School Grammar, p. 66.

Needless articles should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the sense: as, "The Rhine, the Danube, the Tanais, the Po, the Wolga, the Ganges, like many hundreds of similar names, rose not from any obscure jargon or irrational dialect."—Error in Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 327.

The articles can seldom be put one for the other, without gross impropriety; and of course either is to be preferred to the other, as it better suits the sense: as, "The violation of this rule never fails to hurt and displease a reader."—Error in Blair's Lectures, p. 107. Say, "A violation of this rule never fails to displease the reader."

CLASSES.

The articles are distinguished as the definite and the indefinite.

I. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things; as, The boy, the oranges.

II. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one; as, A boy, an orange.

MODIFICATIONS.[133]

The English articles have no modifications, except that an is shortened into a before the sound of a consonant; as, "In an epic poem, or a poem upon an elevated subject, a writer ought to avoid raising a simile on a low image."—Ld. Kames.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—No other words are so often employed as the articles. And, by reason of the various and very frequent occasions on which these definitives are required, no words are oftener misapplied; none, oftener omitted or inserted erroneously. I shall therefore copiously illustrate both their uses and their abuses; with the hope that every reader of this volume will think it worth his while to gain that knowledge which is requisite to the true use of these small but important words. Some parts of the explanation, however, must be deferred till we come to Syntax.

OBS. 2.—With the attempts of Tooke, Dalton, Webster, Cardell, Fowle, Wells,[134] Weld, Butler Frazee, Perley, Mulligan, Pinneo, S. S. Greene, and other writers, to degrade the article from its ancient rank among the parts of speech, no judicious reader, duly acquainted with the subject, can, I think, be well pleased. An article is not properly an "adjective," as they would have it to be; but it is a word of a peculiar sort—a customary index to the sense of nouns. It serves not merely to show the extent of signification, in which nouns are to be taken, but is often the principal, and sometimes the only mark, by which a word is known to have the sense and construction of a noun. There is just as much reason to deny and degrade the Greek or French article, (or that of any other language,) as the English; and, if those who are so zealous to reform our the, an, and a into adjectives, cared at all to appear consistent in the view of Comparative or General Grammar, they would either set about a wider reformation or back out soon from the pettiness of this.

OBS. 3.—First let it be understood, that an or a is nearly equivalent in meaning to the numeral adjective one, but less emphatic; and that the is nearly equivalent in meaning to the pronominal adjective that or those, but less emphatic. On some occasions, these adjectives may well be substituted for the articles; but not generally. If the articles were generally equivalent to adjectives, or even if they were generally like them, they would be adjectives; but, that adjectives may occasionally supply their places, is no argument at all for confounding the two parts of speech. Distinctions must be made, where differences exist; and, that a, an, and the, do differ considerably from the other words which they most resemble, is shown even by some who judge "the distinctive name of article to be useless." See Crombie's Treatise, Chap. 2. The articles therefore must be distinguished, not only from adjectives, but from each other. For, though both are articles, each is an index sui generis; the one definite, the other indefinite. And as the words that and one cannot often be interchanged without a difference of meaning, so the definite article and the indefinite are seldom, if ever, interchangeable. To put one for the other, is therefore, in general, to put one meaning for an other: "A daughter of a poor man"—"The daughter of the poor man"—"A daughter of the poor man"—and, "The daughter of a poor man," are four phrases which certainly have four different and distinct significations. This difference between the two articles may be further illustrated by the following example: "That Jesus was a prophet sent from God, is one proposition; that Jesus was the prophet, the Messiah, is an other; and, though he certainly was both a prophet and the prophet, yet the foundations of the proof of these propositions are separate and distinct."—Watson's Apology, p. 105.

OBS. 4.—Common nouns are, for the most part, names of large classes of objects; and, though what really constitutes the species must always be found entire in every individual, the several objects thus arranged under one general name or idea, are in most instances susceptible of such a numerical distribution as gives rise to an other form of the noun, expressive of plurality; as, horse, horses. Proper nouns in their ordinary application, are, for the most part, names of particular individuals; and as there is no plurality to a particular idea, or to an individual person or thing as distinguished from all others, so there is in general none to this class of nouns; and no room for further restriction by articles. But we sometimes divert such nouns from their usual signification, and consequently employ them with articles or in the plural form; as, "I endeavoured to retain it nakedly in my mind, without regarding whether I had it from an Aristotle or a Zoilus, a Newton or a Descartes."—Churchill's Gram., Pref., p. 8. "It is not enough to have Vitruviuses, we must also have Augustuses to employ them."—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 61.

   "A Daniel come to judgment! yea, a Daniel!"
        —SHAK. Shylock.

   "Great Homer, in th' Achilles, whom he drew,
    Sets not that one sole Person in our View."
        —Brightland's Gram., p. 183.

OBS. 5.—The article an or a usually denotes one out of several or many; one of a sort of which there are more; any one of that name, no matter which. Hence its effect upon a particular name, or proper noun, is directly the reverse of that which it has upon a common noun. It varies and fixes the meaning of both; but while it restricts that of the latter, it enlarges that of the former. It reduces the general idea of the common noun to any one individual of the class: as, "A man;" that is, "One man, or any man." On the contrary, it extends the particular idea of the proper noun, and makes the word significant of a class, by supposing others to whom it will apply: as, "A Nero;" that is, "Any Nero, or any cruel tyrant." Sometimes, however, this article before a proper name, seems to leave the idea still particular; but, if it really does so, the propriety of using it may be doubted: as, "No, not by a John the Baptist risen from the dead."—Henry's Expos., Mark, vi. "It was not solely owing to the madness and depravity of a Tiberius, a Caligula, a Nero, or a Caracalla, that a cruel and sanguinary spirit, in their day, was so universal."—M'Ilvaine's Evid., p. 398.

OBS. 6.—With the definite article, the noun is applied, sometimes specifically, sometimes individually, but always definitely, always distinctively. This article is demonstrative. It marks either the particular individual, or the particular species,—or, (if the noun be plural,) some particular individuals of the species,—as being distinguished from all others. It sometimes refers to a thing as having been previously mentioned; sometimes presumes upon the hearer's familiarity with the thing; and sometimes indicates a limitation which is made by subsequent words connected with the noun. Such is the import of this article, that with it the singular number of the noun is often more comprehensive, and at the same time more specific, than the plural. Thus, if I say, "The horse is a noble animal," without otherwise intimating that I speak of some particular horse, the sentence will be understood to embrace collectively that species of animal; and I shall be thought to mean, "Horses are noble animals." But if I say, "The horses are noble animals," I use an expression so much more limited, as to include only a few; it must mean some particular horses, which I distinguish from all the rest of the species. Such limitations should be made, whenever there is occasion for them; but needless restrictions displease the imagination, and ought to be avoided; because the mind naturally delights in terms as comprehensive as they may be, if also specific. Lindley Murray, though not uniform in his practice respecting this, seems to have thought it necessary to use the plural in many sentences in which I should decidedly prefer the singular; as, "That the learners may have no doubts."—Murray's Octavo Gram., Vol. i, p. 81. "The business will not be tedious to the scholars."—Ib., 81. "For the information of the learners."—Ib., 81. "It may afford instruction to the learners."—Ib., 110. "That this is the case, the learners will perceive by the following examples."—Ib., 326. "Some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to the scholars."—Ib., 335.

OBS. 7.—Proper names of a plural form and signification, are almost always preceded by the definite article; as, "The Wesleys,"—"The twelve Cæsars,"—"All the Howards." So the names of particular nations, tribes, and sects; as, The Romans, the Jews, the Levites, the Stoics. Likewise the plural names of mountains; as, The Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees, the Andes. Of plural names like these, and especially of such as designate tribes and sects, there is a very great number. Like other proper names, they must be distinguished from the ordinary words of the language, and accordingly they are always written with capitals; but they partake so largely of the nature of common nouns, that it seems doubtful to which class they most properly belong. Hence they not only admit, but require the article; while most other proper names are so definite in themselves, that the article, if put before them, would be needless, and therefore improper.

"Nash, Rutledge, Jefferson, in council great, And Jay, and Laurens oped the rolls of fate; The Livingstons, fair freedoms generous band, The Lees, the Houstons, fathers of the land."—Barlow.

OBS. 8.—In prose, the definite article is always used before names of rivers, unless the word river, be added; as, The Delaware, the Hudson, the Connecticut. But if the word river be added, the article becomes needless; as, Delaware river, Hudson river, Connecticut river. Yet there seems to be no impropriety in using both; as, The Delaware river, the Hudson river, the Connecticut river. And if the common noun be placed before the proper name, the article is again necessary; as, The river Delaware, the river Hudson, the river Connecticut. In the first form of expression, however, the article has not usually been resolved by grammarians as relating to the proper name; but these examples, and others of a similar character, have been supposed elliptical: as, "The [river] Potomac"—"The [ship] Constitution,"—"The [steamboat] Fulton." Upon this supposition, the words in the first and fourth forms are to be parsed alike; the article relating to the common noun, expressed or understood, and the proper noun being in apposition with the appellative. But in the second form, the apposition is reversed; and, in the third, the proper name appears to be taken adjectively. Without the article, some names of rivers could not be understood; as,

   "No more the Varus and the Atax feel
    The lordly burden of the Latian keel."—Rowe's Lucan, B. i. l. 722.

OBS. 9.—The definite article is often used by way of eminence, to distinguish some particular individual emphatically, or to apply to him some characteristic name or quality: as, "The Stagirite,"—that is, Aristotle; "The Psalmist," that is, David; "Alexander the Great,"—that is, (perhaps,) Alexander the Great Monarch, or Great Hero. So, sometimes, when the phrase relates to a collective body of men: as, "The Honourable, the Legislature,"—"The Honourable, the Senate;"—that is, "The Honourable Body, the Legislature," &c. A similar application of the article in the following sentences, makes a most beautiful and expressive form of compliment: "These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, O Lyttleton, the friend."—Thomson. "The pride of swains Palemon was, the generous and the rich."—Id. In this last example, the noun man is understood after "generous," and again after "rich;" for, the article being an index to the noun, I conceive it to be improper ever to construe two articles as having reference to one unrepeated word. Dr. Priestley says, "We sometimes repeat the article, when the epithet precedes the substantive; as He was met by the worshipful the magistrates."—Gram., p. 148. It is true, we occasionally meet with such fulsome phraseology as this; but the question is, how is it to be explained? I imagine that the word personages, or something equivalent, must be understood after worshipful, and that the Doctor ought to have inserted a comma there.

OBS. 10.—In Greek, there is no article corresponding to our an or a, consequently man and a man are rendered alike; the word, [Greek: anthropos] may mean either. See, in the original, these texts: "There was a man sent from God," (John, i, 6,) and, "What is man, that thou art mindful of him?"—Heb., ii, 6. So of other nouns. But the definite article of that language, which is exactly equivalent to our the, is a declinable word, making no small figure in grammar. It is varied by numbers, genders, and cases; so that it assumes more than twenty different forms, and becomes susceptible of six and thirty different ways of agreement. But this article in English is perfectly simple, being entirely destitute of grammatical modifications, and consequently incapable of any form of grammatical agreement or disagreement—a circumstance of which many of our grammarians seem to be ignorant; since they prescribe a rule, wherein they say, it "agrees," "may agree," or "must agree," with its noun. Nor has the indefinite article any variation of form, except the change from an to a, which has been made for the sake of brevity or euphony.

OBS. 11.—As an or a conveys the idea of unity, of course it applies to no other than nouns of the singular number. An eagle is one eagle, and the plural word eagles denotes more than one; but what could possibly be meant by "ans eagles," if such a phrase were invented? Harris very strangely says, "The Greeks have no article correspondent to an or a, but supply its place by a NEGATION of their article. And even in English, where the article a cannot be used, as in plurals, its force is exprest by the same NEGATION."—Harris's Hermes, p. 218. What a sample of grammar is this! Besides several minor faults, we have here a nonentity, a NEGATION of the Greek article, made to occupy a place in language, and to express force! The force of what? Of a plural an or a,! of such a word as ans or aes! The error of the first of these sentences, Dr. Blair has copied entire into his eighth lecture.

OBS. 12.—The following rules of agreement, though found in many English grammars, are not only objectionable with respect to the sense intended, but so badly written as to be scarcely intelligible in any sense: 1. "The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually, or collectively: as, A Christian, an infidel, a score, a thousand." 2. "The definite article the may agree with nouns in the singular AND[135] plural number: as, The garden, the houses, the stars."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 170; 12mo, 139; Fish's Murray, 98; a Teacher's, 45. For the purpose of preventing any erroneous construction of the articles, these rules are utterly useless; and for the purpose of syntactical parsing, or the grammatical resolution of this part of speech, they are awkward and inconvenient. The syntax of the articles may be much better expressed in this manner: "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit," for, in English, the bearing of the articles upon other words is properly that of simple relation, or dependence, according to the sense, and not that of agreement, not a similarity of distinctive modifications.

OBS. 13.—Among all the works of earlier grammarians, I have never yet found a book which taught correctly the application of the two forms of the indefinite article an or a. Murray, contrary to Johnson and Webster, considers a to be the original word, and an the euphonic derivative. He says: "A becomes an before a vowel, and before a silent h. But if the h be sounded, the a only is to be used."—Murray's Gram., p. 31. To this he adds, in a marginal note, "A instead of an is now used before words beginning with u long. It is used before one. An must be used before words WHERE the h is not silent, if the accent is on the second syllable; as, an heroic action, an historical account."—Ib. This explanation, clumsy as it is, in the whole conception; broken, prolix, deficient, and inaccurate as it is, both in style and doctrine; has been copied and copied from grammar to grammar, as if no one could possibly better it. Besides several other faults, it contains a palpable misuse of the article itself: "the h" which is specified in the second and fifth sentences, is the "silent h" of the first sentence; and this inaccurate specification gives us the two obvious solecisms of supposing, "if the [silent] h be sounded," and of locating "words WHERE the [silent] h is not silent!" In the word humour, and its derivatives, the h is silent, by all authority except Webster's; and yet these words require a and not an before them.

OBS. 14.—It is the sound only, that governs the form of the article, and not the letter itself; as, "Those which admit of the regular form, are marked with an R."—Murray's Gram., p. 101. "A heroic poem, written by Virgil."—Webster's Dict. "Every poem of the kind has no doubt a historical groundwork."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 457. "A poet must be a naturalist and a historian."—Coleridge's Introduction, p. 111. Before h in an unaccented syllable, either form of the article may be used without offence to the ear; and either may be made to appear preferable to the other, by merely aspirating the letter in a greater or less degree. But as the h, though ever so feebly aspirated has something of a consonant sound, I incline to think the article in this case ought to conform to the general principle: as, "A historical introduction has, generally, a happy effect to rouse attention."— Blair's Rhet., p. 311. "He who would write heroic poems, should make his whole life a heroic poem."—See Life of Schiller, p. 56. Within two lines of this quotation, the biographer speaks of "an heroic multitude!" The suppression of the sound of h being with Englishmen a very common fault in pronunciation, it is not desirable to increase the error, by using a form of the article which naturally leads to it. "How often do we hear an air metamorphosed into a hair, a hat into a gnat, and a hero into a Nero!"—Churchill's Gram., p. 205. Thus: "Neither of them had that bold and adventurous ambition which makes a conqueror an hero."—Bolingbroke, on History, p. 174.

OBS. 15.—Some later grammarians are still more faulty than Murray, in their rules for the application of an or a. Thus Sanborn: "The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u. An should be used before words beginning with any of these letters, or with a silent h."—Analytical Gram., p. 11. "An is used before words beginning with u long or with h not silent, when the accent is on the second syllable; as, an united people, an historical account, an heroic action."—Ib., p. 85. "A is used when the next word begins with a consonant; an, when it begins with a vowel or silent h."—lb., p. 129. If these rules were believed and followed, they would greatly multiply errors.

OBS. 16.—Whether the word a has been formed from an, or an from a, is a disputed point—or rather, a point on which our grammarians dogmatize differently. This, if it be worth the search, must be settled by consulting some genuine writings of the twelfth century. In the pure Saxon of an earlier date, the words seldom occur; and in that ancient dialect an, I believe, is used only as a declinable numerical adjective, and a only as a preposition. In the thirteenth century, both forms were in common use, in the sense now given them, as may be seen in the writings of Robert of Gloucester; though some writers of a much later date—or, at any rate, one, the celebrated Gawin Douglas, a Scottish bishop, who died of the plague in London, in 1522—constantly wrote ane for both an and a: as,

   "Be not ouer studyous to spy ane mote in myn E,
    That in gour awin ane ferrye bot can not se."
        —Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 124.

   "Ane uthir mache to him was socht and sperit;
    Bot thare was nane of all the rout that sterit."
        —Ib., Vol. i, p. 160.

OBS. 17.—This, however, was a Scotticism; as is also the use of ae for a: Gower and Chaucer used an and a as we now use them. The Rev. J. M. M'Culloch, in an English grammar published lately in Edinburgh, says, "A and an were originally ae and ane, and were probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity; as, ae man, ane ox."—Manual of E. Gram., p. 30. For this idea, and indeed for a great part of his book, he is indebted to Dr. Crombie; who says, "To signify unity, or one of a class, our forefathers employed ae or ane; as, ae man, ane ox."—Treatise on Etym. and Synt., p. 53. These authors, like Webster, will have a and an to be adjectives. Dr. Johnson says, "A, an article set before nouns of the singular number; as, a man, a tree. This article has no plural signification. Before a word beginning with a vowel, it is written an; as, an ox, an egg; of which a is the contraction."—Quarto Dict., w. A.

OBS. 18.—Dr. Webster says, "A is also an abbreviation of the Saxon an or ane, one, used before words beginning with an articulation; as, a table, instead of an table, or one table. This is a modern change; for, in Saxon, an was used before articulations as well as vowels; as, an tid, a time, an gear, a year."—Webster's Octavo Dict., w. A. A modern change, indeed! By his own showing in other works, it was made long before the English language existed! He says, "An, therefore, is the original English adjective or ordinal number one; and was never written a until after the Conquest."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 20; Improved Gram., 14. "The Conquest," means the Norman Conquest, in 1066; but English was not written till the thirteenth century. This author has long been idly contending, that an or a is not an article, but an adjective; and that it is not properly distinguished by the term "indefinite." Murray has answered him well enough, but he will not be convinced.[136] See Murray's Gram., pp. 34 and 35. If a and one were equal, we could not say, "Such a one,"—"What a one,"—"Many a one,"—"This one thing;" and surely these are all good English, though a and one here admit no interchange. Nay, a is sometimes found before one when the latter is used adjectively; as, "There is no record in Holy Writ of the institution of a one all-controlling monarchy."—Supremacy of the Pope Disproved, p. 9. "If not to a one Sole Arbiter."—Ib., p. 19.

OBS. 19.—An is sometimes a conjunction, signifying if; as, "Nay, an thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as well as thou."—Shak. "An I have not ballads made on you all, and sung to fifty tunes, may a cup of sack be my poison."—Id., Falstaff. "But, an it were to do again, I should write again."—Lord Byron's Letters. "But an it be a long part, I can't remember it."—SHAKSPEARE: Burgh's Speaker, p. 136.

OBS. 20.—In the New Testament, we meet with several such expressions as the following: "And his disciples were an hungred."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Matt, xii, 1. "When he was an hungred."—Ib. xii, 3. "When he had need and was an hungered."—Ib. Mark, ii, 25. Alger, the improver of Murray's Grammar, and editor of the Pronouncing Bible, taking this an to be the indefinite article, and perceiving that the h is sounded in hungered, changed the particle to a in all these passages; as, "And his disciples were a hungered." But what sense he thought he had made of the sacred record, I know not. The Greek text, rendered word for word, is simply this: "And his disciples hungered." And that the sentences above, taken either way, are not good English, must be obvious to every intelligent reader. An, as I apprehend, is here a mere prefix, which has somehow been mistaken in form, and erroneously disjoined from the following word. If so, the correction ought to be made after the fashion of the following passage from Bishop M'Ilvaine: "On a certain occasion, our Saviour was followed by five thousand men, into a desert place, where they were enhungered."—Lectures on Christianity, p. 210.

OBS. 21.—The word a, when it does not denote one thing of a kind, is not an article, but a genuine preposition; being probably the same as the French à, signifying to, at, on, in, or of: as, "Who hath it? He that died a Wednesday."—Shak. That is, on Wednesday. So sometimes before plurals; as, "He carves a Sundays."—Swift. That is, on Sundays. "He is let out a nights."—Id. That is, on nights—like the following example: "A pack of rascals that walk the streets on nights."—Id. "He will knap the spears a pieces with his teeth."—More's Antid. That is, in pieces, or to pieces. So in the compound word now-a-days, where it means on; and in the proper names, Thomas à Becket, Thomas à Kempis, Anthony à Wood, where it means at or of.

   "Bot certainly the daisit blude now on dayis
    Waxis dolf and dull throw myne unwieldy age."—Douglas.

OBS. 22.—As a preposition, a has now most generally become a prefix, or what the grammarians call an inseparable preposition; as in abed, in bed; aboard, on board; abroad, at large; afire, on fire; afore, in front; afoul, in contact; aloft, on high; aloud, with loudness; amain, at main strength; amidst, in the midst; akin, of kin; ajar, unfastened; ahead, onward; afield, to the field; alee, to the leeward; anew, of new, with renewal. "A-nights, he was in the practice of sleeping, &c.; but a-days he kept looking on the barren ocean, shedding tears."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. ii, p. 162. Compounds of this kind, in most instances, follow verbs, and are consequently reckoned adverbs; as, To go astray,—To turn aside,—To soar aloft,—To fall asleep. But sometimes the antecedent term is a noun or a pronoun, and then they are as clearly adjectives; as, "Imagination is like to work better upon sleeping men, than men awake."—Lord Bacon. "Man alive, did you ever make a hornet afraid, or catch a weasel asleep?" And sometimes the compound governs a noun or a pronoun after it, and then it is a preposition; as, "A bridge is laid across a river."—Webster's Dict., "To break his bridge athwart the Hellespont."—Bacon's Essays.

   "Where Ufens glides along the lowly lands,
    Or the black water of Pomptina stands."—Dryden.

OBS. 23.—In several phrases, not yet to be accounted obsolete, this old preposition à still retains its place as a separate word; and none have been more perplexing to superficial grammarians, than those which are formed by using it before participles in ing; in which instances, the participles are in fact governed by it: for nothing is more common in our language, than for participles of this form to be governed by prepositions. For example, "You have set the cask a leaking," and, "You have set the cask to leaking," are exactly equivalent, both in meaning and construction. "Forty and six years was this temple in building."—John, ii, 20. Building is not here a noun, but a participle; and in is here better than a, only because the phrase, a building, might be taken for an article and a noun, meaning an edifice.[137] Yet, in almost all cases, other prepositions are, I think, to be preferred to à, if others equivalent to it can be found. Examples: "Lastly, they go about to apologize for the long time their book hath been a coming out:" i.e., in coming out.—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 179. "And, for want of reason, he falls a railing::" i.e., to railing.—Ib., iii, 357. "That the soul should be this moment busy a thinking:" i.e., at or in thinking.—Locke's Essay, p. 78. "Which, once set a going, continue in the same steps:" i.e., to going.—Ib., p. 284. "Those who contend for four per cent, have set men's mouths a watering for money:" i.e., to watering.—LOCKE: in Johnson's Dict. "An other falls a ringing a Pescennius Niger:" i.e., to ringing.—ADDISON: ib. "At least to set others a thinking upon the subject:" i.e., to thinking.—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 300. "Every one that could reach it, cut off a piece, and fell a eating:" i.e., to eating.—Newspaper. "To go a mothering,[138] is to visit parents on Midlent Sunday."—Webster's Dict., w. Mothering. "Which we may find when we come a fishing here."—Wotton. "They go a begging to a bankrupt's door."—Dryden. "A hunting Chloë went."—Prior. "They burst out a laughing."—M. Edgeworth. In the last six sentences, a seems more suitable than any other preposition would be: all it needs, is an accent to distinguish it from the article; as, à.

OBS. 24.—Dr. Alexander Murray says, "To be a-seeking, is the relic of the Saxon to be on or an seeking. What are you a-seeking? is different from, What are you seeking? It means more fully the going on with the process."—Hist. Europ. Lang,, Vol. ii, p. 149. I disapprove of the hyphen in such terms as "à seeking," because it converts the preposition and participle into I know not what; and it may be observed, in passing, that the want of it, in such as "the going on," leaves us a loose and questionable word, which, by the conversion of the participle into a noun, becomes a nondescript in grammar. I dissent also from Dr. Murray, concerning the use of the preposition or prefix a, in examples like that which he has here chosen. After a neuter verb, this particle is unnecessary to the sense, and, I think, injurious to the construction. Except in poetry, which is measured by syllables, it may be omitted without any substitute; as, "I am a walking."—Johnson's Dict., w. A. "He had one only daughter, and she lay a dying."—Luke, viii, 42. "In the days of Noah, while the ark was a preparing."—1 Pet., iii, 20. "Though his unattentive thoughts be elsewhere a wandering."—Locke's Essay, p. 284. Say—"be wandering elsewhere;" and omit the a, in all such cases.

   "And—when he thinks, good easy man, full surely
    His greatness is a ripening—nips his root."—Shak.

OBS. 25.—"A has a peculiar signification, denoting the proportion of one thing to an other. Thus we say, The landlord hath a hundred a year; the ship's crew gained a thousand pounds a man."—Johnson's Dict. "After the rate of twenty leagues a day."—Addison. "And corn was at two sesterces a bushel."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 82. Whether a in this construction is the article or the preposition, seems to be questionable. Merchants are very much in the habit of supplying its place by the Latin preposition per, by; as, "Board, at $2 per week."—Preston's Book-Keeping, p. 44. "Long lawn, at $12 per piece."—Dilworth's, p. 63. "Cotton, at 2s. 6d. per pound."—Morrison's, p. 75. "Exchange, at 12d. per livre."—Jackson's, p. 73. It is to be observed that an, as well as a, is used in this manner; as, "The price is one dollar an ounce." Hence, I think, we may infer, that this is not the old preposition a, but the article an or a, used in the distributive sense of each or every, and that the noun is governed by a preposition understood; as, "He demands a dollar an hour;" i. e., a dollar for each hour.—"He comes twice a year:" i. e., twice in every year.—"He sent them to Lebanon, ten thousand a month by courses:" (1 Kings, v, 14:) i. e., ten thousand, monthly; or, as our merchants say, "per month." Some grammarians have also remarked, that, "In mercantile accounts, we frequently see a put for to, in a very odd sort of way; as, 'Six bales marked 1 a 6.' The merchant means, 'marked from 1 to 6.' This is taken to be a relic of the Norman French, which was once the law and mercantile language of England; for, in French, a, with an accent, signifies to or at."—Emmons's Gram., p. 73. Modern merchants, in stead of accenting the a, commonly turn the end of it back; as, @.

OBS. 26.—Sometimes a numeral word with the indefinite article—as a few, a great many, a dozen, a hundred, a thousand—denotes an aggregate of several or many taken collectively, and yet is followed by a plural noun, denoting the sort or species of which this particular aggregate is a part: as, "A few small fishes,"—"A great many mistakes,"—"A dozen bottles of wine,"—"A hundred lighted candles,"—"A thousand miles off." Respecting the proper manner of explaining these phrases, grammarians differ in opinion. That the article relates not to the plural noun, but to the numerical word only, is very evident; but whether, in these instances, the words few, many, dozen, hundred, and thousand, are to be called nouns or adjectives, is matter of dispute. Lowth, Murray, and many others, call them adjectives, and suppose a peculiarity of construction in the article;—like that of the singular adjectives every and one in the phrases, "Every ten days,"—"One seven times more."—Dan., iii, 19. Churchill and others call them nouns, and suppose the plurals which follow, to be always in the objective case governed by of, understood: as, "A few [of] years,"—"A thousand [of] doors;"—like the phrases, "A couple of fowls,"—"A score of fat bullocks."—Churchill's Gram., p. 279. Neither solution is free from difficulty. For example: "There are a great many adjectives."—Dr. Adam. Now, if many is here a singular nominative, and the only subject of the verb, what shall we do with are? and if it is a plural adjective, what shall we do with a and great? Taken in either of these ways, the construction is anomalous. One can hardly think the word "adjectives" to be here in the objective case, because the supposed ellipsis of the word of cannot be proved; and if many is a noun, the two words are perhaps in apposition, in the nominative. If I say, "A thousand men are on their way," the men are the thousand, and the thousand is nothing but the men; so that I see not why the relation of the terms may not be that of apposition. But if authorities are to decide the question, doubtless we must yield it to those who suppose the whole numeral phrase to be taken adjectively; as, "Most young Christians have, in the course of half a dozen years, time to read a great many pages."—Young Christian, p. 6.

   "For harbour at a thousand doors they knock'd;
    Not one of all the thousand but was lock'd."—Dryden.

OBS. 27.—The numeral words considered above, seem to have been originally adjectives, and such may be their most proper construction now; but all of them are susceptible of being construed as nouns, even if they are not such in the examples which have been cited. Dozen, or hundred, or thousand, when taken abstractly, is unquestionably a noun; for we often speak of dozens, hundreds, and thousands. Few and many never assume the plural form, because they have naturally a plural signification; and a few or a great many is not a collection so definite that we can well conceive of fews and manies; but both are sometimes construed substantively, though in modern English[139] it seems to be mostly by ellipsis of the noun. Example: "The praise of the judicious few is an ample compensation for the neglect of the illiterate many."—Churchill's Gram., p. 278. Dr. Johnson says, the word many is remarkable in Saxon for its frequent use. The following are some of the examples in which he calls it a substantive, or noun: "After him the rascal many ran."—Spenser. "O thou fond many."—Shakspeare. "A care-craz'd mother of a many children."—Id. "And for thy sake have I shed many a tear."—Id. "The vulgar and the many are fit only to be led or driven."—South. "He is liable to a great many inconveniences every moment of his life."—Tillotson. "Seeing a great many in rich gowns, he was amazed."—Addison.

   "There parting from the king, the chiefs divide,
    And wheeling east and west, before their many ride."—Dryden.

OBS. 28.—"On the principle here laid down, we may account for a peculiar use of the article with the adjective few, and some other diminutives. In saying, 'A few of his adherents remained with him;' we insinuate, that they constituted a number sufficiently important to be formed into an aggregate: while, if the article be omitted, as, 'Few of his adherents remained with him;' this implies, that he was nearly deserted, by representing them as individuals not worth reckoning up. A similar difference occurs between the phrases: 'He exhibited a little regard for his character;' and 'He exhibited little regard for his character.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 279. The word little, in its most proper construction, is an adjective, signifying small; as, "He was little of stature."—Luke. "Is it not a little one?"—Genesis. And in sentences like the following, it is also reckoned an adjective, though the article seems to relate to it, rather than to the subsequent noun; or perhaps it may be taken as relating to them both: "Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep."—Prov., vi, 10; xxiv, 33. But by a common ellipsis, it is used as a noun, both with and without the article; as, "A little that a righteous man hath, is better than the riches of many wicked."—Psalms, xxxvii, 16. "Better is little with the fear of the Lord, than great treasure and trouble therewith."—Prov., xv, 16. "He that despiseth little things, shall perish by little and little."—Ecclesiasticus. It is also used adverbially, both alone and with the article a; as, "The poor sleep little."—Otway. "Though they are a little astringent."—Arbuthnot. "When he had gone a little farther thence."—Mark, i, 19. "Let us vary the phrase [in] a very little" [degree].—Kames, Vol. ii, p. 163.

OBS. 29.—"As it is the nature of the articles to limit the signification of a word, they are applicable only to words expressing ideas capable of being individualized, or conceived of as single things or acts; and nouns implying a general state, condition, or habit, must be used without the article. It is not vaguely therefore, but on fixed principles, that the article is omitted, or inserted, in such phrases as the following: 'in terror, in fear, in dread, in haste, in sickness, in pain, in trouble; in a fright, in a hurry, in a consumption; the pain of his wound was great; her son's dissipated life was a great trouble to her."—Churchill's Gram., p. 127.

OBS. 30.—Though the, an, and a, are the only articles in our language, they are far from being the only definitives. Hence, while some have objected to the peculiar distinction bestowed upon these little words, firmly insisting on throwing them in among the common mass of adjectives; others have taught, that the definitive adjectives—I know not how many—such as, this, that, these, those, any, other, some, all, both, each, every, either, neither—"are much more properly articles than any thing else."—Hermes, p. 234. But, in spite of this opinion, it has somehow happened, that these definitive adjectives have very generally, and very absurdly, acquired the name of pronouns. Hence, we find Booth, who certainly excelled most other grammarians in learning and acuteness, marvelling that the articles "were ever separated from the class of pronouns." To all this I reply, that the, an, and a, are worthy to be distinguished as the only articles, because they are not only used with much greater frequency than any other definitives, but are specially restricted to the limiting of the signification of nouns. Whereas the other definitives above mentioned are very often used to supply the place of their nouns; that is, to represent them understood. For, in general, it is only by ellipsis of the noun after it, and not as the representative of a noun going before, that any one of these words assumes the appearance of a pronoun. Hence, they are not pronouns, but adjectives. Nor are they "more properly articles than any thing else;" for, "if the essence of an article be to define and ascertain" the meaning of a noun, this very conception of the thing necessarily supposes the noun to be used with it.

OBS. 31.—The following example, or explanation, may show what is meant by definitives. Let the general term be man, the plural of which is men: A man—one unknown or indefinite; The man—one known or particular; The men—some particular ones; Any man—one indefinitely; A certain man—one definitely; This man—one near; That man—one distant; These men—several near; Those men—several distant; Such a man—one like some other; Such men—some like others; Many a man—a multitude taken singly; Many men—an indefinite multitude taken plurally; A thousand men—a definite multitude; Every man—all or each without exception; Each man—both or all taken separately; Some man—one, as opposed to none; Some men—an indefinite number or part; All men—the whole taken plurally; No men—none of the sex; No man—never one of the race.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS II—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Second Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and to explain the ARTICLES _as definite or indefinite.

The definitions to be given in the Second Praxis, are two for an article, and one for a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road."—G. Brown.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Task is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

A is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.

Schoolmaster is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

Laboriously is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Prompting is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb.

And is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Urging is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb.

An is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.

Indolent is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.

Class is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

Is is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Worse is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.

Than is a conjunction. 1, A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

He is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.

Who is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.

Drives is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Lazy is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.

Horses is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

Along is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

A is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.

Sandy is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.

Road is a noun. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"The Honourable, the Corporation of the city, granted the use of the common council chamber, for holding the Convention; generously adding the privilege of occupying the rotunda, or the new court-room, if either would better suit the wishes of the committee."—Journal of Literary Convention, N. Y., 1830.

"When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; the genus for a species, or a species for the genus; the singular number for the plural, or the plural for the singular; and, in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant; the figure is called a Synecdoche."—See Blair's Rhet., p. 141.

"The truth is, a representative, as an individual, is on a footing with other people; but, as a representative of a State, he is invested with a share of the sovereign authority, and is so far a governor of the people."—See Webster's Essays, p. 50.

"Knowledge is the fruit of mental labour—the food and the feast of the mind. In the pursuit of knowledge, the greater the excellence of the subject of inquiry, the deeper ought to be the interest, the more ardent the investigation, and the dearer to the mind the acquisition of the truth."—Keith's Evidences, p. 15.

   "Canst thou, O partial Sleep! give thy repose
    To the wet seaboy in an hour so rude?"—Shakspeare.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"Every family has a master; (or a mistress—I beg the ladies' pardon;) a ship has a master; when a house is to be built, there is a master; when the highways are repairing, there is a master; every little school has a master: the continent is a great school; the boys are numerous, and full of roguish tricks; and there is no master. The boys in this great school play truant, and there is no person to chastise them."—See Webster's Essays, p. 128.

"A man who purposely rushes down a precipice and breaks his arm, has no right to say, that surgeons are an evil in society. A legislature may unjustly limit the surgeon's fee; but the broken arm must be healed, and a surgeon is the only man to restore it."—See ib., p. 135.

"But what new sympathies sprung up immediately where the gospel prevailed! It was made the duty of the whole Christian community to provide for the stranger, the poor, the sick, the aged, the widow, and the orphan."—M'Ilvaine's Evi., p. 408.

"In the English language, the same word is often employed both as a noun and as a verb; and sometimes as an adjective, and even as an adverb and a preposition also. Of this, round is an example."—See Churchill's Gram., p. 24.

   "The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket,
    The moss-covered bucket, arose from the well."—Woodworth.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"Most of the objects in a natural landscape are beautiful, and some of them are grand: a flowing river, a spreading oak, a round hill, an extended plain, are delightful; and even a rugged rock, and a barren heath, though in themselves disagreeable, contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole."—See Kames's El. of Crit., i, 185.

"An animal body is still more admirable, in the disposition of its several parts, and in their order and symmetry: there is not a bone, a muscle, a blood-vessel, a nerve, that hath not one corresponding to it on the opposite side; and the same order is carried through the most minute parts."—See ib., i, 271. "The constituent parts of a plant, the roots, the stem, the branches, the leaves, the fruit, are really different systems, united by a mutual dependence on each other."—Ib., i, 272.

"With respect to the form of this ornament, I observe, that a circle is a more agreeable figure than a square, a globe than a cube, and a cylinder than a parallelopipedon. A column is a more agreeable figure than a pilaster; and, for that reason, it ought to be preferred, all other circumstances being equal. An other reason concurs, that a column connected with a wall, which is a plain surface, makes a greater variety than a pilaster."—See ib., ii, 352.

   "But ah! what myriads claim the bended knee!
    Go, count the busy drops that swell the sea."—Rogers.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING ARTICLES.

LESSON I.—ADAPT THE ARTICLES.

"Honour is an useful distinction in life."—Milnes's Greek Grammar, p. vii.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the article an is used before useful, which begins with the sound of yu. But, according to a principle expressed on page 225th, "A is to be used whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound." Therefore, an should here be changed to a; thus, "Honour is a useful distinction in life."]

"No writer, therefore, ought to foment an humour of innovation."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 55. "Conjunctions require a situation between the things of which they form an union."—Ib., p. 83. "Nothing is more easy than to mistake an u for an a."—Tooke's Diversions, i, 130. "From making so ill an use of our innocent expressions."—Wm. Penn. "To grant thee an heavenly and incorruptible crown of glory."—Sewel's Hist., Ded., p. iv. "It in no wise follows, that such an one was able to predict."—Ib., p. viii. "With an harmless patience they have borne most heavy oppressions,"—Ib., p. x. "My attendance was to make me an happier man."—Spect., No. 480. "On the wonderful nature of an human mind."—Ib., 554. "I have got an hussy of a maid, who is most craftily given to this."—Ib., No. 534. "Argus is said to have had an hundred eyes, some of which were always awake."—Classic Stories, p. 148. "Centiped, an hundred feet; centennial, consisting of a hundred years."—Town's Analysis, p. 19. "No good man, he thought, could be an heretic."—Gilpin's Lives, p. 72. "As, a Christian, an infidel, an heathen."—Ash's Gram., p. 50. "Of two or more words, usually joined by an hyphen."—Blair's Gram., p. 7. "We may consider the whole space of an hundred years as time present."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., p. 69. "In guarding against such an use of meats and drinks."—Ash's Gram., p. 138. "Worship is an homage due from man to his Creator."—Annual Monitor for 1836. "Then, an eulogium on the deceased was pronounced."—Grimshaw's U. S., p. 92. "But for Adam there was not found an help meet for him."—Gen., ii, 20. "My days are consumed like smoke, and my bones are burned as an hearth."—Psalms, cii, 3. "A foreigner and an hired servant shall not eat thereof"—Exod., xii, 45. "The hill of God is as the hill of Bashan; an high hill, as the hill of Bashan."—Psalms, lxviii, 15. "But I do declare it to have been an holy offering, and such an one too as was to be once for all."—Wm. Penn. "An hope that does not make ashamed those that have it."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 15. "Where there is not an unity, we may exercise true charity."—Ib., i, 96. "Tell me, if in any of these such an union can be found?"—Brown's Estimate, ii, 16.

   "Such holy drops her tresses steeped,
    Though 'twas an hero's eye that weeped."—Sir W. Scott.

LESSON II.—INSERT ARTICLES.

"This veil of flesh parts the visible and invisible world."—Sherlock.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the article the is omitted before invisible, where the sense requires it. But, according to a suggestion on page 225th, "Articles should be inserted as often as the sense requires them." Therefore, the should be here supplied; thus, "This veil of flesh parts the visible and the invisible world."]

"The copulative and disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 286. "Every combination of a preposition and article with the noun."—Ib., i, 44. "Either signifies, 'the one or the other;' neither imports not either, that is, 'not one nor the other.'"—Ib., i, 56. "A noun of multitude may have a pronoun, or verb, agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural number."—Bucke's Gram., p. 90. "Copulative conjunctions are, principally, and, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, since, &c."—See ib., 28. "The two real genders are the masculine and feminine."—Ib., 34. "In which a mute and liquid are represented by the same character, th."—Music of Nature, p. 481. "They said, John Baptist hath sent us unto thee."—Luke, vii, 20. "They indeed remember the names of abundance of places."—Spect., No. 474. "Which created a great dispute between the young and old men."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 127. "Then shall be read the Apostles' or Nicene Creed."—Com. Prayer, p. 119. "The rules concerning the perfect tenses and supines of verbs are Lily's."—King Henry's Gram., p. iv. "It was read by the high and the low, the learned and illiterate."—Johnson's Life of Swift. "Most commonly, both the pronoun and verb are understood."—Buchanan's Gram., p. viii. "To signify the thick and slender enunciation of tone."—Knight, on the Greek Alph., p. 9. "The difference between a palatial and guttural aspirate is very small."—Ib., p. 12. "Leaving it to waver between the figurative and literal sense."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 154. "Whatever verb will not admit of both an active and passive signification."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 31. "The is often set before adverbs in the comparative or superlative degree."—Ib., p. 15; Kirkham's Gram., 66. "Lest any should fear the effect of such a change upon the present or succeeding age of writers."—Fowle's Common School Gram., p. 5. "In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on even syllables; and every line is, in general, more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed."—L. Murray's Octavo Gram, p. 256; Jamieson's Rhet., 307. "How many numbers do nouns appear to have? Two, the singular and plural."—Smith's New Gram., p. 8. "How many persons? Three persons—the first, second, and third."—Ib., p. 10. "How many cases? Three—the nominative, possessive and objective."—Ib., p. 12.

   "Ah! what avails it me, the flocks to keep,
    Who lost my heart while I preserv'd sheep."
        POPE'S WORKS: British Poets, Vol. vi, p. 309: Lond., 1800.

LESSON III.—OMIT ARTICLES.

"The negroes are all the descendants of Africans."—Morse's Geog.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the article the before descendants, is useless to the construction, and injurious to the sense. But, according to a principle on page 225th, "Needless articles should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the sense." Therefore, the should be here omitted; thus, "The negroes are all descendants of Africans."]

"A Sybarite was applied as a term of reproach to a man of dissolute manners."—Morse's Ancient Geog., p. 4. "The original signification of knave was a boy."—Webster's El. Spell., p. 136. "The meaning of these will be explained, for the greater clearness and precision."—Bucke's Gram., p. 58. "What Sort of a Noun is Man? A Noun Substantive common."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 166. "Is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun?"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 117. "They delighted in the having done it, as well as in the doing of it."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 344. "Both the parts of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences."—Murray's Gram., p. 174. "He has taught them to hope for another and a better world."—S. L. Knapp. "It was itself only preparatory to a future, a better, and perfect revelation."—Keith's Evid., p. 23. "Es then makes another and a distinct syllable."— Brightland's Gram., p. 17. "The eternal clamours of a selfish and a factious people."—Brown's Estimate, i, 74. "To those whose taste in Elocution is but a little cultivated."—Kirkham's Eloc., p. 65. "They considered they had but a Sort of a Gourd to rejoice in."—Bennet's Memorial, p. 333. "Now there was but one only such a bough, in a spacious and shady grove."—Bacon's Wisdom, p. 75. "Now the absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way towards the making a man easy."—Collier's Antoninus p. 131. "This is true of the mathematics, where the taste has but little to do."—Todd's Student's Manual, p. 331. "To stand prompter to a pausing, yet a ready comprehension."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 251. "Such an obedience as the yoked and the tortured negro is compelled to yield to the whip of the overseer."—Chalmers's Serm., p. 90. "For the gratification of a momentary and an unholy desire."—Wayland's Mor. Sci., p. 288. "The body is slenderly put together; the mind a rambling sort of a thing."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 26. "The only nominative to the verb, is, the officer."—Murray's Gram., ii, 22. "And though in the general it ought to be admitted, &c."—Blair's Rhet., p. 376. "Philosophical writing admits of a polished, a neat, and elegant style."—Ib., p. 367. "But notwithstanding this defect, Thomson is a strong and a beautiful describer."—Ib., p. 405. "So should he be sure to be ransomed, and a many poor men's lives saved."—SHAK.: Hen. v.

   "Who felt the wrong, or fear'd it, took the alarm,
    Appeal'd to Law, and Justice lent her arm."—Pope, p. 406.

LESSON IV.—CHANGE ARTICLES.

"To enable us to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word."—Bucke's Gr., p, 52.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the article the is used to limit the meaning of "repetition," or "too frequent repetition," where a would better suit the sense. But, according to a principle on page 225th, "The articles can seldom be put one for the other, without gross impropriety; and either is of course to be preferred to the other, as it better suits the sense." Therefore, "the" should be a, which, in this instance, ought to be placed after the adjective; thus, "To enable us to avoid too frequent a repetition of the same word."]

"The former is commonly acquired in the third part of the time."—Burn's Gram., p. xi. "Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has another adjective joined to it: as, 'The chief good.'"—L. Murray's Gram., i, 169. "An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech."—Ib., i, 2; Lowth's Gram., 2; T. Smith's, 5. "Tense is the distinction of time: there are six tenses."—Maunder's Gram., p. 6. "In this case, the ellipsis of the last article would be improper."—L. Murray's Gram., i, p. 218. "Contrast has always the effect to make each of the contrasted objects appear in the stronger light."—Ib., i, 349; Blair's Rhet., p. 167. "These remarks may serve to shew the great importance of the proper use of the article."—Lowth's Gram., p. 12; Murray's, i, 171. "'Archbishop Tillotson,' says an author of the History of England, 'died in this year.'"—Blair's Rhet., p. 107. "Pronouns are used instead of substantives, to prevent the too frequent repetition of them."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 22. "That, as a relative, seems to be introduced to save the too frequent repetition of who and which."—Ib., p. 23. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word."—L. Murray's Gram., i, p. 28. "That is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 109; L. Murray's, i, 53; Hiley's, 84. "His knees smote one against an other."—Logan's Sermons. "They stand now on one foot, then on another."—Walker's Particles, p. 259. "The Lord watch between me and thee, when we are absent one from another."—Gen., xxxi, 49. "Some have enumerated ten [parts of speech], making a participle a distinct part."—L. Murray's Gram, i, p. 29. "Nemesis rides upon an Hart, because a Hart was a most lively Creature."—Bacon's Wisdom, p. 50. "The transition of the voice from one vowel of the diphthong to another."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 29. "So difficult it is to separate these two things from one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 92. "Without the material breach of any rule."—Ib., p. 101. "The great source of a loose style, in opposition to precision, is the injudicious use of those words termed synonymous."—Ib., p. 97. "The great source of a loose style, in opposition to precision, is the injudicious use of the words termed synonymous."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 302. "Sometimes one article is improperly used for another."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 197.

   "Satire of sense, alas! can Sporus feel?
    Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel?"—Pope, p. 396.

LESSON V.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"He hath no delight in the strength of an horse."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 311. "The head of it would be an universal monarch."—Butler's Analogy, p. 98. "Here they confound the material and formal object of faith."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 57. "The Irish and Scotish Celtic are one language; the Welsh, Cornish, and Armorican, are another."—Dr. Murray's Hist., Vol. ii, p. 316. "In an uniform and perspicuous manner."—Ib., i, 49. "SCRIPTURE, n. Appropriately, and by way of distinction, the books of the Old and New Testament; the Bible."—Webster's Dict. "In two separate volumes, entitled the Old and the New Testaments."—Wayland's Mor. Sci., p. 139. "The Scriptures of the Old and New Testament contain a revelation."—Ib. "Q has ever an u after it; which is not sounded in words derived from the French."—Wilson's Essay, p. 32. "What should we say of such an one? That he is regenerate? No."—Hopkins's Prim. Ch., p. 22. "Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and the compound."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 8. "Emphasis has been further distinguished into the weaker and stronger emphasis."—Ib., i, 244. "Emphasis has also been divided into superior and the inferior emphasis."—Ib., i, 245, "Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or nouns which they represent, in gender, number, and person."—Merchant's Gram., pp. 86, 111, and 130. "The adverb where, is often improperly used, for the relative pronoun and preposition."—Ib., 94. "The termination ish imports diminution, or lessening the quality."—Ib., 79. "In this train all their verses proceed: the one half of the line always answering to the other."—Blair's Rhet., p. 384. "To an height of prosperity and glory, unknown to any former age."—Murray's Sequel, p. 352. "HWILC, who, which, such as, such an one, is declined as follows."—Gwilt's Saxon Gram., p. 15. "When a vowel precedes y, an s only is required to form a plural."—Bucke's Gram., p. 40. "He is asked what sort of a word each is, whether a primitive, derivative, or compound."—British Gram., p. vii. "It is obvious, that neither the 2d, 3d, nor 4th chapter of Matthew is the first; consequently, there are not four first chapters."—Churchill's Gram., p. 306. "Some thought, which a writer wants art to introduce in its proper place."—Blair's Rhet., p. 109. "Groves and meadows are most pleasing in the spring."—Ib., p. 207. "The conflict between the carnal and spiritual mind, is often long."—Gurney's Port. Ev., p. 146. "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful."—Burke's Title-page.

   "Silence, my muse! make not these jewels cheap,
    Exposing to the world too large an heap."—Waller, p. 113.

CHAPTER III.—NOUNS.

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, George, York, man, apple, truth.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—All words and signs taken technically, (that is, independently of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of,) are nouns; or, rather, are things read and construed as nouns; because, in such a use, they temporarily assume the syntax of nouns: as, "For this reason, I prefer contemporary to cotemporary."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 175; Murray's Gram., i, p. 368. "I and J were formerly expressed by the same character; as were U and V."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 3. "Us is a personal pronoun."—Murray. "Th has two sounds."—Ib. "The 's cannot be a contraction of his, because 's is put to female [feminine] nouns; as, Woman's beauty, the Virgin's delicacy."—Dr. Johnson's Gram. "Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of they, when they is the plural of it."—Ib. "Let B be a now or instant."—Harris's Hermes, p. 103. "In such case, I say that the instant B is the end of the time A B."—Ib., 103. "A is sometimes a noun: as, a great A."—Todd's Johnson. "Formerly sp was cast in a piece, as st's are now."—Hist. of Printing, 1770. "I write to others than he will perhaps include in his we."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 455. "Here are no fewer than eight ands in one sentence."—Blair's Rhet., p. 112; Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 319. "Within this wooden O;" i. e., circle.—Shak.

OBS. 2.—In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and use of each word, and class it accordingly. Many words commonly belonging to other parts of speech are occasionally used as nouns; and, since it is the manner of its use, that determines any word to be of one part of speech rather than of an other, whatever word is used directly as a noun, must of course be parsed as such.

1. Adjectives made nouns: "The Ancient of days did sit."—Bible. "Of the ancients."—Swift. "For such impertinents."—Steele. "He is an ignorant in it."—Id. "In the luxuriance of an unbounded picturesque."—Jamieson. "A source of the sublime;" i. e., of sublimity.—Burke. "The vast immense of space:" i. e., immensity.—Murray. "There is none his like."—Job, xli, 33. "A little more than a little, is by much too much."—Shakspeare. "And gladly make much of that entertainment."—Sidney. "A covetous man makes the most of what he has."—L'Estrange. "It has done enough for me."—Pope. "He had enough to do."—Bacon.

   "All withers here; who most possess, are losers by their gain,
    Stung by full proof, that bad at best, life's idle all is vain."
        —Young.

   "Nor grudge I thee the much the Grecians give,
    Nor murm'ring take the little I receive."
        —Dryden.

2. Pronouns made nouns: "A love of seeing the what and how of all about him."—STORY'S LIFE OF FLAXMAN: Pioneer, Vol. i, p. 133. "The nameless HE, whose nod is Nature's birth."—Young, Night iv. "I was wont to load my she with knacks."—Shak. Winter's Tale. "Or any he, the proudest of thy sort."—Shak. "I am the happiest she in Kent."—Steele. "The shes of Italy."—Shak. "The hes in birds."—Bacon. "We should soon have as many hes and shes as the French."—Cobbet's E. Gram., Para. 42. "If, for instance, we call a nation a she, or the sun a he."—Ib., Para. 198. "When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer."—Ib., Para. 196. "Let those two questionary petitioners try to do this with their whos and their whiches."—SPECT: Ash's Gr., p. 131.

   "Such mortal drugs I have; but Mantua's law
    Is death to any he that utters them."—Shak.

3. Verbs made nouns: "Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start theatric."—Cowper. "A may-be of mercy is sufficient."—Bridge. "Which cuts are reckoned among the fractures."—Wiseman. "The officer erred in granting a permit."—"Feel darts and charms, attracts and flames."—Hudibras. "You may know by the falling off of the come, or sprout."—Mortimer. "And thou hast talk'd of sallies and retires."—Shak.

   "For all that else did come, were sure to fail;
    Yet would he further none, but for avail."—Spenser.

4. Participles made nouns: "For the producing of real happiness."—Crabb. "For the crying of the poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise."—Bible. "Surely the churning of milk bringeth forth butter, and the wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood; so the forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife."—Prov., xxx, 33. "Reading, writing, and ciphering, are indispensable to civilized man."—"Hence was invented the distinction between doing and permitting."—Calvin's Inst., p. 131. "Knowledge of the past comes next."—Hermes, p. 113. "I am my beloved's, and his desire is toward me."—Sol. Song, vii, 10. "Here's—a simple coming-in for one man."—Shak.

   "What are thy rents? What are thy comings-in?
    O Ceremony, show me but thy worth."—Id.

5. Adverbs made nouns: "In these cases we examine the why, the what, and the how of things."—L'Estrange. "If a point or now were extended, each of them would contain within itself infinite other points or nows."—Hermes, p. 101. "The why is plain as way to parish church."—Shak. "'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter."—Addison. "The dread of a hereafter."—Fuller. "The murmur of the deep amen."—Sir W. Scott. "For their whereabouts lieth in a mystery."—Book of Thoughts, p. 14. Better: "Their whereabout lieth," or, "Their whereabouts lie," &c.

   "Bid them farewell, Cordelia, though unkind;
    Thou losest here, a better where to find."—Shak.

6. Conjunctions made nouns: "The if, which is here employed, converts the sentence into a supposition."—Blair's Rhet. "Your if is the only peacemaker; much virtue is in if."—Shak.

   "So his Lordship decreed with a grave solemn tone,
      Decisive and clear, without one if or but—
    That whenever the Nose put his spectacles on,
      By daylight or candlelight—Eyes should be shut."—Cowper.

7. Prepositions made nouns: "O, not like me; for mine's beyond beyond."—Shakspeare: Cymb., iii, 2. "I. e., her longing is further than beyond; beyond any thing that desire can be said to be beyond."—Singer's Notes. "You whirled them to the back of beyont to look at the auld Roman camp."—Antiquary, i. 37.

8. Interjections or phrases made nouns: "Come away from all the lo-heres! and lo-theres!"—Sermon. "Will cuts him short with a 'What then?'"—Addison. "With hark and whoop, and wild halloo."—Scott. "And made a pish at chance and sufferance."—Shak.

   "A single look more marks th' internal wo,
    Than all the windings of the lengthen'd oh."—Lloyd.

CLASSES.

Nouns are divided into two general classes; proper and common. I. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group; as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the Romans, the Azores, the Alps.

II. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things; as, Beast, bird, fish, insect,—creatures, persons, children.

The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal, or participial, are usually included among common nouns. The name of a thing sui generis is also called common.

1. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals together; as, Council, meeting, committee, flock.

2. An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance; as, Goodness, hardness, pride, frailty.

3. A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action, or state of being; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, but employed as a noun: as, "The triumphing of the wicked is short."—Job, xx, 5.

4. A thing sui generis, (i. e., of its own peculiar kind,) is something which is distinguished, not as an individual of a species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in either the noun or the sort of thing; as, Galvanism, music, geometry.

OBS. 1.—Through the influence of an article, a proper name sometimes acquires the import of a common noun: as, "He is the Cicero of his age;" that is, the great orator. "Many a fiery Alp;" that is, high volcanic mountain. "Such is the following application of famous names; a Solomon for a wise man, a Croesus for a rich man, a Judas for a traitor, a Demosthenes for an orator, and a Homer for a poet."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 326.

   "Consideration, like an angel, came,
    And whipp'd th' offending Adam out of him."—Shak.

OBS. 2.—A common noun, with the definite article before it, sometimes becomes proper: as, The Park; the Strand; the Gharmel; the Downs; the United States.

OBS. 3.—The common name of a thing or quality personified, often becomes proper; our conception of the object being changed by the figure of speech: as, "My power," said Reason, "is to advise, not to compel."—Johnson. "Fair Peace her olive branch extends." For such a word, the form of parsing should be like this: "Peace is a common noun, personified proper; of the third person, singular number, feminine gender, and nominative case." Here the construction of the word as a proper noun, and of the feminine gender, is the result of the personification, and contrary to the literal usage.

MODIFICATIONS.

Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, Persons, Numbers,
Genders, and Cases.

PERSONS.

Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing merely spoken of.

There are three persons; the first, the second, and the third.

The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer; as, "I
Paul have written it."

The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed; as, "Robert, who did this?"

The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of; as, "James loves his book."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations which the objects mentioned in any discourse may bear to the discourse itself. The speaker or writer, being the mover and maker of the communication, of course stands in the nearest or first of these relations. The hearer or hearers, being personally present and directly addressed, evidently sustain the next or second of these relations; this relation is also that of the reader, when he peruses what is addressed to himself in print or writing. Lastly, whatsoever or whosoever is merely mentioned in the discourse, bears to it that more remote relation which constitutes the third person. The distinction of persons belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in person.

OBS. 2.—Of the persons, numbers, genders, cases, and some other grammatical modifications of words, it should be observed that they belong not exclusively to any one part of speech, but jointly and equally, to two or three. Hence, it is necessary that our definitions of these things be such as will apply to each of them in full, or under all circumstances; for the definitions ought to be as general in their application as are the things or properties defined. Any person, number, gender, case, or other grammatical modification, is really but one and the same thing, in whatever part of speech it may be found. This is plainly implied in the very nature of every form of syntactical agreement; and as plainly contradicted in one half, and probably more, of the definitions usually given of these things.

OBS. 3.—Let it be understood, that persons, in grammar, are not words, but mere forms, relations, or modifications of words; that they are things, thus named by a figure; things of the neuter gender, and not living souls. But persons, in common parlance, or in ordinary life, are intelligent beings, of one or the other sex. These objects, different as they are in their nature, are continually confounded by the makers of English grammars: as, "The first person is the person who speaks."—Comly's Gram., p. 17. So Bicknell, of London: "The first person speaks of himself; as, I John take thee Elizabeth. The second person has the speech directed to him, and is supposed to be present; as, Thou Harry art a wicked fellow. The third person is spoken of, or described, and supposed to be absent; as, That Thomas is a good man. And in the same manner the plural pronouns are used, when more than one are spoken of."—Bicknell's Grammatical Wreath, p. 50. "The person speaking is the first person; the person spoken to, the second; and the person spoken of, the third."—Russell's Gram., p. 16. "The first person is the speaker."—Parker & Fox's Gram., Part i, p. 6. "Person is that, which distinguishes a noun, that speaks, one spoken to, or one spoken about."—S. B. Hall's Gram., p. 6. "A noun that speaks!" A noun "spoken to!" If ever one of Father Hall's nouns shall speak for itself, or answer when "spoken to," will it not reprove him? And how can the first person be "the person WHO speaks," when every word of this phrase is of the third person? Most certainly, it is not HE, nor any one of his sort. If any body can boast of being "the first person in grammar," I pray, Who is it? Is it not I, even I? Many grammarians say so. But nay: such authors know not what the first person in grammar is. The Rev. Charles Adams, with infinite absurdity, makes the three persons in grammar to be never any thing but three nouns, which hold a confabulation thus: "Person is defined to be that which distinguishes a noun that speaks, one spoken to, or one spoken of. The noun that speaks [,] is the first person; as, I, James, was present. The noun that is spoken to, is the second person; as, James, were you present? The noun that is spoken of is the third person; as, James was present."—Adams's System of English Gram., p. 9. What can be a greater blunder, than to call the first person of a verb, of a pronoun, or even of a noun, "the noun that speaks?" What can be more absurd than are the following assertions? "Nouns are in the first person when speaking. Nouns are of the second person when addressed or spoken to."—O. C. Felton's Gram., p. 9.

OBS. 4.—An other error, scarcely less gross than that which has just been noticed, is the very common one of identifying the three grammatical persons with certain words, called personal pronouns: as, "I is the first person, thou the second, he, she or it, the third."—Smith's Productive Gram., p. 53. "I is the first person, singular. Thou is the second person, singular. He, she, or it, is the third person, singular. We is the first person, plural. Ye or you is the second person, plural. They is the third person, plural."—L. Murray's Grammar, p. 51; Ingersoll's, 54; D. Adams's, 37; A. Flint's, 18; Kirkham's, 98; Cooper's, 34; T. H. Miller's, 26; Hull's, 21; Frost's, 13; Wilcox's, 18; Bacon's, 19; Alger's, 22; Maltby's, 19; Perley's, 15; S. Putnam's, 22. Now there is no more propriety in affirming, that "I is the first person," than in declaring that me, we, us, am, ourselves, we think, I write, or any other word or phrase of the first person, is the first person. Yet Murray has given us no other definitions or explanations of the persons than the foregoing erroneous assertions; and, if I mistake not, all the rest who are here named, have been content to define them only as he did. Some others, however, have done still worse: as, "There are three personal pronouns; so called, because they denote the three persons, who are the subjects of a discourse, viz. 1st. I, who is the person speaking; 2d thou, who is spoken to; 3d he, she, or it, who is spoken of, and their plurals, we, ye or you, they."—Bingham's Accidence, 20th Ed., p. 7. Here the two kinds of error which I have just pointed out, are jumbled together. It is impossible to write worse English than this! Nor is the following much better: "Of the personal pronouns there are five, viz. I, in the first person, speaking; Thou, in the second person, spoken to; and He, she, it, in the third person, spoken of."—Nutting's Gram., p. 25.

OBS. 5.—In written language, the first person denotes the writer or author; and the second, the reader or person addressed: except when the writer describes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an other the words which he records. This exception takes place more particularly in the writing of dialogues and dramas; in which the first and second persons are abundantly used, not as the representatives of the author and his reader, but as denoting the fictitious speakers and hearers that figure in each scene. But, in discourse, the grammatical persons may be changed without a change of the living subject. In the following sentence, the three grammatical persons are all of them used with reference to one and the same individual: "Say ye of Him whom the Father hath sanctified and sent into the world, Thou blasphemest, because I said I am the Son of God?"—John, x, 36.

OBS. 6.-The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, as the speaker; and, of the objects which there is occasion to name in discourse, but comparatively few are such as can ever be supposed to speak. Consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person; and when they do assume this relation, a pronoun is commonly associated with them: as, "I John,"—"We Britons." These words I conceive to agree throughout, in person, number, gender, and case; though it must be confessed, that agreement like this is not always required between words in apposition. But some grammarians deny the first person to nouns altogether; others, with much more consistency, ascribe it;[140] while very many are entirely silent on the subject. Yet it is plain that both the doctrine of concords, and the analogy of general grammar, require its admission. The reason of this may be seen in the following examples: "Themistocles ad te veni." "I Themistocles have come to you."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 72. "Adsum Troius Æneas."—Virgil. "Romulus Rex regia arma offero."—Livy. "Annibal peto pacem."—Id. "Callopius recensui."—See Terence's Comedies, at the end. "Paul, an apostle, &c., unto Timothy, my own son in the faith."—1 Tim., i, 2. Again, if the word God is of the second person, in the text, "Thou, God, seest me," why should any one deny that Paul is of the first person, in this one? "I Paul have written it."—Philemon, 19. Or this? "The salutation by the hand of me Paul."—Col., iv, 18. And so of the plural: "Of you builders."—Acts, iv, 11. "Of us the apostles."—2 Pet., iii, 2. How can it be pretended, that, in the phrase, "I Paul," I is of the first person, as denoting the speaker, and Paul, of some other person, as denoting something or somebody that is not the speaker? Let the admirers of Murray, Kirkham, Ingersoll, R. C. Smith, Comly, Greenleaf, Parkhurst, or of any others who teach this absurdity, answer.

OBS. 7.—As, in the direct application of what are called Christian names, there is a kind of familiarity, which on many occasions would seem to indicate a lack of proper respect; so in a frequent and familiar use of the second person, as it is the placing of an other in the more intimate relation of the hearer, and one's self in that of the speaker, there is a sort of assumption which may seem less modest and respectful than to use the third person. In the following example, the patriarch Jacob uses both forms; applying the term servant to himself, and to his brother Esau the term lord: "Let my lord, I pray thee, pass over before his servant: and I will lead on softly."—Gen., xxxiii, 14. For when a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in the first person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he speaks of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what Moses did, and Cæsar records the achievements of Cæsar. So Judah humbly beseeches Joseph: "Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bondman to my lord."—Gen., xliv, 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes with God: "Oh! let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak."—Gen., xviii, 30. And the Psalmist prays: "God be merciful unto us, and bless us; and cause his face to shine upon us."—Ps., lxvii, 1. So, on more common occasions:—

"As will the rest, so willeth Winchester."—Shak.

"Richard of York, how fares our dearest brother?"—Id.[141]

OBS. 8.—When inanimate things are spoken to, they are personified; and their names are put in the second person, because by the figure the objects are supposed to be capable of hearing: as, "What ailed thee, O thou sea, that thou fleddest? thou Jordan, that thou wast driven back? Ye mountains, that ye skipped like rams; and ye little hills, like lambs? Tremble, thou earth, at the presence of the Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob."—Psalms, cxiv, 5-7.

NUMBERS.

Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality.

There are two numbers; the singular and the plural.

The singular number is that which denotes but one; as, "The boy learns."

The plural number is that which denotes more than one; as, "The boys learn."

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding s or es to the singular: as, book, books; box, boxes; sofa, sofas; hero, heroes.

When the singular ends in a sound which will unite with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding s only, and the number of syllables is not increased: as, pen, pens; grape, grapes.

But when the sound of s cannot be united with that of the primitive word, the regular plural adds s to final e, and es to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable: as, page, pages; fox, foxes.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we speak of one object, or of more. In some languages, as the Greek and the Arabic, there is a dual number, which denotes two, or a pair; but in ours, this property of words, or class of modifications, extends no farther than to distinguish unity from plurality, and plurality from unity. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, in number.

OBS. 2.—The most common way of forming the plural of English nouns, is that of simply adding to them an s; which, when it unites with a sharp consonant, is always sharp, or hissing; and when it follows a vowel or a flat mute, is generally flat, like z: thus, in the words, ships, skiffs, pits, rocks, depths, lakes, gulfs, it is sharp; but in seas, lays, rivers, hills, ponds, paths, rows, webs, flags, it is flat. The terminations which always make the regular plural in es, with increase of syllables, are twelve; namely, ce, ge, ch soft, che soft, sh, ss, s, se, x, xe, z, and ze: as in face, faces; age, ages; torch, torches; niche, niches; dish, dishes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebuses; lens, lenses; chaise, chaises; corpse, corpses; nurse, nurses; box, boxes; axe, axes; phiz, phizzes; maze, mazes. All other endings readily unite in sound either with the sharp or with the flat s, as they themselves are sharp or flat; and, to avoid an increase of syllables, we allow the final e mute to remain mute after that letter is added: thus, we always pronounce as monosyllables the words babes, blades, strifes, tithes, yokes, scales, names, canes, ropes, shores, plates, doves, and the like.

OBS. 3.—Though the irregular plurals of our language appear considerably numerous when brought together, they are in fact very few in comparison with the many thousands that are perfectly simple and regular. In some instances, however, usage is various in writing, though uniform in speech; an unsettlement peculiar to certain words that terminate in vowels: as, Rabbis, or rabbies; octavos, or octavoes; attornies, or attorneys. There are also some other difficulties respecting the plurals of nouns, and especially respecting those of foreign words; of compound terms; of names and titles; and of words redundant or deficient in regard to the numbers. What is most worthy of notice, respecting all these puzzling points of English grammar, is briefly contained in the following observations.

OBS. 4.—It is a general rule of English grammar, that all singular nouns ending with a vowel preceded by an other vowel, shall form the plural by simply assuming an s: as, Plea, pleas; idea, ideas; hernia, hernias; bee, bees; lie, lies; foe, foes; shoe, shoes; cue, cues; eye, eyes; folio, folios; bamboo, bamboos; cuckoo, cuckoos; embryo, embryos; bureau, bureaus; purlieu, purlieus; sou, sous; view, views; straw, straws; play, plays; key, keys; medley, medleys; viceroy, viceroys; guy, guys. To this rule, the plurals of words ending in quy, as alloquies, colloquies, obloquies, soliloquies, are commonly made exceptions; because many have conceived that the u, in such instances, is a mere appendage to the q, or is a consonant having the power of w, and not a vowel forming a diphthong with the y. All other deviations from the rule, as monies for moneys, allies for alleys, vallies for valleys, chimnies for chimneys, &c., are now usually condemned as errors. See Rule 12th for Spelling.

OBS. 5.—It is also a general principle, that nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y into i, and add es for the plural, without increase of syllables: as, fly, flies; ally, allies; city, cities; colony, colonies. So nouns in i, (so far as we have any that are susceptible of a change of number,) form the plural regularly by assuming es: as, alkali, alkalies; salmagundi, salinagundies. Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, are numerous; and none of them deviate from the foregoing rule of forming the plural: thus, duty, duties. The termination added is es, and the y is changed into i, according to the general principle expressed in Rule 11th for Spelling. But, to this principle, or rule, some writers have supposed that proper nouns were to be accounted exceptions. And accordingly we sometimes find such names made plural by the mere addition of an s; as, "How come the Pythagoras', [it should be, the Pythagorases,] the Aristotles, the Tullys, the Livys, to appear, even to us at this distance, as stars of the first magnitude in the vast fields of ether?"—Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 131. This doctrine, adopted from some of our older grammars, I was myself, at one period, inclined to countenance; (see Institutes of English Grammar, p. 33, at the bottom;) but further observation having led me to suspect, there is more authority for changing the y than for retaining it, I shall by-and-by exhibit some examples of this change, and leave the reader to take his choice of the two forms, or principles.

OBS. 6.—The vowel a, at the end of a word, (except in the questionable term huzza, or when silent, as in guinea,) has always its Italian or middle sound, as heard in the interjection aha! a sound which readily unites with that of s flat, and which ought, in deliberate speech, to be carefully preserved in plurals from this ending: as, Canada, the Canadas; cupola, cupolas; comma, commas; anathema, anathemas. To pronounce the final a flat, as Africay for Africa, is a mark of vulgar ignorance.

OBS. 7.—The vowel e at the end of a word, is generally silent; and, even when otherwise, it remains single in plurals from this ending; the es, whenever the e is vocal, being sounded eez, or like the word ease: as, apostrophe, apostrophes; epitome, epitomes; simile, similes. This class of words being anomalous in respect to pronunciation, some authors have attempted to reform them, by changing the e to y in the singular, and writing ies for the plural: as, apostrophy, apostrophies; epitomy, epitomies; simily, similies. A reformation of some sort seems desirable here, and this has the advantage of being first proposed; but it is not extensively adopted, and perhaps never will be; for the vowel sound in question, is not exactly that of the terminations y and ies, but one which seems to require ee—a stronger sound than that of y, though similar to it.

OBS. 8.—For nouns ending in open o preceded by a consonant, the regular method of forming the plural seems to be that of adding es; as in bilboes, umboes, buboes, calicoes, moriscoes, gambadoes, barricadoes, fumadoes, carbonadoes, tornadoes, bravadoes, torpedoes, innuendoes, viragoes, mangoes, embargoes, cargoes, potargoes, echoes, buffaloes, volcanoes, heroes, negroes, potatoes, manifestoes, mulattoes, stilettoes, woes. In words of this class, the e appears to be useful as a means of preserving the right sound of the o; consequently, such of them as are the most frequently used, have become the most firmly fixed in this orthography. In practice, however, we find many similar nouns very frequently, if not uniformly, written with s only; as, cantos, juntos, grottos, solos, quartos, octavos, duodecimos, tyros. So that even the best scholars seem to have frequently doubted which termination they ought to regard as the regular one. The whole class includes more than one hundred words. Some, however, are seldom used in the plural; and others, never. Wo and potato are sometimes written woe and potatoe. This may have sprung from a notion, that such as have the e in the plural, should have it also in the singular. But this principle has never been carried out; and, being repugnant to derivation, it probably never will be. The only English appellatives that are established in oe, are the following fourteen: seven monosyllables, doe, foe, roe, shoe, sloe, soe, toe; and seven longer words, rockdoe, aloe, felloe, canoe, misletoe, tiptoe, diploe. The last is pronounced dip'-lo-e by Worcester; but Webster, Bolles, and some others, give it as a word of two syllables only.[142]

OBS. 9.—Established exceptions ought to be enumerated and treated as exceptions; but it is impossible to remember how to write some scores of words, so nearly alike as fumadoes and grenados, stilettoes and palmettos, if they are allowed to differ in termination, as these examples do in Johnson's Dictionary. Nay, for lack of a rule to guide his pen, even Johnson himself could not remember the orthography of the common word mangoes well enough to copy it twice without inconsistency. This may be seen by his example from King, under the words mango and potargo. Since, therefore, either termination is preferable to the uncertainty which must attend a division of this class of words between the two; and since es has some claim to the preference, as being a better index to the sound; I shall make no exceptions to the principle, that common nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant take es for the plural. Murray says, "Nouns which end in o have sometimes es added, to form the plural; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo: and sometimes only s; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio."—Octavo Gram., p. 40. This amounts to nothing, unless it is to be inferred from his examples, that others like them in form are to take s or es accordingly; and this is what I teach, though it cannot be said that Murray maintains the principle.

OBS. 10.—Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plural. But when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun becomes in some degree common, and admits of the plural form and an article; as, "The Stuarts, the Cæsars."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 41. These, however, may still be called proper nouns, in parsing; because they are only inflections, peculiarly applied, of certain names which are indisputably such. So likewise when such nouns are used to denote character: as, "Solomons, for wise men; Neros, for tyrants."—Ib. "Here we see it becomes a doubt which of the two Herculeses, was the monster-queller."—Notes to Pope's Dunciad, iv, 492. The proper names of nations, tribes, and societies, are generally plural; and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with the definite article: as, "The Greeks, the Athenians, the Jews, the Jesuits." But such words may take the singular form with the indefinite article, as often as we have occasion to speak of an individual of such a people; as, "A Greek, an Athenian, a Jew, a Jesuit." These, too, may be called proper nouns; because they are national, patrial, or tribal names, each referring to some place or people, and are not appellatives, which refer to actual sorts or kinds, not considered local.

OBS. 11.—Proper names, when they form the plural, for the most part form it regularly, by assuming s or es according to the termination: as, Carolina, the Carolinas; James, the Jameses. And those which are only or chiefly plural, have, or ought to have, such terminations as are proper to distinguish them as plurals, so that the form for the singular may be inferred: as, "The Tungooses occupy nearly a third of Siberia."—Balbi's Geog., p. 379. Here the singular must certainly be a Tungoose. "The principal tribes are the Pawnees, the Arrapahoes, and the Cumanches, who roam through the regions of the Platte, the Arkansaw, and the Norte."—Ib., p. 179. Here the singulars may be supposed to be a Pawnee, an Arrapaho, and a Cumanche. "The Southern or Floridian family comprised the Cherokees, Creeks, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Seminoles, and Natchez."—Ib., p. 179. Here all are regular plurals, except the last; and this probably ought to be Natchezes, but Jefferson spells it Natches, the singular of which I do not know. Sometimes foreign words or foreign terminations have been improperly preferred to our own; which last are more intelligible, and therefore better: as, Esquimaux, to Esquimaus; Knistenaux, to Knistenaus, or Crees; Sioux, to Sious, or Dahcotahs; Iroquois, to Iroquoys, or Hurons.

OBS. 12.—Respecting the plural of nouns ending in i, o, u, or y, preceded by a consonant, there is in present usage much uncertainty. As any vowel sound may be uttered with an s, many writers suppose these letters to require for plurals strictly regular, the s only; and to take es occasionally, by way of exception. Others, (perhaps with more reason,) assume, that the most usual, regular, and proper endings for the plural, in these instances, are ies, oes, and ues: as, alkali, alkalies; halo, haloes; gnu, gnues; enemy, enemies. This, I think, is right for common nouns. How far proper names are to be made exceptions, because they are proper names, is an other question. It is certain that some of them are not to be excepted: as, for instance, Alleghany, the Alleghanies; Sicily, the Two Sicilies; Ptolemy, the Ptolemies; Jehu, the Jehues. So the names of tribes; as, The Missouries, the Otoes, the Winnebagoes. Likewise, the houries and the harpies; which words, though not strictly proper names, are often written with a capital as such. Like these are rabbies, cadies, mufties, sophies, from which some writers omit the e. Johnson, Walker, and others, write gipsy and gipsies; Webster, now writes Gipsey and Gipseys; Worcester prefers Gypsy, and probably Gypsies: Webster once wrote the plural gypsies; (see his Essays, p. 333;) and Johnson cites the following line:—

"I, near yon stile, three sallow gypsies met."—Gay.

OBS. 13.—Proper names in o are commonly made plural by s only. Yet there seems to be the same reason for inserting the e in these, as in other nouns of the same ending; namely, to prevent the o from acquiring a short sound. "I apprehend," says Churchill, "it has been from an erroneous notion of proper names being unchangeable, that some, feeling the necessity of obviating this mispronunciation, have put an apostrophe between the o and the s in the plural, in stead of an e; writing Cato's, Nero's; and on a similar principle, Ajax's, Venus's; thus using the possessive case singular for the nominative or objective plural. Harris says very properly, 'We have our Marks and our Antonies: Hermes, B. 2, Ch. 4; for which those would have given us Mark's and Antony's."—New Gram., p. 206. Whatever may have been the motive for it, such a use of the apostrophe is a gross impropriety. "In this quotation, ['From the Socrates's, the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the age,'] the proper names should have been pluralized like common nouns; thus, From the Socrateses, the Platoes, and the Confuciuses of the age."—Lennie's Gram., p. 126; Bullions's, 142.

OBS. 14.—The following are some examples of the plurals of proper names, which I submit to the judgement of the reader, in connexion with the foregoing observations: "The Romans had their plurals Marci and Antonii, as we in later days have our Marks and our Anthonies."—Harris's Hermes, p. 40. "There seems to be more reason for such plurals, as the Ptolemies, Scipios, Catos: or, to instance in more modern names, the Howards, Pelhams, and Montagues."—Ib., 40. "Near the family seat of the Montgomeries of Coil's-field."—Burns's Poems, Note, p. 7. "Tryphon, a surname of one of the Ptolemies."—Lempriere's Dict. "Sixteen of the Tuberos, with their wives and children, lived in a small house."—Ib. "What are the Jupiters and Junos of the heathens to such a God?"—Burgh's Dignity, i, 234. "Also when we speak of more than one person of the same name; as, the Henries, the Edwards."—Cobbetts E. Gram., ¶ 40. "She was descended from the Percies and the Stanleys."—Loves of the Poets, ii, 102. "Naples, or the Two Sicilies."—Balbi's Geog., p. 273. The word India, commonly makes the plural Indies, not Indias; and, for Ajaxes, the poets write Ajaces. But Richard Hiley says, "Proper nouns, when pluralized, follow the same rules as common nouns; as, Venus, the Venuses; Ajax, the Ajaxes; Cato, the Catoes; Henry, the Henries."—Hiley's E. Gram., p. 18.

   "He ev'ry day from King to King can walk,
    Of all our Harries, all our Edwards talk."—Pope's Satires, iv.

OBS. 15.—When a name and a title are to be used together in a plural sense, many persons are puzzled to determine whether the name, or the title, or both, should be in the plural form. For example—in speaking of two young ladies whose family name is Bell—whether to call them the Miss Bells, the Misses Bell, or the Misses Bells. To an inquiry on this point, a learned editor, who prefers the last, lately gave his answer thus: "There are two young ladies; of course they are 'the Misses.' Their name is Bell; of course there are two 'Bells.' Ergo, the correct phrase, in speaking of them, is—'the Misses Bells.'"—N. Y. Com. Adv. This puts the words in apposition; and there is no question, that it is formally correct. But still it is less agreeable to the ear, less frequently heard, and less approved by grammarians, than the first phrase; which, if we may be allowed to assume that the two words may be taken together as a sort of compound, is correct also. Dr. Priestley says, "When a name has a title prefixed to it, as Doctor, Miss, Master, &c., the plural termination affects only the latter of the two words; as, 'The two Doctor Nettletons'—'The two Miss Thomsons;' though a strict analogy would plead for the alteration of the former word, and lead us to say, 'The two Doctors Nettleton'—'The two Misses Thomson.'"—Priestley's Gram., p. 59. The following quotations show the opinions of some other grammarians: "Two or more nouns in concordance, and forming one complex name, or a name and a title, have the plural termination annexed to the last only; as, 'The Miss Smiths'—'The three Doctor Simpsons'—'The two Master Wigginses.' With a few exceptions, and those not parallel to the examples just given, we almost uniformly, in complex names, confine the inflection to the last or the latter noun."—Dr. Crombie. The foregoing opinion from Crombie, is quoted and seconded by Maunder, who adds the following examples: "Thus, Dr. Watts: 'May there not be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science?'—'You must not suppose that the world is made up of Lady Aurora Granvilles.'"—Maunder's Gram., p. 2.

OBS. 16.—These writers do not seem to accord with W. L. Stone, the editor above quoted, nor would his reasoning apply well to several of their examples. Yet both opinions are right, if neither be carried too far. For when the words are in apposition, rather than in composition, the first name or title must be made plural, if it refers to more than one: as, "The Misses Bell and Brown,"—"Messrs. Lambert and Son,"—"The Lords Calthorpe and Erskine,"—"The Lords Bishops of Durham and St. David's,"—"The Knights Hospitalers,"—"The Knights Templars,"—"The Knights Baronets." But this does not prove the other construction, which varies the last word only, to be irregular; and, if it did, there is abundant authority for it. Nor is that which varies the first only, to be altogether condemned, though Dr. Priestley is unquestionably wrong respecting the "strict analogy" of which he speaks. The joining of a plural title to one singular noun, as, "Misses Roy,"—"The Misses Bell,"—"The two Misses Thomson," produces a phrase which is in itself the least analogous of the three; but, "The Misses Jane and Eliza Bell," is a phrase which nobody perhaps will undertake to amend. It appears, then, that each of these forms of expression may be right in some cases; and each of them may be wrong, if improperly substituted for either of the others.

OBS. 17.—The following statements, though erroneous in several particulars, will show the opinions of some other grammarians, upon the foregoing point: "Proper nouns have the plural only when they refer to a race or family; as, The Campbells; or to several persons of the same name; as, The eight Henrys; the two Mr. Sells; the two Miss Browns; or, without the numeral, the Miss Roys. But in addressing letters in which both or all are equally concerned, and also when the names are different, we pluralize the title, (Mr. or Miss,) and write, Misses Brown; Misses Roy; Messrs, (for Messieurs, Fr.) Guthrie and Tait."—Lennie's Gram., p. 7. "If we wish to distinguish the unmarried from the married Howards, we call them the Miss Howards. If we wish to distinguish these Misses from other Misses, we call them the Misses Howard."—Fowle's Gram. "To distinguish several persons of the same name and family from others of a different name and family, the title, and not the proper name, is varied to express the distinction; as, the Misses Story, the Messrs. Story. The elliptical meaning is, the Misses and Messrs, who are named Story. To distinguish unmarried from married ladies, the proper name, and not the title, should be varied; as, the Miss Clarks. When we mention more than one person of different names, the title should be expressed before each; as, Miss Burns, Miss Parker, and Miss Hopkinson, were present."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 79. In the following examples from Pope's Works, the last word only is varied: "He paragons himself to two Lord Chancellors for law."—Vol. iii, p. 61. "Yearly panegyrics upon the Lord Mayors."—Ib., p. 83.

   "Whence hapless Monsieur much complains at Paris
    Of wrongs from Duchesses and Lady Maries."—Dunciad, B. ii, L 135.

OBS. 18.—The following eleven nouns in f, change the f into v and assume es for the plural: sheaf, sheaves; leaf, leaves; loaf, loaves; leaf, beeves; thief, thieves; calf, calves; half, halves; elf, elves; shelf, shelves; self, selves; wolf, wolves. Three others in fe are similar: life, lives; knife, knives; wife, wives. These are specific exceptions to the general rule for plurals, and not a series of examples coming under a particular rule; for, contrary to the instructions of nearly all our grammarians, there are more than twice as many words of the same endings, which take s only: as, chiefs, kerchiefs, handkerchiefs, mischiefs, beliefs, misbeliefs, reliefs, bassreliefs, briefs, feifs, griefs, clefs, semibrefs, oafs, waifs, coifs, gulfs, hoofs, roofs, proofs, reproofs, woofs, califs, turfs, scarfs, dwarfs, wharfs, fifes, strifes, safes. The plural of wharf is sometimes written wharves; but perhaps as frequently, and, if so, more accurately, wharfs. Examples and authorities: "Wharf, wharfs."—Brightland's Gram., p. 80; Ward's, 24; Goar's, 26; Lennie's, 7; Bucke's, 39. "There were not in London so many wharfs, or keys, for the landing of merchants' goods."—CHILD: in Johnson's Dict. "The wharfs of Boston are also worthy of notice."—Balbi's Geog., p. 37. "Between banks thickly clad with dwelling-houses, manufactories, and wharfs."—London Morn. Chronicle, 1833. Nouns in ff take s only; as, skiffs, stuffs, gaffs. But the plural of staff has hitherto been generally written staves; a puzzling and useless anomaly, both in form and sound: for all the compounds of staff are regular; as, distaffs, whipstaffs, tipstaffs, flagstaffs, quarterstaffs; and staves is the regular plural of stave, a word now in very common use with a different meaning, as every cooper and every musician knows. Staffs is now sometimes used; as, "I saw the husbandmen bending over their staffs."—Lord Carnarvon. "With their staffs in their hands for very age."—Hope of Israel, p. 16. "To distinguish between the two staffs."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 43. In one instance, I observe, a very excellent scholar has written selfs for selves, but the latter is the established plural of self:

   "Self-love would cease, or be dilated, when
    We should behold as many selfs as men."—Waller's Poems, p. 55.

OBS. 19.—Of nouns purely English, the following thirteen are the only simple words that form distinct plurals not ending in s or es, and four of these are often regular: man, men; woman, women; child, children; brother, brethren or brothers; ox, oxen; goose, geese; foot, feet; tooth, teeth; louse, lice; mouse, mice; die, dice or dies; penny, pence or pennies; pea, pease or peas. The word brethren is now applied only to fellow-members of the same church or fraternity; for sons of the same parents we always use brothers; and this form is sometimes employed in the other sense. Dice are spotted cubes for gaming; dies are stamps for coining money, or for impressing metals. Pence, as six pence, refers to the amount of money in value; pennies denotes the corns themselves. "We write peas, for two or more individual seeds; but pease, for an indefinite number in quantity or bulk."—Webster's Dict. This last anomaly, I think, might well enough "be spared; the sound of the word being the same, and the distinction to the eye not always regarded." Why is it not as proper, to write an order for "a bushel of peas," as for "a bushel of beans?" "Peas and beans may be severed from the ground before they be quite dry."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 31.

OBS. 20.—When a compound, ending with any of the foregoing irregular words, is made plural, it follows the fashion of the word with which it ends: as, Gentleman, gentlemen; bondwoman, bondwomen; foster-child, foster-children; solan-goose, solan-geese; eyetooth, eyeteeth; woodlouse, woodlice;[143] dormouse, dormice; half-penny, halfpence, half-pennies. In this way, these irregularities extend to many words; though some of the metaphorical class, as kite's-foot, colts-foot, bear's-foot, lion's-foot, being names of plants, have no plural. The word man, which is used the most frequently in this way, makes more than seventy such compounds. But there are some words of this ending, which, not being compounds of man, are regular: as, German, Germans; Turcoman, Turcomans; Mussulman, Mussulmans; talisman, talismans; leman, lemans; caiman, caimans.

OBS. 21.—Compounds, in general, admit but one variation to form the plural, and that must be made in the principal word, rather than in the adjunct; but where the terms differ little in importance, the genius of the language obviously inclines to a variation of the last only. Thus we write fathers-in-law, sons-in-law, knights-errant, courts-martial, cousins-german, hangers-on, comings-in, goings-out, goings-forth, varying the first; and manhaters, manstealers, manslayers, maneaters, mandrills, handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, pailfuls, outpourings, ingatherings, downsittings, overflowings, varying the last. So, in many instances, when there is a less intimate connexion of the parts, and the words are written with a hyphen, if not separately, we choose to vary the latter or last: as, fellow-servants, queen-consorts, three-per-cents, he-goats, she-bears, jack-a-dandies, jack-a-lanterns, piano-fortes. The following mode of writing is irregular in two respects; first, because the words are separated, and secondly, because both are varied: "Is it unreasonable to say with John Wesley, that 'men buyers are exactly on a level with men stealers?"—GOODELL'S LECT. II: Liberator, ix, 65. According to analogy, it ought to be: "Manbuyers are exactly on a level with manstealers." J. W. Wright alleges, that, "The phrase, 'I want two spoonfuls or handfuls,' though common, is improperly constructed;" and that, "we should say, 'Two spoons or hands full.'"—Philos. Gram., p. 222. From this opinion, I dissent: both authority and analogy favour the former mode of expressing the plural of such quantities.

OBS. 22.—There is neither difficulty nor uncertainty respecting the proper forms for the plurals of compound nouns in general; but the two irregular words man and woman are often varied at the beginning of the looser kind of compounds, contrary to what appears to be the general analogy of similar words. Of the propriety of this, the reader may judge, when I shall have quoted a few examples: "Besides their man-servants and their maid-servants."—Nehemiah, vii, 67. "And I have oxen and asses, flocks, and men-servants, and women-servants."—Gen., xxxii, 5. "I gat me men-singers, and women-singers, and the delights of the sons of men."—Ecclesiastes, ii, 8. "And she brought forth a man-child, who was to rule all nations with a rod of iron."—Rev., xii, 5.—"Why have ye done this, and saved the men-children alive?"—Exod., i, 18. Such terms as these, if thought objectionable, may easily be avoided, by substituting for the former part of the compound the separate adjective male or female; as, male child, male children. Or, for those of the third example, one might say, "singing men and singing women," as in Nehemiah, vii, 67; for, in the ancient languages, the words are the same. Alger compounds "singing-men and singing-women."

OBS. 23.—Some foreign compound terms, consisting of what are usually, in the language from which they come, distinct words and different parts of speech, are made plural in English, by the addition of e or es at the end. But, in all such cases, I think the hyphen should be inserted in the compound, though it is the practice of many to omit it. Of this odd sort of words, I quote the following examples from Churchill; taking the liberty to insert the hyphen, which he omits: "Ave-Maries, Te-Deums, camera-obscuras, agnus-castuses, habeas-corpuses, scire-faciases, hiccius-docciuses, hocus-pocuses, ignis-fatuuses, chef-d'oeuvres, congé-d'élires, flower-de-luces, louis-d'-ores, tête-à-têtes."—Churchill's Gram., p. 62.

OBS. 24.—Some nouns, from the nature of the things meant, have no plural. For, as there ought to be no word, or inflection of a word, for which we cannot conceive an appropriate meaning or use, it follows that whatever is of such a species that it cannot be taken in any plural sense, must naturally be named by a word which is singular only: as, perry, cider, coffee, flax, hemp, fennel, tallow, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, meekness, eloquence. But there are some things, which have in fact neither a comprehensible unity, nor any distinguishable plurality, and which may therefore be spoken of in either number; for the distinction of unity and plurality is, in such instances, merely verbal; and, whichever number we take, the word will be apt to want the other: as, dregs, or sediment; riches, or wealth; pains, or toil; ethics, or moral philosophy; politics, or the science of government; belles-lettres, or polite literature. So darkness, which in English appears to have no plural, is expressed in Latin by tenebræ, in French by ténèbres, which have no singular. It is necessary that every noun should be understood to be of one number or the other; for, in connecting it with a verb, or in supplying its place by a pronoun, we must assume it to be either singular or plural. And it is desirable that singulars and plurals should always abide by their appropriate forms, so that they may be thereby distinguished with readiness. But custom, which regulates this, as every thing else of the like nature, does not always adjust it well; or, at least, not always upon principles uniform in themselves and obvious to every intellect.

OBS. 25.—Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally admit the regular plural form; which of course is understood with reference to the individuality of the whole collection, considered as one thing: but, when taken distributively, they have a plural signification without the form; and, in this case, their plurality refers to the individuals that compose the assemblage. Thus, a council, a committee, a jury, a meeting, a society, a flock, or a herd, is singular; and the regular plurals are councils, committees, juries, meetings, societies, flocks, herds. But these, and many similar words, may be taken plurally without the s, because a collective noun is the name of many individuals together. Hence we may say, "The council were unanimous."—"The committee are in consultation."—"The jury were unable to agree."—"The meeting have shown their discretion."—"The society have settled their dispute."—"The flock are widely scattered."—"The whole herd were drowned in the sea." The propriety of the last example seems questionable; because whole implies unity, and were drowned is plural. Where a purer concord can be effected, it may be well to avoid such a construction, though examples like it are not uncommon: as, "Clodius was acquitted by a corrupt jury, that had palpably taken shares of money before they gave their verdict."—Bacon. "And the whole multitude of the people were praying without, at the time of incense."—Luke, i, 10.

OBS. 26.—Nouns have, in some instances, a unity or plurality of meaning, which seems to be directly at variance with their form. Thus, cattle, for beasts of pasture, and pulse, for peas and beans, though in appearance singulars only, are generally, if not always, plural; and summons, gallows, chintz, series, superficies, molasses, suds, hunks, jakes, trapes, and corps, with the appearance of plurals, are generally, if not always, singular. Dr. Webster says that cattle is of both numbers; but wherein the oneness of cattle can consist, I know not. The Bible says, "God made—cattle after their kind."—Gen., i, 25. Here kind is indeed singular, as if cattle were a natural genus of which one must be a cattle; as sheep are a natural genus of which one is a sheep: but whether properly expressed so or not, is questionable; perhaps it ought to be, "and cattle after their kinds." Dr. Gillies says, in his History of Greece, "cattle was regarded as the most convenient measure of value." This seems to me to be more inaccurate and unintelligible, than to say, "Sheep was regarded as the most convenient measure of value." And what would this mean? Sheep is not singular, unless limited to that number by some definitive word; and cattle I conceive to be incapable of any such limitation.

OBS. 27.—Of the last class of words above cited, some may assume an additional es, when taken plurally; as, summonses, gallowses, chintses: the rest either want the plural, or have it seldom and without change of form. Corps, a body of troops, is a French word, which, when singular, is pronounced c=ore, and when plural, c=ores. But corpse, a dead body, is an English word, pronounced k~orps, and making the plural in two syllables, corpses. Summonses is given in Cobb's Dictionary as the plural of summons; but some authors have used the latter with a plural verb: as, "But Love's first summons seldom are obey'd."—Waller's Poems, p. 8. Dr. Johnson says this noun is from the verb to summon; and, if this is its origin, the singular ought to be a summon, and then summons would be a regular plural. But this "singular noun with a plural termination," as Webster describes it, more probably originated from the Latin verb submoneas, used in the writ, and came to us through the jargon of law, in which we sometimes hear men talk of "summonsing witnesses." The authorities for it, however, are good enough; as, "This present summons."—SHAK.: Joh. Dict. "This summons he resolved to disobey."—FELL: ib. Chints is called by Cobb a "substantive plural" and defined as "cotton cloths, made in India;" but other lexicographers define it as singular, and Worcester (perhaps more properly) writes it chintz. Johnson cites Pope as speaking of "a charming chints," and I have somewhere seen the plural formed by adding es. "Of the Construction of single Words, or Serieses of Words."—Ward's Gram., p. 114. Walker, in his Elements of Elocution, makes frequent use of the word "serieses," and of the phrase "series of serieses." But most writers, I suppose, would doubt the propriety of this practice; because, in Latin, all nouns of the fifth declension, such as caries, congeries, series, species, superficies, make their nominative and vocative cases alike in both numbers. This, however, is no rule for writing English. Dr. Blair has used the word species in a plural sense; though I think he ought rather to have preferred the regular English word kinds: "The higher species of poetry seldom admit it."—Rhet., p. 403. Specie, meaning hard money, though derived or corrupted from species, is not the singular of that word; nor has it any occasion for a plural form, because we never speak of a specie. The plural of gallows, according to Dr. Webster, is gallowses; nor is that form without other authority, though some say, gallows is of both numbers and not to be varied: "Gallowses were occasionally put in order by the side of my windows."—Leigh Hunt's Byron, p. 369.

   "Who would not guess there might be hopes,
    The fear of gallowses and ropes,
    Before their eyes, might reconcile
    Their animosities a while?"—Hudibras, p. 90.

OBS. 28.—Though the plural number is generally derived from the singular, and of course must as generally imply its existence, we have examples, and those not a few, in which the case is otherwise. Some nouns, because they signify such things as nature or art has made plural or double; some, because they have been formed from other parts of speech by means of the plural ending which belongs to nouns; and some, because they are compounds in which a plural word is principal, and put last, are commonly used in the plural number only, and have, in strict propriety, no singular. Though these three classes of plurals may not be perfectly separable, I shall endeavour to exhibit them in the order of this explanation.

1. Plurals in meaning and form: analects, annals,[144] archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bowels, breeches, calends, cates, chops, clothes, compasses, crants, eaves, embers, estovers, forceps, giblets, goggles, greaves, hards or hurds, hemorrhoids, ides, matins, nippers, nones, obsequies, orgies,[145] piles, pincers or pinchers, pliers, reins, scissors, shears, skittles, snuffers, spectacles, teens, tongs, trowsers, tweezers, umbles, vespers, victuals.

2. Plurals by formation, derived chiefly from adjectives: acoustics, aeronautics, analytics, bitters, catoptrics, commons, conics, credentials, delicates, dioptrics, economics, ethics, extraordinaries, filings, fives, freshes, glanders, gnomonics, goods, hermeneutics, hustings, hydrodynamics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, hysterics, inwards, leavings, magnetics, mathematics, measles, mechanics, mnemonics, merils, metaphysics, middlings, movables, mumps, nuptials, optics, phonics, phonetics, physics,[146] pneumatics, poetics, politics, riches, rickets, settlings, shatters, skimmings, spherics, staggers, statics, statistics, stays, strangles, sundries, sweepings, tactics, thanks, tidings, trappings, vives, vitals, wages,[147] withers, yellows.

3. Plurals by composition: backstairs, cocklestairs, firearms,[148] headquarters, hotcockles, spatterdashes, self-affairs. To these may be added the Latin words, aborigines, antipodes, antes, antoeci, amphiscii, anthropophagi, antiscii, ascii, literati, fauces, regalia, and credenda, with the Italian vermicelli, and the French belles-lettres and entremets.

OBS. 29.—There are several nouns which are set down by some writers as wanting the singular, and by others as having it. Of this class are the following: amends,[149] ancients, awns, bots, catacombs, chives, cloves, cresses, dogsears, downs, dregs,[150] entrails, fetters, fireworks, greens, gyves, hatches, intestines, lees,[151] lungs, malanders, mallows, moderns, oats, orts, pleiads, premises, relics, remains, shackles, shambles,[152] stilts, stairs, tares, vetches. The fact is, that these words have, or ought to have, the singular, as often as there is any occasion to use it; and the same may, in general terms, be said of other nouns, respecting the formation of the plural.[153] For where the idea of unity or plurality comes clearly before the mind, we are very apt to shape the word accordingly, without thinking much about the authorities we can quote for it.

OBS. 30.—In general, where both numbers exist in common use, there is some palpable oneness or individuality, to which the article a or an is applicable; the nature of the species is found entire in every individual of it; and a multiplication of the individuals gives rise to plurality in the name. But the nature of a mass, or of an indefinite multitude taken collectively, is not found in individuals as such; nor is the name, whether singular, as gold, or plural, as ashes, so understood. Hence, though every noun must be of one number or the other, there are many which have little or no need of both. Thus we commonly speak of wheat, barley, or oats, collectively; and very seldom find occasion for any other forms of these words. But chafferers at the corn-market, in spite of Cobbett,[154] will talk about wheats and barleys, meaning different kinds[155] or qualities; and a gardener, if he pleases, will tell of an oat, (as does Milton, in his Lycidas,) meaning a single seed or plant. But, because wheat or barley generally means that sort of grain in mass, if he will mention a single kernel, he must call it a grain of wheat or a barleycorn. And these he may readily make plural, to specify any particular number; as, five grains of wheat, or three barleycorns.

OBS. 31.—My chief concern is with general principles, but the illustration of these requires many particular examples—even far more than I have room to quote. The word amends is represented by Murray and others, as being singular as well as plural; but Webster's late dictionaries exhibit amend as singular, and amends as plural, with definitions that needlessly differ, though not much. I judge "an amends" to be bad English; and prefer the regular singular, an amend. The word is of French origin, and is sometimes written in English with a needless final e; as, "But only to make a kind of honourable amende to God."—Rollin's Ancient Hist., Vol. ii, p. 24. The word remains Dr. Webster puts down as plural only, and yet uses it himself in the singular: "The creation of a Dictator, even for a few months, would have buried every remain of freedom."—Webster's Essays, p. 70. There are also other authorities for this usage, and also for some other nouns that are commonly thought to have no singular; as, "But Duelling is unlawful and murderous, a remain of the ancient Gothic barbarity."—Brown's Divinity, p. 26. "I grieve with the old, for so many additional inconveniences, more than their small remain of life seemed destined to undergo."—POPE: in Joh. Dict. "A disjunctive syllogism is one whose major premise is disjunctive."—Hedge's Logic. "Where should he have this gold? It is some poor fragment, some slender ort of his remainder."—SHAK.: Timon of Athens.

OBS. 32.—There are several nouns which are usually alike in both numbers. Thus, deer, folk, fry, gentry, grouse, hose, neat, sheep, swine, vermin, and rest, (i. e. the rest, the others, the residue,) are regular singulars, but they are used also as plurals, and that more frequently. Again, alms, aloes, bellows, means, news, odds, shambles, and species, are proper plurals, but most of them are oftener construed as singulars. Folk and fry are collective nouns. Folk means people; a folk, a people: as, "The ants are a people not strong;"—"The conies are but a feeble folk."—Prov., xxx, 25, 26. "He laid his hands on a few sick folk, and healed them."—Mark, vi, 5. Folks, which ought to be the plural of folk, and equivalent to peoples, is now used with reference to a plurality of individuals, and the collective word seems liable to be entirely superseded by it. A fry is a swarm of young fishes, or of any other little creatures living in water: so called, perhaps, because their motions often make the surface fry. Several such swarms might properly be called fries; but this form can never be applied to the individuals, without interfering with the other. "So numerous was the fry."—Cowper. "The fry betake themselves to the neighbouring pools."—Quarterly Review. "You cannot think more contemptuously of these gentry than they were thought of by the true prophets."—Watson's Apology, p. 93. "Grouse, a heathcock."—Johnson.

   "The 'squires in scorn will fly the house
    For better game, and look for grouse."—Swift.

"Here's an English tailor, come hither for stealing out of a French hose."—Shak. "He, being in love, could not see to garter his hose."—Id. Formerly, the plural was hosen: "Then these men were bound, in their coats, their hosen, and their hats."—Dan., iii, 21. Of sheep, Shakspeare has used the regular plural: "Two hot sheeps, marry!"—Love's Labour Lost, Act ii, Sc. 1.

   "Who both by his calf and his lamb will be known,
    May well kill a neat and a sheep of his own."—Tusser.

    "His droves of asses, camels, herds of neat,
    And flocks of sheep, grew shortly twice as great."—Sandys.

"As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout."—Prov., xi, 22. "A herd of many swine, feeding."—Matt., viii, 30. "An idle person only lives to spend his time, and eat the fruits of the earth, like a vermin or a wolf."—Taylor. "The head of a wolf, dried and hanged up, will scare away vermin."—Bacon. "Cheslip, a small vermin that lies under stones or tiles."—SKINNER: in Joh. and in Web. Dict. "This is flour, the rest is bran."—"And the rest were blinded."—Rom., xi, 7. "The poor beggar hath a just demand of an alms."—Swift. "Thine alms are come up for a memorial before God."—Acts, x, 4. "The draught of air performed the function of a bellows."—Robertson's Amer., ii, 223. "As the bellows do."—Bicknell's Gram., ii, 11. "The bellows are burned."—Jer., vi, 29. "Let a gallows be made."—Esther, v, 14. "Mallows are very useful in medicine."—Wood's Dict. "News," says Johnson, "is without the singular, unless it be considered as singular."—Dict. "So is good news from a far country."—Prov., xxv, 25. "Evil news rides fast, while good news baits."—Milton. "When Rhea heard these news, she fled."—Raleigh. "News were brought to the queen."—Hume's Hist., iv, 426. "The news I bring are afflicting, but the consolation with which they are attended, ought to moderate your grief."—Gil Blas, Vol. ii, p. 20. "Between these two cases there are great odds."—Hooker. "Where the odds is considerable."—Campbell. "Determining on which side the odds lie."—Locke. "The greater are the odds that he mistakes his author."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 1. "Though thus an odds unequally they meet."—Rowe's Lucan, B. iv, l. 789. "Preëminent by so much odds."—Milton. "To make a shambles of the parliament house."—Shak. "The earth has been, from the beginning, a great Aceldama, a shambles of blood."—Christian's Vade-Mecum, p. 6. "A shambles" sounds so inconsistent, I should rather say, "A shamble." Johnson says, the etymology of the word is uncertain; Webster refers it to the Saxon scamel: it means a butcher's stall, a meat-market; and there would seem to be no good reason for the s, unless more than one such place is intended. "Who sells his subjects to the shambles of a foreign power."—Pitt. "A special idea is called by the schools a species."—Watts. "He intendeth the care of species, or common natures."—Brown. "ALOE, (al~o) n.; plu. ALOES."—Webster's Dict., and Worcester's. "But it was aloe itself to lose the reward."— Tupper's Crock of Gold, p. 16.

   "But high in amphitheatre above,
    His arms the everlasting aloes threw."
        —Campbell, G. of W., ii, 10.

OBS. 33.—There are some nouns, which, though really regular in respect to possessing the two forms for the two numbers, are not free from irregularity in the manner of their application. Thus means is the regular plural of mean; and, when the word is put for mediocrity, middle point, place, or degree, it takes both forms, each in its proper sense; but when it signifies things instrumental, or that which is used to effect an object, most writers use means for the singular as well as for the plural:[156] as, "By this means"—"By those means," with reference to one mediating cause; and, "By these means,"—"By those means," with reference to more than one. Dr. Johnson says the use of means for mean is not very grammatical; and, among his examples for the true use of the word, he has the following: "Pamela's noble heart would needs gratefully make known the valiant mean of her safety."—Sidney. "Their virtuous conversation was a mean to work the heathens' conversion."—Hooker. "Whether his wits should by that mean have been taken from him."—Id. "I'll devise a mean to draw the Moor out of the way."—Shak. "No place will please me so, no mean of death."—Id. "Nature is made better by no mean, but nature makes that mean."—Id. Dr. Lowth also questioned the propriety of construing means as singular, and referred to these same authors as authorities for preferring the regular form. Buchanan insists that means is right in the plural only; and that, "The singular should be used as perfectly analogous; by this mean, by that mean."—English Syntax, p. 103. Lord Kames, likewise, appears by his practice to have been of the same opinion: "Of this the child must be sensible intuitively, for it has no other mean of knowledge."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. i, p. 357. "And in both the same mean is employed."—Ib. ii, 271. Caleb Alexander, too, declares "this means," "that means." and "a means," to be "ungrammatical."—Gram., p. 58. But common usage has gone against the suggestions of these critics, and later grammarians have rather confirmed the irregularity, than attempted to reform it.

OBS. 34.—Murray quotes sixteen good authorities to prove that means may be singular; but whether it ought to be so or not, is still a disputable point. Principle is for the regular word mean, and good practice favours the irregularity, but is still divided. Cobbett, to the disgrace of grammar, says, "Mean, as a noun, is never used in the singular. It, like some other words, has broken loose from all principle and rule. By universal consent, it is become always a plural, whether used with singular or plural pronouns and articles, or not."—E. Gram., p. 144. This is as ungrammatical, as it is untrue. Both mean and means are sufficiently authorized in the singular: "The prospect which by this mean is opened to you."—Melmoth's Cicero. "Faith in this doctrine never terminates in itself, but is a mean, to holiness as an end."—Dr. Chalmers, Sermons, p. v. "The mean of basely affronting him."—Brown's Divinity, p. 19. "They used every mean to prevent the re-establishment of their religion."—Dr Jamieson's Sacred Hist., i, p. 20. "As a necessary mean to prepare men for the discharge of that duty."— Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 153. "Greatest is the power of a mean, when its power is least suspected."—Tupper's Book of Thoughts, p. 37. "To the deliberative orator the reputation of unsullied virtue is not only useful, as a mean of promoting his general influence, it is also among his most efficient engines of persuasion, upon every individual occasion."—J. Q. Adams's Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, i, 352. "I would urge it upon you, as the most effectual mean of extending your respectability and usefulness in the world."—Ib., ii, 395. "Exercise will be admitted to be a necessary mean of improvement."—Blair's Rhet., p. 343. "And by that means we have now an early prepossession in their favour."—Ib., p. 348. "To abolish all sacrifice by revealing a better mean of reconciliation." —Keith's Evidences, p. 46. "As a mean of destroying the distinction." —Ib., p. 3. "Which however is by no mean universally the case."— Religious World Displayed, Vol. iii, p. 155.

OBS. 35.—Again, there are some nouns, which, though they do not lack the regular plural form, are sometimes used in a plural sense without the plural termination. Thus manner makes the plural manners, which last is now generally used in the peculiar sense of behaviour, or deportment, but not always: it sometimes means methods, modes, or ways; as, "At sundry times and in divers manners."—Heb., i, 1. "In the manners above mentioned."—Butler's Analogy, p. 100. "There be three manners of trials in England."—COWELL: Joh. Dict., w. Jury. "These two manners of representation."—Lowth's Gram., p. 15. "These are the three primary modes, or manners, of expression."—Lowth's Gram., p. 83. "In arrangement, too, various manners suit various styles."—Campbell's Phil. of Rhet., p. 172. "Between the two manners."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 35. "Here are three different manners of asserting."— Barnard's Gram., p. 59. But manner has often been put for sorts, without the s; as, "The tree of life, which bare twelve manner of fruits."—Rev., xxii, 2. "All manner of men assembled here in arms."—Shak. "All manner of outward advantages."—Atterbury. Milton used kind in the same way, but not very properly; as, "All kind of living creatures."—P. Lost, B. iv, l. 286. This irregularity it would be well to avoid. Manners may still, perhaps, be proper for modes or ways; and all manner, if allowed, must be taken in the sense of a collective noun; but for sorts, kinds, classes, or species, I would use neither the plural nor the singular of this word. The word heathen, too, makes the regular plural heathens, and yet is often used in a plural sense without the s; as, "Why do the heathen rage?"—Psalms, ii, 1. "Christianity was formerly propagated among the heathens."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 217. The word youth, likewise, has the same peculiarities.

OBS. 36.—Under the present head come names of fishes, birds, or other things, when the application of the singular is extended from the individual to the species, so as to supersede the plural by assuming its construction: as, Sing. "A great fish."—Jonah, i, 17. Plur. "For the multitude of fishes'."—John, xxi, 6. "A very great multitude of fish."—Ezekiel, xlvii, 9.[157] The name of the genus being liable to this last construction, men seem to have thought that the species should follow; consequently, the regular plurals of some very common names of fishes are scarcely known at all. Hence some grammarians affirm, that salmon, mackerel, herring, perch, tench, and several others, are alike in both numbers, and ought never to be used in the plural form. I am not so fond of honouring these anomalies. Usage is here as unsettled, as it is arbitrary; and, if the expression of plurality is to be limited to either form exclusively, the regular plural ought certainly to be preferred. But, for fish taken in bulk, the singular form seems more appropriate; as, "These vessels take from thirty-eight to forty-five quintals of cod and pollock, and six thousand barrels of mackerel, yearly."—Balbi's Geog., p. 28.

OBS. 37.—The following examples will illustrate the unsettled usage just mentioned, and from them the reader may judge for himself what is right. In quoting, at second-hand, I generally think it proper to make double references; and especially in citing authorities after Johnson, because he so often gives the same passages variously. But he himself is reckoned good authority in things literary. Be it so. I regret the many proofs of his fallibility. "Hear you this Triton of the minnows?"—Shak. "The shoal of herrings was of an immense extent."—Murray's Key, p. 185. "Buy my herring fresh."—SWIFT: in Joh. Dict. "In the fisheries of Maine, cod, herring, mackerel alewives, salmon, and other fish, are taken."—Balbi's Geog., p. 23. "MEASE, n. The quantity of 500; as, a mease of herrings."—Webster's Dict. "We shall have plenty of mackerel this season."—ADDISON: in Joh. Dict. "Mackarel is the same in both numbers. Gay has improperly mackarels."—Churchill's Gram., p. 208. "They take salmon and trouts by groping and tickling them under the bellies."—CAREW: in Joh. Dict. "The pond will keep trout and salmon in their seasonable plight."—Id., ib., w. Trout. "Some fish are preserved fresh in vinegar, as turbot."—Id., ib., w. Turbot. "Some fish are boiled and preserved fresh in vinegar, as tunny and turbot."—Id., ib., w. Tunny. "Of round fish, there are brit, sprat, barn, smelts."—Id., ib., w. Smelt. "For sprats and spurlings for your house."—TUSSEE: ib., w. Spurling. "The coast is plentifully stored with pilchards, herrings, and haddock."—CAREW: ib., w. Haddock. "The coast is plentifully stored with round fish, pilchard, herring, mackerel, and cod"—Id., ib., w. Herring. "The coast is plentifully stored with shellfish, sea-hedgehogs, scallops, pilcherd, herring, and pollock."—Id., ib., w. Pollock. "A roach is a fish of no great reputation for his dainty taste. It is noted that roaches recover strength and grow a fortnight after spawning."—WALTON: ib., w. Roach. "A friend of mine stored a pond of three or four acres with carps and tench."—HALE: ib., w. Carp. "Having stored a very great pond with carps, tench, and other pond-fish, and only put in two small pikes, this pair of tyrants in seven years devoured the whole."—Id., ib., w. Tench. "Singular, tench; plural, tenches."—Brightland's Gram., p. 78. "The polar bear preys upon seals, fish, and the carcasses of whales."—Balbi's Geog., p. 172. "Trouts and salmons swim against the stream."—BACON: Ward's Gram., p. 130.

   "'Tis true no turbots dignify my boards,
    But gudgeons, flounders, what my Thames affords."—Pope.

OBS. 38.—Prom the foregoing examples it would seem, if fish or fishes are often spoken of without a regular distinction of the grammatical numbers, it is not because the words are not susceptible of the inflection, but because there is some difference of meaning between the mere name of the sort and the distinct modification in regard to number. There are also other nouns in which a like difference may be observed. Some names of building materials, as brick, stone, plank, joist, though not destitute of regular plurals, as bricks, stones, planks, joists, and not unadapted to ideas distinctly singular, as a brick, a stone, a plank, a joist, are nevertheless sometimes used in a plural sense without the s, and sometimes in a sense which seems hardly to embrace the idea of either number; as, "Let us make brick, and burn them thoroughly."—Gen., xi, 3. "And they had brick for stone."—Ib. "The tale of bricks."—Exod., v, 8 and 18. "Make brick."—Ib., v, 16. "From your bricks."—Ib., v, 19. "Upon altars of brick."—Isaiah. lxv, 3. "The bricks are fallen down."—Ib., ix, 10. The same variety of usage occurs in respect to a few other words, and sometimes perhaps without good reason; as, "Vast numbers of sea fowl frequent the rocky cliffs."—Balbi's Geog., p. 231. "Bullocks, sheep, and fowls."—Ib., p. 439. "Cannon is used alike in both numbers."—Everest's Gram., p. 48. "Cannon and shot may be used in the singular or plural sense."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 37. "The column in the Place Vendome is one hundred and thirty-four feet high, and is made of the brass of the cannons taken from the Austrians and Prussians."—Balbi's Geog., p. 249. "As his cannons roar."—Dryden's Poems, p. 81. "Twenty shot of his greatest cannon."—CLARENDON: Joh. Dict. "Twenty shots" would here, I think, be more proper, though the word is not made plural when it means little balls of lead. "And cannons conquer armies."—Hudibras, Part III, Canto iii, l. 249.

   "Healths to both kings, attended with the roar
    Of cannons echoed from th' affrighted shore."—Waller, p. 7.

OBS. 39.—Of foreign nouns, many retain their original plural; a few are defective; and some are redundant, because the English form is also in use. Our writers have laid many languages under contribution, and thus furnished an abundance of irregular words, necessary to be explained, but never to be acknowledged as English till they conform to our own rules.

1. Of nouns in a, saliva, spittle, and scoria, dross, have no occasion for the plural; lamina, a thin plate, makes laminæ; macula, a spot, maculæ; minutia, a little thing, minutiæ; nebula, a mist, nebulæ; siliqua, a pod, siliqiuæ. Dogma makes dogmas or dogmata; exanthema, exanthemas or exanthemata; miasm or miasma, miasms or miasmata; stigma, stigmas or stigmata.

2. Of nouns in um, some have no need of the plural; as, bdellium, decorum, elysium, equilibrium, guaiacum, laudanum, odium, opium, petroleum, serum, viaticum. Some form it regularly; as, asylums, compendiums, craniums, emporiums, encomiums, forums, frustums, lustrums, mausoleums, museums, pendulums, nostrums, rostrums, residuums, vacuums. Others take either the English or the Latin plural; as, desideratums or desiderata, mediums or media, menstruums or menstrua, memorandums or memoranda, spectrums or spectra, speculums or specula, stratums or strata, succedaneums or succedanea, trapeziums or trapezia, vinculums or vincula. A few seem to have the Latin plural only: as, arcanum, arcana; datum, data; effluvium, effluvia; erratum, errata; scholium, scholia.

3. Of nouns in us, a few have no plural; as, asparagus, calamus, mucus. Some have only the Latin plural, which usually changes us to i; as, alumnus, alumni; androgynus, androgyni; calculus, calculi; dracunculus, dracunculi; echinus, echini; magus, magi. But such as have properly become English words, may form the plural regularly in es; as, chorus, choruses: so, apparatus, bolus, callus, circus, fetus, focus, fucus, fungus, hiatus, ignoramus, impetus, incubus, isthmus, nautilus, nucleus, prospectus, rebus, sinus, surplus. Five of these make the Latin plural like the singular; but the mere English scholar has no occasion to be told which they are. Radius makes the plural radii or radiuses. Genius has genii, for imaginary spirits, and geniuses, for men of wit. Genus, a sort, becomes genera in Latin, and genuses in English. Denarius makes, in the plural, denarii or denariuses.

4. Of nouns in is, some are regular; as, trellis, trellises: so, annolis, butteris, caddis, dervis, iris, marquis, metropolis, portcullis, proboscis. Some seem to have no need of the plural; as, ambergris, aqua-fortis, arthritis, brewis, crasis, elephantiasis, genesis, orris, siriasis, tennis. But most nouns of this ending follow the Greek or Latin form, which simply changes is to =es: as, amanuensis, amanuenses; analysis, analyses; antithesis, antitheses; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises; diæresis, diæreses; diesis, dieses; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases; fascis, fasces; hypothesis, hypotheses; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; oasis, oases; parenthesis, parentheses; phasis, phases; praxis, praxes; synopsis, synopses; synthesis, syntheses; syrtis, syrtes; thesis, theses. In some, however, the original plural is not so formed; but is made by changing is to ~ides; as, aphis, aphides; apsis, apsides; ascaris, ascarides; bolis, bolides; cantharis, cantharides; chrysalis, chrysalides; ephemeris, ephemerides; epidermis, epidermides. So iris and proboscis, which we make regular; and perhaps some of the foregoing may be made so too. Fisher writes Praxises for praxes, though not very properly. See his Gram, p. v. Eques, a Roman knight, makes equites in the plural.

5. Of nouns in x, there are few, if any, which ought not to form the plural regularly, when used as English words; though the Latins changed x to ces, and ex to ices, making the i sometimes long and sometimes short: as, apex, apices, for apexes; appendix, appendices, for appendixes; calix, calices, for calixes; calx, calces, for calxes; calyx, calyces, for calyxes; caudex, caudices, for caudexes; cicatrix, cicatrices, for cicatrixes; helix, helices, for helixes; index, indices, for indexes; matrix, matrices, for matrixes; quincunx, quincunces, for quincunxes; radix, radices, for radixes; varix, varices, for varixes; vertex, vertices, for vertexes; vortex, vortices, for vortexes. Some Greek words in x change that letter to ges; as, larynx, larynges, for larinxes; phalanx, phalanges, for phalanxes. Billet-doux, from the French, is billets-doux in the plural.

6. Of nouns in on, derived from Greek, the greater part always form the plural regularly; as, etymons, gnomons, ichneumons, myrmidons, phlegmons, trigons, tetragons, pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octagons, enneagons, decagons, hendecagons, dodecagons, polygons. So trihedrons, tetrahedrons, pentahedrons, &c., though some say, these last may end in dra, which I think improper. For a few words of this class, however, there are double plurals in use; as, automata or atomatons, criteria or criterions, parhelia or parhelions; and the plural of phenomenon appears to be always phenomena.

7. The plural of legumen is legumens or legumina; of stamen, stamens or stamina: of cherub, cherubs or cherubim; of seraph, seraphs or seraphim; of beau, beaus or beaux; of bandit, bandits or banditti. The regular forms are in general preferable. The Hebrew plurals cherubim and seraphim, being sometimes mistaken for singulars, other plurals have been formed from them; as, "And over it the cherubims of glory."—Heb. ix, 5. "Then flow one of the seraphims unto me."—Isaiah, vi, 6. Dr. Campbell remarks: "We are authorized, both by use and by analogy, to say either cherubs and seraphs, according to the English idiom, or cherubim and seraphim, according to the oriental. The former suits better the familiar, the latter the solemn style. I shall add to this remark," says he, "that, as the words cherubim and seraphim are plural, the terms cherubims and seraphims, as expressing the plural, are quite improper."—Phil. of Rhet., p. 201.

OBS. 40.—When other parts of speech become nouns, they either want the plural, or form it regularly,[158] like common nouns of the same endings; as, "His affairs went on at sixes and sevens."—Arbuthnot. "Some mathematicians have proposed to compute by twoes; others, by fours; others, by twelves."—Churchill's Gram., p. 81. "Three fourths, nine tenths."—Ib., p. 230. "Time's takings and leavings."— Barton. "The yeas and nays."—Newspaper. "The ays and noes."—Ib. "Oes and spangles."—Bacon. "The ins and the outs."—Newspaper."—We find it more safe against outs and doubles."—Printer's Gram. "His ands and his ors."—Mott. "One of the buts."—Fowle. "In raising the mirth of stupids."—Steele. "Eatings, drinkings, wakings, sleepings, walkings, talkings, sayings, doings—all were for the good of the public; there was not such a things as a secret in the town."—LANDON: Keepsake, 1833. "Her innocent forsooths and yesses."—Spect., No. 266.

   "Henceforth my wooing mind shall be expressed
    In russet yeas and honest kersey noes."
        —SHAK. See Johnson's Dict., w. Kersey.

GENDERS.

Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex.

There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.

The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind; as, man, father, king.

The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind; as, woman, mother, queen.

The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female; as, pen, ink, paper.

Hence, names of males are masculine; names of females, feminine; and names of things inanimate, literally, neuter.

Masculine nouns make regular feminines, when their termination is changed to ess: as, hunter, huntress; prince, princess; lion, lioness.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The different genders in grammar are founded on the natural distinction of sex in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things. In English, they belong only to nouns and pronouns; and to these they are usually applied, not arbitrarily, as in some other languages, but agreeably to the order of nature. From this we derive a very striking advantage over those who use the gender differently, or without such rule; which is, that our pronouns are easy of application, and have a fine effect when objects are personified. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns for which they stand.

OBS. 2.—Many nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, cousin, friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gender of these is usually determined by the context; and they are to be called masculine or feminine accordingly. To such words, some grammarians have applied the unnecessary and improper term common gender. Murray justly observes, "There is no such gender belonging to the language. The business of parsing can be effectually performed, without having recourse to a common gender."—Gram., 8vo. p. 39. The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied to the learned languages; but with us, whose genders distinguish objects in regard to sex, it is plainly a solecism.

OBS. 3.—A great many of our grammars define gender to be "the distinction of sex," and then speak of a common gender, in which the two sexes are left undistinguished; and of the neuter gender, in which objects are treated as being of neither sex. These views of the matter are obviously inconsistent. Not genders, or a gender, do the writers undertake to define, but "gender" as a whole; and absurdly enough, too; because this whole of gender they immediately distribute into certain other genders, into genders of gender, or kinds of gender, and these not compatible with their definition. Thus Wells: "Gender is the distinction of objects, with regard to sex. There are four genders;—the masculine, the feminine, the common, and the neuter."—School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 49. [Those] "Nouns which are applicable alike to both sexes, are of the common gender."—Ib. This then is manifestly no gender under the foregoing definition, and the term neuter is made somewhat less appropriate by the adoption of a third denomination before it. Nor is there less absurdity in the phraseology with which Murray proposes to avoid the recognition of the common gender: "Thus we may say, Parents is a noun of the masculine and feminine gender; Parent, if doubtful, is of the masculine or feminine gender; and Parent, if the gender is known by the construction, is of the gender so ascertained."—Gram., 8vo, p. 39. According to this, we must have five genders, exclusive of that which is called common; namely, the masculine, the feminine, the neuter, the androgynal, and the doubtful.

OBS. 4.—It is plain that many writers on grammar have had but a confused notion of what a gender really is. Some of them, confounding gender with sex, deny that there are more than two genders, because there are only two sexes. Others, under a like mistake, resort occasionally, (as in the foregoing instance,) to an androgynal, and also to a doubtful gender: both of which are more objectionable than the common gender of the old grammarians; though this common "distinction with regard to sex," is, in our language, confessedly, no distinction at all. I assume, that there are in English the three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, and no more; and that every noun and every pronoun must needs be of some gender; consequently, of some one of these three. A gender is, literally, a sort, a kind, a sex. But genders, in grammar, are attributes of words, rather than of persons, or animals, or things; whereas sexes are attributes, not of words, but of living creatures. He who understands this, will perceive that the absence of sex in some things, is as good a basis for a grammatical distinction, as the presence or the difference of it in others; nor can it be denied, that the neuter, according to my definition, is a gender, is a distinction "in regard to sex," though it does not embrace either of the sexes. There are therefore three genders, and only three.

OBS. 5.—Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, often virtually include both sexes; as, "Hast thou given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the glory of his nostrils is terrible."—Job, xxxix, 19. "Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward the south? Doth the eagle mount up at thy command, and make her nest on high?"—Ib., ver. 26. These were called, by the old grammarians, epicene nouns—that is, supercommon; but they are to be parsed each according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for it.

OBS. 6.—The gender of words, in many instances, is to be determined by the following principle of universal grammar. Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing; for, in all languages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy,[159] and is generally employed when both sexes are included under one common term. Thus parents is always masculine, and must be represented by a masculine pronoun, for the gender of a word is a property indivisible, and that which refers to the male sex, always takes the lead in such cases. If one say, "Joseph took the young child and his mother by night, and fled with them into Egypt," the pronoun them will be masculine; but let "his" be changed to its, and the plural pronoun that follows, will be feminine. For the feminine gender takes precedence of the neuter, but not of the masculine; and it is not improper to speak of a young child without designating the sex. As for such singulars as parent, friend, neighbour, thief, slave, and many others, they are feminine when expressly applied to any of the female sex; but otherwise, masculine.

OBS. 7.—Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity or take the plural form, are of the neuter gender; but when they convey the idea of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals which compose the assemblage. Thus a congress, a council, a committee, a jury, a sort, or a sex, if taken collectively, is neuter; being represented in discourse by the neuter pronoun it: and the formal plurals, congresses, councils, committees, juries, sorts, sexes, of course, are neuter also. But, if I say, "The committee disgraced themselves," the noun and pronoun are presumed to be masculine, unless it be known that I am speaking of a committee of females. Again: "The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labours of public life, have their own part assigned them to act."—Comly's Gram., p. 132. Here sex, and the three pronouns which have that word for their antecedent, are all feminine. Again: "Each sex, dressing themselves in the clothes of the other."—Wood's Dictionary, v. Feast of Purim. Here sex, and the pronoun which follows, are masculine; because, the male sex, as well as the female, is here spoken of plurally.

OBS. 8.—To persons, of every description, known or unknown, real or imaginary, we uniformly ascribe sex.[160] But, as personality implies intelligence, and sex supposes some obvious difference, a young child may be spoken of with distinction of sex or without, according to the notion of the speaker; as, "I went to see the child whilst they were putting on its cloaths."—Priestley's Gram., p. 125. "Because the child has no idea of any nurse besides his own."—Ib., p. 153. To brute animals also, the same distinction is generally applied, though with less uniformity. Some that are very small, have a gender which seems to be merely occasional and figurative; as, "Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise."—Prov., vi, 6. "The spider taketh hold with her hands, and is in kings' palaces."—Prov., xxx, 28. So the bee is usually made feminine, being a little creature of admirable industry and economy. But, in general, irrational creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, are spoken of as neuter; as, "And it became a serpent; and Moses fled from before it. And the Lord said unto Moses, Put forth thine hand, and take it by the tail. And he put forth his hand and caught it, and it became a rod in his hand."—Exod., iv, 3, 4. Here, although the word serpent is sometimes masculine, the neuter pronoun seems to be more proper. So of some imaginary creatures: as, "Phenix, the fowl which is said to exist single, and to rise again from its own ashes."—Webster's Dict. "So shall the Phoenix escape, with no stain on its plumage."—Dr. Bartlett's Lect., p. 10.

OBS. 9.—But this liberty of representing animals as of no sex, is often carried to a very questionable extent; as, "The hare sleeps with its eyes open."—Barbauld. "The hedgehog, as soon as it perceives itself attacked, rolls itself into a kind of ball, and presents nothing but its prickles to the foe."—Blair's Reader, p. 138. "The panther is a ferocious creature: like the tiger it seizes its prey by surprise."—Ib., p. 102. "The leopard, in its chace of prey, spares neither man nor beast."—Ib., p. 103. "If a man shall steal an ox, or a sheep, and kill it, or sell it."—Exod., xxii, 1. "A dog resists its instinct to run after a hare, because it recollects the beating it has previously received on that account. The horse avoids the stone at which it once has stumbled."—Spurzheim, on Education, p. 3. "The racehorse is looked upon with pleasure; but it is the warhorse, that carries grandeur in its idea."—Blair's Rhet., p. 30.

OBS. 10.—The sexes are distinguished by words, in four different ways. First, by the use of different terminations: as, Jew, Jewess; Julius, Julia; hero, heroine. Secondly, by the use of entirely different names: as, Henry, Mary; king, queen. Thirdly, by compounds or phrases including some distinctive term: as, Mr. Murray, Mrs. Murray; Englishman, Englishwoman; grandfather, grandmother; landlord, landlady; merman, mermaid; servingman, servingmaid; man-servant, maid-servant; schoolmaster, schoolmistress; school-boy, school-girl; peacock, peahen; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; he-goat, she-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; male elephant, female elephant; male convicts, female convicts. Fourthly, by the pronouns he, his, him, put for nouns masculine; and she, her, hers, for nouns feminine: as, "Ask him that fleeth, and her that escapeth, and say, What is done?"—Jer., xlviii, 19.

"O happy peasant! Oh unhappy bard! His the mere tinsel, hers the rich reward."—Cowper.

OBS. 11.—For feminine nouns formed by inflection, the regular termination is ess; but the manner in which this ending is applied to the original or masculine noun, is not uniform:—

1. In some instances the syllable ess is simply added: as, accuser, accuseress; advocate, advocatess; archer, archeress; author, authoress; avenger, avengeress; barber, barberess; baron, baroness; canon, canoness; cit, cittess;[161] coheir, coheiress; count, countess; deacon, deaconess; demon, demoness; diviner, divineress; doctor, doctoress; giant, giantess; god, goddess; guardian, guardianess; Hebrew, Hebrewess; heir, heiress; herd, herdess; hermit, hermitess; host, hostess; Jesuit, Jesuitess; Jew, Jewess; mayor, mayoress; Moabite, Moabitess; monarch, monarchess; pape, papess; or, pope, popess; patron, patroness; peer, peeress; poet, poetess; priest, priestess; prior, prioress; prophet, prophetess; regent, regentess; saint, saintess; shepherd, shepherdess; soldier, soldieress; tailor, tailoress; viscount, viscountess; warrior, warrioress.

2. In other instances, the termination is changed, and there is no increase of syllables: as, abbot, abbess; actor, actress; adulator, adulatress; adulterer, adulteress; adventurer, adventuress; advoutrer, advoutress; ambassador, ambassadress; anchorite, anchoress; or, anachoret, anachoress; arbiter, arbitress; auditor, auditress; benefactor, benefactress; caterer, cateress; chanter, chantress; cloisterer, cloisteress; commander, commandress; conductor, conductress; creator, creatress; demander, demandress; detractor, detractress; eagle, eagless; editor, editress; elector, electress; emperor, emperess, or empress; emulator, emulatress; enchanter, enchantress; exactor, exactress; fautor, fautress; fornicator, fornicatress; fosterer, fosteress, or fostress; founder, foundress; governor, governess; huckster, huckstress; or, hucksterer, hucksteress; idolater, idolatress; inhabiter, inhabitress; instructor, instructress; inventor, inventress; launderer, launderess, or laundress; minister, ministress; monitor, monitress; murderer, murderess; negro, negress; offender, offendress; ogre, ogress; porter, portress; progenitor, progenitress; protector, protectress; proprietor, proprietress; pythonist, pythoness; seamster, seamstress; solicitor, solicitress; songster, songstress; sorcerer, sorceress; suitor, suitress; tiger, tigress; traitor, traitress; victor, victress; votary, votaress.

3. In a few instances the feminine is formed as in Latin, by changing or to rix; but some of these have also the regular form, which ought to be preferred: as, adjutor, adjutrix; administrator, administratrix; arbitrator, arbitratrix; coadjutor, coadjutrix; competitor, competitress, or competitrix; creditor, creditrix; director, directress, or directrix; executor, executress, or executrix; inheritor, inheritress, or inheritrix; mediator, mediatress, or mediatrix; orator, oratress, or oratrix; rector, rectress, or rectrix; spectator, spectatress, or spectatrix; testator, testatrix; tutor, tutoress, or tutress, or tutrix; deserter, desertress, or desertrice, or desertrix.

4. The following are irregular words, in which the distinction of sex is chiefly made by the termination: amoroso, amorosa: archduke, archduchess; chamberlain, chambermaid; duke, duchess; gaffer, gammer; goodman, goody; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; marquis, marchioness; palsgrave, palsgravine; sakeret, sakerhawk; sewer, sewster; sultan, sultana; tzar, tzarina; tyrant, tyranness; widower, widow.

OBS. 12.—The proper names of persons almost always designate their sex; for it has been found convenient to make the names of women different from those of men. We have also some appellatives which correspond to each other, distinguishing the sexes by their distinct application to each: as, bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boy, girl; bridegroom, bride; brother, sister; buck, doe; boar, sow; bull, cow; cock, hen; colt, filly; dog, bitch; drake, duck; earl, countess; father, mother; friar, nun; gander, goose; grandsire, grandam; hart, roe; horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen; lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female; man, woman; master, mistress; Mister, Missis; (Mr., Mrs.;) milter, spawner; monk, nun; nephew, niece; papa, mamma; rake, jilt; ram, ewe; ruff, reeve; sire, dam; sir, madam; sloven, slut; son, daughter; stag, hind; steer, heifer; swain, nymph; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; youth, damsel; young man, maiden.

OBS. 13.—The people of a particular country are commonly distinguished by some name derived from that of their country; as, Americans, Africans, Egyptians, Russians, Turks. Such words are sometimes called gentile names. There are also adjectives, of the same origin, if not the same form, which correspond with them. "Gentile names are for the most part considered as masculine, and the feminine is denoted by the gentile adjective and the noun woman: as, a Spaniard, a Spanish woman; a Pole, or Polander, a Polish woman. But, in a few instances, we always use a compound of the adjective with man or woman: as, an Englishman, an Englishwoman; a Welshman, a Welshwoman; an Irishman, an Irishwoman; a Frenchman, a Frenchwoman; a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman: and in these cases the adjective is employed as the collective noun; as, the Dutch, the French, &c. A Scotchman, and a Scot, are both in use; but the latter is not common in prose writers: though some employ it, and these generally adopt the plural, Scots, with the definite article, as the collective term."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 70.

OBS. 14.—The names of things without life, used literally, are always of the neuter gender: as, "When Cleopatra fled, Antony pursued her in a five-oared galley; and, coming along side of her ship, entered it without being seen by her."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. "The sun, high as it is, has its business assigned; and so have the stars."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 138. But inanimate objects are often represented figuratively as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter, war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine; as, a ship, the moon, the earth, nature, fortune, knowledge, hope, spring, peace. Figurative gender is indicated only by the personal pronouns of the singular number: as, "When we say of the sun, He is setting; or of a ship, She sails well."—L. Murray. For these two objects, the sun and a ship, this phraseology is so common, that the literal construction quoted above is rarely met with.

OBS. 15.—When any inanimate object or abstract quality is distinctly personified, and presented to the imagination in the character of a living and intelligent being, there is necessarily a change of the gender of the word; for, whenever personality is thus ascribed to what is literally neuter, there must be an assumption of one or the other sex: as, "The Genius of Liberty is awakened, and springs up; she sheds her divine light and creative powers upon the two hemispheres. A great nation, astonished at seeing herself free, stretches her arms from one extremity of the earth to the other, and embraces the first nation that became so."—Abbé Fauchet. But there is an inferior kind of personification, or of what is called such, in which, so far as appears, the gender remains neuter: as, "The following is an instance of personification and apostrophe united: 'O thou sword of the Lord! how long will it be ere thou be quiet? put thyself up into thy scabbard, rest, and be still! How can it be quiet, seeing the Lord hath given it a charge against Askelon, and against the sea-shore? there hath he appointed it.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 348. See Jer., xlvii, 6.

OBS. 16.—If what is called personification, does not always imply a change of gender and an ascription of sex, neither does a mere ascription of sex to what is literally of no sex, necessarily imply a personification; for there may be sex without personality, as we see in brute animals. Hence the gender of a brute animal personified in a fable, may be taken literally as before; and the gender which is figuratively ascribed to the sun, the moon, or a ship, is merely metaphorical. In the following sentence, nature is animated and made feminine by a metaphor, while a lifeless object bearing the name of Venus, is spoken of as neuter: "Like that conceit of old, which declared that the Venus of Gnidos was not the work of Praxiteles, since nature herself had concreted the boundary surface of its beauty."—Rush, on the Voice, p. xxv.

OBS. 17.—"In personifications regard must be had to propriety in determining the gender. Of most of the passions and moral qualities of man the ancients formed deities, as they did of various other things: and, when these are personified, they are usually made male or female, according as they were gods or goddesses in the pagan mythology. The same rule applies in other cases: and thus the planet Jupiter will be masculine; Venus, feminine: the ocean, Oce=anus, masculine: rivers, months, and winds, the same: the names of places, countries, and islands, feminine."—Churchill's Gram., p. 71.

OBS. 18.—These suggestions are worthy of consideration, but, for the gender which ought to be adopted in personifications, there seems to be no absolute general rule, or none which English writers have observed with much uniformity. It is well, however, to consider what is most common in each particular case, and abide by it. In the following examples, the sex ascribed is not that under which these several objects are commonly figured; for which reason, the sentences are perhaps erroneous:—

"Knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much; Wisdom is humble that he knows no more."—Cowper.

    "But hoary Winter, unadorned and bare,
    Dwells in the dire retreat, and freezes there;
    There she assembles all her blackest storms,
    And the rude hail in rattling tempests forms."—Addison.

    "Her pow'r extends o'er all things that have breath,
    A cruel tyrant, and her name is Death."—Sheffield.

CASES.

Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns or pronouns to other words.

There are three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb: as, The boy runs; I run.

The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what before it; as, "The boy runs."—Who runs? "The boy." Boy is therefore here in the nominative case.

The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property: as, The boy's hat; my hat.

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, singular, boy's; plural, boys';—sounded alike, but written differently.

The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition: as, I know the boy, having seen him at school; and he knows me.

The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which answers to whom or what after it; as, "I know the boy."—I know whom? "The boy." Boy is therefore here in the objective case.

The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence, or by their simple dependence according to the sense.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The cases, in grammar, are founded on the different relations under which things are represented in discourse; and from which the words acquire correspondent relations; or connexions and dependences according to the sense. In Latin, there are six cases; and in Greek, five. Consequently, the nouns and pronouns of those languages, and also their adjectives and participles, (which last are still farther inflected by the three genders,) are varied by many different terminations unknown to our tongue. In English, those modifications or relations which we call cases, belong only to nouns and pronouns; nor are there ever more than three. Pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents in case.

OBS. 2.—Because the infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, may in some instances be made the subject of a verb, so as to stand in that relation in which the nominative case is most commonly found; very many of our grammarians have deliberately represented all terms used in this manner, as being "in the nominative case:" as if, to sustain any one of the relations which are usually distinguished by a particular case, must necessarily constitute that modification itself. Many also will have participles, infinitives, phrases, and sentences, to be occasionally "in the objective case:" whereas it must be plain to every reader, that they are, all of them, indeclinable terms; and that, if used in any relation common to nouns or pronouns, they assume that office, as participles, as infinitives, as phrases, or as sentences, and not as cases. They no more take the nature of cases, than they become nouns or pronouns. Yet Nixon, by assuming that of, with the word governed by it, constitutes a possessive case, contrives to give to participles, and even to the infinitive mood, all three of the cases. Of the infinitive, he says, "An examination of the first and second methods of parsing this mood, must naturally lead to the inference that it is a substantive; and that, if it has the nominative case, it must also have the possessive and objective cases of a substantive. The fourth method proves its [capacity of] being in the possessive case: thus, 'A desire to learn;' that is, 'of learning.' When it follows a participle, or a verb, as by the fifth or [the] seventh method, it is in the objective case. Method sixth is analogous to the Case Absolute of a substantive."—Nixon's Parser, p. 83. If the infinitive mood is really a declinable substantive, none of our grammarians have placed it in the right chapter; except that bold contemner of all grammatical and literary authority, Oliver B. Peirce. When will the cause of learning cease to have assailants and underminers among those who profess to serve it? Thus every new grammatist, has some grand absurdity or other, peculiar to himself; and what can be more gross, than to talk of English infinitives and participles as being in the possessive case?

OBS. 3.—It was long a subject of dispute among the grammarians, what number of cases an English noun should be supposed to have. Some, taking the Latin language for their model, and turning certain phrases into cases to fill up the deficits, were for having six in each number; namely, the nominative, the genitive, the dative, the accusative, the vocative, and the ablative. Others, contending that a case in grammar could be nothing else than a terminational inflection, and observing that English nouns have but one case that differs from the nominative in form, denied that there were more than two, the nominative and the possessive. This was certainly an important question, touching a fundamental principle of our grammar; and any erroneous opinion concerning it, might well go far to condemn the book that avouched it. Every intelligent teacher must see this. For what sense could be made of parsing, without supposing an objective case to nouns? or what propriety could there be in making the words, of, and to, and from, govern or compose three different cases? Again, with what truth can it be said, that nouns have no cases in English? or what reason can be assigned for making more than three?

OBS. 4.—Public opinion is now clear in the decision, that it is expedient to assign to English nouns three cases, and no more; and, in a matter of this kind, what is expedient for the purpose of instruction, is right. Yet, from the works of our grammarians, may be quoted every conceivable notion, right or wrong, upon this point. Cardell, with Tooke and Gilchrist on his side, contends that English nouns have no cases. Brightland averred that they have neither cases nor genders.[162] Buchanan, and the author of the old British Grammar, assigned to them one case only, the possessive, or genitive. Dr. Adam also says, "In English, nouns have only one case, namely, the genitive, or possessive case."—Latin and Eng. Gram., p. 7. W. B. Fowle has two cases, but rejects the word case: "We use the simple term agent for a noun that acts, and object for the object of an action."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., Part II, p. 68. Spencer too discards the word case, preferring "form," that he may merge in one the nominative and the objective, giving to nouns two cases, but neither of these. "Nouns have two Forms, called the Simple and [the] Possessive."—Spencer's E. Gram., p. 30. Webber's Grammar, published at Cambridge in 1832, recognizes but two cases of nouns, declaring the objective to be "altogether superfluous."—P. 22. "Our substantives have no more cases than two."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 14. "A Substantive doth not properly admit of more than two cases: the Nominative, and the Genitive."—Ellen Devis's Gram., p. 19. Dr. Webster, in his Philosophical Grammar, of 1807, and in his Improved Grammar, of 1831, teaches the same doctrine, but less positively. This assumption has also had the support of Lowth, Johnson, Priestley, Ash, Bicknell, Fisher, Dalton, and our celebrated Lindley Murray.[163] In Child's or Latham's English Grammar, 1852, it is said, "The cases in the present English are three:—1. Nominative; 2. Objective; 3. Possessive." But this seems to be meant of pronouns only; for the next section affirms, "The substantives in English have only two out of the three cases."—See pp. 79 and 80. Reckless of the current usage of grammarians, and even of self-consistency, both author and reviser will have no objective case of nouns, because this is like the nominative; yet, finding an objective set after "the adjective like," they will recognize it as "a dative still existing in English!"—See p. 156. Thus do they forsake their own enumeration of cases, as they had before, in all their declensions, forsaken the new order in which they had at first so carefully set them!

OBS. 5.—For the true doctrine of three cases, we have the authority of
Murray, in his later editions; of Webster, in his "Plain and Comp. Grammar,
grounded on True Principles," 1790; also in his "Rudiments of English
Grammar," 1811; together with the united authority of Adams, Ainsworth,
Alden, Alger, Bacon, Barnard, Bingham, Burr, Bullions, Butler, Churchill,
Chandler, Cobbett, Cobbin, Comly, Cooper, Crombie, Davenport, Davis, Fisk,
A. Flint, Frost, Guy, Hart, Hiley, Hull, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Kirkham,
Lennie, Mack, M'Culloch, Maunder, Merchant, Nixon, Nutting, John Peirce,
Perley, Picket, Russell, Smart, R. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, Wilcox, and I
know not how many others.

OBS. 6.—Dearborn, in 1795, recognized four cases: "the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the absolute."—Columbian Gram., pp. 16 and 20. Charles Bucke, in his work misnamed "A Classical Grammar of the English Language," published in London in 1829, asserts, that, "Substantives in English do not vary their terminations;" yet he gives them four cases; "the nominative, the genitive, the accusative, and the vocative." So did Allen, in a grammar much more classical, dated, London, 1813. Hazen, in 1842, adopted "four cases; namely, the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the independent."—Hazen's Practical Gram., p. 35. Mulligan, since, has chosen these four: "Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative."—Structure of E. Lang., p. 185. And yet his case after to or for is not "dative," but "accusative!"— Ib., p. 239. So too, Goodenow, of Maine, makes the cases four: "the subjective,[164] the possessive, the objective, and the absolute."—Text-Book, p. 31. Goldsbury, of Cambridge, has also four: "the Nominative, the Possessive, the Objective, and the Vocative."—Com. S. Gram., p. 13. Three other recent grammarians,—Wells, of Andover,— Weld, of Portland,—and Clark, of Bloomfield, N. Y.,—also adopt "four cases;—the nominative, the possessive, the objective, and the independent."—Wells's Gram., p. 57; Weld's, 60; Clark's, 49. The first of these gentlemen argues, that, "Since a noun or pronoun, used independently, cannot at the same time be employed as 'the subject of a verb,' there is a manifest impropriety in regarding it as a nominative." It might as well be urged, that a nominative after a verb, or in apposition with an other, is, for this reason, not a nominative. He also cites this argument: "'Is there not as much difference between the nominative and [the] independent case, as there is between the nominative and [the] objective? If so, why class them together as one case?'—S. R. Hall."—Wells's School Gram., p. 51. To this I answer, No. "The nominative is that case which primely denotes the name of any person or thing;" (Burn's Gram., p. 36;) and this only it is, that can be absolute, or independent, in English. This scheme of four cases is, in fact, a grave innovation. As authority for it, Wells cites Felton; and bids his readers, "See also Kennion, Parkhurst, Fowle, Flint, Goodenow, Buck, Hazen, Goldsbury, Chapin, S. Alexander, and P. Smith."—Page 57. But is the fourth case of these authors the same as his? Is it a case which "has usually the nominative form," but admits occasionally of "me" and "him," and embraces objective nouns of "time, measure, distance, direction, or place?" No. Certainly one half of them, and probably more, give little or no countenance to such an independent case as he has adopted. Parkhurst admitted but three cases; though he thought two others "might be an improvement." What Fowle has said in support of Wells's four cases, I have sought with diligence, and not found. Felton's "independent case" is only what he absurdly calls, "The noun or pronoun addressed."— Page 91. Bucke and Goldsbury acknowledge "the nominative case absolute;" and none of the twelve, so far as I know, admit any objective word, or what others call objective, to be independent or absolute, except perhaps Goldsbury.

OBS. 7.—S. R. Hall, formerly principal of the Seminary for Teachers at Andover, (but no great grammarian,) in 1832, published a manual, called "The Grammatical Assistant;" in which he says, "There are at least five cases, belonging to English nouns, differing as much from each other, as the cases of Latin and Greek nouns. They may be called Nominative, Possessive, Objective, Independent and Absolute."—P. 7. O. B. Peirce will have both nouns and pronouns to be used in five cases, which he thus enumerates: "Four simple cases; the Subjective, Possessive, Objective, and the Independent; and the Twofold case."—Gram., p. 42. But, on page 56th, he speaks of a "twofold subjective case," "the twofold objective case," and shows how the possessive may be twofold also; so that, without taking any of the Latin cases, or even all of Hall's, he really recognizes as many as seven, if not eight. Among the English grammars which assume all the six cases of the Latin Language, are Burn's, Coar's, Dilworth's, Mackintosh's, Mennye's, Wm. Ward's, and the "Comprehensive Grammar," a respectable little book, published by Dobson of Philadelphia, in 1789, but written by somebody in England.

OBS. 8.—Of the English grammars which can properly be said to be now in use, a very great majority agree in ascribing to nouns three cases, and three only. This, I am persuaded, is the best number, and susceptible of the best defence, whether we appeal to authority, or to other argument. The disputes of grammarians make no small part of the history of grammar; and in submitting to be guided by their decisions, it is proper for us to consider what degree of certainty there is in the rule, and what difference or concurrence there is among them: for, the teaching of any other than the best opinions, is not the teaching of science, come from what quarter it may. On the question respecting the objective case of nouns, Murray and Webster changed sides with each other; and that, long after they first appeared as grammarians. Nor was this the only, or the most important instance, in which the different editions of the works of these two gentlemen, present them in opposition, both to themselves and to each other. "What cases are there in English? The nominative, which usually stands before a verb; as, the boy writes: The possessive, which takes an s with a comma, and denotes property; as, John's hat: The objective, which follows a verb or preposition; as, he honors virtue, or it is an honor to him."—Webster's Plain and Comp. Gram., Sixth Edition, 1800, p. 9. "But for convenience, the two positions of nouns, one before, the other after the verb, are called cases. There are then three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective."—Webster's Rudiments of Gram., 1811, p. 12. "In English therefore names have two cases only, the nominative or simple name, and the possessive."— Webster's Philosoph. Gram., 1807, p. 32: also his Improved Gram., 1831, p. 24.

OBS. 9.—Murray altered his opinion after the tenth or eleventh edition of his duodecimo Grammar. His instructions stand thus: "In English, substantives have but two cases, the nominative, and [the] possessive or genitive."—Murray's Gram. 12mo, Second Edition, 1796, p. 35. "For the assertion, that there are in English but two cases of nouns, and three of pronouns, we have the authority of Lowth, Johnson, Priestley, &c. names which are sufficient to decide this point."—Ib., p. 36. "In English, substantives have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Murray's Gram., 12mo, Twenty-third Edition, 1816, p. 44. "The author of this work long doubted the propriety of assigning to English substantives an objective case: but a renewed critical examination of the subject; an examination to which he was prompted by the extensive and increasing demand for the grammar, has produced in his mind a full persuasion, that the nouns of our language are entitled to this comprehensive objective case."—Ib., p. 46. If there is any credit in changing one's opinions, it is, doubtless, in changing them for the better; but, of all authors, a grammarian has the most need critically to examine his subject before he goes to the printer. "This case was adopted in the twelfth edition of the Grammar."—Murray's Exercises, 12mo, N. Y., 1818, p. viii.

OBS. 10.—The possessive case has occasioned no less dispute than the objective. On this vexed article of our grammar, custom has now become much more uniform than it was a century ago; and public opinion may be said to have settled most of the questions which have been agitated about it. Some individuals, however, are still dissatisfied. In the first place, against those who have thought otherwise, it is determined, by infinite odds of authority, that there is such a case, both of nouns and of pronouns. Many a common reader will wonder, who can have been ignorant enough to deny it. "The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English grammarian owes a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the noun an adjective possessive; I think, with no more propriety than he might have applied the same to the Latin genitive."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 5. Brightland also, who gave to adjectives the name of qualities, included all possessives among them, calling them "Possessive Qualities, or Qualities of Possession."—Brightland's Gram., p. 90.

OBS. 11.—This exploded error, William S. Cardell, a few years ago, republished as a novelty; for which, among other pretended improvements of a like sort, he received the ephemeral praise of some of our modern literati. William B. Fowle also teaches the same thing. See his Common School Gram., Part II, p. 104. In Felch's Grammar, too, published in Boston in 1837, an attempt is made, to revive this old doctrine; but the author takes no notice of any of the above-named authorities, being probably ignorant of them all. His reasoning upon the point, does not appear to me to be worthy of a detailed answer.[165] That the possessive case of nouns is not an adjective, is demonstrable; because it may have adjectives of various kinds, relating to it: as, "This old man's daughter."—Shak. It may also govern an other possessive; as, "Peter's wife's mother."—Bible. Here the former possessive is governed by the latter; but, if both were adjectives, they would both relate to the noun mother, and so produce a confusion of ideas. Again, nouns of the possessive case have a distinction of number, which adjectives have not. In gender also, there lies a difference. Adjectives, whenever they are varied by gender or number, agree with their nouns in these respects. Not so with possessives; as, "In the Jews' religion."—Gal., i. 13. "The children's bread."—Mark, vii, 27. "Some men's sins."—1 Tim., v, 24. "Other men's sins."—Ib., ver. 22.

OBS. 12.—Secondly, general custom has clearly determined that the possessive case of nouns is always to be written with an apostrophe: except in those few instances in which it is not governed singly by the noun following, but so connected with an other that both are governed jointly; as, "Cato the Censor's doctrine,"—"Sir Walter Scott's Works,"—"Beaumont and Fletcher's Plays." This custom of using the apostrophe, however, has been opposed by many. Brightland, and Buchanan, and the author of the British Grammar, and some late writers in the Philological Museum, are among those who have successively taught, that the possessive case should be formed like the nominative plural, by adding s when the pronunciation admits the sound, and es when the word acquires an additional syllable. Some of these approve of the apostrophe, and others do not. Thus Brightland gives some examples, which are contrary to his rule, adopting that strange custom of putting the s in Roman, and the name in Italic; "as, King Charles's Court, and St. James's Park."—Gram. of the English Tongue, p. 91.

OBS. 13.—"The genitive case, in my opinion," says Dr. Ash, "might be much more properly formed by adding s, or when the pronunciation requires it, es, without an Apostrophe: as, men, mens; Ox, Oxes; Horse, Horses; Ass, Asses."—Ash's Gram., p. 23. "To write Ox's, Ass's, Fox's, and at the same time pronounce it Oxes, Asses, Foxes, is such a departure from the original formation, at least in writing, and such an inconsistent use of the Apostrophe, as cannot be equalled perhaps in any other language."—Ib. Lowth, too, gives some countenance to this objection: "It [i.e., 'God's grace'] was formerly written 'Godis grace;' we now always shorten it with an apostrophe; often very improperly, when we are obliged to pronounce it fully; as, 'Thomas's book,' that is, 'Thomasis book,' not 'Thomas his book,' as it is commonly supposed."—Lowth's Gram., p. 17. Whatever weight there may be in this argument, the objection has been overruled by general custom. The convenience of distinguishing, even to the eye alone, the numbers and cases of the noun, is found too great to be relinquished. If the declension of English nouns is ever to be amended, it cannot be done in this way. It is understood by every reader, that the apostrophic s adds a syllable to the noun, whenever it will not unite with the sound in which the nominative ends; as, torch's, pronounced torchiz.

   "Yet time ennobles or degrades each line;
    It brightened Craggs's, and may darken thine."—Pope.

OBS. 14.—The English possessive case unquestionably originated in that form of the Saxon genitive which terminates in es, examples of which may be found in almost any specimen of the Saxon tongue: as, "On Herodes dagum,"—"In Herod's days;"—"Of Aarones dohtrum,"—"Of Aaron's daughters."—Luke, i, 5. This ending was sometimes the same as that of the plural; and both were changed to is or ys, before they became what we now find them. This termination added a syllable to the word; and Lowth suggests, in the quotation above, that the apostrophe was introduced to shorten it. But some contend, that the use of this mark originated in a mistake. It appears from the testimony of Brightland, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, and others, who have noticed the error in order to correct it, that an opinion was long entertained, that the termination 's was a contraction of the word his. It is certain that Addison thought so; for he expressly says it, in the 135th number of the Spectator. Accordingly he wrote, in lieu of the regular possessive, "My paper is Ulysses his bow."—Guardian, No. 98. "Of Socrates his rules of prayer."—Spect., No. 207. So Lowth quotes Pope: "By young Telemachus his blooming years."—Lowth's Gram., p. 17.[166] There is also one late author who says, "The 's is a contraction of his, and was formerly written in full; as, William Russell his book."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 32. This is undoubtedly bad English; and always was so, however common may have been the erroneous notion which gave rise to it. But the apostrophe, whatever may have been its origin, is now the acknowledged distinctive mark of the possessive case of English nouns. The application of the 's, frequently to feminines, and sometimes to plurals, is proof positive that it is not a contraction of the pronoun his; as,

   "Now Jove suspends his golden scales in air,
    Weighs the men's wits against the Lady's hair."
        —Pope, R. of L., C. v, l. 72.

OBS. 15.—Many of the old grammarians, and Guy, Pinneo, and Spencer, among the moderns, represent the regular formation of the possessive case as being the same in both numbers, supposing generally in the plural an abbreviation of the word by the omission of the second or syllabic s. That is, they suppose that such terms as eagles' wings, angels' visits, were written for eagles's wings, angels's visits, &c. This odd view of the matter accounts well enough for the fashion of such plurals as men's, women's, children's, and makes them regular. But I find no evidence at all of the fact on which these authors presume; nor do I believe that the regular possessive plural was ever, in general, a syllable longer than the nominative. If it ever had been so, it would still be easy to prove the point, by citations from ancient books. The general principle then is, that the apostrophe forms the possessive case, with an s in the singular, and without it in the plural; but there are some exceptions to this rule, on either hand; and these must be duly noticed.

OBS. 16.—The chief exceptions, or irregularities, in the formation of the possessive singular, are, I think, to be accounted mere poetic licenses; and seldom, if ever, to be allowed in prose. Churchill, (closely copying Lowth,) speaks of them thus: "In poetry the s is frequently omitted after proper names ending in s or x as, 'The wrath of Peleus' son.' Pope. This is scarcely allowable in prose, though instances of it occur: as, 'Moses' minister.' Josh., i, 1. 'Phinehas' wife.' 1 Sam., iv, 19. 'Festus came into Felix' room.' Acts, xxiv, 27. It was done in prose evidently to avoid the recurrence of a sibilant sound at the end of two following syllables; but this may as readily be obviated by using the preposition of, which is now commonly substituted for the possessive case in most instances."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 215. In Scott's Bible, Philadelphia, 1814, the texts here quoted are all of them corrected, thus: "Moses's minister,"—"Phinehas's wife,"—"Felix's room." But the phrase, "for conscience sake," (Rom., xiii, 5,) is there given without the apostrophe. Alger prints it, "for conscience' sake," which is better; and though not regular, it is a common form for this particular expression. Our common Bibles have this text: "And the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den."—Isaiah, xi, 8. Alger, seeing this to be wrong, wrote it, "on the cockatrice-den."—Pronouncing Bible. Dr. Scott, in his Reference Bible, makes this possessive regular, "on the cockatrice's den." This is right. The Vulgate has it, "in caverna reguli;" which, however, is not classic Latin. After z also, the poets sometimes drop the s: as,

   "Sad was the hour, and luckless was the day,
    When first from Shiraz' walls I bent my way."—Collins.

OBS. 17.—A recent critic, who, I think, has not yet learned to speak or write the possessive case of his own name properly, assumes that the foregoing occasional or poetical forms are the only true ones for the possessive singular of such words. He says, "When the name does end with the sound of s or z, (no matter what letter represents the sound,) the possessive form is made by annexing only an apostrophe."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 44. Agreeably to this rule, he letters his work, "Peirce' Grammar," and condemns, as bad English, the following examples and all others like them: "James Otis's letters, General Gates's command, General Knox's appointment, Gov. Meigs's promptness, Mr. Williams's oration, The witness's deposition."—Ib., p. 60. It is obvious that this gentleman's doctrine and criticism are as contrary to the common practice of all good authors, as they are to the common grammars, which he ridicules. Surely, such expressions as, "Harris's Hermes, Philips's Poems, Prince's Bay, Prince's Island, Fox's Journal, King James's edict, a justice's warrant, Sphinx's riddle, the lynx's beam, the lass's beauty," have authority enough to refute the cavil of this writer; who, being himself wrong, falsely charges the older grammarians, that," their theories vary from the principles of the language correctly spoken or written."—Ib., p. 60. A much more judicious author treats this point of grammar as follows: "When the possessive noun is singular, and terminates with an s, another s is requisite after it, and the apostrophe must be placed between the two; as, 'Dickens's works,'—'Harris's wit.'"—Day's Punctuation, Third London Edition, p. 136. The following example, too, is right: "I would not yield to be your house's guest."—Shakespeare.

OBS. 18.—All plural nouns that differ from the singular without ending in s, form the possessive case in the same manner as the singular: as, man's, men's; woman's, women's j child's, children's; brother's, brothers' or brethren's; ox's, oxen's; goose, geese's. In two or three words which are otherwise alike in both numbers, the apostrophe ought to follow the s in the plural, to distinguish it from the singular: as, the sheep's fleece, the sheeps' fleeces; a neat's tongue, neats' tongues; a deer's horns, a load of deers' horns.

OBS. 19.—Dr. Ash says, "Nouns of the plural number that end in s, will not very properly admit of the genitive case."—Ash's Gram., p. 54. And Dr. Priestley appears to have been of the same opinion. See his Gram., p. 69. Lowth too avers, that the sign of the possessive case is "never added to the plural number ending in s."—Gram., p. 18. Perhaps he thought the plural sign must involve an other s, like the singular. This however is not true, neither is Dr. Ash's assertion true; for the New Testament speaks as properly of "the soldiers' counsel," as of the "centurion's servant;" of "the scribes that were of the Pharisees' part," as of "Paul's sister's son." It would appear, however, that the possessive plural is less frequently used than the possessive singular; its place being much oftener supplied by the preposition of and the objective. We cannot say that either of them is absolutely necessary to the language; but they are both worthy to be commended, as furnishing an agreeable variety of expression.

   "Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend
    His actions', passions', being's use and end."—Pope.

OBS. 20.—The apostrophe was introduced into the possessive case, at least for the singular number, in some part of the seventeenth century. Its adoption for the plural, appears to have been later: it is not much used in books a hundred years old. In Buchanan's "Regular English Syntax," which was written, I know not exactly when, but near the middle of the eighteenth century, I find the following paragraph: "We have certainly a Genitive Plural, though there has been no Mark to distinguish it. The Warriors Arms, i. e. the Arms of the Warriors, is as much a Genitive Plural, as the Warrior's Arms, for the Arms of the Warrior is a Genitive Singular. To distinguish this Genitive Plural, especially to Foreigners, we might use the Apostrophe reversed, thus, the Warrior`s Arms, the Stone`s End, for the End of the Stones, the Grocer`s, Taylor`s, Haberdasher`s, &c. Company; for the Company of Grocers, Taylors, &c. The Surgeon`s Hall, for the Hall of the Surgeons; the Rider`s Names, for the Names of the Riders; and so of all Plural Possessives."—See Buchan. Synt., p. 111. Our present form of the possessive plural, being unknown to this grammarian, must have had a later origin; nor can it have been, as some imagine it was, an abbreviation of a longer and more ancient form.

OBS. 21.—The apostrophic s has often been added to nouns improperly; the words formed by it not being intended for the possessive singular, but for the nominative or objective plural. Thus we find such authors as Addison and Swift, writing Jacobus's and genius's, for Jacobuses and geniuses; idea's, toga's, and tunica's, for ideas, togas, and tunicas; enamorato's and virtuoso's, for enamoratoes and virtuosoes. Errors of this kind, should be carefully avoided.

OBS. 22.—The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case; as, two a's, three b's, four 9's. These we cannot avoid, except by using the names of the things: as, two Aes, three Bees, four Nines. "Laced down the sides with little c's."—Steele. "Whenever two gg's come together, they are both hard."—Buchanan. The names of c and g, plural, are Cees and Gees. Did these authors know the words, or did they not? To have learned the names of the letters, will be found on many occasions a great convenience, especially to critics. For example: "The pronunciation of these two consecutive s's is hard."—Webber's Gram., p. 21. Better: "Esses." "S and x, however, are exceptions. They are pluralyzed by adding es preceded by a hyphen [-], as the s-es; the x-es."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 40. Better, use the names, Ess and Ex, and pluralize thus: "the Esses; the Exes."

   "Make Q's of answers, to waylay
    What th' other party's like to say."
        —Hudibras, P. III, C. ii, l. 951.

Here the cipher is to be read Kues, but it has not the meaning of this name merely. It is put either for the plural of Q., a Question, like D. D.'s, (read Dee-Dees,) for Doctors of Divinity; or else, more erroneously, for cues, the plural of cue, a turn which the next speaker catches.

OBS. 23.—In the following example, the apostrophe and s are used to give the sound of a verb's termination, to words which the writer supposed were not properly verbs: "When a man in a soliloquy reasons with himself, and pro's and con's, and weighs all his designs."—Congreve. But here, "proes and cons," would have been more accurate. "We put the ordered number of m's into our composing-stick."—Printer's Gram. Here "Ems" would have done as well. "All measures for folio's and quarto's, should be made to m's of the English body; all measures for octavo's, to Pica m's."—Ibid. Here regularity requires, "folios, quartoes, octavoes," and "pica Ems." The verb is, when contracted, sometimes gives to its nominative the same form as that of the possessive case, it not being always spaced off for distinction, as it may be; as,

   "A wit's a feather, and a chief a rod;
    An honest man's the noblest work of God."
        —Pope, on Man, Ep. iv, l. 247.

OBS. 24.—As the objective case of nouns is to be distinguished from the nominative, only by the sense, relation, and position, of words in a sentence, the learner must acquire a habit of attending to these several things. Nor ought it to be a hardship to any reader to understand that which he thinks worth reading. It is seldom possible to mistake one of these cases for the other, without a total misconception of the author's meaning. The nominative denotes the agent, actor, or doer; the person or thing that is made the subject of an affirmation, negation, question, or supposition: its place, except in a question, is commonly before the verb. The objective, when governed by a verb or a participle, denotes the person on whom, or the thing on which, the action falls and terminates: it is commonly placed after the verb, participle, or preposition, which governs it. Nouns, then, by changing places, may change cases: as, "Jonathan loved David;" "David loved Jonathan." Yet the case depends not entirely upon position; for any order in which the words cannot be misunderstood, is allowable: as, "Such tricks hath strong imagination."—Shak. Here the cases are known, because the meaning is plainly this: "Strong imagination hath such tricks." "To him give all the prophets witness."—Acts, x, 43. This is intelligible enough, and more forcible than the same meaning expressed thus: "All the prophets give witness to him." The order of the words never can affect the explanation to be given of them in parsing, unless it change the sense, and form them into a different sentence.

THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases.
Thus:—

EXAMPLE I.—FRIEND.

 Sing. Nom. friend, Plur. Nom. friends,
       Poss. friend's, Poss. friends',
       Obj. friend; Obj. friends.

EXAMPLE II.—MAN.

 Sing. Nom. man, Plur. Nom. men,
       Poss. man's, Poss. men's,
       Obj. man; Obj. men.

EXAMPLE III.—FOX.

 Sing. Nom. fox, Plur. Nom. foxes,
       Poss. fox's, Poss. foxes',
       Obj. fox; Obj. foxes.

EXAMPLE IV.—FLY.

 Sing. Nom. fly, Plur. Nom. flies,
       Poss. fly's, Poss. flies',
       Obj. fly; Obj. flies.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS III.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

_In the Third Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES and NOUNS.

The definitions to be given in the Third Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, and one for an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus_:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praiseworthy than Scott's."

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Writings is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Hannah More is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, feminine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Appear is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Me is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.

More is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Praiseworthy is an adjective. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality.

Than is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Scott's is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"The virtue of Alexander appears to me less vigorous than that of Socrates. Socrates in Alexander's place I can readily conceive: Alexander in that of Socrates I cannot. Alexander will tell you, he can subdue the world: it was a greater work in Socrates to fulfill the duties of life. Worth consists most, not in great, but in good actions."—Kames's Art of Thinking, p. 70.

"No one should ever rise to speak in public, without forming to himself a just and strict idea of what suits his own age and character; what suits the subject, the hearers, the place, the occasion."—Blair's Rhetoric, p. 260.

"In the short space of little more than a century, the Greeks became such statesmen, warriors, orators, historians, physicians, poets, critics, painters, sculptors, architects, and, last of all, philosophers, that one can hardly help considering that golden period, as a providential event in honour of human nature, to show to what perfection the species might ascend."—Harris's Hermes, p. 417.

   "Is genius yours? Be yours a glorious end,
    Be your king's, country's, truth's, religion's friend."—Young.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"He that is called in the Lord, being a servant, is the Lord's freeman: likewise also, he that is called, being free, is Christ's servant."—1 Cor., vii, 22.

"What will remain to the Alexanders, and the Cæsars, and the Jenghizes, and the Louises, and the Charleses, and the Napoleons, with whose 'glories' the idle voice of fame is filled?"—J. Dymond. "Good sense, clear ideas, perspicuity of language, and proper arrangement of words and thoughts, will always command attention."—Blair's Rhet., p. 174.

"A mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's gifts for man's advantage.—Wisdom's precepts form the good man's interest and happiness."—Murray's Key, p. 194.

"A dancing-school among the Tuscaroras, is not a greater absurdity than a masquerade in America. A theatre, under the best regulations, is not essential to our happiness. It may afford entertainment to individuals; but it is at the expense of private taste and public morals."—Webster's Essays, p. 86.

   "Where dancing sunbeams on the waters played,
    And verdant alders form'd a quivering shade."—Pope.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"I have ever thought that advice to the young, unaccompanied by the routine of honest employments, is like an attempt to make a shrub grow in a certain direction, by blowing it with a bellows."—Webster's Essays, p. 247.

"The Arabic characters for the writing of numbers, were introduced into
Europe by Pope Sylvester II, in the eleventh century."—Constable's
Miscellany.

"Emotions raised by inanimate objects, trees, rivers, buildings, pictures, arrive at perfection almost instantaneously; and they have a long endurance, a second view producing nearly the same pleasure with the first."—Kames's Elements, i, 108.

"There is great variety in the same plant, by the different appearances of its stem, branches, leaves, blossoms, fruit, size, and colour; and yet, when we trace that variety through different plants, especially of the same kind, there is discovered a surprising uniformity."—Ib., i, 273.

   "Attitude, action, air, pause, start, sigh, groan,
    He borrow'd, and made use of as his own."—Churchill.

    "I dread thee, fate, relentless and severe,
    With all a poet's, husband's, father's fear!"—Burns.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS OF NOUNS.

LESSON I.—NUMBERS.

"All the ablest of the Jewish Rabbis acknowledge it."—Wilson's Heb.
Gram., p. 7.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word Rabbi is here made plural by the addition of s only. But, according to Observation 12th on the Numbers, nouns in i ought rather to form the plural in ies. The capital R, too, is not necessary. Therefore, Rabbis should be rabbies, with ies and a small r.]

"Who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our Christian rabbis."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 378. "The seeming singularitys of reason soon wear off."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 47. "The chiefs and arikis or priests have the power of declaring a place or object taboo."—Balbi's Geog., p. 460. "Among the various tribes of this family, are the Pottawatomies, the Sacs and Foxes, or Saukis and Ottogamis."—Ib., p. 178. "The Shawnees, Kickapoos, Menomonies, Miamis and Delawares, are of the same region."—Ib., p. 178. "The Mohegans and Abenaquis belonged also to this family."—Ib., p. 178. "One tribe of this family, the Winnebagos, formerly resided near lake Michigan."—Ib., p. 179. "The other tribes are the Ioways, the Otoes, the Missouris, the Quapaws."—Ib., p. 179. "The great Mexican family comprises the Aztecs, Toltecs, and Tarascos."—Ib., p. 179. "The Mulattoes are born of negro and white parents; the Zambos, of Indians and negroes."—Ib., p. 165. "To have a place among the Alexanders, the Cæsars, the Lewis', or the Charles', the scourges and butchers of their fellow-creatures."—Burgh's Dignity, i, 132. "Which was the notion of the Platonic Philosophers and Jewish rabbii."—Ib., p. 248. "That they should relate to the whole body of virtuosos."—Gobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 212. "What thank have ye? for sinners also love those that love them."—Luke, vi, 32. "There are five ranks of nobility; dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons."—Balbi's Geog., p. 228. "Acts, which were so well known to the two Charles's."—Payne's Geog., ii, 511. "Court Martials are held in all parts, for the trial of the blacks."—Observer, No. 458. "It becomes a common noun, and may have a plural number; as, the two Davids; the two Scipios, the two Pompies."—Staniford's Gram., p. 8. "The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, hare, rats, and reptiles."—Balbi's Geog., p. 177. "And let fowl multiply in the earth."—Genesis, i, 22. "Then we reached the hill-side where eight buffalo were grazing."—Martineau's Amer., i, 202. "Corset, n. a pair of bodice for a woman."—Worcester's Dict., 12mo. "As the be's; the ce's, the doubleyu's."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 40. "Simplicity is the means between ostentation and rusticity."—Pope's Pref. to Homer. "You have disguised yourselves like tipstaves."—Gil Blas, i, 111. "But who, that hath any taste, can endure the incessant quick returns of the also's, and the likewise's, and the moreover's, and the however's, and the notwithstanding's?"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 439.

   "Sometimes, in mutual sly disguise,
    Let Aye's seem No's, and No's seem Aye's."—Gay, p. 431.

LESSON II.—CASES.

"For whose name sake, I have been made willing."—Wm. Penn.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the noun name, which is here meant for the possessive case singular, has not the true form of that case. But, according to a principle on page 258th, "The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only." Therefore, name should be name's; thus, "For whose name's sake, I have been made willing."]

"Be governed by your conscience, and never ask anybodies leave to be honest."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 105. "To overlook nobodies merit or misbehaviour."—Ib., p. 9. "And Hector at last fights his way to the stern of Ajax' ship."—Coleridge's Introd., p. 91. "Nothing is lazier, than to keep ones eye upon words without heeding their meaning."— Philological Museum, i, 645. "Sir William Joneses division of the day."—Ib., Contents. "I need only refer here to Vosses excellent account of it."—Ib., i, 465. "The beginning of Stesichoruses palinode has been preserved."—Ib., i, 442. "Though we have Tibulluses elegies, there is not a word in them about Glycera."—Ib., p. 446. "That Horace was at Thaliarchuses country-house."—Ib., i, 451. "That Sisyphuses foot-tub should have been still in existence."—Ib., i, 468. "How every thing went on in Horace's closet, and in Mecenases antechamber."—Ib., i, 458. "Who, for elegant brevities sake, put a participle for a verb."—Walker's Particles, p. 42. "The countries liberty being oppressed, we have no more to hope."—Ib., p. 73. "A brief but true account of this peoples' principles."—Barclay's Pref. "As, the Churche's Peace, or the Peace of the Church; Virgil's Eneid, or the Eneid of Virgil"—British Gram., p. 93. "As, Virgil's Æneid, for the Æneid of Virgil; the Church'es Peace, for the Peace of the Church."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 18. "Which, with Hubner's Compend, and Wells' Geographia Classica, will be sufficient."— Burgh's Dignity, i, 155. "Witness Homer's speaking horses, scolding goddesses, and Jupiter enchanted with Venus' girdle."—Ib., i, 184. "Dr. Watts' Logic may with success be read and commented on to them."—Ib., p. 156. "Potter's Greek, and Kennet's Roman Antiquities, Strauchius' and Helvicus' Chronology."—Ib., p. 161. "Sing. Alice' friends, Felix' property; Plur. The Alices' friends, The Felixes' property."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 46. "Such as Bacchus'es company,"—"at Bacchus'es festivals."—Ainsworth's Dict., w. Thyrsus. "Burn's inimitable Tam o'Shanter turns entirely upon such a circumstance."—Scott's Lay, Notes, p. 201. "Nominative, Men. Genitive, Mens. Objective, Men."—Cutler's Gram., p. 20. "Mens Happiness or Misery is most part of their own making."—Locke, on Education, p. 1. "That your Sons Cloths be never made strait, especially about the Breast."—Ib., p. 15. "Childrens Minds are narrow and weak."—Ib., p. 297. "I would not have little Children much tormented about Punctilio's, or Niceties of Breeding."—Ib., p. 90. "To fill his Head with suitable Idea's."—Ib., p. 113. "The Burgusdiscius's and the Scheiblers did not swarm in those Days, as they do now."—Ib., p. 163. "To see the various ways of dressing—a calve's head!"—Shenstone, Brit. Poets, Vol. vii, p. 143.

   "He puts it on, and for decorum sake
    Can wear it e'en as gracefully as she."—Cowper's Task.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"Simon the witch was of this religion too."—Bunyan's P. P., p. 123.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the feminine name witch is here applied to a man. But, according to the doctrine of genders, on page 254th, "Names of males are masculine; names of females, feminine;" &c. Therefore, witch should be wizard; thus, "Simon the wizard," &c.]

"Mammodis, n. Coarse, plain India muslins."—Webster's Dict. "Go on from single persons to families, that of the Pompeyes for instance."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 142. "By which the ancients were not able to account for phænomenas."—Bailey's Ovid, p. vi. "After this I married a wife who had lived at Crete, but a Jew by birth."—Josephus's Life, p. 194. "The very heathen are inexcusable for not worshipping him."—Student's Manual, p. 328. "Such poems as Camoen's Lusiad, Voltaire's Henriade, &c."—Blair's Rhet., p. 422. "My learned correspondent writes a word in defence of large scarves."—SPECT.: in Joh. Dict. "The forerunners of an apoplexy are dulness, vertigos, tremblings."—ARBUTHNOT: ib. "Vertigo changes the o into ~in=es, making the plural vertig~in=es."—Churchill's Gram., p. 59. "Noctambulo changes the o into =on=es, making the plural noctambul=on=es."—Ib., p. 59. "What shall we say of noctambulos?"—ARBUTHNOT: in Joh. Dict. "In the curious fretwork of rocks and grottos."—Blair's Rhet., p. 220. "Wharf makes the plural wharves."—Smith's Gram., p. 45; Merchant's, 29; Picket's, 21; Frost's, 8. "A few cent's worth of maccaroni supplies all their wants."—Balbi's Geog., p. 275. "C sounds hard, like k, at the end of a word or syllables."—Blair's Gram., p. 4. "By which the virtuosi try The magnitude of every lie."—Hudibras. "Quartos, octavos, shape the lessening pyre."—Pope's Dunciad, B. i, l. 162. "Perching within square royal rooves."—SIDNEY: in Joh. Dict. "Similies should, even in poetry, be used with moderation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 166. "Similies should never be taken from low or mean objects."—Ib., p. 167. "It were certainly better to say, 'The house of lords,' than 'the Lord's house.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 177. "Read your answers. Unit figure? 'Five.' Ten's? 'Six.' Hundreds? 'Seven.'"—Abbott's Teacher, p. 79. "Alexander conquered Darius' army."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 58. "Three days time was requisite, to prepare matters."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 156. "So we say that Ciceros stile and Sallusts, were not one, nor Cesars and Livies, nor Homers and Hesiodus, nor Herodotus and Theucidides, nor Euripides and Aristophanes, nor Erasmus and Budeus stiles."—Puttenham's Arte of English Poesie, iii, 5. "Lex (i.e. legs) is no other than our ancestors past participle læg, laid down."—Tooke's Diversions, ii, 7. "Achaia's sons at Ilium slain for the Atridæ' sake."—Cowper's Iliad. "The corpse[167] of half her senate manure the fields of Thessaly."—Addison's Cato.

   "Poisoning, without regard of fame or fear:
    And spotted corpse are frequent on the bier."—Dryden.

CHAPTER IV.—ADJECTIVES.

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality: as, A wise man; a new book. You two are diligent.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Adjectives have been otherwise called attributes, attributives, qualities, adnouns; but none of these names is any better than the common one. Some writers have classed adjectives with verbs; because, with a neuter verb for the copula, they often form logical predicates: as, "Vices are contagious." The Latin grammarians usually class them with nouns; consequently their nouns are divided into nouns substantive and nouns adjective. With us, substantives are nouns; and adjectives form a part of speech by themselves. This is generally acknowledged to be a much better distribution. Adjectives cannot with propriety be called nouns, in any language; because they are not the names of the qualities which they signify. They must be added to nouns or pronouns in order to make sense. But if, in a just distribution of words, the term "adjective nouns" is needless and improper, the term "adjective pronouns" is, certainly, not less so: most of the words which Murray and others call by this name, are not pronouns, but adjectives.

OBS. 2.—The noun, or substantive, is a name, which makes sense of itself. The adjective is an adjunct to the noun or pronoun. It is a word added to denote quality, situation, quantity, number, form, tendency, or whatever else may characterize and distinguish the thing or things spoken of. Adjectives, therefore, are distinguished from nouns by their relation to them; a relation corresponding to that which qualities bear to things: so that no part of speech is more easily discriminated than the adjective. Again: English adjectives, as such, are all indeclinable. When, therefore, any words usually belonging to this class, are found to take either the plural or the possessive form, like substantive nouns, they are to be parsed as nouns. To abbreviate expression, we not unfrequently, in this manner, convert adjectives into nouns. Thus, in grammar, we often speak of nominatives, possessives, or objectives, meaning nouns or pronouns of the nominative, the possessive, or the objective case; of positives, comparatives, or superlatives, meaning adjectives of the positive, the comparative, or the superlative degree; of infinitives, subjunctives, or imperatives, meaning verbs of the infinitive, the subjunctive, or the imperative mood; and of singulars, plurals, and many other such things, in the same way. So a man's superiors or inferiors are persons superior or inferior to himself. His betters are persons better than he. Others are any persons or things distinguished from some that are named or referred to; as, "If you want enemies, excel others; if you want friends, let others excel you."—Lacon. All adjectives thus taken substantively, become nouns, and ought to be parsed as such, unless this word others is to be made an exception, and called a "pronoun."

   "Th' event is fear'd; should we again provoke
    Our stronger, some worse way his wrath may find."
        —Milton, P. L., B. ii, l. 82.

OBS. 3.—Murray says, "Perhaps the words former and latter may be properly ranked amongst the demonstrative pronouns, especially in many of their applications. The following sentence may serve as an example: 'It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command with Minutius: the former's phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity.'"—Gram., 8vo, p. 57. This I take to be bad English. Former and latter ought to be adjectives only; except when former means maker. And, if not so, it is too easy a way of multiplying pronouns, to manufacture two out of one single anonymous sentence. If it were said, "The deliberation of the former was a seasonable chock upon the fiery temper of the latter" the words former and latter would seem to me not to be pronouns, but adjectives, each relating to the noun commander understood after it.

OBS. 4.—The sense and relation of words in sentences, as well as their particular form and meaning, must be considered in parsing, before the learner can say, with certainty, to what class they belong. Other parts of speech, and especially nouns and participles, by a change in their construction, may become adjectives. Thus, to denote the material of which a thing is formed, we very commonly make the name of the substantive an adjective to that of the thing: as, A gold chain, a silver spoon, a glass pitcher, a tin basin, an oak plank, a basswood slab, a whalebone rod. This construction is in general correct, whenever the former word may be predicated of the latter; as, "The chain is gold."—"The spoon is silver." But we do not write gold beater for goldbeater, or silver smith for silversmith; because the beater is not gold, nor is the smith silver. This principle, however, is not universally observed; for we write snowball, whitewash, and many similar compounds, though the ball is snow and the wash is white; and linseed oil, or Newark cider, may be a good phrase, though the former word cannot well be predicated of the latter. So in the following examples: "Let these conversation tones be the foundation of public pronunciation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 334. "A muslin flounce, made very full, would give a very agreeable flirtation air."—POPE: Priestley's Gram., p. 79.

   "Come, calm Content, serene and sweet,
    O gently guide my pilgrim feet
    To find thy hermit cell."—Barbauld.

OBS. 5.—Murray says, "Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the nature of adjectives: as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c."—Octavo Gram., p. 48. This is, certainly, very lame instruction. If there is not palpable error in all his examples, the propriety of them all is at least questionable; and, to adopt and follow out their principle, would be, to tear apart some thousands of our most familiar compounds. "Meadow ground" may perhaps be a correct phrase, since the ground is meadow; it seems therefore preferable to the compound word meadow-ground. What he meant by "wine vessel" is doubtful: that is, whether a ship or a cask, a flagon or a decanter. If we turn to our dictionaries, Webster has sea-fish and wine-cask with a hyphen, and cornfield without; while Johnson and others have corn-field with a hyphen, and seafish without. According to the rules for the figure of words, we ought to write them seafish, winecask, cornfield. What then becomes of the thousands of "adjectives" embraced in the "&c." quoted above?

OBS. 6.—The pronouns he and she, when placed before or prefixed to nouns merely to denote their gender, appear to be used adjectively; as, "The male or he animals offered in sacrifice."—Wood's Dict., w. Males. "The most usual term is he or she, male or female, employed as an adjective: as, a he bear, a she bear; a male elephant, a female elephant."—Churchill's Gram., p. 69. Most writers, however, think proper to insert a hyphen in the terms here referred to: as, he-bear, she-bear, the plurals of which are he-bears and she-bears. And, judging by the foregoing rule of predication, we must assume that this practice only is right. In the first example, the word he is useless; for the term "male animals" is sufficiently clear without it. It has been shown in the third chapter, that he and she are sometimes used as nouns; and that, as such, they may take the regular declension of nouns, making the plurals hes and shes. But whenever these words are used adjectively to denote gender, whether we choose to insert the hyphen or not, they are, without question, indeclinable, like other adjectives. In the following example, Sanborn will have he to be a noun in the objective case; but I consider it rather, to be an adjective, signifying masculine:

"(Philosophy, I say, and call it He; For, whatsoe'er the painter's fancy be, It a male-virtue seems to me.")—Cowley, Brit. Poets, Vol. ii, p. 54.

OBS. 7.—Though verbs give rise to many adjectives, they seldom, if ever, become such by a mere change of construction. It is mostly by assuming an additional termination, that any verb is formed into an adjective: as in teachable, moveable, oppressive, diffusive, prohibitory. There are, however, about forty words ending in ate, which, without difference of form, are either verbs or adjectives; as, aggregate, animate, appropriate, articulate, aspirate, associate, complicate, confederate, consummate, deliberate, desolate, effeminate, elate, incarnate, intimate, legitimate, moderate, ordinate, precipitate, prostrate, regenerate, reprobate, separate, sophisticate, subordinate. This class of adjectives seems to be lessening. The participials in ed, are superseding some of them, at least in popular practice: as, contaminated, for contaminate, defiled; reiterated, for reiterate, repeated; situated, for situate, placed; attenuated, for attenuate, made thin or slender. Devote, exhaust, and some other verbal forms, are occasionally used by the poets, in lieu of the participial forms, devoted, exhausted, &c.

OBS. 8.—Participles, which have naturally much resemblance to this part of speech, often drop their distinctive character, and become adjectives. This is usually the case whenever they stand immediately before the nouns to which they relate; as, A pleasing countenance, a piercing eye, an accomplished scholar, an exalted station. Many participial adjectives are derivatives formed from participles by the negative prefix un, which reverses the meaning of the primitive word; as, undisturbed, undivided, unenlightened. Most words of this kind differ of course from participles, because there are no such verbs as to undisturb, to undivide, &c. Yet they may be called participial adjectives, because they have the termination, and embrace the form, of participles. Nor should any participial adjective be needlessly varied from the true orthography of the participle: a distinction is, however, observed by some writers, between past and passed, staid and stayed; and some old words, as drunken, stricken, shotten, rotten, now obsolete as participles, are still retained as adjectives. This sort of words will be further noticed in the chapter on participles.

OBS. 9.—Adverbs are generally distinguished from adjectives, by the form, as well as by the construction, of the words. Yet, in instances not a few, the same word is capable of being used both adjectively and adverbially. In these cases, the scholar must determine the part of speech, by the construction alone; remembering that adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns only; and adverbs, to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs, only. The following examples from Scripture, will partially illustrate this point, which will be noticed again under the head of syntax: "Is your father well?"—Gen., xliii, 27. "Thou hast well said."—John, iv, 17. "He separateth very friends."—Prov., xvii, 9. "Esaias is very bold."—Rom., x, 20. "For a pretence, ye make long prayer."—Matt., xxiii, 14. "They that tarry long at the wine."—Prov., xxiii, 30. "It had not much earth."—Mark, iv, 5. "For she loved much."—Luke, vii, 47.

OBS. 10.—Prepositions, in regard to their construction, differ from adjectives, almost exactly as active-transitive participles differ syntactically from adjectives: that is, in stead of being mere adjuncts to the words which follow them, they govern those words, and refer back to some other term; which, in the usual order of speech, stands before them. Thus, if I say, "A spreading oak," spreading is an adjective relating to oak; if, "A boy spreading hay," spreading is a participle, governing hay, and relating to boy, because the boy is the agent of the action. So, when Dr. Webster says, "The off horse in a team," off is an adjective, relating to the noun horse; but, in the phrase, "A man off his guard," off is a preposition, showing the relation between man and guard, and governing the latter. The following are other examples: "From the above speculations."—Harris's Hermes, p. 194. "An after period of life."—MARSHALL: in Web. Dict. "With some other of the after Judaical rites."—Right of Tythes, p. 86. "Whom this beneath world doth embrace and hug."—Shak. "Especially is over exertion made."—Journal of Lit. Conv., p. 119. "To both the under worlds."—Hudibras. "Please to pay to A. B. the amount of the within bill." Whether properly used or not, the words above, after, beneath, over, under, and within, are here unquestionably made adjectives; yet every scholar knows, that they are generally prepositions, though sometimes adverbs.

CLASSES.

Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and compound.

I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation; as, Good, bad, peaceful, warlike—eastern, western, outer, inner.

II. A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper name; as, American, English, Platonic, Genoese.

III. A numeral adjective is an adjective that expresses a definite number; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, &c.

IV. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood; as, "All join to guard what each desires to gain."—Pope. That is, "All men join to guard what each man desires to gain."

V. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time; as, "An amusing story,"—"A lying divination."

VI. A compound adjective is one that consists of two or more words joined together, either by the hyphen or solidly: as, Nut-brown, laughter-loving, four-footed; threefold, lordlike, lovesick.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—This distribution of the adjectives is no less easy to be applied, than necessary to a proper explanation in parsing. How many adjectives there are in the language, it is difficult to say; none of our dictionaries profess to exhibit all that are embraced in some of the foregoing classes. Of the Common Adjectives, there are probably not fewer than six thousand, exclusive of the common nouns which we refer to this class when they are used adjectively. Walker's Rhyming Dictionary contains five thousand or more, the greater part of which may be readily distinguished by their peculiar endings. Of those which end in ous, as generous, there are about 850. Of those in y or ly, as shaggy, homely, there are about 550. Of those in ive, as deceptive, there are about 400. Of those in al, as autumnal, there are about 550. Of those in ical, as mechanical, there are about 350. Of those in able, as valuable, there are about 600. Of those in ible, as credible, there are about 200. Of those in ent, as different, there are about 300. Of those in ant, as abundant, there are about 170. Of those in less, as ceaseless, there are about 220. Of those in ful, as useful, there are about 130. Of those in ory, as explanatory, there are about 200. Of those in ish, as childish, there are about 100. Of those in ine, as masculine, there are about 70. Of those in en, as wooden, there are about 50. Of those in some, as quarrelsome, there are about 30. These sixteen numbers added together, make 4770.

OBS. 2.—The Proper Adjectives are, in many instances, capable of being converted into declinable nouns: as, European, a European, the Europeans; Greek, a Greek, the Greeks; Asiatic, an Asiatic, the Asiatics. But with the words English, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh, Irish, and in general all such as would acquire an additional syllable in their declension, the case is otherwise. The gentile noun has frequently fewer syllables than the adjective, but seldom more, unless derived from some different root. Examples: Arabic, an Arab, the Arabs; Gallic, a Gaul, the Gauls; Danish, a Dane, the Danes; Moorish, a Moor, the Moors; Polish, a Pole, or Polander, the Poles; Swedish, a Swede, the Swedes; Turkish, a Turk, the Turks. When we say, the English, the French, the Dutch, the Scotch, the Welsh, the Irish,—meaning, the English people, the French people, &c., many grammarians conceive that English, French, &c., are indeclinable nouns. But in my opinion, it is better to reckon them adjectives, relating to the noun men or people understood. For if these words are nouns, so are a thousand others, after which there is the same ellipsis; as when we say, the good, the great, the wise, the learned.[168] The principle would involve the inconvenience of multiplying our nouns of the singular form and a plural meaning, indefinitely. If they are nouns, they are, in this sense, plural only; and, in an other, they are singular only. For we can no more say, an English, an Irish, or a French, for an Englishman, an Irishman, or a Frenchman; than we can say, an old, a selfish, or a rich, for an old man, a selfish man, or a rich man. Yet, in distinguishing the languages, we call them English, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh, Irish; using the words, certainly, in no plural sense; and preferring always the line of adjectives, where the gentile noun is different: as, Arabic, and not Arab; Danish, and not Dane; Swedish, and not Swede. In this sense, as well as in the former, Webster, Chalmers, and other modern lexicographers, call the words nouns; and the reader will perceive, that the objections offered before do not apply here. But Johnson, in his two quarto volumes, gives only two words of this sort, English and Latin; and both of these he calls adjectives: "ENGLISH, adj. Belonging to England; hence English[169] is the language of England." The word Latin, however, he makes a noun, when it means a schoolboy's exercise; for which usage he quotes, the following inaccurate example from Ascham: "He shall not use the common order in schools for making of Latins."

OBS. 3.—Dr. Webster gives us explanations like these: "CHINESE, n. sing. and plu. A native of China; also the language of China."—"JAPANESE, n. A native of Japan; or the language of the inhabitants."—"GENOESE, n. pl. the people of Genoa in Italy. Addison."—"DANISH, n. The language of the Danes."—"IRISH, n. 1. A native of Ireland. 2. The language of the Irish; the Hiberno-Celtic." According to him, then, it is proper to say, a Chinese, a Japanese, or an Irish; but not, a Genoese, because he will have this word to be plural only! Again, if with him we call a native of Ireland an Irish, will not more than one be Irishes?[170] If a native of Japan be a Japanese, will not more than one be Japaneses? In short, is it not plain, that the words, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Maltese, Genoese, Milanese, and all others of like formation, should follow one and the same rule? And if so, what is that rule? Is it not this;—that, like English, French, &c., they are always adjectives; except, perhaps, when they denote languages? There may possibly be some real authority from usage, for calling a native of China a Chinese,—of Japan a Japanese,—&c.; as there is also for the regular plurals, Chineses, Japaneses, &c.; but is it, in either case, good and sufficient authority? The like forms, it is acknowledged, are, on some occasions, mere adjectives; and, in modern usage, we do not find these words inflected, as they were formerly. Examples: "The Chinese are by no means a cleanly people, either in person or dress."—Balbi's Geog., p. 415. "The Japanese excel in working in copper, iron, and steel."—Ib., p. 419. "The Portuguese are of the same origin with the Spaniards."—Ib., p. 272. "By whom the undaunted Tyrolese are led."—Wordsworth's Poems, p. 122. Again: "Amongst the Portugueses, 'tis so much a Fashion, and Emulation, amongst their Children, to learn to Read, and Write, that they cannot hinder them from it."—Locke, on Education, p. 271. "The Malteses do so, who harden the Bodies of their Children, and reconcile them to the Heat, by making them go stark Naked."—Idem, Edition of 1669, p. 5. "CHINESE, n. s. Used elliptically for the language and people of China: plural, Chineses. Sir T. Herbert."—Abridgement of Todd's Johnson. This is certainly absurd. For if Chinese is used elliptically for the people of China, it is an adjective, and does not form the plural, Chineses: which is precisely what I urge concerning the whole class. These plural forms ought not to be imitated. Horne Tooke quotes some friend of his, as saying, "No, I will never descend with him beneath even a Japanese: and I remember what Voltaire remarks of that country."—Diversions of Purley, i, 187. In this case, he ought, unquestionably, to have said—"beneath even a native of Japan;" because, whether Japanese be a noun or not, it is absurd to call a Japanese, "that country." Butler, in his Hudibras, somewhere uses the word Chineses; and it was, perhaps, in his day, common; but still, I say, it is contrary to analogy, and therefore wrong. Milton, too, has it:

   "But in his way lights on the barren plains
    Of Sericana, where Chineses[171] drive
    With sails and wind their cany waggons light."
        —Paradise Lost, B. iii, l. 437.

OBS. 4.—The Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds, namely, cardinal, ordinal, and multiplicative: each kind running on in a series indefinitely. Thus:—

1. Cardinal; One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, twenty-two, &c.

2. Ordinal; First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first, twenty-second, &c.

3. Multiplicative; Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c. But high terms of this series are seldom used. All that occur above decuple or tenfold, are written with a hyphen, and are usually of round numbers only; as, thirty-fold, sixty-fold, hundred-fold.

OBS. 5.—A cardinal numeral denotes the whole number, but the corresponding ordinal denotes only the last one of that number, or, at the beginning of a series, the first of several or many. Thus: "One denotes simply the number one, without any regard to more; but first has respect to more, and so denotes only the first one of a greater number; and two means the number two completely; but second, the last one of two: and so of all the rest."—Burn's Gram., p. 54. A cardinal number answers to the question, "How many?" An ordinal number answers to the question, "Which one?" or, "What one?" All the ordinal numbers, except first, second, third, and the compounds of these, as twenty-first, twenty-second, twenty-third, are formed directly from the cardinal numbers by means of the termination th. And as the primitives, in this case, are many of them either compound words, or phrases consisting of several words, it is to be observed, that the addition is made to the last term only. That is, of every compound ordinal number, the last term only is ordinal in form. Thus we say, forty-ninth, and not fortieth-ninth; nor could the meaning of the phrase, four hundred and fiftieth, be expressed by saying, fourth hundredth and fiftieth; for this, if it means any thing, speaks of three different numbers.

OBS. 6.—Some of the numerals are often used as nouns; and, as such, are regularly declined: as, Ones, twoes, threes, fours, fives, &c. So, Fifths, sixths, sevenths, eighths, ninths, tenths, &c. "The seventy's translation."—Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 32. "I will not do it for forty's sake."—Gen., xviii, 29. "I will not destroy it for twenty's sake."—Ib., ver. 31. "For ten's sake."—Ib., ver. 32. "They sat down in ranks, by hundreds, and by fifties."—Mark, vi, 40. "There are millions of truths that a man is not concerned to know."—Locke. With the compound numerals, such a construction is less common; yet the denominator of a fraction may be a number of this sort: as, seven twenty-fifths. And here it may be observed, that, in stead of the ancient phraseology, as in 1 Chron., xxiv, 17th, "The one and twentieth to Jachin, the two and twentieth to Gamul, the three and twentieth to Delaiah, the four and twentieth to Maaziah," we now generally say, the twenty-first, the twenty-second, &c.; using the hyphen in all compounds till we arrive at one hundred, or one hundredth, and then first introducing the word and; as, one hundred and one, or one hundred and first, &c.

OBS. 7.—The Pronominal Adjectives are comparatively very few; but frequency of use gives them great importance in grammar. The following words are perhaps all that properly belong to this class, and several of these are much oftener something else: All, any, both, certain, divers, each, either, else, enough, every, few, fewer, fewest, former, first, latter, last, little, less, least, many, more, most, much, neither, no or none, one, other, own, only, same, several, some, such, sundry, that, this, these, those, what, whatever, whatsoever, which, whichever, whichsoever.[172] Of these forty-six words, seven are always singular, if the word one is not an exception; namely, each, either, every, neither, one, that, this: and nine or ten others are always plural, if the word many is not an exception; namely, both, divers, few, fewer, fewest, many, several, sundry, these, those. All the rest, like our common adjectives, are applicable to nouns of either number. Else, every, only, no, and none, are definitive words, which I have thought proper to call pronominal adjectives, though only the last can now with propriety be made to represent its noun understood. "Nor has Vossius, or any else that I know of, observed it."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 279. Say, "or any one else." Dr. Webster explains this word else thus: "ELSE, a. or pron. [Sax. elles] Other; one or something beside; as, Who else is coming?"—Octavo Dict. "Each and every of them," is an old phrase in which every is used pronominally, or with ellipsis of the word to which it refers; but, in common discourse, we now say, every one, every man, &c., never using the word every alone to suggest its noun. Only is perhaps most commonly an adverb; but it is still in frequent use as an adjective; and in old books we sometimes find an ellipsis of the noun to which it belongs; as, "Neither are they the only [verbs] in which it is read."—Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, p. 373. "But I think he is the only [one] of these Authors."—Ib., p. 193. No and none seem to be only different forms of the same adjective; the former being used before a noun expressed, and the latter when the noun is understood, or not placed after the adjective; as, "For none of us liveth to himself, and no man dieth to himself."—Romans, xiv, 7. None was anciently used for no before all words beginning with a vowel sound; as, "They are sottish children; and they have none understanding."—Jeremiah, iv, 22. This practice is now obsolete. None is still used, when its noun precedes it; as,

   "Fools! who from hence into the notion fall,
    That vice or virtue there is none at all."—Pope.

OBS. 8.—Of the words given in the foregoing list as pronominal adjectives, about one third are sometimes used adverbially. They are the following: All, when it means totally; any, for in any degree; else, meaning otherwise; enough, signifying sufficiently; first, for in the first place; last, for in the last place; little, for in a small degree; less, for in a smaller degree; least, for in the smallest degree; much, for in a great degree; more, for in a greater degree; most, for in the greatest degree; no, or none, for in no degree; only, for singly, merely, barely; what, for in what degree, or in how great a degree.[173] To these may perhaps be added the word other, when used as an alternative to somehow; as, "Somehow or other he will be favoured."—Butler's Analogy, p. 89. Here other seems to be put for otherwise; and yet the latter word would not be agreeable in such a sentence. "Somewhere or other," is a kindred phrase equally common, and equally good; or, rather, equally irregular and puzzling. Would it not be better, always to avoid both, by saying, in their stead, "In some way or other,"—"In someplace or other?" In the following examples, however, other seems to be used for otherwise, without such a connection: "How is THAT used, other than as a Conjunction?"—Ainsworth's Gram., p. 88.

   "Will it not be receiv'd that they have done 't?
    —Who dares receive it other?"—SHAK.: Joh. Dict., w. Other.

OBS. 9.—All and enough, little and much, more and less, sometimes suggest the idea of quantity so abstractly, that we can hardly consider them as adjuncts to any other words; for which reason, they are, in this absolute sense, put down in our dictionaries as nouns. If nouns, however, they are never inflected by cases or numbers; nor do they in general admit the usual adjuncts or definitives of nouns.[174] Thus, we can neither say, the all, for the whole, nor an enough, for a sufficiency. And though a little, the more, and the less, are common phrases, the article does not here prove the following word to be a noun; because the expression may either be elliptical, or have the construction of an adverb: as, "Though the more abundantly I love you, the less I be loved."—2 Cor., xii, 15. Dr. Johnson seems to suppose that the partitive use of these words makes them nouns; as, "They have much of the poetry of Mecænas, but little of his liberality."—DRYDEN: in Joh. Dict. Upon this principle, however, adjectives innumerable would be made nouns; for we can just as well say, "Some of the poetry,"—"Any of the poetry,"—"The best of Poetry," &c. In all such expressions, the name of the thing divided, is understood in the partitive word; for a part of any thing must needs be of the same species as the whole. Nor was this great grammarian sufficiently attentive to adjuncts, in determining the parts of speech. Nearly all, quite enough, so little, too much, vastly more, rather less, and an abundance of similar phrases, are familiar to every body; in none of which, can any of these words of quantity, however abstract, be very properly reckoned nouns; because the preceding word is an adverb, and adverbs do not relate to any words that are literally nouns. All these may also be used partitively; as, "Nearly all of us."

OBS. 10.—The following are some of Dr. Johnson's "nouns;" which, in connexion with the foregoing remarks, I would submit to the judgement of the reader: "'Then shall we be news-crammed.'—'All the better; we shall be the more remarkable.'"—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "All the fitter, Lentulus; our coming is not for salutation; we have business."—BEN JONSON: ib. "'Tis enough for me to have endeavoured the union of my country."—TEMPLE: ib. "Ye take too much upon you."—NUMBERS: ib. "The fate of love is such, that still it sees too little or too much."—DRYDEN: ib. "He thought not much to clothe his enemies."—MILTON: ib. "There remained not so much as one of them."—Ib., Exod., xiv, 28. "We will cut wood out of Lebanon, as much as thou shalt need."—Ib., 2 Chronicles. "The matter of the universe was created before the flood; if any more was created, then there must be as much annihilated to make room for it."—BURNET: ib. "The Lord do so, and much more, to Jonathan."—1 SAMUEL: ib. "They that would have more and more, can never have enough; no, not if a miracle should interpose to gratify their avarice."—L'ESTRANGE: ib. "They gathered some more, some less."—EXODUS: ib. "Thy servant knew nothing of this, less or more."—1 SAMUEL: ib. The first two examples above, Johnson explains thus: "That is, 'Every thing is the better.'—Every thing is the fitter."—Quarto Dict. The propriety of this solution may well be doubted; because the similar phrases, "So much the better,"—"None the fitter," would certainly be perverted, if resolved in the same way: much and none are here, very clearly, adverbs.

OBS. 11.—Whatever disposition may be made of the terms cited above, there are instances in which some of the same words can hardly be any thing else than nouns. Thus all, when it signifies the whole, or every thing, may be reckoned a noun; as, "Our all is at stake, and irretrievably lost, if we fail of success."—Addison. "A torch, snuff and all, goes out in a moment, when dipped in the vapour."—Id. "The first blast of wind laid it flat on the ground; nest, eagles, and all."—L'Estrange.

   "Finding, the wretched all they here can have,
    But present food, and but a future grave."—Prior.

    "And will she yet debase her eyes on me;
    On me, whose all not equals Edward's moiety?"—Shak.

    "Thou shalt be all in all, and I in thee,
    Forever; and in me all whom thou lov'st."—Milton.

OBS. 12.—There are yet some other words, which, by their construction alone, are to be distinguished from the pronominal adjectives. Both, when it stands as a correspondent to and, is reckoned a conjunction; as, "For both he that sanctifieth, and they who are sanctified, are all of one."—Heb., ii, 11. But, in sentences like the following, it seems to be an adjective, referring to the nouns which precede: "Language and manners are both established by the usage of people of fashion."—Amer. Chesterfield, p. 83. So either, corresponding to or, and neither, referring to nor, are conjunctions, and not adjectives. Which and what, with their compounds, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever, though sometimes put before nouns as adjectives, are, for the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns. When the noun is used after them, they are adjectives; when it is omitted, they are pronouns: as, "There is a witness of God, which witness gives true judgement."—I. Penington. Here the word witness might be omitted, and which would become a relative pronoun. Dr. Lowth says, "Thy, my, her, our, your, their, are pronominal adjectives."—Gram., p. 23. This I deny; and the reader may see my reasons, in the observations upon the declension of pronouns.

OBS. 13.—The words one and other, besides their primitive uses as adjectives, in which they still remain without inflection, are frequently employed as nouns, or as substitutes for nouns; and, in this substantive or pronominal character, they commonly have the regular declension of nouns, and are reckoned such by some grammarians; though others call them indefinite pronouns, and some, (among whom are Lowth and Comly,) leave them with the pronominal adjectives, even when they are declined in both numbers. Each of them may be preceded by either of the articles; and so general is the signification of the former, that almost any adjective may likewise come before it: as, Any one, some one, such a one, many a one, a new one, an old one, an other one, the same one, the young ones, the little ones, the mighty ones, the wicked one, the Holy One, the Everlasting One. So, like the French on, or l'on, the word one, without any adjective, is now very frequently used as a general or indefinite term for any man, or any person. In this sense, it is sometimes, unquestionably, to be preferred to a personal pronoun applied indefinitely: as, "Pure religion, and undefiled before God and the Father, is this, To visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep himself [better, one's self] unspotted from the world."—James, i, 27. But, as its generality of meaning seems to afford a sort of covering for egotism, some writers are tempted to make too frequent a use of it. Churchill ridicules this practice, by framing, or anonymously citing, the following sentence: "If one did but dare to abide by one's own judgement, one's language would be much more refined; but one fancies one's self obliged to follow, whereever the many choose to lead one."—See Churchill's Gram., p. 229. Here every scholar will concur with the critic in thinking, it would be better to say: "If we did but dare to abide by our own judgement, our language would be much more refined; but we fancy ourselves obliged to follow wherever the many choose to lead us."—See ib.

OBS. 14.—Of the pronominal adjectives the following distribution has been made: "Each, every, and either, are called distributives; because, though they imply all the persons or things that make up a number, they consider them, not as one whole, but as taken separately. This, that, former, latter, both, neither, are termed demonstratives; because they point out precisely the subjects to which they relate. This has these for its plural; that has those. This and that are frequently put in opposition to each other; this, to express what is nearer in place or time; that, what is more remote. All, any, one, other, some, such, are termed indefinite. Another is merely other in the singular, with the indefinite article not kept separate from it.[175] Other, when not joined with a noun, is occasionally used both in the possessive case, and in the plural number: as,

    'Teach me to feel an other's wo, to hide the fault I see;
    That mercy I to others show, that mercy show to me.'—Pope.

Each other and one another, when used in conjunction, may be termed reciprocals; as they are employed to express a reciprocal action; the former, between two persons or things; the latter, between[176] more than two. The possessive cases of the personal pronouns have been also ranked under the head of pronominal adjectives, and styled possessives; but for this I see no good reason."—Churchill's Gram., p. 76.

OBS. 15.—The reciprocal terms each other and one an other divide, according to some mutual act or interchangeable relation, the persons or things spoken of, and are commonly of the singular number only. Each other, if rightly used, supposes two, and only two, to be acting and acted upon reciprocally; one an other, if not misapplied, supposes more than two, under like circumstances, and has an indefinite reference to all taken distributively: as, "Brutus and Aruns killed each other." That is, Each combatant killed the other. "The disciples were commanded to love one an other, and to be willing to wash one an other's feet." That is, All the disciples were commanded to love mutually; for both terms, one and other, or one disciple and an other disciple, must be here understood as taken indefinitely. The reader will observe, that the two terms thus brought together, if taken substantively or pronominally in parsing, must be represented as being of different cases; or, if we take them adjectively the noun, which is twice to be supplied, will necessarily be so.

OBS. 16.—Misapplications of the foregoing reciprocal terms are very frequent in books, though it is strange that phrases so very common should not be rightly understood. Dr. Webster, among his explanations of the word other, has the following: "Correlative to each, and applicable to any number of individuals."—Octavo Dict. "Other is used as a substitute for a noun, and in this use has the plural number and the sign of the possessive case."—Ib. Now it is plain, that the word other, as a "correlative to each," may be so far "a substitute for a noun" as to take the form of the possessive case singular, and perhaps also the plural; as, "Lock'd in each other's arms they lay." But, that the objective other, in any such relation, can convey a plural idea, or be so loosely applicable—"to any number of individuals," I must here deny. If it were so, there would be occasion, by the foregoing rule, to make it plural in form; as, "The ambitious strive to excel each others." But this is not English. Nor can it be correct to say of more than two, "They all strive to excel each other." Because the explanation must be, "Each strives to excel other;" and such a construction of the word other is not agreeable to modern usage. Each other is therefore not equivalent to one an other, but nearer perhaps to the one the other: as, "The two generals are independent the one of the other."—Voltaire's Charles XII, p. 67. "And these are contrary the one to the other."—Gal., v, 17. "The necessary connexion of the one with the other."—Blair's Rhet., p. 304. The latter phraseology, being definite and formal, is now seldom used, except the terms be separated by a verb or a preposition. It is a literal version of the French l'un l'autre, and in some instances to be preferred to each other; as,

   "So fellest foes, whose plots have broke their sleep,
    To take the one the other, by some chance."—Shak.

OBS. 17.—The Greek term for the reciprocals each other and one an other, is a certain plural derivative from [Greek: allos], other; and is used in three cases, the genitive, [Greek: allælon], the dative, [Greek: allælois], the accusative, [Greek: allælous]: these being all the cases which the nature of the expression admits; and for all these we commonly use the objective;—that is, we put each or one before the objective other. Now these English terms, taken in a reciprocal sense, seldom, if ever, have any plural form; because the article in one an other admits of none; and each other, when applied to two persons or things, (as it almost always is,) does not require any. I have indeed seen, in some narrative, such an example as this: "The two men were ready to cut each others' throats." But the meaning could not be, that each was ready to cut "others' throats;" and since, between the two, there was but one throat for each to cut, it would doubtless be more correct to say, "each other's throat." So Burns, in touching a gentler passion, has an inaccurate elliptical expression:

   "'Tis when a youthful, loving, modest pair,
    In others' arms, breathe out the tender tale."
        —Cotter's Sat. Night.

He meant, "In each other's arms;" the apostrophe being misplaced, and the metre improperly allowed to exclude a word which the sense requires. Now, as to the plural of each other, although we do not use the objective, and say of many, "They love each others," there appear to be some instances in which the possessive plural, each others', would not be improper; as, "Sixteen ministers, who meet weekly at each other's houses."—Johnson's Life of Swift. Here the singular is wrong, because the governing noun implies a plurality of owners. "The citizens of different states should know each others characters."—Webster's Essays, p. 35. This also is wrong, because no possessive sign is used. Either write, "each others' characters," or say, "one an other's character."

OBS. 18.—One and other are, in many instances, terms relative and partitive, rather than reciprocal; and, in this use, there seems to be an occasional demand for the plural form. In French, two parties are contrasted by les uns—les autres; a mode of expression seldom, if ever imitated in English. Thus: "Il les séparera les uns d'avec les autres." That is, "He shall separate them some from others;"—or, literally, "the ones from the others." Our version is: "He shall separate them one from an other."—Matt., xxv, 32. Beza has it: "Separabit eos alteros ab alteris." The Vulgate: "Separabit eos ab invicem." The Greek: "[Greek: Aphoriei autous ap allælon]." To separate many "one from an other," seems, literally, to leave none of them together; and this is not, "as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats." To express such an idea with perfect propriety, in our language, therefore, we must resort to some other phraseology. In Campbell's version, we read: "And out of them he will separate the good from the bad, as a shepherd separateth the sheep from the goats." Better, perhaps, thus: "And he shall separate them, the righteous from the wicked, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats."

OBS. 19.—Dr. Bullions says, "One and other refer to the singular only."—Eng. Gram., p. 98. Of ones and others he takes no notice; nor is he sufficiently attentive to usage in respect to the roots. If there is any absurdity in giving a plural meaning to the singulars one and other, the following sentences need amendment: "The one preach Christ of contention; but the other, of love."—Philippians, i, 16. Here "the one" is put for "the one class," and "the other" for "the other class;" the ellipsis in the first instance not being a very proper one. "The confusion arises, when the one will put their sickle into the other's harvest."—LESLEY: in Joh. Dict. This may be corrected by saying, "the one party," or, "the one nation," in stead of "the one." "It is clear from Scripture, that Antichrist shall be permitted to work false miracles, and that they shall so counterfeit the true, that it will be hard to discern the one from the other."—Barclay's Works, iii, 93. If in any ease we may adopt the French construction above, "the ones from the others," it will be proper here. Again: "I have seen children at a table, who, whatever was there, never asked for any thing, but contentedly took what was given them: and, at an other place, I have seen others cry for every thing they saw; they must be served out of every dish, and that first too. What made this vast difference, but this: That one was accustomed to have what they called or cried for; the other to go without it?"—Locke, on Education, p. 55. Here, (with were for was,) the terms of contrast ought rather to have been, the ones—the others; the latter—the former; or, the importunate—the modest. "Those nice shades, by which virtues and vices approach each one another."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 350. This expression should be any thing, rather than what it is. Say, "By which virtue and vice approach each other." Or: "By which certain virtues and vices approximate— blend—become difficult of distinction."

OBS. 20.—"Most authors have given the name of pronoun adjectives, ['pronouns adjective,' or 'pronominal adjectives,'] to my, mine; our, ours; thy, thine; your, yours; his, her, hers; their, theirs: perhaps because they are followed by, or refer to, some substantive [expressed or understood after them]. But, were they adjectives, they must either express the quality of their substantive, or limit its extent: adjectives properly so called, do the first; definitive pronouns do the last. All adjectives [that are either singular or plural,] agree with their substantives in number; but I can say, 'They are my books:' my is singular, and books plural; therefore my is not an adjective. Besides, my does not express the quality of the books, but only ascertains the possessor, the same as the genitive or substantive does, to which it is similar. Examples: 'They are my books;'—'They are John's books;' &c."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 108.

OBS. 21.—To the class of Participial Adjectives, should be referred all such words as the following: (1.) The simple participles made adjectives by position; as. "A roaring lion,"—"A raging bear,"—"A brawling woman,"—"A flattering mouth,"—"An understanding heart,"—"Burning coals,"—"The hearing ear, and the seeing eye."—Bible. "A troubled fountain,"—"A wounded spirit,"—"An appointed time."—Ib. (2.) Words of a participial appearance, formed from nouns by adding ed; as, "The eve thy sainted mother died."—W. Scott. "What you write of me, would make me more conceited, than what I scribble myself."—Pope. (3.) Participles, or participial adjectives, reversed in sense by the prefix un; as, unaspiring, unavailing, unbelieving, unbattered, uninjured, unbefriended. (4.) Words of a participial form construed elliptically, as if they were nouns; as, "Among the dying and the dead."—"The called of Jesus Christ."—Rom., i, 6. "Dearly beloved, I beseech you."—1 Pet., ii, 11. "The redeemed of the Lord shall return."—Isaiah, li, 11. "They talk, to the grief of thy wounded."—Psalms, lxix, 26: Margin.

OBS. 22.—In the text, Prov., vii, 26, "She hath cast down many wounded," wounded is a participle; because the meaning is, "many men wounded," and not, "many wounded men." Our Participial Adjectives are exceedingly numerous. It is not easy to ascertain how many there are of them; because almost any simple participle may be set before a noun, and thus become an adjective: as,

   "Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid,
    And parting summer's ling'ring blooms delay'd."—Goldsmith.

OBS. 23.—Compound Adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are both numerous and various. In their formation, however, certain analogies may be traced: (1.) Many of them are formed by joining an adjective to its noun, and giving to the latter the participial termination ed; as, able-bodied, sharp-sighted, left-handed, full-faced, flat-nosed, thick-lipped, cloven-footed, high-heeled. (2.) In some, two nouns are joined, the latter assuming ed, as above; as, bell-shaped, hawk-nosed, eagle-sighted, lion-hearted, web-footed. (3.) In some, the object of an active participle is placed before it; as, money-getting, time-serving, self-consuming, cloud-compelling, fortune-hunting, sleep-disturbing. (4.) Some, embracing numerals, form a series, though it is seldom carried far; as, one-legged, two-legged, three-legged, four-legged. So, one-leaved, two-leaved, three-leaved, four-leaved: or, perhaps better as Webster will have them, one-leafed, two-leafed, &c. But, upon the same principle, short-lived, should be short-lifed, and long-lived, long-lifed. (5.) In some, there is a combination of an adjective and a participle; as, noble-looking, high-sounding, slow-moving, thorough-going, hard-finished, free-born, heavy-laden, only-begotten. (6.) In some, we find an adverb and a participle united; as, ever-living, ill-judging, well-pleasing, far-shooting, forth-issuing, back-sliding, ill-trained, down-trodden, above-mentioned. (7.) Some consist of a noun and a participle which might be reversed with a preposition between them; as, church-going, care-crazed, travel-soiled, blood-bespotted, dew-sprinkled. (8.) A few, and those inelegant, terminate with a preposition; as, unlooked-for, long-looked-for, unthought-of, unheard-of. (9.) Some are phrases of many words, converted into one part of speech by the hyphen; as, "Where is the ever-to-be-honoured Chaucer?"—Wordsworth.

   "And, with God-only-knows-how-gotten light,
    Informs the nation what is wrong or right."
        —Snelling's Gift for Scribblers, p. 49.

OBS. 24.—Nouns derived from compound adjectives, are generally disapproved by good writers; yet we sometimes meet with them: as, hard-heartedness, for hardness of heart, or cruelty; quick-sightedness, for quickness of sight, or perspicacity; worldly-mindedness, for devotion to the world, or love of gain; heavenly-mindedness, for the love of God, or true piety. In speaking of ancestors or descendants, we take the noun, father, mother, son, daughter, or child; prefix the adjective grand; for the second generation; great, for the, third; and then, sometimes, repeat the same, for degrees more remote: as, father, grandfather, great-grandfather, great-great-grandfather. "What would my great-grandmother say, thought I, could she know that thou art to be chopped up for fuel to warm the frigid fingers of her great-great-great-granddaughters!"—T. H. Bayley.

MODIFICATIONS.

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the forms of comparison. Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express quality in different degrees: as, hard, harder, hardest; soft, softer, softest.

There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form: as, "An elephant is large; a mouse, small; a lion, fierce, active, bold, and strong."

The comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it: as, "A whale is larger than an elephant; a mouse is a much smaller animal than a rat."

The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it: as, "The whale is the largest of the animals that inhabit this globe; the mouse is the smallest of all beasts."—Dr. Johnson.

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees, cannot be compared; as, two, second, all, every, immortal, infinite.

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs; as, fruitful, more fruitful, most fruitful—fruitful, less fruitful, least fruitful.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—"Some scruple to call the positive a degree of comparison; on the ground, that it does not imply either comparison, or degree. But no quality can exist, without existing in some degree: and, though the positive is very frequently used without reference to any other degree; as it is the standard, with which other degrees of the quality are compared, it is certainly an essential object of the comparison. While these critics allow only two degrees, we might in fact with more propriety say, that there are five: 1, the quality in its standard state, or positive degree; as wise: 2, in a higher state, or the comparative ascending; more wise: 3, in a lower, or the comparative descending; less wise: 4, in the highest state, or superlative ascending; most wise: 5, in the lowest state, or superlative descending; least wise. All grammarians, however, agree about the things themselves, and the forms used to express them; though they differ about the names, by which these forms should be called: and as those names are practically best, which tend least to perplex the learner, I see no good reason here for deviating from what has been established by long custom."—Churchill's Gram., p. 231.

OBS. 2.—Churchill here writes plausibly enough, but it will be seen, both from his explanation, and from the foregoing definitions of the degrees of comparison, that there are but three. The comparative and the superlative may each be distinguishable into the ascending and the descending, as often as we prefer the adverbial form to the regular variation of the adjective itself; but this imposes no necessity of classing and defining them otherwise than simply as the comparative and the superlative. The assumption of two comparatives and two superlatives, is not only contrary to the universal practice of the teachers of grammar; but there is this conclusive argument against it—that the regular method of comparison has no degrees of diminution, and the form which has such degrees, is no inflection of the adjective. If there is any exception, it is in the words, small, smaller, smallest, and little, less, least. But of the smallness or littleness, considered abstractly, these, like all others, are degrees of increase, and not of diminution. Smaller is as completely opposite to less small, as wiser is to less wise. Less itself is a comparative descending, only when it diminishes some other quality: less little, if the phrase were proper, must needs be nearly equivalent to greater or more. Churchill, however, may be quite right in the following remark: "The comparative ascending of an adjective, and the comparative descending of an adjective expressing the opposite quality, are often considered synonymous, by those who do not discriminate nicely between ideas. But less imprudent does not imply precisely the same thing as more prudent; or more brave, the same as less cowardly."—New Gram., p. 231.

OBS. 3.—The definitions which I have given of the three degrees of comparison, are new. In short, I know not whether any other grammarian has ever given what may justly be called a definition, of any one of them. Here, as in most other parts of grammar, loose remarks, ill-written and untrue assertions, have sufficed. The explanations found in many English grammars are the following: "The positive state expresses the quality of an object, without any increase or diminution; as, good, wise, great. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification; as, wiser, greater, less wise. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or [the] lowest degree; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. The simple word, or positive, becomes [the] comparative by adding r or er; and the superlative by adding st or est, to the end of it. And the adverbs more and most, placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, wise, more wise, most wise."—Murray's Grammar, 2d Ed., 1796, p. 47. If a man wished to select some striking example of bad writing—of thoughts ill conceived, and not well expressed—he could not do better than take the foregoing: provided his auditors knew enough of grammar to answer the four simple questions here involved; namely, What is the positive degree? What is the comparative degree? What is the superlative degree? How are adjectives regularly compared? To these questions I shall furnish direct answers, which the reader may compare with such as he can derive from the foregoing citation: the last two sentences of which Murray ought to have credited to Dr. Lowth; for he copied them literally, except that he says, "the adverbs more AND most," for the Doctor's phrase, "the adverbs more OR most." See the whole also in Kirkham's Grammar, p. 72; in Ingersoll's, p. 35; in Alger's, p. 21; in Bacon's, p. 18; in Russell's, p. 14; in Hamlin's, p. 22; in J. M. Putnam's, p. 33; in S. Putnam's, p. 20; in R. C. Smith's, p. 51; in Rev. T. Smith's, p. 20.

OBS. 4.—In the five short sentences quoted above, there are more errors, than can possibly be enumerated in ten times the space. For example: (1.) If one should say of a piece of iron, "It grows cold or hot very rapidly," cold and hot could not be in the "positive state," as they define it: because, either the "quality" or the "object," (I know not which,) is represented by them as "without any increase or diminution;" and this would not, in the present case, be true of either; for iron changes in bulk, by a change of temperature. (2.) What, in the first sentence, is erroneously called "the positive state," in the second and the third, is called, "the positive degree;" and this again, in the fourth, is falsely identified with "the simple word." Now, if we suppose the meaning to be, that "the positive state," "the positive degree," or "the simple word," is "without any increase or diminution;" this is expressly contradicted by three sentences out of the five, and implicitly, by one of the others. (3.) Not one of these sentences is true, in the most obvious sense of the words, if in any other; and yet the doctrines they were designed to teach, may have been, in general, correctly gathered from the examples. (4.) The phrase, "positive in signification," is not intelligible in the sense intended, without a comma after positive; and yet, in an armful of different English grammars which contain the passage, I find not one that has a point in that place. (5.) It is not more correct to say, that the comparative or the superlative degree, "increases or lessens the positive," than it would be to aver, that the plural number increases or lessens the singular, or the feminine gender, the masculine. Nor does the superlative mean, what a certain learned Doctor understands by it—namely, "the greatest or least possible degree." If it did, "the thickest parts of his skull," for example, would imply small room for brains; "the thinnest," protect them ill, if there were any. (6.) It is improper to say, "The simple word becomes [the] comparative by adding r or er; and the superlative by adding st or est." The thought is wrong; and nearly all the words are misapplied; as, simple for primitive, adding for assuming, &c. (7.) Nor is it very wise to say, "the adverbs more and most, placed before the adjective, have the same effect:" because it ought to be known, that the effect of the one is very different from that of the other! "The same effect," cannot here be taken for any effect previously described; unless we will have it to be, that these words, more and most, "become comparative by adding r or er; and the superlative by adding st or est, to the end of them:" all of which is grossly absurd. (8.) The repetition of the word degree, in saying, "The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree," is a disagreeable tautology. Besides, unless it involves the additional error of presenting the same word in different senses, it makes one degree swell or diminish an other to itself; whereas, in the very next sentence, this singular agency is forgotten, and a second equally strange takes its place: "The positive becomes the superlative by adding st or est, to the end of it;" i. e., to the end of itself. Nothing can be more ungrammatical, than is much of the language by which grammar itself is now professedly taught!

OBS. 5.—It has been almost universally assumed by grammarians, that the positive degree is the only standard to which the other degrees can refer; though many seem to think, that the superlative always implies or includes the comparative, and is consequently inapplicable when only two things are spoken of. Neither of these positions is involved in any of the definitions which I have given above. The reader may think what he will about these points, after observing the several ways in which each form may be used. In the phrases, "greater than Solomon,"—"more than a bushel,"—"later than one o'clock," it is not immediately obvious that the positives great, much, and late, are the real terms of contrast. And how is it in the Latin phrases, "Dulcior melle, sweeter than honey,"—"Præstantior auro, better than gold?" These authors will resolve all such phrases thus: "greater, than Solomon was great,"—"more, than a bushel is much," &c. As the conjunction than never governs the objective case, it seems necessary to suppose an ellipsis of some verb after the noun which follows it as above; and possibly the foregoing solution, uncouth as it seems, may, for the English idiom, be the true one: as, "My Father is greater than I."—John, xiv, 28. That is, "My Father is greater than I am;"—or, perhaps, "than I am great." But if it appear that some degree of the same quality must always be contrasted with the comparative, there is still room to question whether this degree must always be that which we call the positive. Cicero, in exile, wrote to his wife: "Ego autem hoc miserior sum, quam tu, quæ es miserrima, quod ipsa calamitas communis est utriusque nostrùm, sed culpa mea propria est."—Epist. ad Fam., xiv, 3. "But in this I am more wretched, than thou, who art most wretched, that the calamity itself is common to us both, but the fault is all my own."

OBS. 6.—In my Institutes and First Lines of English Grammar, I used the following brief definitions: "The comparative degree is that which exceeds the positive; as, harder, softer, better." "The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded; as, hardest, softest, best." And it is rather for the sake of suggesting to the learner the peculiar application of each of these degrees, than from any decided dissatisfaction with these expressions, that I now present others. The first, however, proceeds upon the common supposition, that the comparative degree of a quality, ascribed to any object, must needs be contrasted with the positive in some other, or with the positive in the same at an other time. This idea may be plausibly maintained, though it is certain that the positive term referred to, is seldom, if ever, allowed to appear. Besides, the comparative or the superlative may appear, and in such a manner as to be, or seem to be, in the point of contrast. Thus: "Objects near our view are apt to be thought greater than those of a larger size, that are more remote."—Locke's Essay, p. 186. Upon the principle above, the explanation here must be, that the meaning is—"greater than those of a larger size are thought great." "The poor man that loveth Christ, is richer than the richest man in the world, that hates him."—Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, p. 86. This must be "richer than the richest man is rich." The riches contemplated here, are of different sorts; and the comparative or the superlative of one sort, may be exceeded by either of these degrees of an other sort, though the same epithet be used for both. So in the following instances: "He that is higher than the highest regardeth; and there be higher than they."—Eccl., v, 8. That is, "He that is higher than the highest earthly dignitaries, regardeth; and there are higher authorities than these." "Fairer than aught imagined else fairest."—Pollok. "Sadder than saddest night."—Byron. It is evident that the superlative degree is not, in general, that which cannot be exceeded, but that which, in the actual state of the things included, "is not exceeded." Again, as soon as any given comparative or superlative is, by a further elevation or intension of the quality, surpassed and exceeded, that particular degree, whatever it was, becomes merely positive; for the positive degree of a quality, though it commonly includes the very lowest measure, and is understood to exceed nothing, may at any time equal the very highest. There is no paradox in all this, which is not also in the following simple examples: "Easier, indeed, I was, but far from easy."—Cowper's Life, p. 50.

   "Who canst the wisest wiser make,
    And babes as wise as they."—Cowper's Poems.

OBS. 7.—The relative nature of these degrees deserves to be further illustrated. (1.) It is plain, that the greatest degree of a quality in one thing, may be less than the least in an other; and, consequently, that the least degree in one thing, may be greater than the greatest in an other. Thus, the heaviest wood is less heavy than the lightest of the metals; and the least valuable of the metals is perhaps of more value than the choicest wood. (2.) The comparative degree may increase upon itself, and be repeated to show the gradation. Thus, a man may ascend into the air with a balloon, and rise higher, and higher, and higher, and higher, till he is out of sight. This is no uncommon form of expression, and the intension is from comparative to comparative. (3.) If a ladder be set up for use, one of its rounds will be the highest, and one other will be the lowest, or least high. And as that which is highest, is higher than all the rest, so every one will be higher than all below it. The higher rounds, if spoken of generally, and without definite contrast, will be those in the upper half; the lower rounds, referred to in like manner, will be those in the lower half, or those not far from the ground. The highest rounds, or the lowest, if we indulge such latitude of speech, will be those near the top or the bottom; there being, absolutely, or in strictness of language, but one of each. (4.) If the highest round be removed, or left uncounted, the next becomes the highest, though not so high as the former. For every one is the highest of the number which it completes. All admit this, till we come to three. And, as the third is the highest of the three, I see not why the second is not properly the highest of the two. Yet nearly all our grammarians condemn this phrase, and prefer "the higher of the two." But can they give a reason for their preference? That the comparative degree is implied between the positive and the superlative, so that there must needs be three terms before the latter is applicable, is a doctrine which I deny. And if the second is the higher of the two, because it is higher than the first; is it not also the highest of the two, because it completes the number? (5.) It is to be observed, too, that as our ordinal numeral first, denoting the one which begins a series, and having reference of course to more, is an adjective of the superlative degree, equivalent to foremost, of which it is perhaps a contraction; so last likewise, though no numeral, is a superlative also. (6.) These, like other superlatives, admit of a looser application, and may possibly include more than one thing at the beginning or at the end of a series: as, "The last years of man are often helpless, like the first." (7.) With undoubted propriety, we may speak of the first two, the last two, the first three, the last three, &c.; but to say, the two first, the two last, &c., with this meaning, is obviously and needlessly inaccurate. "The two first men in the nation," may, I admit, be good English; but it can properly be meant only of the two most eminent. In specifying any part of a series, we ought rather to place the cardinal number after the ordinal. (8.) Many of the foregoing positions apply generally, to almost all adjectives that are susceptible of comparison. Thus, it is a common saying, "Take the best first, and all will be best." That is, remove that degree which is now superlative, and the epithet will descend to an other, "the next best."

OBS. 8.—It is a common assumption, maintained by almost all our grammarians, that the degrees which add to the adjective the terminations er and est, as well as those which are expressed by more and most, indicate an increase, or heightening, of the quality expressed by the positive. If such must needs be their import, it is certainly very improper, to apply them, as many do, to what can be only an approximation to the positive. Thus Dr. Blair: "Nothing that belongs to human nature, is more universal than the relish of beauty of one kind or other."—Lectures, p. 16. "In architecture, the Grecian models were long esteemed the most perfect."—Ib., p. 20. Again: In his reprehension of Capernaum, the Saviour said, "It shall be more tolerable for the land of Sodom, in the day of judgement, than for thee."—Matt., xi, 24. Now, although [Greek: anektoteron], more tolerable, is in itself a good comparative, who would dare infer from this text, that in the day of judgement Capernaum shall fare tolerably, and Sodom, still better? There is much reason to think, that the essential nature of these grammatical degrees has not been well understood by those who have heretofore pretended to explain them. If we except those few approximations to sensible qualities, which are signified by such words as whitish, greenish, &c., there will be found no actual measure, or inherent degree of any quality, to which the simple form of the adjective is not applicable; or which, by the help of intensive adverbs of a positive character, it may not be made to express; and that, too, without becoming either comparative or superlative, in the technical sense of those terms. Thus very white, exceedingly white, perfectly white, are terms quite as significant as whiter and whitest, if not more so. Some grammarians, observing this, and knowing that the Romans often used their superlative in a sense merely intensive, as altissimus for very high, have needlessly divided our English superlative into two, "the definite, and the indefinite;" giving the latter name to that degree which we mark by the adverb very, and the former to that which alone is properly called the superlative. Churchill does this: while, (as we have seen above,) in naming the degrees, he pretends to prefer "what has been established by long custom."—New Gram., p. 231. By a strange oversight also, he failed to notice, that this doctrine interferes with his scheme of five degrees, and would clearly furnish him with six: to which if he had chosen to add the "imperfect degree" of Dr. Webster, (as whitish, greenish, &c.,) which is recognized by Johnson, Murray, and others, he might have had seven. But I hope my readers will by-and-by believe there is no need of more than three.

OBS. 9.—The true nature of the Comparative degree is this: it denotes either some excess or some relative deficiency of the quality, when one thing or party is compared with an other, in respect to what is in both: as, "Because the foolishness of God is wiser than men; and the weakness of God is stronger than men."—1 Cor., i, 25. "Few languages are, in fact, more copious than the English."—Blair's Rhet., p. 87. "Our style is less compact than that of the ancients."—Ib., p. 88. "They are counted to him less than nothing and vanity."—Isaiah, xl, 17. As the comparatives in a long series are necessarily many, and some of them higher than others, it may be asked, "How can the comparative degree, in this case, be merely 'that which exceeds the positive?'" Or, as our common grammarians prompt me here to say, "May not the comparative degree increase or lessen the comparative, in signification?" The latter form of the question they may answer for themselves; remembering that the comparative may advance from the comparative, step by step, from the second article in the series to the utmost. Thus, three is a higher or greater number than two; but four is higher than three; five, than four; and so on, ad infinitum. My own form of the question I answer thus: "The highest of the higher is not higher than the rest are higher, but simply higher than they are high."

OBS. 10.—The true nature of the Superlative degree is this: it denotes, in a quality, some extreme or unsurpassed extent. It may be used either absolutely, as being without bounds; or relatively, as being confined within any limits we choose to give it. It is equally applicable to that which is naturally unsurpassable, and to that which stands within the narrowest limits of comparison. The heaviest of three feathers would scarcely be thought a heavy thing, and yet the expression is proper; because the weight, whatever it is, is relatively the greatest. The youngest of three persons, may not be very young; nor need we suppose the oldest in a whole college to have arrived at the greatest conceivable age. What then shall be thought of the explanations which our grammarians have given of this degree of comparison? That of Murray I have already criticised. It is ascribed to him, not upon the supposition that he invented it; but because common sense continues to give place to the authority of his name in support of it. Comly, Russell, Alger, Ingersoll, Greenleaf, Fisk, Merchant, Kirkham, T. Smith, R. C. Smith, Hall, Hiley, and many others, have copied it into their grammars, as being better than any definition they could devise. Murray himself unquestionably took it from some obscure pedagogue among the old grammarians. Buchanan, who long preceded him, has nearly the same words: "The Superlative increases or diminishes the Positive in Signification, to the highest or [the] lowest Degree of all."—English Syntax, p. 28. If this is to be taken for a grammatical definition, what definition shall grammar itself bear?

OBS. 11.—Let us see whether our later authors have done better. "The superlative expresses a quality in the greatest or [the] least possible degree; as, wisest, coldest, least wise."—Webster's Old Gram., p. 13. In his later speculations, this author conceives that the termination ish forms the first degree of comparison; as, "Imperfect, dankish," Pos. dank, Comp. danker, Superl. dankest. "There are therefore four degrees of comparison."—Webster's Philosophical Gram. p. 65. "The fourth denotes the utmost or [the] least degree of a quality; as, bravest, wisest, poorest, smallest. This is called the superlative degree."—Ib.; also his Improved Gram., 1831, p. 47. "This degree is called the Superlative degree, from its raising the amount of the quality above that of all others."—Webber's Gram., 1832, p. 26. It is not easy to quote, from any source, a worse sentence than this; if, indeed, so strange a jumble of words can be called a sentence. "From its raising the amount," is in itself a vicious and untranslatable phrase, here put for "because it raises the amount;" and who can conceive of the superlative degree, as "raising the amount of the quality above that of all other qualities?" Or, if it be supposed to mean, "above the amount of all other degrees," what is this amount? Is it that of one and one, the positive and the comparative added numerically? or is it the sum of all the quantities which these may indicate? Perhaps the author meant, "above the amount of all other amounts." If none of these absurdities is here taught, nothing is taught, and the words are nonsense. Again: "The superlative degree increases or diminishes the positive to the highest or [the] lowest degree of which it is susceptible."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 49. "The superlative degree is generally formed by adding st or est to the positive; and denotes the greatest excess."—Nutting's Gram., p. 33. "The Superlative increases or diminishes the Signification of the Positive or Adjective, to a very high or a very low Degree."—British Gram., p. 97. What excess of skill, or what very high degree of acuteness, have the brightest and best of these grammarians exhibited? There must be some, if their definitions are true.

OBS. 12.—The common assertion of the grammarians, that the superlative degree is not applicable to two objects,[177] is not only unsupported by any reason in the nature of things, but it is contradicted in practice by almost every man who affirms it. Thus Maunder: "When only two persons or things are spoken of comparatively, to use the superlative is improper: as, 'Deborah, my dear, give those two boys a lump of sugar each; and let Dick's be the largest, because he spoke first.' This," says the critic, "should have been 'larger.'"—Maunder's Gram., p. 4. It is true, the comparative might here have been used; but the superlative is clearer, and more agreeable to custom. And how can "largest" be wrong, if "first" is right? "Let Dick's be the larger, because he spoke sooner," borders too much upon a different idea, that of proportion; as when we say, "The sooner the better,"—"The more the merrier." So Blair: "When only two things are compared, the comparative degree should be used, and not the superlative."—Practical Gram., p. 81. "A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented."—Ib., p. 118. "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented."—Ibid. These two examples are found also in Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 305; Murray's Gram., p. 253; Kirkham's, 219; Bullions's, 169; Guy's, 120; Merchant's, 166. So Hiley: "When two persons or things are compared, the comparative degree must be employed. When three or more persons or things are compared, the superlative must be used."—Treatise on English Gram., p. 78. Contradiction in practice: "Thomas is wiser than his brothers."—Ib., p. 79. Are not "three or more persons" here compared by "the comparative" wiser? "In an Iambus the first syllable is unaccented."—Ib., p. 123. An iambus has but two syllables; and this author expressly teaches that "first" is "superlative."—Ib., p. 21. So Sanborn: "The positive degree denotes the simple form of an adjective without any variation of meaning. The comparative degree increases or lessens the meaning of the positive, and denotes a comparison between two persons or things. The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the greatest extent, and denotes a comparison between more than two persons or things."—Analytical Gram., p. 30 and p. 86. These pretended definitions of the degrees of comparison embrace not only the absurdities which I have already censured in those of our common grammars, but several new ones peculiar to this author. Of the inconsistency of his doctrine and practice, take the following examples: "Which of two bodies, that move with the same velocity, will exercise the greatest power?"—Ib., p. 93; and again, p. 203, "'I was offered a dollar;'—'A dollar was offered (to) me.' The first form should always be avoided."—Ib., p. 127. "Nouns in apposition generally annex the sign of the possessive case to the last; as, 'For David my servant's sake.'—'John the Baptist's head.' Bible."—Ib., p. 197.

OBS. 13.—So Murray: "We commonly say, 'This is the weaker of the two;' or, 'The weakest of the two;'[178] but the former is the regular mode of expression, because there are only two things compared."—Octavo Gram., i, 167. What then of the following example: "Which of those two persons has most distinguished himself?"—Ib., Key, ii, 187. Again, in treating of the adjectives this and that, the same hand writes thus: "This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to the most distant: as, 'This man is more intelligent than that.' This indicates the latter, or last mentioned; that, the former, or first mentioned: as, 'Both wealth and poverty are temptations; that tends to excite pride, this, discontent.'"—Murray's Gram., i, 56. In the former part of this example, the superlative is twice applied where only two things are spoken of; and, in the latter, it is twice made equivalent to the comparative, with a like reference. The following example shows the same equivalence: "This refers to the last mentioned or nearer thing, that to the first mentioned or more distant thing."—Webber's Gram., p. 31. So Churchill: "The superlative should not be used, when only two persons or things are compared."—New Gram., p. 80. "In the first of these two sentences."—Ib., p. 162; Lowth, p. 120. According to the rule, it should have been, "In the former of these two sentences;" but this would be here ambiguous, because former might mean maker. "When our sentence consists of two members, the longest should, generally, be the concluding one."—Blair's Rhet., p. 117: and Jamieson's, p. 99. "The shortest member being placed first, we carry it more readily in our memory as we proceed to the second."—Ib., & Ib. "Pray consider us, in this respect, as the weakest sex."—Spect., No. 533. In this last sentence, the comparative, weaker, would perhaps have been better; because, not an absolute, but merely a comparative weakness is meant. So Latham and Child: "It is better, in speaking of only two objects, to use the comparative degree rather than the superlative, even, where we use the article the. This is the better of the two, is preferable to this is the best of the two."—Elementary Gram., p. 155. Such is their rule; but very soon they forget it, and write thus: "In this case the relative refers to the last of the two."—Ib., p. 163.

OBS. 14.—Hyperboles are very commonly expressed by comparatives or superlatives; as, "My little finger shall be thicker than my father's loins."—1 Kings, xii, 10. "Unto me, who am less than the least of all saints, is this grace given."—Ephesians, iii, 8. Sometimes, in thus heightening or lowering the object of his conception, the writer falls into a catachresis, solecism, or abuse of the grammatical degrees; as, "Mustard-seed—which is less than all the seeds that be in the earth."—Mark, iv, 31. This expression is objectionable, because mustard-seed is a seed, and cannot be less than itself; though that which is here spoken of, may perhaps have been "the least of all seeds:" and it is the same Greek phrase, that is thus rendered in Matt, xiii, 32. Murray has inserted in his Exercises, among "unintelligible and inconsistent words and phrases," the following example from Milton:

   "And, in the lowest deep, a lower deep
    Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide."—Exercises, p. 122.

For this supposed inconsistency, ho proposes in his Key the following amendment:

   "And, in the lower deep, another deep
    Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide."—Key, p. 254.

But, in an other part of his book, he copies from Dr. Blair the same passage, with commendation: saying, "The following sentiments of Satan in Milton, as strongly as they are described, contain nothing but what is natural and proper:

    'Me miserable! which way shall I fly
    Infinite wrath, and infinite despair?
    Which way I fly is Hell; myself am Hell;
    And in the lowest depth, a lower deep,
    Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide,
    To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heaven.' P. Lost, B. iv, l. 73."
         Blair's Lectures, p. 153; Murray's Grammar, p. 352.

OBS. 15.—Milton's word, in the fourth line above, is deep, and not depth, as these authors here give it: nor was it very polite in them, to use a phraseology which comes so near to saying, the devil was in the poet. Alas for grammar! accuracy in its teachers has become the most rare of all qualifications. As for Murray's correction above, I see not how it can please any one who chooses to think Hell a place of great depth. A descent into his "lower deep" and "other deep," might be a plunge less horrible than two or three successive slides in one of our western caverns! But Milton supposes the arch-fiend might descend to the lowest imaginable depth of Hell, and there be liable to a still further fall of more tremendous extent. Fall whither? Into the horrid and inconceivable profundity of the bottomless pit! What signifies it, to object to his language as "unintelligible" if it conveys his idea better than any other could? In no human conception of what is infinite, can there be any real exaggeration. To amplify beyond the truth, is here impossible. Nor is there any superlation which can fix a limit to the idea of more and more in infinitude. Whatever literal absurdity there may be in it, the duplication seems greatly to augment what was even our greatest conception of the thing. Homer, with a like figure, though expressed in the positive degree, makes Jupiter threaten any rebel god, that he shall be thrown down from Olympus, to suffer the burning pains of the Tartarean gulf; not in the centre, but,

   "As deep beneath th' infernal centre hurl'd,
    As from that centre to th' ethereal world."
        —Pope's Iliad, B. viii, l. 19.

REGULAR COMPARISON.

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by adding est to them: as, Pos., great, Comp., greater, Superl., greatest; Pos., mild, Comp., milder, Superl., mildest.

In the variation of adjectives, final consonants are doubled, final e is omitted, and final y is changed to i, agreeably to the rules for spelling: as, hot, hotter, hottest; wide, wider, widest; happy, happier, happiest.

The regular method of comparison belongs almost exclusively to monosyllables, with dissyllables ending in w or y, and such others as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent: as, fierce, fiercer, fiercest; narrow, narrower, narrowest; gloomy, gloomier, gloomiest; serene, serener, serenest; noble, nobler, noblest; gentle, gentler, gentlest.

COMPARISON BY ADVERBS.

The two degrees of superiority may also be expressed with precisely the same import as above, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs more and most: as, wise, more wise, most wise; famous, more famous, most famous; amiable, more amiable, most amiable.

The degrees of inferiority are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs less and least: as, wise, less wise, least wise; famous, less famous, least famous; amiable, less amiable, least amiable. The regular method of comparison has, properly speaking, no degrees of this kind.

Nearly all adjectives that admit of different degrees, may be compared by means of the adverbs; but, for short words, the regular method is generally preferable: as, quick, quicker, quickest; rather than, quick, more quick, most quick.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The genius of our language is particularly averse to the lengthening of long words by additional syllables; and, in the comparison of adjectives, er and est always add a syllable to the word, except it end in le after a mute. Thus, free, freer, freest, increases syllabically; but ample, ampler, amplest, does not. Whether any particular adjective admits of comparison or not, is a matter of reasoning from the sense of the term; by which method it shall be compared, is in some degree a matter of taste; though custom has decided that long words shall not be inflected, and for the shorter, there is generally an obvious bias in favour of one form rather than the other. Dr. Johnson says, "The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily reduced to rules. Monosyllables are commonly compared. Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared otherwise than by more and most. Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in full, less, ing, ous, ed, id, at, ent, ain, or ive."—Gram. of the English Tongue, p. 6. "When the positive contains but one syllable, the degrees are usually formed by adding er or est. When the positive contains two syllables, it is matter of taste which method you shall use in forming the degrees. The ear is, in this case, the best guide. But, when the positive contains more than two syllables, the degrees must be formed by the use of more and most. We may say, tenderer and tenderest, pleasanter and pleasantest, prettier and prettiest; but who could endure delicater and delicatest?"—Cobbett's E. Gram., p. 81. Quiet, bitter, clever, sober, and perhaps some others like them, are still regularly compared; but such words as secretest, famousest, virtuousest, powerfullest, which were used by Milton, have gone out of fashion. The following, though not very commonly used, are perhaps allowable. "Yet these are the two commonest occupations of mankind."—Philological Museum, i, 431. "Their pleasantest walks throughout life must be guarded by armed men."—Ib., i, 437. "Franklin possessed the rare talent of drawing useful lessons from the commonest occurrences."—Murray's Sequel, p. 323. "Unbidden guests are often welcomest when they are gone."—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict.

   "There was a lad, th' unluckiest of his crew,
    Was still contriving something bad, but new."—KING: ib.

OBS. 2.—I make a distinction between the regular comparison by er and est, and the comparison by adverbs; because, in a grammatical point of view, these two methods are totally different: the meaning, though the same, being expressed in the one case, by an inflection of the adjective; and in the other, by a phrase consisting of two different parts of speech. If the placing of an adverb before an adjective is to be called a grammatical modification or variation of the latter word, we shall have many other degrees than those which are enumerated above. The words may with much more propriety be parsed separately, the degree being ascribed to the adverb—or, if you please, to both words, for both are varied in sense by the inflection of the former. The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinitely various; but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, are those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to express—including, as of course we must, the state or sense of the primitive word, as one. The reasoning which would make the positive degree to be no degree, would also make the nominative case, or the casus rectus of the Latins, to be no case.

OBS. 3.—Whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees, and is duly varied in form to express them, they properly belong to it; as, worthy, worthier, worthiest. (Though no apology can be made for the frequent error of confounding the degree of a quality, with the verbal sign which expresses it.) If an adverb is employed for this purpose, that also is compared, and the two degrees thus formed or expressed, are properly its own; as, worthy, more worthy, most worthy. But these same degrees may be yet otherwise expressed; as, worthy, in a higher degree worthy, in the highest degree worthy. Here also the adjective worthy is virtually compared, as before; but only the adjective high is grammatically modified. Again, we may form three degrees with several adverbs to each, thus: Pos., very truly worthy; Comp., much more truly worthy; Sup., much the most truly worthy. There are also other adverbs, which, though not varied in themselves like much, more, most, may nevertheless have nearly the same effect upon the adjective; as, worthy, comparatively worthy, superlatively worthy. I make these remarks, because many grammarians have erroneously parsed the adverbs more and most, less and least, as parts of the adjective.

OBS. 4.—Harris, in his Hermes, or Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar, has very unceremoniously pronounced the doctrine of three degrees of comparison, to be absurd; and the author of the British Grammar, as he emotes the whole passage without offering any defence of that doctrine, seems to second the allegation. "Mr. Harris observes, that, 'There cannot well be more than two degrees; one to denote simple excess, and one to denote superlative. Were we indeed to introduce more degrees, we ought perhaps to introduce infinite, which is absurd. For why stop at a limited number, when in all subjects, susceptible of intension, the intermediate excesses are in a manner infinite? There are infinite degrees of more white between the first simple white and the superlative whitest; the same may be said of more great, more strong, more minute, &c. The doctrine of grammarians about three such degrees, which they call the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative, must needs be absurd; both because in their Positive there is no comparison at all, and because their Superlative is a Comparative as much as their Comparative itself.' Hermes, p. 197."—Brit. Gram., p. 98. This objection is rashly urged. No comparison can be imagined without bringing together as many as two terms, and if the positive is one of these, it is a degree of comparison; though neither this nor the superlative is, for that reason, "a Comparative." Why we stop at three degrees, I have already shown: we have three forms, and only three.

OBS. 5.—"The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt:[179] they therefore admit of no comparison. This termination is seldom added but to words expressing sensible qualities, nor often to words of above one syllable, and is scarcely used in the solemn or sublime style."—Dr. Johnson's Gram. "The first [degree] denotes a slight degree of the quality, and is expressed by the termination ish; as, reddish, brownish, yellowish. This may be denominated the imperfect degree of the attribute."—Dr. Webster's Improved Gram., p. 47. I doubt the correctness of the view taken above by Johnson, and dissent entirely from Webster, about his "first degree of comparison." Of adjectives in ish we have perhaps a hundred; but nine out of ten of them are derived clearly from nouns, as, boyish, girlish; and who can prove that blackish, saltish, reddish, brownish, and yellowish, are not also from the nouns, black, salt, red, brown, and yellow? or that "a more reddish tinge,"—"a more saltish taste," are not correct phrases? There is, I am persuaded, no good reason for noticing this termination as constituting a degree of comparison. All "double comparisons" are said to be ungrammatical; but, if ish forms a degree, it is such a degree as may be compared again: as,

   "And seem more learnedish than those
    That at a greater charge compose."—Butler.

OBS. 6.—Among the degrees of comparison, some have enumerated that of equality; as when we say, "It is as sweet as honey." Here is indeed a comparison, but it is altogether in the positive degree, and needs no other name. This again refutes Harris; who says, that in the positive there is no comparison at all. But further: it is plain, that in this degree there may be comparisons of inequality also; as, "Molasses is not so sweet as honey."—"Civility is not so slight a matter as it is commonly thought."—Art of Thinking, p. 92. Nay, such comparisons may equal any superlative. Thus it is said, I think, in the Life of Robert Hall: "Probably no human being ever before suffered so much bodily pain." What a preëminence is here! and yet the form of the adjective is only that of the positive degree. "Nothing so uncertain as general reputation."—Art of Thinking, p. 50. "Nothing so nauseous as undistinguishing civility."—Ib., p. 88. These, likewise, would be strong expressions, if they were correct English. But, to my apprehension, every such comparison of equality involves a solecism, when, as it here happens, the former term includes the latter. The word nothing is a general negative, and reputation is a particular affirmative. The comparison of equality between them, is therefore certainly improper: because nothing cannot be equal to something; and, reputation being something, and of course equal to itself, the proposition is evidently untrue. It ought to be, "Nothing is more uncertain than general reputation." This is the same as to say, "General reputation is as uncertain as any thing that can be named." Or else the former term should exempt the latter; as. "Nothing else"—or, "No other thing, is so uncertain as" this popular honour, public esteem, or "general reputation." And so of all similar examples.

OBS. 7.—In all comparisons, care must be taken to adapt the terms to the degree which is expressed by the adjective or adverb. The superlative degree requires that the object to which it relates, be one of those with which it is compared; as, "Eve was the fairest of women." The comparative degree, on the contrary, requires that the object spoken of be not included among those with which it is compared; as, "Eve was fairer than any of her daughters." To take the inclusive term here, and say, "Eve was fairer than any woman," would be no less absurd, than Milton's assertion, that "Eve was the fairest of her daughters:" the former supposes that she was not a woman; the latter, that she was one of her own daughters. But Milton's solecism is double; he makes Adam one of his own sons:—

   "Adam the goodliest man of men since born
    His sons, the fairest of her daughters Eve."—P. Lost, B. iv, l. 324.

OBS. 8.—"Such adjectives," says Churchill, "as have in themselves a superlative signification, or express qualities not susceptible of degrees, do not properly admit either the comparative or [the] superlative form. Under this rule may be included all adjectives with a negative prefix."—New Gram., p. 80. Again: "As immediate signifies instant, present with regard to time, Prior should not have written 'more immediate.' Dr. Johnson."—Ib., p. 233. "Hooker has unaptest; Locke, more uncorrupted; Holder, more undeceivable: for these the proper expressions would have been the opposite signs without the negation: least apt, less corrupted, less deceivable. Watts speaks of 'a most unpassable barrier.' If he had simply said 'an unpassable barrier,' we should have understood it at once in the strongest sense, as a barrier impossible to be surmounted: but, by attempting to express something more, he gives an idea of something less; we perceive, that his unpassable means difficult to pass. This is the mischief of the propensity to exaggeration; which, striving after strength, sinks into weakness."—Ib., p. 234.

OBS. 9.—The foregoing remarks from Churchill appear in general to have been dictated by good sense; but, if his own practice is right, there must be some exceptions to his rule respecting the comparison of adjectives with a negative prefix; for, in the phrase "less imprudent," which, according to a passage quoted before, he will have to be different from "more prudent," he himself furnishes an example of such comparison. In fact, very many words of that class are compared by good writers: as, "Nothing is more unnecessary."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. v. "What is yet more unaccountable."—ROGERS: in Joh. Dict. "It is hard to determine which is most uneligible."—Id., ib. "Where it appears the most unbecoming and unnatural."—ADDISON: ib. "Men of the best sense and of the most unblemished lives."—Id., ib. "March and September are the most unsettled and unequable of seasons."—BENTLEY: ib. "Barcelona was taken by a most unexpected accident."—SWIFT: ib. "The most barren and unpleasant."—WOODWARD: ib. "O good, but most unwise patricians!"—SHAK.: ib. "More unconstant than the wind."—Id., ib. "We may say more or less imperfect."—Murray's Gram., p. 168. "Some of those [passions] which act with the most irresistible energy upon the hearts of mankind, are altogether omitted in the catalogue of Aristotle."—Adams's Rhet., i, 380. "The wrong of him who presumes to talk of owning me, is too unmeasured to be softened by kindness."—Channing, on Emancipation, p. 52. "Which, we are sensible, are more inconclusive than the rest."—Blair's Rhet., p. 319.

   "Ere yet the salt of most unrighteous tears
    Had left the flushing in her galled eyes."—Shak.

OBS. 10.—Comparison must not be considered a general property of adjectives. It belongs chiefly to the class which I call common adjectives, and is by no means applicable to all of these. Common adjectives, or epithets denoting quality, are perhaps more numerous than all the other classes put together. Many of these, and a few that are pronominal, may be varied by comparison; and some participial adjectives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives formed from proper names, all the numerals, and most of the compounds, are in no way susceptible of comparison. All nouns used adjectively, as an iron bar, an evening school, a mahogany chair, a South-Sea dream, are also incapable of comparison. In the title of "His Most Christian Majesty," the superlative adverb is applied to a proper adjective; but who will pretend that we ought to understand by it "the highest degree" of Christian attainment? It might seem uncourtly to suggest that this is "an abuse of the king's English," I shall therefore say no such thing. Pope compares the word Christian, in the following couplet:—

   "Go, purified by flames ascend the sky,
    My better and more Christian progeny."—Dunciad, B. i, l. 227.

IRREGULAR COMPARISON.

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: good, better, best; bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; many, more, most.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—In English, and also in Latin, most adjectives that denote place or situation, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either defective or redundant in comparison. Thus:

I. The following nine have more than one superlative: far, farther, farthest, farmost, or farthermost; near, nearer, nearest or next; fore, former, foremost or first; hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost; in, inner, inmost or innermost; out, outer, or utter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost; up, upper, upmost or uppermost; low, lower, lowest or lowermost; late, later or latter, latest or last.

II. The following five want the positive: [aft, adv.,] after, aftmost or aftermost; [forth, adv., formerly furth,[180]] further, furthest or furthermost; hither, hithermost; nether, nethermost; under, undermost.

III. The following want the comparative: front, frontmost; rear, rearmost; head, headmost; end, endmost; top, topmost; bottom, bottommost; mid or middle, midst,[181] midmost or middlemost; north, northmost; south, southmost; east, eastmost; west, westmost; northern, northernmost; southern, southernmost; eastern, easternmost; western, westernmost.

OBS. 2.—Many of these irregular words are not always used as adjectives, but oftener as nouns, adverbs, or prepositions. The sense in which they are employed, will show to what class they belong. The terms fore and hind, front and rear, right and left, in and out, high and low, top and bottom, up and down, upper and under, mid and after, all but the last pair, are in direct contrast with each other. Many of them are often joined in composition with other words; and some, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from their nouns: as, _in_land, _out_house, mid-sea, after-ages. Practice is here so capricious, I find it difficult to determine whether the compounding of these terms is proper or not. It is a case about which he that inquires most, may perhaps be most in doubt. If the joining of the words prevents the possibility of mistaking the adjective for a preposition, it prevents also the separate classification of the adjective and the noun, and thus in some sense destroys the former by making the whole a noun. Dr. Webster writes thus: "FRONTROOM, n. A room or apartment in the forepart of a house. BACKROOM, n. A room behind the front room, or in the back part of the house."—Octavo Dict. So of many phrases by which people tell of turning things, or changing the position of their parts; as, _in_side out, _out_side _in; up_side _down, down_side up; wrong end foremost, but-end foremost; fore-part back, fore-end aft; hind side _before, back_side before. Here all these contrasted particles seem to be adjectives of place or situation. What grammarians in general would choose to call them, it is hard to say; probably, many would satisfy themselves with calling the whole "an adverbial phrase,"—the common way of disposing of every thing which it is difficult to analyze. These, and the following examples from Scott, are a fair specimen of the uncertainty of present usage:

   "The herds without a keeper strayed,
    The plough was in mid-furrow staid."—Lady of the Lake.

    "The eager huntsman knew his bound,
    And in mid chase called off his hound."—Ibidem.

OBS. 3.—For the chief points of the compass, we have so many adjectives, and so many modes of varying or comparing them, that it is difficult to tell their number, or to know which to choose in practice. (1.) North, south, east, and west, are familiarly used both as nouns and as adjectives. From these it seems not improper to form superlatives, as above, by adding most; as, "From Aroar to Nebo, and the wild of southmost Abarim."—Milton. "There are no rivulets or springs in the island of Feror, the westmost of the Canaries."—White's Nat. Hist. (2.) These primitive terms may also be compared, in all three of the degrees, by the adverbs farther and farthest, or further and furthest; as, "Which is yet farther west."—Bacon. (3.) Though we never employ as separate words the comparatives norther, souther, easter, wester, we have northerly, southerly, easterly, and westerly, which seem to have been formed from such comparatives, by adding ly; and these four may be compared by the adverbs more and most, or less and least: as, "These hills give us a view of the most easterly, southerly, and westerly parts of England."—GRAUNT: in Joh. Dict. (4.) From these supposed comparatives likewise, some authors form the superlatives northermost, southermost, eastermost, and westermost; as, "From the westermost part of Oyster bay."—Dr. Webster's Hist. U. S., p. 126. "And three miles southward of the southermost part of said bay."—Trumbull's Hist. of Amer., Vol. i, p. 88. "Pockanocket was on the westermost line of Plymouth Colony."—Ib., p. 44. "As far as the northermost branch of the said bay or river."—Ib., p. 127. The propriety of these is at least questionable; and, as they are neither very necessary to the language, nor recognized by any of our lexicographers, I forbear to approve them. (5.) From the four primitives we have also a third series of positives, ending in ern; as, northern, southern, eastern, western. These, though they have no comparatives of their own, not only form superlatives by assuming the termination most, but are sometimes compared, perhaps in both degrees, by a separate use of the adverbs: as, "Southernmost, a. Furthest towards the south."—Webster's Dict. "Until it shall intersect the northernmost part of the thirty-first degree of north latitude."—Articles of Peace. "To the north-westernmost head of Connecticut river."—Ib. "Thence through the said lake to the most north-western point thereof."—Ib.

OBS. 4.—It may be remarked of the comparatives former and latter or hinder, upper and under or nether, inner and outer or utter, after and hither; as well as of the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and posterior, interior and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and minor; that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction than. After all genuine English comparatives, this conjunction may occur, because it is the only fit word for introducing the latter term of comparison; but we never say one thing is former or latter, superior or inferior, than an other. And so of all the rest here named. Again, no real comparative or superlative can ever need an other superadded to it; but inferior and superior convey ideas that do not always preclude the additional conception of more or less: as, "With respect to high and low notes, pronunciation is still more inferior to singing."—Kames, Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 73. "The mistakes which the most superior understanding is apt to fall into."—West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 117.

OBS. 5.—Double comparatives and double superlatives, being in general awkward and unfashionable, as well as tautological, ought to be avoided. Examples: "The Duke of Milan, and his more braver daughter, could control thee."—Shak., Tempest. Say, "his more gallant daughter." "What in me was purchased, falls upon thee in a more fairer sort."—Id., Henry IV. Say, "fairer," or, "more honest;" for "purchased" here means stolen. "Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be."—Id., Hen. VI. Say, "a worse shape"—or, "an uglier shape." "After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee."—Acts, xxvi, 5. Say, "the strictest sect." "Some say he's mad; others, that lesser hate him, do call it valiant fury."—Shak. Say, "others, that hate him less." In this last example, lesser is used adverbially; in which construction it is certainly incorrect. But against lesser as an adjective, some grammarians have spoken with more severity, than comports with a proper respect for authority. Dr. Johnson says, "LESSER, adj. A barbarous corruption of less, formed by the vulgar from the habit of terminating comparatives in er; afterward adopted by poets, and then by writers of prose, till it has all the authority which a mode originally erroneous can derive from custom."—Quarto Dict. With no great fairness, Churchill quotes this passage as far as the semicolon, and there stops. The position thus taken, he further endeavours to strengthen, by saying, "Worser, though not more barbarous, offends the ear in a much greater degree, because it has not been so frequently used."—New Gram., p. 232. Example: "And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night."—Gen., i, 16. Kirkham, after making an imitation of this passage, remarks upon it: "Lesser is as incorrect as badder, gooder, worser."—Gram., p. 77. The judgement of any critic who is ignorant enough to say this, is worthy only of contempt. Lesser is still frequently used by the most tasteful authors, both in verse and prose: as, "It is the glowing style of a man who is negligent of lesser graces."—Blair's Rhet., p. 189.

   "Athos, Olympus, Ætna, Atlas, made
    These hills seem things of lesser dignity."—Byron.

OBS. 6.—The adjective little is used in different senses; for it contrasts sometimes with great, and sometimes with much. Lesser appears to refer only to size. Hence less and lesser are not always equivalent terms. Lesser means smaller, and contrasts only with greater. Less contrasts sometimes with greater, but oftener with more, the comparative of much; for, though it may mean not so large, its most common meaning is not so much. It ought to be observed, likewise, that less is not an adjective of number,[182] though not unfrequently used as such. It does not mean fewer, and is therefore not properly employed in sentences like the following: "In all verbs, there are no less than three things implied at once."—Blair's Rhet., p. 81. "Smaller things than three," is nonsense; and so, in reality, is what the Doctor here says. Less is not the proper opposite to more, when more is the comparative of many: few, fewer, fewest, are the only words which contrast regularly with many, more, most. In the following text, these comparatives are rightly employed: "And to the more ye shall give the more inheritance, and to the fewer ye shall give the less inheritance."—Numbers, xxxiii, 54. But if writers will continue to use less for fewer, so that "less cattle," for instance, may mean "fewer cattle;" we shall be under a sort of necessity to retain lesser, in order to speak intelligibly: as, "It shall be for the sending-forth of oxen, and for the treading of lesser cattle."—Isaiah, vii, 25. I have no partiality for the word lesser, neither will I make myself ridiculous by flouting at its rudeness. "This word," says Webster, "is a corruption, but [it is] too well established to be discarded. Authors always write the Lesser Asia."—Octavo Dict. "By the same reason, may a man punish the lesser breaches of that law."—Locke. "When we speak of the lesser differences among the tastes of men."—Blair's Rhet., p. 20. "In greater or lesser degrees of complexity."—Burke, on Sublime, p. 94. "The greater ought not to succumb to the lesser."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 128. "To such productions, lesser composers must resort for ideas."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 413.

   "The larger here, and there the lesser lambs,
    The new-fall'n young herd bleating for their dams."—Pope.

OBS. 7.—Our grammarians deny the comparison of many adjectives, from a false notion that they are already superlatives. Thus W. Allen: "Adjectives compounded with the Latin preposition per, are already superlative: as, perfect, perennial, permanent, &c."—Elements of E. Gram., p. 52. In reply to this, I would say, that nothing is really superlative, in English, but what has the form and construction of the superlative; as, "The most permanent of all dyes." No word beginning with per, is superlative by virtue of this Latin prefix. "Separate spirits, which are beings that have perfecter knowledge and greater happiness than we, must needs have also a perfecter way of communicating their thoughts than we have."—Locke's Essay, B. ii, Ch. 24, §36, This mode of comparison is not now good, but it shows that perfect is no superlative. Thus Kirkham: "The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the superlative degree; because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative signification: chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just, true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal." [183]—Gram., p. 73. So the Rev. David Blair: "The words perfect, certain, infinite, universal, chief, supreme, right, true, extreme, superior, and some others, which express a perfect and superlative sense in themselves, do not admit of comparison."—English Gram., p. 81. Now, according to Murray's definition, which Kirkham adopts, none of these words can be at all in the superlative degree. On the contrary, there are several among them, from which true superlatives are frequently and correctly formed. Where are the positives which are here supposed to be "increased to the highest degree?" Every real superlative in our language, except best and worst, most and least, first and last, with the still more irregular word next, is a derivative, formed from some other English word, by adding est or most; as, truest, hindmost. The propriety or impropriety of comparing the foregoing words, or any of the "many others" of which this author speaks, is to be determined according to their meaning, and according to the usage of good writers, and not by the dictation of a feeble pedant, or upon the supposition that if compared they would form "double superlatives."

OBS. 8.—Chief is from the French word chef, the head: chiefest is therefore no more a double superlative than headmost: "But when the headmost foes appeared."—Scott. Nor are chief and chiefest equivalent terms: "Doeg an Edomite, the chiefest of the herdsmen."—1 Samuel, xxi, 7. "The chief of the herdsmen," would convey a different meaning; it would be either the leader of the herdsmen, or the principal part of them. Chiefest, however, has often been used where chief would have been better; as, "He sometimes denied admission to the chiefest officers of the army."—Clarendon, let us look further at Kirkham's list of absolute "superlatives."

OBS. 9.—Extreme is from the Latin superlative extremus, and of course its literal signification is not really susceptible of increase. Yet extremest has been used, and is still used, by some of the very best writers; as, "They thought it the extremest of evils."—Bacon. "That on the sea's extremest border stood."—Addison. "How, to extremest thrill of agony."—Pollok, B. viii, l. 270. "I go th' extremest remedy to prove."—Dryden. "In extremest poverty."—Swift. "The hairy fool stood on th' extremest verge of the swift brook, augmenting it with tears."—Shak. "While the extremest parts of the earth were meditating submission."—Atterbury. "His writings are poetical to the extremest boundaries of poetry."—Adams's Rhetoric, i, 87. In prose, this superlative is not now very common; but the poets still occasionally use it, for the sake of their measure; and it ought to be noticed that the simple adjective is not partitive. If we say, for the first example, "the extreme of evils;" we make the word a noun, and do not convey exactly the same idea that is there expressed.

OBS. 10.—Perfect, if taken in its strictest sense, must not be compared; but this word, like many others which mean most in the positive, is often used with a certain latitude of meaning, which renders its comparison by the adverbs not altogether inadmissible; nor is it destitute of authority, as I have already shown. (See Obs. 8th, p. 280.) "From the first rough sketches, to the more perfect draughts."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 152. "The most perfect."—Adams's Lect. on Rhet., i, 99 and 136; ii, 17 and 57: Blair's Lect., pp. 20 and 399. "The most beautiful and perfect example of analysis."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. 10. "The plainest, most perfect, and most useful manual."—Bullions's E. Gram., Rev., p. 7. "Our sight is the most perfect, and the most delightful, of all our senses."—Addison, Spect., No. 411; Blair's Lect., pp. 115 and 194; Murray's Gram., i, 322. Here Murray anonymously copied Blair. "And to render natives more perfect in the knowledge of it."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 171; Murray's Gram., p. 366. Here Murray copied Campbell, the most accurate of all his masters. Whom did he copy when he said, "The phrases, more perfect, and most perfect, are improper?"—Octavo Gram., p. 168. But if these are wrong, so is the following sentence: "No poet has ever attained a greater perfection than Horace."—Blair's Lect., p. 398. And also this: "Why are we brought into the world less perfect in respect to our nature?"—West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 220.

OBS. 11.—Right and wrong are not often compared by good writers; though we sometimes see such phrases as more right and more wrong, and such words as rightest and wrongest: "'Tis always in the wrongest sense."—Butler. "A method of attaining the rightest and greatest happiness."—PRICE: Priestley's Gram., p. 78. "It is no more right to steal apples, than it is to steal money."—Webster's New Spelling-Book, p. 118. There are equivalent expressions which seem preferable; as, more proper, more erroneous, most proper, most erroneous.

OBS. 12.—Honest, just, true, correct, sincere, and vast, may all be compared at pleasure. Pope's Essay on Criticism is more correct than any thing this modest pretender can write; and in it, he may find the comparative juster, the superlatives justest, truest, sincerest, and the phrases, "So vast a throng,"—"So vast is art:" all of which are contrary to his teaching. "Unjuster dealing is used in buying than in selling."—Butler's Poems, p. 163. "Iniquissimam pacem justissimo bello antefero."—Cicero. "I prefer the unjustest peace before the justest war."—Walker's English Particles, p. 68. The poet Cowley used the word honestest; which is not now very common. So Swift: "What honester folks never durst for their ears."—The Yahoo's Overthrow. So Jucius: "The honestest and ablest men."—Letter XVIII. "The sentence would be more correct in the following form."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 223. "Elegance is chiefly gained by studying the correctest writers."—Holmes's Rhetoric, p. 27. Honest and correct, for the sake of euphony, require the adverbs; as, more honest, "most correct."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. iv. Vast, vaster, vastest, are words as smooth, as fast, faster, fastest; and more vast is certainly as good English as more just: "Shall mortal man be more just than God?"—Job, iv, 17. "Wilt thou condemn him that is most just?"—Ib., xxxiv, 17. "More wise, more learn'd, more just, more-everything."—Pope. Universal is often compared by the adverbs, but certainly with no reënforcement of meaning: as, "One of the most universal precepts, is, that the orator himself should feel the passion."—Adams's Rhet., i, 379. "Though not so universal."—Ib., ii, 311. "This experience is general, though not so universal, as the absence of memory in childhood."—Ib., ii, 362. "We can suppose no motive which would more universally operate."—Dr. Blair's Rhet., p. 55. "Music is known to have been more universally studied."—Ib., p. 123. "We shall not wonder, that his grammar has been so universally applauded."—Walker's Recommendation in Murray's Gram., ii, 306. "The pronoun it is the most universal of all the pronouns."—Cutler's Gram., p. 66. Thus much for one half of this critic's twenty-two "superlatives." The rest are simply adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison: they are not "superlatives" at all. A man might just as well teach, that good is a superlative, and not susceptible of comparison, because "there is none good but one."

OBS. 13.—Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, simply relate to them, and have no modifications: except this and that, which form the plurals these and those; and much, many, and a few others, which are compared. Examples: "Whence hath this man this wisdom, and these mighty works?"—Matt., xiii, 54. "But some man will say, How are the dead raised up? and with what body do they come?"—1 Cor., xv, 35. "The first man Adam was made a living soul; the last Adam was made a quickening spirit."—Ib., 45. So, when one pronominal adjective "precedes an other, the former must be taken simply as an adjective;" as,

"Those suns are set. O rise some other such!" —Cowper's Task, B. ii, l. 252.

OBS. 14.—Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not expressed, may be parsed as representing them in person, number, gender, and case; but those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective, simply as an adjective. Example: "He threatens many, who injures one."—Kames. Here it may be said, "Many is a pronominal adjective, meaning many persons; of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case." Or those who will take the word simply as an adjective, may say, "Many is a pronominal adjective, of the positive degree, compared many, more, most, and relating to persons understood." And so of "one," which represents, or relates to, person understood. Either say, "One is a pronominal adjective, not compared," and give the three definitions accordingly; or else say, "One is a pronominal adjective, relating to person understood; of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case," and give the six definitions accordingly.

OBS. 15.—Elder for older, and eldest for oldest, are still frequently used; though the ancient positive, eld for old, is now obsolete. Hence some have represented old as having a two-fold comparison; and have placed it, not very properly, among the irregular adjectives. The comparatives elder and better, are often used as nouns; so are the Latin comparatives superior and inferior, interior and exterior, senior and junior, major and minor: as, The elder's advice,—One of the elders,—His betters,—Our superiors,—The interior of the country,—A handsome exterior,—Your seniors,—My juniors,—A major in the army,—He is yet a minor. The word other, which has something of the nature of a comparative, likewise takes the form of a noun, as before suggested; and, in that form, the reader, if he will, may call it a noun: as, "What do ye more than others?"—Bible. "God in thus much is bounded, that the evil hath he left unto an other; and that Dark Other hath usurped the evil which Omnipotence laid down."—Tupper's Book of Thoughts, p. 45. Some call it a pronoun. But it seems to be pronominal, merely by ellipsis of the noun after it; although, unlike a mere adjective, it assumes the ending of the noun, to mark that ellipsis. Perhaps therefore, the best explanation of it would be this: "'Others is a pronominal adjective, having the form of a noun, and put for other men; in the third person, plural number, masculine gender, and nominative case." The gender of this word varies, according to that of the contrasted term; and the case, according to the relation it bears to other words. In the following example, it is neuter and objective: "The fibres of this muscle act as those of others."—Cheyne. Here, "as those of others," means, "as the fibres of other muscles."

OBS. 16.—"Comparatives and superlatives seem sometimes to part with their relative nature, and only to retain their intensive, especially those which are formed by the superlative adverb most; as, 'A most learned man,'—'A most brave man:' i. e. not the bravest or the most learned man that ever was, but a man possessing bravery or learning in a very eminent degree."—See Alexander Murray's Gram., p. 110. This use of the terms of comparison is thought by some not to be very grammatical.

OBS. 17.—Contractions of the superlative termination est, as high'st for highest, bigg'st for biggest, though sometimes used by the poets, are always inelegant, and may justly be considered grammatically improper. They occur most frequently in doggerel verse, like that of Hudibras; the author of which work, wrote, in his droll fashion, not only the foregoing monosyllables, but learned'st for most learned, activ'st for most active, desperat'st for most desperate, epidemical'st for most epidemical, &c.

   "And th' activ'st fancies share as loose alloys,
    For want of equal weight to counterpoise."—Butler's Poems.

    "Who therefore finds the artificial'st fools
    Have not been chang'd i th' cradle, but the schools."—Ib., p. 143.

OBS. 18.—Nouns used adjectively are not varied in number to agree with the nouns to which they relate, but what is singular or plural when used substantively, is without number when taken as an adjective: as, "One of the nine sister goddesses."—Webster's Dict., w. Muse. "He has money in a savings bank." The latter mode of expression is uncommon, and the term savings-bank is sometimes compounded, but the hyphen does not really affect the nature of the former word. It is doubtful, however, whether a plural noun can ever properly assume the character of an adjective; because, if it is not then really the same as the possessive case, it will always be liable to be thought a false form of that case. What Johnson wrote "fullers earth" and "fullers thistle;" Chalmers has "fullers earth" and "fuller's thistle;" Webster, "fuller's-earth" and "fuller's-thistle;" Ainsworth, "fuller's earth" and "fuller's thistle;" Walker has only "fullers-earth;" Worcester, "fuller's-earth;" Cobb, "fullers earth;" the Treasury of Knowledge, "fullers'-earth." So unsettled is this part of our grammar, that in many such cases it is difficult cult to say whether we ought to use the apostrophe, or the hyphen, or both, or neither. To insert neither, unless we make a close compound, is to use a plural noun adjectively; which form, I think, is the most objectionable of all. See "All souls day,"—"All-fools-day,"—"All-saints'-day," &c., in the dictionaries. These may well be written "All Souls' Day" &c.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS IV.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, and ADJECTIVES.

The definitions to be given in the Fourth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, and one for a pronoun, a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond: teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly."—G. Brown.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Best is a common adjective, of the superlative degree; compared irregularly, good, better, best. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it.

And, is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in constructing, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Most is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Effectual is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; effectual, more effectual, most effectual; or, effectual, less effectual, least effectual. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs.

Method is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person, is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Teaching is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb.

Grammar is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Is is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Precisely is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

That is a pronominal adjective, not compared; standing for that method, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. [See OBS. 14th,] 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Which is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Careless is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; careless, more careless, most careless; or, careless, less careless, least careless. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs.

Are is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Least is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Fond is a common adjective, compared regularly, fond, fonder, fondest; but here made superlative by the adverb least. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 8. The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it.

Teach is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Learnedly is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Rebuking is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb.

Whatsoever is a pronoun. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun.

Is is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

False is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared regularly, false, falser, falsest. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.

Blundering is a participial adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; blundering, more blundering, most blundering; or, blundering, less blundering, least blundering. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs.

Or is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Unmannerly is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; unmannerly, more unmannerly, most unmannerly; or, unmannerly, less unmannerly, least unmannerly. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"The noblest and most beneficial invention of which human ingenuity can boast, is that of writing."—Robertson's America, Vol. II, p. 193.

"Charlemagne was the tallest, the handsomest, and the strongest man of his time; his appearance was truly majestic, and he had surprising agility in all sorts of manly exercises."—Stories of France, p. 19.

"Money, like other things, is more or less valuable, as it is less or more plentiful."—Beanie's Moral Science, p. 378.

"The right way of acting, is, in a moral sense, as much a reality, in the mind of an ordinary man, as the straight or the right road."—Dr. Murray's Hist. Lang., i, 118.

"The full period of several members possesses most dignity and modulation, and conveys also the greatest degree of force, by admitting the closest compression of thought."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 79.

"His great master, Demosthenes, in addressing popular audiences, never had recourse to a similar expedient. He avoided redundancies, as equivocal and feeble. He aimed only to make the deepest and most efficient impression; and he employed for this purpose, the plainest, the fewest, and the most emphatic words."—Ib., p. 68.

"The high eloquence which I have last mentioned, is always the offspring of passion. A man actuated by a strong passion, becomes much greater than he is at other times. He is conscious of more strength and force; he utters greater sentiments, conceives higher designs, and executes them with a boldness and felicity, of which, on other occasions, he could not think himself capable."—Blair's Rhet., p. 236.

   "His words bore sterling weight, nervous and strong,
    In manly tides of sense they roll'd along."—Churchill.

    "To make the humble proud, the proud submiss,
    Wiser the wisest, and the brave more brave."—W. S. Landor.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"I am satisfied that in this, as in all cases, it is best, safest, as well as most right and honorable, to speak freely and plainly."—Channing's Letter to Clay, p. 4.

"The gospel, when preached with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven, through the wonder-working power of God, can make the proud humble, the selfish disinterested, the worldly heavenly, the sensual pure."—Christian Experience, p. 399.

"I am so much the better, as I am the liker[184] the best; and so much the holier, as I am more conformable to the holiest, or rather to Him who is holiness itself."—Bp. Beneridge.

"Whether any thing in Christianity appears to them probable, or improbable; consistent, or inconsistent; agreeable to what they should have expected, or the contrary; wise and good, or ridiculous and useless; is perfectly irrelevant."—M'Ilvaine's Evidences, p. 523.

"God's providence is higher, and deeper, and larger, and stronger, than all the skill of his adversaries; and his pleasure shall be accomplished in their overthrow, except they repent and become his friends."—Cox, on Christianity, p. 445.

"A just relish of what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in writing or painting, in architecture or gardening, is a fine preparation for the same just relish of these qualities in character and behaviour. To the man who has acquired a taste so acute and accomplished, every action wrong or improper must be highly disgustful: if, in any instance, the overbearing power of passion sway him from his duty, he returns to it with redoubled resolution never to be swayed a second time."—Kames, Elements of Criticism, Vol. i, p. 25.

   "In grave Quintilian's copious work, we find
    The justest rules and clearest method join'd."—Pope, on Crit.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"There are several sorts of scandalous tempers; some malicious, and some effeminate; others obstinate, brutish, and savage. Some humours are childish and silly; some, false, and others, scurrilous; some, mercenary, and some, tyrannical."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 52.

"Words are obviously voluntary signs: and they are also arbitrary; excepting a few simple sounds expressive of certain internal emotions, which sounds being the same in all languages, must be the work of nature: thus the unpremeditated tones of admiration are the same in all men."—Kames, Elements of Crit., i, 347.

"A stately and majestic air requires sumptuous apparel, which ought not to be gaudy, nor crowded with little ornaments. A woman of consummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned, and yet shows best in a plain dress."—Ib., p. 279. "Of all external objects a graceful person is the most agreeable. But in vain will a person attempt to be graceful, who is deficient in amiable qualities."—Ib., p. 299.

"The faults of a writer of acknowledged excellence are more dangerous, because the influence of his example is more extensive; and the interest of learning requires that they should be discovered and stigmatized, before they have the sanction of antiquity bestowed upon them, and become precedents of indisputable authority."—Dr. Johnson, Rambler, Vol. ii, No. 93.

"Judges ought to be more learned than witty, more reverend than plausible, and more advised than confident; above all things, integrity is their portion and proper virtue."—Bacon's Essays, p. 145.

"The wisest nations, having the most and best ideas, will consequently have the best and most copious languages."—Harris's Hermes, p. 408.

"Here we trace the operation of powerful causes, while we remain ignorant of their nature; but everything goes on with such regularity and harmony, as to give a striking and convincing proof of a combining directing intelligence."—Life of W. Allen, Vol. i, p. 170.

   "The wisest, unexperienced, will be ever
    Timorous and loth, with novice modesty,
    Irresolute, unhardy, unadventurous."—Milton.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS OF ADJECTIVES.

LESSON I.—DEGREES.

"I have the real excuse of the honestest sort of bankrupts."—Cowley's
Preface, p. viii.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adjective honestest is harshly compared by est. But, according to a principle stated on page 283d concerning the regular degrees, "This method of comparison is to be applied only to monosyllables, and to dissyllables of a smooth termination, or such as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent." Therefore, honestest should be most honest; thus, "I have real excuse of the most honest sort of bankrupts."]

"The honourablest part of talk, is, to give the occasion."—Bacon's Essays, p. 90. "To give him one of his own modestest proverbs."— Barclay's Works, iii, 340. "Our language is now certainly properer and more natural, than it was formerly."—Bp. Burnet. "Which will be of most and frequentest use to him in the world."—Locke, on Education, p. 163. "The same is notified in the notablest places in the diocese."—Whitgift. "But it was the dreadfullest sight that ever I saw."—Pilgrim's Progress, p. 70. "Four of the ancientest, soberest, and discreetest of the brethren, chosen for the occasion, shall regulate it."—Locke, on Church Gov. "Nor can there be any clear understanding of any Roman author, especially of ancienter time, without this skill."—Walker's Particles, p. x. "Far the learnedest of the Greeks."—Ib., p. 120. "The learneder thou art, the humbler be thou."—Ib., p. 228. "He is none of the best or honestest."— Ib., p. 274. "The properest methods of communicating it to others."— Burn's Gram., Prof, p. viii. "What heaven's great King hath powerfullest to send against us."—Paradise Lost. "Benedict is not the unhopefullest husband that I know."—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "That he should immediately do all the meanest and triflingest things himself."—RAY: in Johnson's Gram., p. 6. "I shall be named among the famousest of women."—MILTON'S Samson Agonistes: ib. "Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes."—ASCHAM: ib. "The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps."—BEN JONSON: ib. "I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturallest considerations that belong to this piece."—WOTTON: ib. "The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man."—BACON: ib. "He so won upon him, that he rendered him one of the faithfulest and most affectionate allies the Medes ever had."—Rollin, ii, 71. "'You see before you,' says he to him, 'the most devoted servant, and the faithfullest ally, you ever had.'"—Ib., ii, 79. "I chose the flourishing'st tree in all the park."—Cowley. "Which he placed, I think, some centuries backwarder than Julius Africanus thought fit to place it afterwards."—Bolingbroke, on History, p. 53. "The Tiber, the notedest river of Italy."—Littleton's Dict.

   "To fartherest shores the ambrosial spirit flies."
        —Cutler's Gram., p. 140.

    ——"That what she wills to do or say,
    Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best."
        —Milton, B. viii, l. 550.

LESSON II.—MIXED.

"During the three or four first years of its existence."—Taylor's District School, p. 27.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the cardinal numbers, three and four are put before the ordinal first. But, according to the 7th part of Obs. 7th, page 280th, "In specifying any part of a series, we ought to place the cardinal number after the ordinal." Therefore the words three and four should be placed after first; thus, "During the first three or four years of its existence."]

"To the first of these divisions, my ten last lectures have been devoted."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 391. "There are in the twenty-four states not less than sixty thousand common schools."—Taylor's District School, p. 38. "I know of nothing which gives teachers so much trouble as this want of firmness."—Ib., p. 57. "I know of nothing that throws such darkness over the line which separates right from wrong."—Ib., p. 58. "None need this purity and simplicity of language and thought so much as the common school instructor."—Ib., p. 64. "I know of no periodical that is so valuable to the teacher as the Annals of Education."—Ib., p. 67. "Are not these schools of the highest importance? Should not every individual feel the deepest interest in their character and condition?"—Ib., p. 78. "If instruction were made a profession, teachers would feel a sympathy for each other."—Ib., p. 93. "Nothing is so likely to interest children as novelty and change."—Ib., p. 131. "I know of no labour which affords so much happiness as that of the teacher's."—Ib., p. 136. "Their school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable of any that they engage in."—Ib., p. 136. "I know of no exercise so beneficial to the pupil as that of drawing maps."—Ib., p. 176. "I know of nothing in which our district schools are so defective as they are in the art of teaching grammar."—Ib., p. 196. "I know of nothing so easily acquired as history."—Ib. p. 206. "I know of nothing for which scholars usually have such an abhorrence, as composition."—Ib., p. 210. "There is nothing in our fellow-men that we should respect with so much sacredness as their good name."—Ib., p. 307. "Sure never any thing was so unbred as that odious man."—CONGREVE: in Joh. Dict. "In the dialogue between the mariner and the shade of the deceast."—Philological Museum, i, 466. "These master-works would still be less excellent and finisht"—Ib., i, 469. "Every attempt to staylace the language of polisht conversation, renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy."—Ib., i, 678. "Here are a few of the unpleasant'st words that ever blotted paper."—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "With the most easy, undisobliging transitions."—BROOME: ib. "Fear is, of all affections, the unaptest to admit any conference with reason."—HOOKER: ib. "Most chymists think glass a body more undestroyable than gold itself."—BOYLE: ib. "To part with unhackt edges, and bear back our barge undinted."—SHAK.: ib. "Erasmus, who was an unbigotted Roman Catholic, was transported with this passage."—ADDISON: ib. "There are no less than five words, with any of which the sentence might have terminated."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 397. "The one preach Christ of contention; but the other, of love."—Philippians, i, 16. "Hence we find less discontent and heart-burnings, than where the subjects are unequally burdened."—Art of Thinking, p. 56.

   "The serpent, subtil'st beast of all the field,
    I knew; but not with human voice indu'd."
        —MILTON: Joh. Dict., w. Human.

   "How much more grievous would our lives appear,
    To reach th' eighth hundred, than the eightieth year?"
        —DENHAM: B. P., ii, 244.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"Brutus engaged with Aruns; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced one another at the same time."—Lempriere's Dict.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrase one another is here applied to two persons only, the words an and other being needlessly compounded. But, according to Observation 15th, on the Classes of Adjectives, each other must be applied to two persons or things, and one an other to more than two. Therefore one another should here be each other; thus, "Brutus engaged with Aruns; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced each other at the same time."]

"Her two brothers were one after another turned into stone."—Art of Thinking, p. 194. "Nouns are often used as adjectives; as, A gold-ring, a silver-cup."—Lennie's Gram., p. 14. "Fire and water destroy one another."—Wanostrocht's Gram., p. 82. "Two negatives in English destroy one another, or are equivalent to an affirmative."—Lowth's Gram., p. 94; E. Devis's, 111; Mack's, 147; Murray's, 198; Churchill's, 148; Putnam's, 135; C. Adams's, 102; Hamlin's, 79; Alger's, 66; Fisk's, 140; Ingersoll's, 207; and many others. "Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 191; Felton's, 85. "Two negatives destroy one another and make an affirmative."—J. Flint's Gram., p. 79. "Two negatives destroy one another, being equivalent to an affirmative."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 48. "Two objects, resembling one another, are presented to the imagination."—Parker's Exercises in Comp., p. 47. "Mankind, in order to hold converse with each other, found it necessary to give names to objects."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 42. "Words are derived from each other[185] in various ways."—Cooper's Gram., p. 108. "There are many other ways of deriving words from one another."—Murray's Gram., p. 131. "When several verbs connected by conjunctions, succeed each other in a sentence, the auxiliary is usually omitted except with the first."—Frost's Gram., p. 91. "Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and immediately following one another, are also separated by commas." [186]—Murray's Gram., p. 270; C. Adams's, 126; Russell's, 113; and others. "Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding each other, must be separated by commas."—Same Grammars. "If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary."—Murray's Gram., p. 273; Comly's, 152; and others. "Gratitude, when exerted towards one another, naturally produces a very pleasing sensation in the mind of a grateful man."—Mur., p. 287. "Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by commas."—Comly's Gram., p. 153. "The several words of which it consists, have so near a relation to each other."—Murray's Gram., p. 268; Comly's, 144; Russell's, 111; and others. "When two or more verbs have the same nominative, and immediately follow one another, or two or more adverbs immediately succeed one another, they must be separated by commas."—Comly's Gram., p. 145. "Nouns frequently succeed each other, meaning the same thing."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 63. "And these two tenses may thus answer one another."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 322. "Or some other relation which two objects bear to one another."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 149. "That the heathens tolerated each other, is allowed."—Gospel its own Witness, p. 76. "And yet these two persons love one another tenderly."—Murray's E. Reader, p. 112. "In the six hundredth and first year."—Gen., viii, 13. "Nor is this arguing of his but a reiterate clamour."—Barclay's Works, i, 250. "In severals of them the inward life of Christianity is to be found."—Ib., iii, 272. "Though Alvarez, Despauterius, and other, allow it not to be Plural."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 169. "Even the most dissipate and shameless blushed at the sight."—Lemp. Dict., w. Antiochus. "We feel a superior satisfaction in surveying the life of animals, than that of vegetables."—Jamieson's Rhet., 172. "But this man is so full fraughted with malice."—Barclay's Works, i11, 205. "That I suggest some things concerning the properest means."—Blair's Rhet., p. 337.

   "So hand in hand they pass'd, the loveliest pair
    That ever since in love's embraces met."
        —Milton, P. L., B., iv, l. 321.

   "Aim at the high'est, without the high'est attain'd
    Will be for thee no sitting, or not long."
        —Id., P. R., B. iv, l. 106.

CHAPTER V.—PRONOUNS.

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun: as, The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them well.

The pronouns in our language are twenty-four; and their variations are thirty-two: so that the number of words of this class, is fifty-six.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its antecedent, because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have limited the term antecedent to the word represented by a relative pronoun. There can be no propriety in this, unless we will have every pronoun to be a relative, when it stands for a noun which precedes it; and, if so, it should be called something else, when the noun is to be found elsewhere. In the example above, his and he represent boy, and them represents lessons; and these nouns are as truly the antecedents to the pronouns, as any can be. Yet his, he, and them, in our most approved grammars, are not called relative pronouns, but personal.

OBS. 2.—Every pronoun may be explained as standing for the name of something, for the thing itself unnamed, or for a former pronoun; and, with the noun, pronoun, or thing, for which it stands, every pronoun must agree in person, number, and gender. The exceptions to this, whether apparent or real, are very few; and, as their occurrence is unfrequent, there will be little occasion to notice them till we come to syntax. But if the student will observe the use and import of pronouns, he may easily see, that some of them are put substantively, for nouns not previously introduced; some, relatively, for nouns or pronouns going before; some, adjectively, for nouns that must follow them in any explanation which can be made of the sense. These three modes of substitution, are very different, each from the others. Yet they do not serve for an accurate division of the pronouns; because it often happens, that a substitute which commonly represents the noun in one of these ways, will sometimes represent it in an other.

OBS. 3.—The pronouns I and thou, in their different modifications, stand immediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known without being named; (I meaning the speaker, and thou, the hearer;) their antecedents, or nouns, are therefore generally understood. The other personal pronouns, also, are sometimes taken in a general and demonstrative sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned; as, "He that hath knowledge, spareth his words."—Bible. Here he is equivalent to the man, or the person. "The care of posterity is most in them that have no posterity."—Bacon. Here them is equivalent to those persons. "How far do you call it to such a place?"—Priestley's Gram., p. 85. Here it, according to Priestley, is put for the distance. "For the priest's lips should keep knowledge, and they should seek the law at his mouth."—Malachi, ii, 7. Here they is put indefinitely for men or people. So who and which, though called relatives, do not always relate to a noun or pronoun going before them; for who may be a direct substitute for what person; and which may mean which person, or which thing: as, "And he that was healed, wist not who it was."—John, v, 13. That is, "The man who was healed, knew not what person it was." "I care not which you take; they are so much alike, one cannot tell which is which."

OBS. 4.—A pronoun with which a question is asked, usually stands for some person or thing unknown to the speaker; the noun, therefore, cannot occur before it, but may be used after it or in place of it. Examples: "In the grave, who shall give thee thanks?"—Ps., vi, 5. Here the word who is equivalent to what person, taken interrogatively. "Which of you convinceth me of sin?"—John, viii, 46. That is, "Which man of you?" "Master, what shall we do?"—Luke, iii, 12. That is, "What act, or thing?" These solutions, however, convert which and what into adjectives: and, in fact, as they have no inflections for the numbers and cases, there is reason to think them at all times essentially such. We call them pronouns, to avoid the inconvenience of supposing and supplying an infinite multitude of ellipses. But who, though often equivalent (as above) to an adjective and a noun, is never itself used adjectively; it is always a pronoun.

OBS. 5.—In respect to who or whom, it sometimes makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we take it as a demonstrative pronoun equivalent to what person, or suppose it to relate to an antecedent understood before it: as, "Even so the Son quickeneth whom he will."—John, v, 21. That is—"what persons he will," or, "those persons whom he will;" for the Greek word for whom, is, in this instance, plural. The former is a shorter explanation of the meaning, but the latter I take to be the true account of the construction; for, by the other, we make whom a double relative, and the object of two governing words at once. So, perhaps, of the following example, which Dr. Johnson cites under the word who, to show what he calls its "disjunctive sense:"—

"There thou tellst of kings, and who aspire; Who fall, who rise, who triumph, who do moan."—Daniel.

OBS. 6.—It sometimes happens that the real antecedent, or the term which in the order of the sense must stand before the pronoun, is not placed antecedently to it, in the order given to the words: as, "It is written, To whom he was not spoken of, they shall see; and they that have not heard, shall understand."—Romans, xv, 21. Here the sense is, "They to whom he was not spoken of, shall see." Whoever takes the passage otherwise, totally misunderstands it. And yet the same order of the words might be used to signify, "They shall see to whom (that is, to what persons) he was not spoken of." Transpositions of this kind, as well as of every other, occur most frequently in poetry. The following example is from an Essay on Satire, printed with Pope's Works, but written by one of his friends:—

"Whose is the crime, the scandal too be theirs; The knave and fool are their own libellers."—J. Brown.

OBS. 7.—The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in construction as the antecedents to other pronouns: as, "He also that is slothful in his work, is brother to him that is a great waster."—Prov., xviii. 9. Here he and him are each equivalent to the man, and each is taken as the antecedent to the relative which follows it. "For both he that sanctifieth, and they who are sanctified, are all of one: for which cause, he is not ashamed to call them brethren."—Heb., ii, 11. Here he and they may be considered the antecedents to that and who, of the first clause, and also to he and them, of the second. So the interrogative who may be the antecedent to the relative that; as, "Who that has any moral sense, dares tell lies?" Here who, being equivalent to what person, is the term with which the other pronoun agrees. Nay, an interrogative pronoun, (or the noun which is implied in it,) may be the antecedent to a personal pronoun; as, "Who hath first given to Him, and it shall be recompensed to him again?"—Romans, xi, 35. Here the idea is, "What person hath first given any thing to the Lord, so that it ought to be repaid him?" that is, "so that the gift ought to be recompensed from Heaven to the giver?" In the following example, the first pronoun is the antecedent to all the rest:—

"And he that never doubted of his state, He may perhaps—perhaps he may—too late."—Cowper.

OBS. 8.—So the personal pronouns of the possessive case, (which some call adjectives,) are sometimes represented by relatives, though less frequently than their primitives: as, "How different, O Ortogrul, is thy condition, who art doomed to the perpetual torments of unsatisfied desire!"—Dr. Johnson. Here who is of the second person, singular, masculine; and represents the antecedent pronoun thy: for thy is a pronoun, and not (as some writers will have it) an adjective. Examples like this, disprove the doctrine of those grammarians who say that my, thy, his, her, its, and their plurals, our, your, their, are adjectives. For, if they were mere adjectives, they could not thus be made antecedents. Examples of this construction are sufficiently common, and sufficiently clear, to settle that point, unless they can be better explained in some other way. Take an instance or two more: "And they are written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the world are come."—1 Cor., x, 11.

"Be thou the first true merit to befriend; His praise is lost, who stays till all commend."—Pope.

CLASSES.

Pronouns are divided into three classes; personal, relative, and interrogative.

I. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is; as, "Whether it[187] were I or they, so we preach, and so ye believed."—1 Cor., xv, 11.

The simple personal pronouns are five: namely, I, of the first person; thou, of the second person; he, she, and it, of the third person.

The compound personal pronouns are also five: namely, myself, of the first person; thyself, of the second person; himself, herself, and itself, of the third person.

II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence; as, "No people can be great, who have ceased to be virtuous."—Dr. Johnson.

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, as, and the compounds whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever.[188]

What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that which or those which; and is to be parsed, first as antecedent, and then as relative: as, "This is what I wanted; that is to say, the thing which I wanted."—L. Murray. III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a question is asked; as, "Who touched my clothes?"—Mark, v, 30.

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what; being the same in form as relatives.

Who demands a person's name; which, that a person or thing be distinguished from others; what, the name of a thing, or a person's occupation and character.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The pronouns I and myself, thou and thyself, with their inflections, are literally applicable to persons only; but, figuratively, they represent brutes, or whatever else the human imagination invests with speech and reason. The latter use of them, though literal perhaps in every thing but person, constitutes the purest kind of personification. For example: "The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them: and they said unto the olive-tree, 'Reign thou over us.' But the olive-tree said unto them, 'Should I leave my fatness, wherewith by me they honour God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees?'" See Judges, ix, from 8 to 16.

OBS. 2.—The pronouns he and himself, she and herself, with their inflections, are literally applicable to persons and to brutes, and to these only; if applied to lifeless objects, they animate them, and are figurative in gender, though literal perhaps in every other respect. For example: "A diamond of beauty and lustre, observing at his side in the same cabinet, not only many other gems, but even a loadstone, began to question the latter how he came there—he, who appeared to be no better than a mere flint, a sorry rusty-looking pebble, without the least shining quality to advance him to such honour; and concluded with desiring him to keep his distance, and to pay a proper respect to his superiors."—Kames's Art of Thinking, p. 226.

OBS. 3.—The pronoun it, as it carries in itself no such idea as that of personality, or sex, or life, is chiefly used with reference to things inanimate; yet the word is, in a certain way, applicable to animals, or even to persons; though it does not, in itself, present them as such. Thus we say, "It is I;"—"It was they;"—"It was you;"—"It was your agent;"—"It is your bull that has killed one of my oxen." In examples of this kind, the word it is simply demonstrative; meaning, the thing or subject spoken of. That subject, whatever it be in itself, may be introduced again after the verb, in any person, number, or gender, that suits it. But, as the verb agrees with the pronoun it, the word which follows, can in no sense be made, as Dr. Priestley will have it to be, the antecedent to that pronoun. Besides, it is contrary to the nature of what is primarily demonstrative, to represent a preceding word of any kind. The Doctor absurdly says, "Not only things, but persons, may be the antecedent to this pronoun; as, Who is it? Is it not Thomas? i. e. Who is the person? Is not he Thomas?"—Priestley's Gram., p. 85. In these examples, the terms are transposed by interrogation; but that circumstance, though it may have helped to deceive this author and his copiers, affects not my assertion.

OBS. 4.—The pronoun who is usually applied only to persons. Its application to brutes or to things is improper, unless we mean to personify them. But whose, the possessive case of this relative, is sometimes used to supply the place of the possessive case, otherwise wanting, to the relative which. Examples: "The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be protracted."—Murray's Gram., p. 9. "Philosophy, whose end is, to instruct us in the knowledge of nature."—Ib., p. 54; Campbell's Rhet., 421. "Those adverbs are compared whose primitives are obsolete."—Adam's Latin Gram., p. 150. "After a sentence whose sense is complete in itself, a period is used."—Nutting's Gram., p. 124. "We remember best those things whose parts are methodically disposed, and mutually connected."—Beattie's Moral Science, i, 59. "Is there any other doctrine whose followers are punished?"—ADDISON: Murray's Gram., p. 54; Lowth's, p. 25.

   "The question, whose solution I require,
    Is, what the sex of women most desire."—DRYDEN: Lowth, p. 25.

OBS. 5.—Buchanan, as well as Lowth, condemns the foregoing use of whose, except in grave poetry: saying, "This manner of personification adds an air of dignity to the higher and more solemn kind of poetry, but it is highly improper in the lower kind, or in prose."—Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 73. And, of the last two examples above quoted, he says, "It ought to be of which, in both places: i. e. The followers of which; the solution of which."—Ib., p. 73. The truth is, that no personification is here intended. Hence it may be better to avoid, if we can, this use of whose, as seeming to imply what we do not mean. But Buchanan himself (stealing the text of an older author) has furnished at least one example as objectionable as any of the foregoing: "Prepositions are naturally placed betwixt the Words whose Relation and Dependence each of them is to express."—English Syntax, p. 90; British Gram., p. 201. I dislike this construction, and yet sometimes adopt it, for want of another as good. It is too much, to say with Churchill, that "this practice is now discountenanced by all correct writers."—New Gram., p. 226. Grammarians would perhaps differ less, if they would read more. Dr. Campbell commends the use of whose for of which, as an improvement suggested by good taste, and established by abundant authority. See Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 420. "WHOSE, the possessive or genitive case of who or which; applied to persons or things."—Webster's Octavo Dict. "Whose is well authorized by good usage, as the possessive of which."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 69. "Nor is any language complete, whose verbs have not tenses."—Harris's Hermes.

   "————'Past and future, are the wings
    On whose support, harmoniously conjoined,
    Moves the great spirit of human knowledge.'—MS."
           Wordsworth's Preface to his Poems, p. xviii.

OBS. 6.—The relative which, though formerly applied to persons and made equivalent to who, is now confined to brute animals and inanimate things. Thus, "Our Father which art in heaven," is not now reckoned good English; it should be, "Our Father who art in heaven." In this, as well as in many other things, the custom of speech has changed; so that what was once right, is now ungrammatical. The use of which for who is very common in the Bible, and in other books of the seventeenth century; but all good writers now avoid the construction. It occurs seventy-five times in the third chapter of Luke; as, "Joseph, which was the son of Heli, which was the son of Matthat," etc. etc. After a personal term taken by metonymy for a thing, which is not improper; as, "Of the particular author which he is studying."—Gallaudet. And as an interrogative or a demonstrative pronoun or adjective, the word which is still applicable to persons, as formerly; as, "Which of you all?"—"Which man of you all?"—"There arose a reasoning among them, which of them should be the greatest."—Luke, ix, 46. "Two fair twins—the puzzled Strangers, which is which, inquire."—Tickell.

OBS. 7.—If which, as a direct relative, is inapplicable to persons, who ought to be preferred to it in all personifications: as,

   "The seal is set. Now welcome thou dread power,
    Nameless, yet thus omnipotent, which here
    Walk'st in the shadow of the midnight hour."
        BYRON: Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Cant, iv, st. 138.

What sort of personage is here imagined and addressed, I will not pretend to say; but it should seem, that who would be more proper than which, though less agreeable in sound before the word here. In one of his notes on this word, Churchill has fallen into a strange error. He will have who to represent a horse! and that, in such a sense, as would require which and not who, even for a person. As he prints the masculine pronoun in Italics, perhaps he thought, with Murray and Webster, that which must needs be "of the neuter gender." [189] He says, "In the following passage, which seems to be used instead of who:—

    'Between two horses, which doth bear him best;
    I have, perhaps, some shallow spirit of judgment'
                   SHAKS., 1 Hen. VI."—Churchill's Gram., p. 226.

OBS. 8.—The pronoun what is usually applied to things only. It has a twofold relation, and is often used (by ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and as relative, in the form of a single word; being equivalent to that which, or the thing which,—those which, or the things which. In this double relation, what represents two cases at the same time: as, "He is ashamed of what he has done;" that is, "of what [thing or action] he has done;"—or, "of that [thing or action] which he has done." Here are two objectives. The two cases are sometimes alike, sometimes different; for either of them may be the nominative, and either, the objective. Examples: "The dread of censure ought not to prevail over what is proper."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 252. "The public ear will not easily bear what is slovenly and incorrect."—Blair's Rhet., p. 12. "He who buys what he does not need, will often need what he cannot buy."—Student's Manual, p. 290. "What is just, is honest; and again, what is honest, is just."—Cicero. "He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches."—Rev., ii, 7, 11, 17, 29; iii, 6, 13, 22.

OBS. 9.—This pronoun, what, is usually of the singular number, though sometimes plural: as, "I must turn to the faults, or what appear such to me."—Byron. "All distortions and mimicries, as such, are what raise aversion instead of pleasure."—Steele. "Purified indeed from what appear to be its real defects."—Wordsworth's Pref., p. xix. "Every single impression, made even by the same object, is distinguishable from what have gone before, and from what succeed."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 107. "Sensible people express no thoughts but what make some figure."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 399. The following example, which makes what both singular and plural at once, is a manifest solecism: "What has since followed are but natural consequences."—J. C. CALHOUN, Speech in U. S. Senate, March 4, 1850. Here has should be have; or else the form should be this: "What has since followed, is but a natural consequence."

OBS. 10.—The common import of this remarkable pronoun, what, is, as we see in the foregoing examples, twofold; but some instances occur, in which it does not appear to have this double construction, but to be simply declaratory; and many, in which the word is simply an adjective: as, "What a strange run of luck I have had to-day!"—Columbian Orator, p. 293. Here what is a mere adjective; and, in the following examples, a pronoun indefinite:—

"I tell thee what, corporal, I could tear her."—Shak.

    "He knows what's what, and that's as high
    As metaphysic wit can fly."—Hudibras.

OBS. 11.—What is sometimes used both as an adjective and as a relative at the same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents; being equivalent to the adjective any or all, and the simple relative who, which[190] or that: as, "What money we had, was taken away." That is, "All the money that we had, was taken away." "What man but enters, dies." That is, "Any man who enters, dies." "It was agreed that what goods were aboard his vessels, should be landed."—Mickle's India, p. 89. "What appearances of worth afterwards succeeded, were drawn from thence."—Internal Policy of Great Britain, p. 196. That is, "All the appearances of worth, which afterwards succeeded."—Priestley's Gram., p. 93. Indeed, this pronoun does not admit of being construed after a noun, as a simple relative: none but the most illiterate ever seriously use it so. What put for who or which, is therefore a ludicrous vulgarism; as, "The aspiring youth what fired the Ephesian dome."—Jester. The word used as above, however, does not always preclude the introduction of a personal pronoun before the subsequent verb; as,[191]

   "What god but enters yon forbidden field,
    Who yields assistance, or but wills to yield,
    Back to the skies with shame he shall be driven,
    Gash'd with dishonest wounds, the scorn of heaven."—Pope's Homer.

OBS. 12.—The compound whatever or whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction as has the simpler word what: as, "Whatever word expresses an affirmation, or assertion, is a verb; or thus, Whatever word, with a noun or pronoun before or after it, makes full sense, is a verb."—Adam's Latin Gram., p. 78. That is, "Any word which expresses," &c. "We will certainly do whatsoever thing goeth forth out of our own mouth."—Jeremiah, xliv, 17. That is—"any thing, or every thing, which." "Whatever sounds are difficult in pronunciation, are, in the same proportion, harsh and painful to the ear."—Blair's Rhet., p. 121; Murray's Gram., p. 325. "Whatsoever things were written aforetime, were written for our learning."—Romans, xv, 4. In all these examples, the word whatever or whatsoever appears to be used both adjectively and relatively. There are instances, however, in which the relation of this term is not twofold, but simple: as, "Whatever useful or engaging endowments we possess, virtue is requisite in order to their shining with proper lustre."—English Reader, p. 23. Here whatever is simply an adjective. "The declarations contained in them [the Scriptures] rest on the authority of God himself; and there can be no appeal from them to any other authority whatsoever."—London Epistle, 1836. Here whatsoever may be parsed either as an adjective relating to authority, or as an emphatic pronoun in apposition with its noun, like himself in the preceding clause. In this general explanatory sense, whatsoever may be applied to persons as well as to things; as, "I should be sorry if it entered into the imagination of any person whatsoever, that I was preferred to all other patrons."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 11. Here the word whomsoever might have been used.

OBS. 13.—But there is an other construction to be here explained, in which whatever or whatsoever appears to be a double relative, or a term which includes both antecedent and relative; as, "Whatever purifies, fortifies also the heart."—English Reader, p. 23. That is. "All that purifies—or, Everything which purifies—fortifies also the heart." "Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper."—Psal., i, 3. That is, "All that he doeth—or, All the things which he doeth—shall prosper." This construction, however, may be supposed elliptical. The Latin expression is, "Omnia quæcumque faciet prosperabuntur."—Vulgate. The Greek is similar: [Greek: "Kai panta hosa an poiæi kateuodothæsetai."]— Septuagint. It is doubtless by some sort of ellipsis which familiarity of use inclines us to overlook, that what, whatever, and whatsoever, which are essentially adjectives, have become susceptible of this double construction as pronouns. But it is questionable what particular ellipsis we ought here to suppose, or whether any; and certainly, we ought always to avoid the supposing of an ellipsis, if we can.[192] Now if we say the meaning is, "Whatsoever things he doeth, shall prosper;" this, though analogous to other expressions, does not simplify the construction. If we will have it to be, "Whatsoever things he doeth, they shall prosper;" the pronoun they appears to be pleonastic. So is the word it, in the text, "Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it."—John, ii, 5. If we say the full phrase is, "All things whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper;" this presents, to an English ear, a still more obvious pleonasm. It may be, too, a borrowed idiom, found nowhere but in translations; as, "All things whatsoever ye shall ask in prayer, believing, ye shall receive."—Matt., xxi, 22. From these views, there seems to be some objection to any and every method of parsing the above-mentioned construction as elliptical. The learner may therefore say, in such instances, that whatever or whatsoever is a double relative, including both antecedent and relative; and parse it, first as antecedent, in connexion with the latter verb, and then as relative, in connexion with the former. But let him observe that the order of the verbs may be the reverse of the foregoing; as, "Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you."—John, xv, 14. That is, according to the Greek, "If ye do whatsoever I command to you;" Though it would be better English to say, "If ye do whatsoever I command you to do." In the following example, however, it seems proper to recognize an ellipsis; nay, the omissions in the construction of the last line, are as many as three or four;—

   "Expatiate with glad step, and choose at will
    Whate'er bright spoils the florid earth contains,
    Whate'er the waters, or the liquid air."—Akenside.

OBS. 14.—As the simple word who differs from which and what, in being always a declinable pronoun; so its compounds differ from theirs, in being incapable of either of the double constructions above described. Yet whoever and whoso or whosoever, as well as whichever and whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever, derive, from the affix which is added, or from the peculiarity of their syntax, an unlimited signification—or a signification which is limited only by the following verb; and, as some general term, such as any person, or all persons, is implied as the antecedent, they are commonly connected with other words as if they stood for two cases at once: as, "Whoever seeks, shall find." That is, "Any person who seeks, shall find." But as the case of this compound, like that of the simple word who, whose, or whom, is known and determined by its form, it is necessary, in parsing, to treat this phraseology as being elliptical. The compounds of who do not, therefore, actually stand for two cases, though some grammarians affirm that they do.[193] Example: "The soldiers made proclamation, that they would sell the empire to whoever would purchase it at the highest price."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 231. That is—"to any man who would purchase it." The affix ever or soever becomes unnecessary when the ellipsis is supplied; and this fact, it must be confessed, is a plausible argument against the supposition of an ellipsis. But the supposing of an antecedent understood, is here unavoidable; because the preposition to cannot govern the nominative case, and the word whoever cannot be an objective. And so in all other instances in which the two cases are different: as, "He bids whoever is athirst, to come."—Jenks's Devotions, p. 151. "Elizabeth publicly threatened, that she would have the head of whoever had advised it."—HUME: in Priestley's Gram., p. 104.

OBS. 15.—If it is necessary in parsing to supply the antecedent to whoever or whosoever, when two different cases are represented, it is but analogous and reasonable to supply it also when two similar cases occur: as, "Whoever borrows money, is bound in conscience to repay it."—Paley. "Whoever is eager to find excuses for vice and folly, will find his own backwardness to practise them much diminished."— Chapone. "Whoever examines his own imperfections, will cease to be fastidious; whoever restrains humour and caprice, will cease to be squeamish."—Crabb's Synonymes. In all these examples, we have the word in the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. And here it is most commonly found. It is always of the third person; and, though its number may be plural; its gender, feminine; its case, possessive or objective; we do not often use it in any of these ways. In some instances, the latter verb is attended with an other pronoun, which represents the same person or persons; as, "And whosoever will, let him take of the water of life freely."—Rev., xxii, 17. The case of this compound relative always depends upon what follows it, and not upon what precedes; as, "Or ask of whomsoever he has taught."—Cowper. That is—"of any person whom he has taught." In the following text, we have the possessive plural: "Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them."—John, xx, 23. That is, "Whatever persons' sins."

OBS. 16.—In such phraseology as the following, there is a stiffness which ought to be avoided: "For whomever God loves, he loves them in Christ, and no otherways."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 215. Better: "For all whom God loves, he loves in Christ, and no otherwise." "When the Father draws, whomever he draws, may come."—Penington. Better: "When the Father draws, all whom he draws, (or, every one whom he draws.) may come." A modern critic of immense promise cites the following clause as being found in the Bible: "But he loveth whomsoever followeth after righteousness."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 72. It is lamentable to see the unfaithfulness of this gentleman's quotations. About half of them are spurious; and I am confident that this one is neither Scripture nor good English. The compound relative, being the subject of followeth, should be in the nominative case; for the object of the verb loveth is the antecedent every one, understood. But the idea may be better expressed, without any ellipsis, thus: "He loveth every one who followeth after righteousness." The following example from the same hand is also wrong, and the author's rule and reasoning connected with it, are utterly fallacious: "I will give the reward to whomsoever will apprehend the rogue."—Ib., p. 256. Much better say, "to any one who;" but, if you choose the compound word, by all analogy, and all good authority, it must here be whoever or whosoever. The shorter compound whoso, which occurs very frequently in the Bible, is now almost obsolete in prose, but still sometimes used by the poets. It has the same meaning as whosoever, but appears to have been confined to the nominative singular; and whatso is still more rare: as, "Whoso diggeth a pit, shall fall therein."—Prov., xxvi, 27.

"Which whoso tastes, can be enslaved no more."—Cowper.

    "On their intended journey to proceed,
    And over night whatso thereto did need."—Hubbard.

OBS. 17.—The relative that is applied indifferently to persons, to brute animals, and to inanimate things. But the word that is not always a relative pronoun. It is sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction. I call it not a demonstrative pronoun and also a relative; because, in the sense in which Murray and others have styled it a "demonstrative adjective pronoun," it is a pronominal adjective, and it is better to call it so. (1.) It is a relative pronoun whenever it is equivalent to who, whom, or which: as, "There is not a just man upon earth, that doeth good, and sinneth not"—Eccl., vii, 20. "It was diverse from all the beasts that were before it."—Dan., vii, 7. "And he had a name written, that no man knew but he himself."—Rev., xix, 12. (2.) It is a pronominal adjective whenever it relates to a noun expressed or understood after it: as, "Thus with violence shall that great city, Babylon, be thrown down."—Rev., xviii, 21. "Behold that [thing] which I have seen."—Eccl., v, 18. "And they said, 'What is that[194] [matter] to us? See thou to that' [matter]."—Matt., xxvii, 4. (3.) In its other uses, it is a conjunction, and, as such, it most commonly makes what follows it, the purpose, object, or final cause, of what precedes it: as, "I read that I may learn."—Dr. Adam. "Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious."—St. Paul. "Live well, that you may die well."—Anon. "Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob."—Genesis. "Judge not, that ye be not judged."—Matthew.

OBS. 18.—The word that, or indeed any other word, should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain; as, "For in the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die."—Gen., ii, 17. Here that seems to be a relative pronoun, representing day, in the third person, singular, neuter; yet, in other respects, it seems to be a conjunction, because there is nothing to determine its case. Better: "For in the day on which thou eatest thereof, thou shalt surely die." This mongrel construction of the word that, were its justification possible, is common enough in our language to be made good English. But it must needs be condemned, because it renders the character of the term ambiguous, and is such a grammatical difficulty as puts the parser at a dead nonplus. Examples: (1.) "But at the same time THAT men are giving their orders, God on his part is likewise giving his."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 106. Here the phrase, "at the same time that," is only equivalent to the adverb while; and yet it is incomplete, because it means, "at the same time at which," or, "at the very time at which." (2.) "The author of this work, at the same time THAT he has endeavoured to avoid a plan, which may be too concise or too extensive, defective in its parts or irregular in the disposition of them, has studied to render his subject sufficiently easy, intelligible, and comprehensive."—Murray's Gram., Introd., p. 1. This sentence, which is no unfair specimen of its author's original style, needs three corrections: 1. For "at the same time that," say while: 2. Drop the phrase, "which may be," because it is at least useless: 3. For "subject," read treatise, or compilation. You will thus have tolerable diction. Again: (3.) "The participles of active verbs act upon objects and govern them in the objective case, in the same manner that the verbs do, from which they are derived. A participle in the nature of an adjective, belongs or refers to nouns or pronouns in the same manner that adjectives do; and when it will admit the degrees of comparison, it is called a participial adjective."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 38. This is the style of a gentleman of no ordinary pretensions, one who thinks he has produced the best grammar that has ever appeared in our language. To me, however, his work suggests an abundance of questions like these; each of which would palpably involve him in a dilemma: What is here meant by "objects," the words, or the things? if the former, how are they acted upon? if the latter, how are they governed? If "a participle is called an adjective," which is it, an adjective, or a participle? If "a participle refers to nouns or pronouns," how many of these are required by the relation? When does a participle "admit the degrees of comparison?" How shall we parse the word that in the foregoing sentences?

OBS. 19.—The word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun, especially after such, so many, or as many; and, whatever the antecedent noun may be, this is the only fit relative to follow any of these terms in a restrictive sense. Examples: "We have been accustomed to repose on its veracity with such humble confidence as suppresses curiosity."—Johnson's Life of Cowley. "The malcontents made such demands as none but a tyrant could refuse."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., Let. 7. "The Lord added to the church daily such [persons] as should be saved."—Acts, ii, 47. "And as many as were ordained to eternal life, believed."—Acts, xiii, 48. "As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten."—Rev., iii, 19. "Know ye not, that so many of us as were baptized into Jesus Christ, were baptized into his death?"—Rom., vi, 3. "For as many of you as have been baptized into Christ, have put on Christ."—Gal., iii, 27. "A syllable is so many letters as are spoken with one motion of the voice."—Perley's Gram., p. 8. "The compound tenses are such as cannot be formed without an auxiliary verb."—Murray's Gram., p. 91. "Send him such books as will please him."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 37. "In referring to such a division of the day as is past, we use the imperfect."— Murray's Gram., p. 70. "Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived."—Ib., Rule xiv. "Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived."— Sanborn's Gram., p. 94. In some of these examples, as is in the nominative case, and in others, in the objective; in some, it is of the masculine gender, and in others, it is neuter; in some, it is of the plural number, and in others, it is singular: but in all, it is of the third person; and in all, its person, number, gender, and case, are as obvious as those of any invariable pronoun can be.

OBS. 20.—Some writers—(the most popular are Webster, Bullions, Wells, and Chandler—) imagine that as, in such sentences as the foregoing, can be made a conjunction, and not a pronoun, if we will allow them to consider the phraseology elliptical. Of the example for which I am indebted to him, Dr. Webster says, "As must be considered as the nominative to will please, or we must suppose an ellipsis of several words: as, 'Send him such books as the books which will please him, or as those which will please him.'"—Improved Gram., p. 37. This pretended explanation must be rejected as an absurdity. In either form of it, two nominatives are idly imagined between as and its verb; and, I ask, of what is the first one the subject? If you say, "Of are understood," making the phrase, "such books as the books are;" does not as bear the same relation to this new verb are, that is found in the pronoun who, when one says, "Tell him who you are?" If so, as is a pronoun still; so that, thus far, you gain nothing. And if you will have the whole explanation to be, "Send him such books as the books are books which will please him;" you multiply words, and finally arrive at nothing, but tautology and nonsense. Wells, not condescending to show his pupils what he would supply after this as, thinks it sufficient to say, the word is "followed by an ellipsis of one or more words required to complete the construction; as, 'He was the father of all such as [] handle the harp and organ.'—Gen. 4: 21."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 164; 3d Ed., p. 172.

OBS. 21.—Chandler exhibits the sentence, "These are not such as are worn;" and, in parsing it, expounds the words as and are, thus; the crotchets being his, not mine: "as…. is an adverb, connecting the two sentences in comparing them, [It is a fault of some, that they make as a pronoun, when, in a comparative sentence, it corresponds with such, and is immediately followed by a verb, as in the sentence now given. This is probably done from an ignorance of the real nominative to the verb. The sentence should stand thus: 'These (perhaps bonnets) are not such (bonnets) as (those bonnets) are (which are) worn.' Then] are …. is the substantive verb, third person, plural number, indicative mood, present tense, and agrees with the noun bonnets, understood."—Chandler's Common School Gram., p. 162. All this bears the marks of shallow flippancy. No part of it is accurate. "Are worn," which the critic unwarrantably divides by his misplaced curves and uncouth impletions, is a passive verb, agreeing with the pronoun as. But the text itself is faulty, being unintelligible through lack of a noun; for, of things that may be "worn," there are a thousand different sorts. Is it not ridiculous, for a great grammarian to offer, as a model for parsing, what he himself, "from an ignorance of the real nominative," can only interpret with a "perhaps?" But the noun which this author supplies, the meaning which he guesses that he had, he here very improperly stows away within a pair of crotchets. Nor is it true, that "the sentence should stand" as above exhibited; for the tautological correction not only has the very extreme of awkwardness, but still makes as a pronoun, a nominative, belonging after are: so that the phrase, "as are worn," is only encumbered and perverted by the verbose addition made. So of an other example given by this expounder, in which as is an objective: "He is exactly such a man as I saw."—Chandler's Com. Sch. Gram., p. 163. Here as is the object of saw. But the author says, "The sentence, however, should stand thus: 'He is exactly such a man as that person was whom I saw.'"—Ibid. This inelegant alteration makes as a nominative dependent on was.

OBS. 22.—The use of as for a relative pronoun, is almost entirely confined to those connexions in which no other relative would be proper; hence few instances occur, of its absolute equivalence to who, which, or that, by which to establish its claim to the same rank. Examples like the following, however, go far to prove it, if proof be necessary; because who and which are here employed, where as is certainly now required by all good usage: "It is not only convenient, but absolutely needful, that there be certain meetings at certain places and times, as may best suit the convenience of such, who may be most particularly concerned in them."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 495. "Which, no doubt, will be found obligatory upon all such, who have a sense and feeling of the mind of the Spirit."—Ib., i, p. 578. "Condemning or removing such things, which in themselves are evil."—Ib., i, p. 511. In these citations, not only are who and which improperly used for as, but the commas before them are also improper, because the relatives are intended to be taken in a restrictive sense. "If there be such that walk disorderly now."—Ib., i, p. 488. Here that ought to be as; or else such ought to be persons, or those. "When such virtues, as which still accompany the truth, are necessarily supposed to be wanting."—Ib., i, p. 502. Here which, and the comma before as, should both be expunged. "I shall raise in their minds the same course of thought as has taken possession of my own."—Duncan's Logic, p. 61. "The pronoun must be in the same case as the antecedent would be in, if substituted for it."—Murray's Gram., p. 181. "The verb must therefore have the same construction as it has in the following sentence."—Murray's Key, p. 190. Here as is exactly equivalent to the relative that, and either may be used with equal propriety. We cannot avoid the conclusion, therefore, that, as the latter word is sometimes a conjunction and sometimes a pronoun, so is the former.

OBS. 23.—The relatives that and as have this peculiarity; that, unlike whom and which, they never follow the word on which their case depends; nor indeed can any simple relative be so placed, except it be governed by a preposition or an infinitive. Thus, it is said, (John, xiii, 29th,) "Buy those things that we have need of;" so we may say, "Buy such things as we have need of." But we cannot say, "Buy those things of that we have need;" or, "Buy such things of as we have need." Though we may say, "Buy those things of which we have need," as well as, "Buy those things which we have need of;" or, "Admit those persons of whom we have need," as well as, "Admit those persons whom we have need of." By this it appears that that and as have a closer connexion with their antecedents than the other relatives require: a circumstance worthy to have been better remembered by some critics. "Again, that and as are used rather differently. When that is used, the verb must be repeated; as, 'Participles require the same government, that their verbs require.'—'James showed the same credulity, that his minister showed.' But when as is used, the verb generally may, or may not be repeated; as, 'Participles require the same government as their verbs;' or, 'as their verbs require.'—'James showed the same credulity as his minister;' or, 'as his minister showed:' the second nominative minister being parsed as the nominative to the same verb showed understood."—Nixon's Parser, p. 140.[195]

OBS. 24.—The terminating of a sentence with a preposition, or other small particle, is in general undignified, though perhaps not otherwise improper. Hence the above-named inflexibility in the construction of that and as, sometimes induces an ellipsis of the governing word designed; and is occasionally attended with some difficulty respecting the choice of our terms. Examples: "The answer is always in the same case that the interrogative word is."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 70. Here is a faulty termination; and with it a more faulty ellipsis. In stead of ending the sentence with is in, say, "The answer always agrees in case with the interrogative word." Again: "The relative is of the same person with the antecedent."—Lowth's Gram., p. 101. This sentence is wrong, because the person of the relative is not really identical with the antecedent. "The relative is of the same person as the antecedent."—Murray's Gram., p. 154. Here the writer means—"as the antecedent is of." "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of the same signification with its own."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 127. Here same is wrong, or else the last three words are useless. It would therefore be improper to say—"of the same signification as its own." The expression ought to be—"of a signification similar to its own." "Ode is, in Greek, the same with song or hymn."—Blair's Rhet., p. 396. Song being no Greek word, I cannot think the foregoing expression accurate, though one might say, "Ode is identical with song or hymn." Would it not be better to say, "Ode is the same as song or hymn?" That is, "Ode is, literally, the same thing that song or hymn is?" "Treatises of philosophy, ought not to be composed in the same style with orations."—Blair's Rhet., p. 175. Here neither with nor as can be proper; because orations are not a style. Expunge same; and say—"in the style of orations."

OBS. 25.—Few writers are sufficiently careful in their choice and management of relatives. In the following instance, Murray and others violate a special rule of their own grammars, by using whom for that "after an adjective of the superlative degree:" "Modifying them according to the genius of that tongue, and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used."—Octavo Gram., p. 1; Fisk's, p. 11; et al. According to Priestley and himself, the great Compiler is here in an error. The rule is perhaps too stringent; but whoever teaches it, should keep it. If he did not like to say, "the best speakers and writers that it is used by;" he ought to have said, "the best speakers and writers that use it." Or, rather, he ought to have said nothing after the word "writers;" because the whole relative clause is here weak and useless. Yet how many of the amenders of this grammar have not had perspicacity enough, either to omit the expression, or to correct it according to the author's own rule!

OBS. 26.—Relative pronouns are capable of being taken in two very different senses: the one, restrictive of the general idea suggested by the antecedent; the other, resumptive of that idea, in the full import of the term—or, in whatever extent the previous definitives allow. The distinction between these two senses, important as it is, is frequently made to depend solely upon the insertion or the omission of a comma. Thus, if I say, "Men who grasp after riches, are never satisfied;" the relative who is taken restrictively, and I am understood to speak only of the avaricious. But, if I say, "Men, who grasp after riches, are never satisfied;" by separating the terms men and who, I declare all men to be covetous and unsatisfied. For the former sense, the relative that is preferable to who; and I shall presently show why. This example, in the latter form, is found in Sanborn's Grammar, page 142d; but whether the author meant what he says, or not, I doubt. Like many other unskillful writers, he has paid little regard to the above-mentioned distinction; and, in some instances, his meaning cannot have been what his words declare: as, "A prism is a solid, whose sides are all parallelograms."—Analytical Gram., p. 142. This, as it stands, is no definition of a prism, but an assertion of two things; that a prism is a solid, and that all the sides of a solid are parallelograms. Erase the comma, and the words will describe the prism as a peculiar kind of solid; because whose will then be taken in the restrictive sense. This sense, however, may be conveyed even with a comma before the relative; as, "Some fictitious histories yet remain, that were composed during the decline of the Roman empire."—Blair's Rhet., p. 374. This does not suggest that there are no other fictitious histories now extant, than such as were composed during the decline of the Roman empire; but I submit it to the reader, whether the word which, if here put for that, would not convey this idea.

OBS. 27.—Upon this point, many philologists are open to criticism; and none more so, than the recent author above cited. By his own plain showing, this grammarian has no conception of the difference of meaning, upon which the foregoing distinction is founded. What marvel, then, that he falls into errors, both of doctrine and of practice? But, if no such difference exists, or none that is worthy of a critic's notice; then the error is mine, and it is vain to distinguish between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of relative pronouns. For example: "The boy that desires to assist his companions, deserves respect."—G. Brown. "That boy, who desires to assist his companions, deserves respect."—D. H. Sanborn. According to my notion, these two sentences clearly convey two very different meanings; the relative, in the former, being restrictive, but, in the latter, resumptive of the sense of the antecedent. But of the latter example this author says, "The clause, 'who desires to assist his companions,' with the relative who at its head, explains or tells what boy deserves respect; and, like a conjunction, connects this clause to the noun boy."—Analytical Gram., p. 69. He therefore takes it in a restrictive sense, as if this sentence were exactly equivalent to the former. But he adds, "A relative pronoun is resolvable into a personal pronoun and a conjunction. The sentence would then read, 'That boy desires to assist his companions, and he deserves respect.' The relative pronoun governs the nearer verb, and the antecedent the more distant one."—Ib., p. 69. Now, concerning the restrictive relative, this doctrine of equivalence does not hold good; and, besides, the explanation here given, not only contradicts his former declaration of the sense he intended, but, with other seeming contradiction, joins the antecedent to the nearer verb, and the substituted pronoun to the more distant.

OBS. 28.—Again, the following principles of this author's punctuation are no less indicative of his false views of this matter: "RULE xiv.—Relative pronouns in the nominative or [the] objective case, are preceded by commas, when the clause which the relative connects [,] ends a sentence; as, 'Sweetness of temper is a quality, which reflects a lustre on every accomplishment'—B. Greenleaf.' Self [-] denial is the sacrifice [,] which virtue must make.' [—L. Murray.] The comma is omitted before the relative, when the verb which the antecedent governs, follows the relative clause; as, 'He that suffers by imposture, has too often his virtue more impaired than his fortune.'—Johnson." See Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 269. Such are some of our author's principles—"the essence of modern improvements." His practice, though often wrong, is none the worse for contradicting these doctrines. Nay, his proudest boast is ungrammatical, though peradventure not the less believed: "No [other] grammar in the language probably contains so great a quantity of condensed and useful matter with so little superfluity."—Sanborn's Preface, p. v.

OBS. 29.—Murray's rule for the punctuation of relatives, (a rule which he chiefly copied from Lowth,) recognizes virtually the distinction which I have made above; but, in assuming that relatives "generally" require a comma before them, it erroneously suggests that the resumptive sense is more common than the restrictive. Churchill, on the contrary, as wrongly makes it an essential characteristic of all relatives, "to limit or explain the words to which they refer." See his New Gram., p. 74. The fact is, that relatives are so generally restrictive, that not one half of them are thus pointed; though some that do restrict their antecedent, nevertheless admit the point. This may be seen by the first example given us by Murray: "Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit a comma before them: as, 'He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteous, and pious life.' But when two members, or phrases, [say clauses,] are closely connected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted: as, 'Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make;' 'A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together.' In the latter example, the assertion is not of 'a man in general,' but of 'a man who is of a detracting spirit;' and therefore they [say the pronoun and its antecedent] should not be separated."—Murray's Gram., Octavo, p. 273; Ingersoll's, 285; Comly's, 152. This reasoning, strictly applied, would exclude the comma before who in the first example above; but, as the pronoun does not "closely" or immediately follow its antecedent, the comma is allowed, though it is not much needed. Not so, when the sense is resumptive: as, "The additions, which are very considerable, are chiefly such as are calculated to obviate objections." See Murray's Gram., p. ix. Here the comma is essential to the meaning. Without it, which would be equivalent to that; with it, which is equivalent to and they. But this latter meaning, as I imagine, cannot be expressed by the relative that.

OBS. 30.—Into the unfortunate example which Sanborn took from Murray, I have inserted the comma for him; not because it is necessary or right, but because his rule requires it: "Self-denial is the sacrifice," &c. The author of "a complete system of grammar," might better contradict even Murray, than himself. But why was this text admired? and why have Greene, Bullions, Hiley, Hart, and others, also copied it? A sacrifice is something devoted and lost, for the sake of a greater good; and, if Virtue sacrifice self-denial, what will she do, but run into indulgence? The great sacrifice which she demands of men, is rather that of their self-love. Wm. E. Russell has it, "Self defence is the sacrifice which virtue must make!"—Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram., p. 116. Bishop Butler tells us, "It is indeed ridiculous to assert, that self-denial is essential to virtue and piety; but it would have been nearer the truth, though not strictly the truth itself, to have said, that it is essential to discipline and improvement."—Analogy of Religion, p. 123.

OBS. 31.—The relative that, though usually reckoned equivalent to who or which, evidently differs from both, in being more generally, and perhaps more appropriately, taken in the restrictive sense. It ought therefore, for distinction's sake, to be preferred to who or which, whenever an antecedent not otherwise limited, is to be restricted by the relative clause; as, "Men that grasp after riches, are never satisfied."—"I love wisdom that is gay and civilized."—Art of Thinking, p. 34. This phraseology leaves not the limitation of the meaning to depend solely upon the absence of a pause after the antecedent; because the relative that is seldom, if ever, used by good writers in any other than a restrictive sense. Again: "A man of a polite imagination is let into a great many pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving."—Addison, Spect., No. 411. Here, too, according to my notion, that is obviously preferable to which; though a great critic, very widely known, has taken some pains to establish a different opinion. The "many pleasures" here spoken of, are no otherwise defined, than as being such as "the vulgar are not capable of receiving." The writer did not mean to deny that the vulgar are capable of receiving a great many pleasures; but, certainly, if that were changed to which, this would be the meaning conveyed, unless the reader were very careful to avoid a pause where he would be apt to make one. I therefore prefer Addison's expression to that which Dr. Blair would substitute.

OBS. 32.—The style of Addison is more than once censured by Dr. Blair, for the frequency with which the relative that occurs in it, where the learned lecturer would have used which. The reasons assigned by the critic are these: "Which is a much more definitive word than that, being never employed in any other way than as a relative; whereas that is a word of many senses; sometimes a demonstrative pronoun, often a conjunction. In some cases we are indeed obliged to use that for a relative, in order to avoid the ungraceful repetition of which in the same sentence. But when we are laid under no necessity of this kind, which is always the preferable word, and certainly was so in this sentence: 'Pleasures which the vulgar are not capable of receiving,' is much better than 'pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving.'"—Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. xx, p. 200. Now the facts are these: (1.) That that is the more definitive or restrictive word of the two. (2.) That the word which has as many different senses and uses as the word that. (3.) That not the repetition of which or who in a series of clauses, but a needless change of the relative, is ungraceful. (4.) That the necessity of using that rather than which or who, depends, not upon what is here supposed, but upon the different senses which these words usually convey. (5.) That as there is always some reason of choice, that is sometimes to be preferred; which, sometimes; and who, sometimes: as, "It is not the man who has merely taught, or who has taught long, or who is able to point out defects in authors, that is capable of enlightening the world in the respective sciences which have engaged his attention; but the man who has taught well."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 7.

OBS. 33.—Blair's Rhetoric consists of forty-seven lectures; four of which are devoted to a critical examination of the style of Addison, as exhibited in four successive papers of the Spectator. The remarks of the professor are in general judicious; but, seeing his work is made a common textbook for students of "Belles Lettres," it is a pity to find it so liable to reprehension on the score of inaccuracy. Among the passages which are criticised in the twenty-first lecture, there is one in which the essayist speaks of the effects of novelty as follows:

'It is this which bestows charms on a monster, and makes even the imperfections of nature please us. It is this that recommends variety, where the mind is every instant called off to something new, and the attention not suffered to dwell too long and waste itself on any particular object. It is this, likewise, that improves what is great or beautiful, and makes it afford the mind a double entertainment.'—Spectator, No. 412.

This passage is deservedly praised by the critic, for its "perspicuity, grace, and harmony;" but, in using different relatives under like circumstances, the writer has hardly done justice to his own good taste. Blair's remark is this: "His frequent use of that, instead of which, is another peculiarity of his style; but, on this occasion in particular, [it] cannot be much commended, as, 'It is this which,' seems, in every view, to be better than, 'It is this that,' three times repeated."—Lect. xxi, p. 207. What is here meant by "every view," may, I suppose, be seen in the corresponding criticism which is noticed in my last observation above; and I am greatly deceived, if, in this instance also, the relative that is not better than which, and more agreeable to polite usage. The direct relative which corresponds to the introductory pronoun it and an other antecedent, should, I think, be that, and not who or which: as, "It is not ye that speak."—Matt., x, 20. "It is thou, Lord, who hast the hearts of all men in thy hands, that turnest the hearts of any to show me favour."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 278. Here who has reference to thou or Lord only; but that has some respect to the pronoun it, though it agrees in person and gender with thou. A similar example is cited at the close of the preceding observation; and I submit it to the reader, whether the word that, as it there occurs, is not the only fit word for the place it occupies. So in the following examples: "There are Words, which are not Verbs, that signify actions and passions, and even things transient."—Brightland's Gram., p. 100. "It is the universal taste of mankind, which is subject to no such changing modes, that alone is entitled to possess any authority."—Blair's Rhetoric, p. 286.

OBS. 34.—Sometimes the broad import of an antecedent is doubly restricted, first by one relative clause, and then by an other; as, "And all that dwell upon the earth, shall worship him, whose names are not written in the book of life."—Rev., xiii, 8. "And then, like true Thames-Watermen, they abuse every man that passes by, who is better dressed than themselves."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 10. Here and, or if he, would be as good as "who;" for the connective only serves to carry the restriction into narrower limits. Sometimes the limit fixed by one clause is extended by an other; as, "There is no evil that you may suffer, or that you may expect to suffer, which prayer is not the appointed means to alleviate."—Bickersteth, on Prayer, p. 16. Here which resumes the idea of "evil," in the extent last determined; or rather, in that which is fixed by either clause, since the limits of both are embraced in the assertion. And, in the two limiting clauses, the same pronoun was requisite, on account of their joint relation; but the clause which assumes a different relation, is rightly introduced by a different pronoun. This is also the case in the following examples: "For there is no condemnation to those that are in Christ Jesus, who walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 432. "I will tell thee the mystery of the woman, and of the beast that carrieth her, which hath the seven heads and ten horns."—Rev., xvii, 7. Here the restrictive sense is well expressed by one relative, and the resumptive by an other. When neither of these senses is intended by the writer, any form of the relative must needs be improper: as, "The greatest genius which runs through the arts and sciences, takes a kind of tincture from them, and falls unavoidably into imitation."—Addison, Spect., No. 160. Here, as I suppose, which runs should be in running. What else can the author have meant?

OBS. 35.—Having now, as I imagine, clearly shown the difference between the restrictive and the resumptive sense of a relative pronoun, and the absolute necessity of making such a choice of words as will express that sense only which we intend; I hope the learner will see, by these observations, not merely that clearness requires the occasional use of each of our five relatives, who, which, what, that, and as; but that this distinction in the meaning, is a very common principle by which to determine what is, and what is not, good English. Thus that and as are appropriately our restrictive relatives, though who and which are sometimes used restrictively; but, in a resumptive sense, who or which is required, and required even after those terms which usually demand that or as: thus, "We are vexed at the unlucky chance, and go away dissatisfied. Such impressions, which ought not to be cherished, are a sufficient reason for excluding stories of that kind from the theatre."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 279. Here which is proper to the sense intended; but such requires as, when the latter term limits the meaning of the former. In sentences like the following, who or which may be used in lieu of that; whether with any advantage or not, the reader may judge: "You seize the critical moment that is favorable to emotion."—Bair's Rhet., p. 321. "An historian that would instruct us, must know when to be concise."—Ib., p. 359. "Seneca has been censured for the affectation that appears in his style."—Ib., p. 367. "Such as the prodigies that attended the death of Julius Cæsar."—Ib., p. 401. "By unfolding those principles that ought to govern the taste of every individual."—Kames's Dedication to El. of Crit. "But I am sure he has that that is better than an estate."—Spect., No. 475. "There are two properties, that characterize and essentially distinguish relative pronouns."—Churchill's Gram., p. 74. By these examples, it may be seen, that Dr. Blair often forgot or disregarded his own doctrine respecting the use of this relative; though he was oftener led, by the error of that doctrine, to substitute which for that improperly.

OBS. 36.—Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, in which sense it always referred to one of two things; as, "Ye fools and blind! for whether is greater, the gold, or the temple that sanctifieth the gold?"—Matt., xxiii, 17. This usage is now obsolete; and, in stead of it, we say, "Which is greater?" But as a disjunctive conjunction, corresponding to or, the word whether is still in good repute; as, "Resolve whether you will go or not."—Webster's Dict. In this sense of the term, some choose to call whether an adverb.

OBS. 37.—In the view of some writers, interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in this; that, as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker, they do not relate to a preceding noun, but to something which is to be expressed in the answer to the question. It is certain that their person, number, and gender, are not regulated by an antecedent noun; but by what the speaker supposes or knows of a subject which may, or may not, agree with them in these respects: as, "What lies there?" Answer, "Two men asleep." Here what, standing for what thing, is of the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; but men, which is the term that answers to it, is of the third person, plural, masculine. There is therefore no necessary agreement between the question and the answer, in any of those properties in which a pronoun usually agrees with its noun. Yet some grammarians will have interrogatives to agree with these "subsequents," as relatives agree with their antecedents. The answer, it must be granted, commonly contains a noun, corresponding in some respects to the interrogative pronoun, and agreeing with it in case; but this noun cannot be supposed to control the interrogation, nor is it, in any sense, the word for which the pronoun stands. For every pronoun must needs stand for something that is uttered or conceived by the same speaker; nor can any question be answered, until its meaning is understood. Interrogative pronouns must therefore be explained as direct substitutes for such other terms as one might use in stead of them. Thus who means what person?

"Who taught that heav'n-directed spire to rise? The Man of Ross, each lisping babe replies."—Pope.

OBS. 38.—In the classification of the pronouns, and indeed in the whole treatment of them, almost all our English grammars are miserably faulty, as well as greatly at variance. In some forty or fifty, which I have examined on this point, the few words which constitute this part of speech, have more than twenty different modes of distribution. (1.) Cardell says, "There is but one kind of pronouns"—Elements of Gram., p. 30. (2.) D. Adam's, Greenleaf, Nutting, and Weld, will have two kinds; "personal and relative." (3.) Dr. Webster's "Substitutes, or pronouns, are of two kinds:" the one, "called personal;" the other, without name or number. See his Improved Gram., p. 24. (4.) Many have fixed upon three sorts; "personal, relative, and adjective;" with a subdivision of the last. Of these is Lindley Murray, in his late editions, with his amenders, Ainsworth, Alger, Bacon, Bullions, Fisk, A. Flint, Frost, Guy, Hall, Kirkham, Lennie, Merchant, Picket, Pond, and S. Putnam. (5.) Kirkham, however, changes the order of the classes; thus, "personal, adjective, and relative;" and, with ridiculous absurdity, makes mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs to be "compounds." (6.) Churchill adopts the plan of "personal, relative, and adjective pronouns;" and then destroys it by a valid argument. (7.) Comly, Wilcox, Wells, and Perley, have these three classes; "personal, relative, and interrogative:" and this division is right. (8.) Sanborn makes the following bull: "The general divisions of pronouns are into personal, relative, interrogative, and several sub-divisions."—Analytical Gram., p. 91. (9.) Jaudon has these three kinds; "personal, relative, and distributive." (10.) Robbins, these; "simple, conjunctive, and interrogative." (11.) Lindley Murray, in his early editions, had these four; "personal, possessive, relative, and adjective." (12.) Bucke has these; "personal, relative, interrogative, and adjective." (13.) Ingersoll, these; "personal, adjective, relative, and interrogative." (14.) Buchanan; "personal, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative." (15.) Coar; "personal, possessive or pronominal adjectives, demonstrative, and relative." (16.) Bicknell; "personal, possessive, relative, and demonstrative." (17.) Cobbett; "personal, relative, demonstrative, and indefinite." (18) M'Culloch; "personal, possessive, relative, and reciprocal." (19.) Staniford has five; "personal, relative, interrogative, definitive, and distributive." (20.) Alexander, six; "personal, relative, demonstrative, interrogative, definitive, and adjective." (21.) Cooper, in 1828, had five; "personal, relative, possessive, definite, and indefinite." (22.) Cooper, in 1831, six; "personal, relative, definite, indefinite, possessive, and possessive pronominal adjectives." (23.) Dr. Crombie says: "Pronouns may be divided into Substantive, and Adjective; Personal, and Impersonal; Relative, and Interrogative." (24.) Alden has seven sorts; "personal, possessive, relative, interrogative, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite." (25.) R. C. Smith has many kinds, and treats them so badly that nobody can count them. In respect to definitions, too, most of these writers are shamefully inaccurate, or deficient. Hence the filling up of their classes is often as bad as the arrangement. For instance, four and twenty of them will have interrogative pronouns to be relatives; but who that knows what a relative pronoun is, can coincide with them in opinion? Dr. Crombie thinks, "that interrogatives are strictly relatives;" and yet divides the two classes with his own hand!

MODIFICATIONS.

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are distinguished by the words themselves; in the relative and the interrogative pronouns, they are ascertained chiefly by means of the antecedent and the verb. Interrogative pronouns, however, as well as the relatives which, what, as, and all the compounds of who, which, and what, are always of the third person. Even in etymological parsing, some regard must be had to the syntactical relations of words. By modifications, we commonly mean actual changes in the forms of words, by which their grammatical properties are inherently distinguished; but, in all languages, the distinguishable properties of words are somewhat more numerous than their actual variations of form; there being certain principles of universal grammar, which cause the person, number, gender, or case, of some words, to be inferred from their relation to others; or, what is nearly the same thing, from the sense which is conveyed by the sentence. Hence, if in a particular instance it happen, that some, or even all, of these properties, are without any index in the form of the pronoun itself, they are still to be ascribed in parsing, because they may be easily and certainly discovered from the construction. For example: in the following text, it is just as easy to discern the genders of the pronouns, as the cases of the nouns; and both are known and asserted to be what they are, upon principles of mere inference: "For what knowest thou, O wife, whether thou shalt save thy husband? or how knowest thou, O man, whether thou shalt save thy wife?"—1 Cor., vii, 16. Again: "Who betrayed her companion? Not I."—Murray's Key, p. 211. Here her being of the feminine gender, it is the inference of every reader, that who and I are so too; but whether the word companion is masculine or feminine, is not so obvious.

OBS. 2.—The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are equally applicable to both sexes; and should be considered masculine or feminine, according to the known application of them. [See Levizac's French Gram., p. 73.] The speaker and the hearer, being present to each other, of course know the sex to which they respectively belong; and, whenever they appear in narrative or dialogue, we are told who they are. In Latin, an adjective or a participle relating to these pronouns, is varied to agree with them in number, gender, and case. This is a sufficient proof that ego, I, and tu, thou, are not destitute of gender, though neither the Latin words nor the English are themselves varied to express it:—

"Miseræ hoc tamen unum Exequere, Anna, mihi: solam nam perfidus ille Te colere, arcanos etiam tibi credere sensus; Sola viri molles aditus et tempora nôras."—Virgil.

OBS. 3.—Many English grammarians, and Murray at their head, deny the first person of nouns, and the gender of pronouns of the first and second persons; and at the same time teach, that, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person:" (Murray's Gr., 2d Ed., p. 111; Rev. T. Smith's, p. 60:) and further, with redundance of expression, that, "The relative is of the same person with the antecedent, and the verb agrees with it accordingly."—Same. These quotations form Murray's fifth rule of syntax, as it stands in his early editions.[196] In some of his revisings, the author erased the word person from the former sentence, and changed with to as in the latter. But other pronouns than relatives, agree with their nouns in person; so that his first alteration was not for the better, though Ingersoll, Kirkham, Alger, Bacon, J. Greenleaf, and some others, have been very careful to follow him in it. And why did he never discern, that the above-named principles of his etymology are both of them contradicted by this rule of his syntax, and one of them by his rule as it now stands? It is manifest, that no two words can possibly agree in any property which belongs not to both. Else what is agreement? Nay, no two things in nature, can in any wise agree, accord, or be alike, but by having some quality or accident in common. How strange a contradiction then is this! And what a compliment to learning, that it is still found in well-nigh all our grammars!

OBS. 4.—If there were truth in what Murray and others affirm, that "Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it," [197] no two words could ever agree in gender; because there can be no such agreement between any two of the words here mentioned, and the assertion is, that gender has respect to no others. But, admitting that neither the author nor the numerous copiers of this false sentence ever meant to deny that gender has respect to nouns, they do deny that it has respect to any other pronouns than these; whereas I affirm that it ought to be recognized as a property of all pronouns, as well as of all nouns. Not that the gender of either is in all instances invariably fixed by the forms of the particular words; but there is in general, if not in every possible case, some principle of grammar, on which the gender of any noun or pronoun in a sentence may be readily ascertained. Is it not plain, that if we know who speaks or writes, who hears or is addressed, we know also the gender of the pronouns which are applied to these persons? The poet of The Task looked upon his mother's picture, and expressed his tender recollections of a deceased parent by way of address; and will any one pretend, that the pronouns which he applied to himself and to her, are either of the same gender, or of no gender? If we take neither of these assumptions, must we not say, they are of different genders? In this instance, then, let the parser call those of the first person, masculine; and those of the second, feminine:—

"My mother! when I learned that thou wast dead, Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed?"—Cowper.

OBS. 5.—That the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine, is perfectly certain; but whether they can or cannot be neuter, is a question difficult to be decided. To things inanimate they are applied only figuratively; and the question is, whether the figure always necessarily changes the gender of the antecedent noun. We assume the general principle, that the noun and its pronoun are always of the same gender; and we know that when inanimate objects are personified in the third person, they are usually represented as masculine or feminine, the gender being changed by the figure. But when a lifeless object is spoken to in the second person, or represented as speaking in the first, as the pronouns here employed are in themselves without distinction of gender, no such change can be proved by the mere words; and, if we allow that it would be needless to imagine it where the words do not prove it, the gender of these pronouns must in such cases be neuter, because we have no ground to think it otherwise. Examples: "And Jesus answered and said unto it, [the barren figtree,] No man eat fruit of thee hereafter forever."—Mark, xi, 14. "O earth, cover not thou my blood."—Job, xvi, 18. "O thou sword of the Lord, how long will it be ere thou be quiet?"—Jeremiah, xlvii, 6. In these instances, the objects addressed do not appear to be figuratively invested with the attribute of sex. So likewise with respect to the first person. If, in the following example, gold and diamond are neuter, so is the pronoun me; and, if not neuter, of what gender are they? The personification indicates or discriminates no other.

   "Where thy true treasure? Gold says, 'Not in me;
    And, 'Not in me,' the diamond. Gold is poor."—Young.

THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases.

I. SIMPLE PERSONALS.

The simple personal pronouns are thus declined:—

I, of the FIRST PERSON, any of the genders.[198]

Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we,
      Poss. my, or mine,[199] Poss. our, or ours,
      Obj. me; Obj. us.

THOU, of the SECOND PERSON, any of the genders.

Sing. Nom. thou,[200] Plur. Nom. ye, or you,
      Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours,
      Obj. thee; Obj. you, or ye.[201]

HE, of the THIRD PERSON, masculine gender.

Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they,
      Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs,
      Obj. him; Obj. them.

SHE, of the THIRD PERSON, feminine gender.

Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they,
      Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs,
      Obj. her; Obj. them.

IT, of the THIRD PERSON, neuter gender.

Sing. Nom, it, Plur. Nom. they,
      Poss. its, Poss. their, or theirs,
      Obj. it; Obj. them.

II. COMPOUND PERSONALS.

The word self, added to the simple personal pronouns, forms the class of compound personal pronouns; which are used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distinguished from others: as, sing, myself, plur. ourselves; sing, thyself, plur. yourselves; sing, himself, plur. themselves; sing, herself, plur. themselves; sing, itself, plur. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and objective. Thus:—

MYSELF, of the FIRST PERSON,[202] any of the genders.

Sing. Nom. myself, Plur. Nom. ourselves,
      Poss. ———, Poss. ————-,
      Obj. myself; Obj. ourselves.

THYSELF, of the SECOND PERSON, any of the genders.

Sing. Nom. thyself,[203] Plur. Nom. yourselves,
      Poss. ———-, Poss. —————,
      Obj. thyself; Obj. yourselves.

HIMSELF, of the THIRD PERSON, masculine gender.

Sing. Nom. himself, Plur. Nom. themselves,
      Poss. ———-, Poss. —————,
      Obj. himself; Obj. themselves.

HERSELF, of the THIRD PERSON, feminine gender.

Sing. Nom. herself, Plur. Nom. themselves,
      Poss. ———-, Poss. —————,
      Obj. herself; Obj. themselves.

ITSELF, of the THIRD PERSON, neuter gender.

Sing. Nom. itself, Plur. Nom. themselves,
      Poss. ———, Poss. —————,
      Obj. itself; Obj. themselves.

III. RELATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES.

The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus declined:—

WHO, literally applied to persons only.

Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who,
      Poss. whose, Poss. whose,
      Obj. whom; Obj. whom.

WHICH, applied to animals and things.

Sing. Nom. which, Plur. Nom. which,
      Poss. [204]—, Poss. ——-,
      Obj. which; Obj. which.

WHAT, applied ordinarily to things only.[205]

Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what,
      Poss. ——, Poss. ——,
      Obj. what; Obj. what.

THAT, applied to persons, animals, and things.

Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that,
      Poss. ——, Poss. ——,
      Obj. that; Obj. that.

AS, applied to persons, animals, and things.

Sing. Nom. as, Plur. Nom. as,
      Poss. ——, Poss. ——,
      Obj. as; Obj. as.

IV. COMPOUND RELATIVES.

The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever[206] are declined in the same manner as the simples, who which, what. Thus:—

WHOEVER or WHOSOEVER, applied only to persons.

Sing. Nom. whoever, Plur. Nom. whoever,
      Poss. whosever, Poss. whosever,
      Obj. whomever; Obj. whomever.

Sing. Nom. whosoever, Plur. Nom. whosoever,
      Poss. whosesoever, Poss. whosesoever,
      Obj. whomsoever; Obj. whomsoever.

WHICHEVER or WHICHSOEVER, applied to persons, animals, and things.

Sing. Nom. whichever, Plur. Nom. whichever,
      Poss. ————-, Poss. ————,
      Obj. whichever; Obj. whichever.

Sing. Nom. whichsoever, Plur. Nom. whichsoever,
      Poss. ————-, Poss. ————,
      Obj. whichsoever; Obj. whichsoever.

WHATEVER or WHATSOEVER, applied ordinarily to things only.

Sing. Nom. whatever, Plur. Nom. whatever,
      Poss. ————, Poss. ————,
      Obj. whatever; Obj. whatever.

Sing. Nom. whatsoever, Plur. Nom. whatsoever,
      Poss. ————-, Poss. ————,
      Obj. whatsoever; Obj. whatsoever.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the possessive case, in each number: as, my or mine, our or ours; thy or thine, your or yours; her or hers, their or theirs. The former is used before a noun expressed, or when nothing but an adjective intervenes; the latter, when the governing noun is understood, or is so placed that a repetition of it is implied in or after the pronoun: as, "My powers are thine; be thine alone The glory of my song."—Montgomery. "State what mine and your principles are."—Legh Richmond, to his Daughters. Better, perhaps: "State what my principles and yours are;"—"State what your principles and mine are;"—or, "State what are my principles and your own."

   "Resign'd he fell; superior to the dart
    That quench'd its rage in yours and Britain's heart."—J. Brown.

    "Behold! to yours and my surprise,
    These trifles to a volume rise."—Lloyd, p. 186.

OBS. 2.—Possibly, when the same persons or things stand in a joint relation of this kind to different individuals or parties, it may be proper to connect two of the simple possessives to express it; though this construction can seldom, if ever, be necessary, because any such expression as thy and her sister, my and his duty, if not erroneous, can mean nothing but your sister, our duty, &c. But some examples occur, the propriety of which it is worth while to consider: as, "I am sure it will be a pleasure to you to hear that she proves worthy of her father, worthy of you, and of your and her ancestors."—Spectator, No. 525. This sentence is from a version of Pliny's letter to his wife's aunt; and, as the ancestors of the two individuals are here the same, the phraseology may be allowable. But had the aunt commended her niece to Pliny, she should have said, "worthy of you and of your ancestors and hers." "Is it her or his honour that is tarnished? It is not hers, but his."—Murray's Gram., p. 175. This question I take to be bad English. It ought to be, "Is it her honour or his, that is tarnished?" Her honour and his honour cannot be one and the same thing. This example was framed by Murray to illustrate that idle and puzzling distinction which he and some others make between "possessive adjective pronouns" and "the genitive case of the personal pronouns;" and, if I understand him, the author will here have her and his to be of the former class, and hers and his of the latter. It were a better use of time, to learn how to employ such words correctly. Unquestionably, they are of the same class and the same case, and would be every way equivalent, if the first form were fit to be used elliptically. For example: "The same phrenzy had hindered the Dutch from improving to their and to the common advantage the public misfortunes of France."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 309. Here the possessive case their appears to be governed by advantage understood, and therefore it would perhaps be better to say, theirs, or their own. But in the following instance, our may be proper, because both possessives appear to be governed by one and the same noun:—

   "Although 'twas our and their opinion
    Each other's church was but a Rimmon."—Hudibras.

OBS. 3.—Mine and thine were formerly preferred to my and thy, before all words beginning with a vowel sound; or rather, mine and thine were the original forms,[207] and my and thy were first substituted for them before consonants, and afterwards before vowels: as, "But it was thou, a man mine equal, my guide, and mine acquaintance."—Psalms, lv, 13. "Thy prayers and thine alms are come up for a memorial before God."—Acts, x, 4. When the Bible was translated, either form appears to have been used before the letter h; as, "Hath not my hand made all these things?"—Acts, vii, 50. "By stretching forth thine hand to heal."—Acts, iv, 30. According to present practice, my and thy are in general to be preferred before all nouns, without regard to the sounds of letters. The use of the other forms, in the manner here noticed, has now become obsolete; or, at least, antiquated, and peculiar to the poets. We occasionally meet with it in modern verse, though not very frequently, and only where the melody of the line seems to require it: as,

"Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow."—Byron.

"Deign on the passing world to turn thine eyes."—Johnson.

"Mine eyes beheld the messenger divine."—Lusiad.

"Thine ardent symphony sublime and high."—Sir W. Scott.

OBS. 4.—The possessives mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, usually denote possession, or the relation of property, with an ellipsis of the name of the thing possessed; as, "My sword and yours are kin."—Shakspeare. Here yours means your sword. "You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was."—Bacon. Here theirs means their faith. "He ran headlong into his own ruin whilst he endeavoured to precipitate ours."—Bolingbroke. Here ours means our ruin. "Every one that heareth these saying of mine."—Matt., vii, 26. Here mine means my sayings. "Sing unto the Lord, O ye saints of his."—Psalms, xxx, 4. Here his means his saints. The noun which governs the possessive, is here understood after it, being inferred from that which precedes, as it is in all the foregoing instances. "And the man of thine, whom I shall not cut off from mine altar, shall be to consume thine eyes, and to grieve thine heart."—1 Samuel, ii, 33. Here thine, in the first phrase, means thy men; but, in the subsequent parts of the sentence, both mine and thine mean neither more nor less than thy and my, because there is no ellipsis. Of before the possessive case, governs the noun which is understood after this case; and is always taken in a partitive sense, and not as the sign of the possessive relation: as, "When we say, 'a soldier of the king's', we mean, 'one of the king's soldiers.'"—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 29. There is therefore an ellipsis of the word soldiers, in the former phrase. So, in the following example, mine is used elliptically for my feet; or rather, feet is understood after mine, though mine feet is no longer good English, for reasons before stated:—

   "Ere I absolve thee, stoop I that on thy neck
    Levelled with earth tins foot of mine may tread."—Wordsworth.

OBS. 5.—Respecting the possessive case of the simple personal pronouns, there appears among our grammarians a strange diversity of sentiment. Yet is there but one view of the matter, that has in it either truth or reason, consistency or plausibility. And, in the opinion of any judicious teacher, an erroneous classification of words so common and so important as these, may well go far to condemn any system of grammar in which it is found. A pronoun agrees in person, number, and gender, with the noun for which it is a substitute; and, if it is in the possessive case, it is usually governed by an other noun expressed or implied after it. That is, if it denotes possession, it stands for the name of the possessor, and is governed by the name of the thing possessed. Now do not my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, and mine, thine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, all equally denote possession? and do they not severally show by their forms the person, the number, and sometimes also the gender, of whomever or whatever they make to be the possessor? If they do, they are all of them pronouns, and nothing else; all found in the possessive case, and nowhere else. It is true, that in Latin, Greek, and some other languages, there are not only genitive cases corresponding to these possessives, but also certain declinable adjectives which we render in English by these same words: that is, by my or mine, our or ours; thy or thine, your or yours; &c. But this circumstance affords no valid argument for considering any of these English terms to be mere adjectives; and, say what we will, it is plain that they have not the signification of adjectives, nor can we ascribe to them the construction of adjectives, without making their grammatical agreement to be what it very manifestly is not. They never agree, in any respect, with the nouns which follow them, unless it be by mere accident. This view of the matter is sustained by the authority of many of our English grammars; as may be seen by the declensions given by Ash, C. Adams, Ainsworth, R. W. Bailey, Barnard, Buchanan, Bicknell, Blair, Burn, Butler, Comly, Churchill, Cobbett, Dalton, Davenport, Dearborn, Farnum, A. Flint, Fowler, Frost, Gilbert, S. S. Green, Greenleaf, Hamlin, Hiley, Kirkham, Merchant, Murray the schoolmaster, Parkhurst, Picket, Russell, Sanborn, Sanders, R. C. Smith, Wilcox.

OBS. 6.—In opposition to the classification and doctrine adopted above, many of our grammarians teach, that my, thy, this, her, our, your, their, are adjectives or "adjective pronouns;" and that mine, thine, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, are personal pronouns in the possessive case. Among the supporters of this notion, are D. Adams, Alden, Alger, Allen, Bacon, Barrett, Bingham, Bucke, Bullions, Cutler, Fisk, Frost, (in his small Grammar,) Guy, Hall, Hart, Harrison, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Lennie, Lowth, Miller, L. Murray, Pond, T. Smith, Spear, Spencer, Staniford, Webber, Woodworth. The authority of all these names, however, amounts to little more than that of one man; for Murray pretended to follow Lowth, and nearly all the rest copied Murray. Dr. Lowth says, "Thy, my, her, our, your, their, are pronominal adjectives; but his, (that is, he's,) her's, our's, your's, their's, have evidently the form of the possessive case: And, by analogy, mine, thine, may be esteemed of the same rank."—Lowth's Gram., p. 23.[208] But why did he not see, that by the same analogy, and also by the sense and meaning of the words, as well as by their distinctions of person, number, and gender, all the other six are entitled to "the same rank?" Are not the forms of my, thy, her, our, your, their, as fit to denote the relation of property, and to be called the possessive case, as mine, thine, his, or any others? In grammar, all needless distinctions are reprehensible. And where shall we find a more blamable one than this? It seems to have been based merely upon the false notion, that the possessive case of pronouns ought to be formed like that of nouns; whereas custom has clearly decided that they shall always be different: the former must never be written with an apostrophe; and the latter, never without it. Contrary to all good usage, however, the Doctor here writes "her's, our's, your's, their's," each with a needless apostrophe. Perhaps he thought it would serve to strengthen his position; and help to refute what some affirmed, that all these words are adjectives.

OBS. 7.—Respecting mine, thine, and his, Lowth and L. Murray disagree. The latter will have them to be sometimes "possessive pronouns," and sometimes "possessive cases." An admirable distinction this for a great author to make! too slippery for even the inventor's own hold, and utterly unintelligible to those who do not know its history! In short, these authors disagree also concerning my, thy, her, our, your, their; and where two leaders of a party are at odds with each other, and each is in the wrong, what is to be expected from their followers? Perceiving that Lowth was wrong in calling these words "pronominal adjectives," Murray changed the term to "possessive pronouns," still retaining the class entire; and accordingly taught, in his early editions, that, "There are four kinds of pronouns, viz., the personal, the possessive, the relative, and the adjective pronouns."—Murray's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 37. "The Possessive Pronouns are such as principally relate to possession or property. There are seven of them; viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. The possessives his, mine, thine, may be accounted either possessive pronouns, or the possessive cases of their respective personal pronouns."—Ib., p. 40. He next idly demonstrates that these seven words may come before nouns of any number or case, without variation; then, forgetting his own distinction, adds, "When they are separated from the noun, all of them, except his, vary their terminations; as, this hat is mine, and the other is thine; those trinkets are hers; this house is ours, and that is yours; theirs is more commodious than ours"—Ib., p. 40. Thus all his personal pronouns of the possessive case, he then made to be inflections of pronouns of a different class! What are they now? Seek the answer under the head of that gross solecism, "Adjective Pronouns." You may find it in one half of our English grammars.

OBS. 8.—Any considerable error in the classing of words, does not stand alone; it naturally brings others in its train. Murray's "Adjective Pronouns," (which he now subdivides into four little classes, possessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite,) being all of them misnamed and misplaced in his etymology, have led both him and many others into strange errors in syntax. The possessives only are "pronouns;" and these are pronouns of the possessive case. As such, they agree with the antecedent nouns for which they stand, in person, number, and gender; and are governed, like all other possessives, by the nouns which follow them. The rest are not pronouns, but pronominal adjectives; and, as such, they relate to nouns expressed or understood after them. Accordingly, they have none of the above-mentioned qualities, except that the words this and that form the plurals these and those. Or, if we choose to ascribe to a pronominal adjective all the properties of the noun understood, it is merely for the sake of brevity in parsing. The difference, then, between a "pronominal adjective" and an "adjective pronoun," should seem to be this; that the one is an adjective, and the other a pronoun: it is like the difference between a horserace and a racehorse. What can be hoped from the grammarian who cannot discern it? And what can be made of rules and examples like the following? "Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with their substantives: as, 'This book, these books; that sort, those sorts; another road, other roads.'"—Murray's Gram., Rule viii, Late Editions; Alger's Murray, p. 56; Alden's, 85; Bacon's, 48; Maltby's, 59; Miller's, 66; Merchant's, 81; S. Putnam's, 10; and others. "Pronominal adjectives must agree with their nouns in gender, number, and person; thus, 'My son, hear the instructions of thy father.' 'Call the labourers, and give them their hire.'"—Maunder's Gram., Rule xvii. Here Murray gives a rule for pronouns, and illustrates it by adjectives; and Maunder, as ingeniously blunders in reverse: he gives a rule for adjectives, and illustrates it by pronouns. But what do they mean by "their substantives," or "their nouns?" As applicable to pronouns, the phrase should mean nouns antecedent; as applicable to adjectives, it should mean nouns subsequent. Both these rules are therefore false, and fit only to bewilder; and the examples to both are totally inapplicable. Murray's was once essentially right, but he afterwards corrupted it, and a multitude of his admirers have since copied the perversion. It formerly stood thus: "The pronominal adjectives this and that, &c. and the numbers[209] one, two, &c., must agree in number with their substantives: as, 'This book, these books; that sort, those sorts; one girl, ten girls; another road, other roads.' "—Murray's Gram., Rule viii, 2d Ed., 1796.

OBS. 9.—Among our grammarians, some of considerable note have contended, that the personal pronouns have but two cases, the nominative and the objective. Of this class, may be reckoned Brightland, Dr. Johnson, Fisher, Mennye, Cardell, Cooper, Dr. Jas. P. Wilson, W. B. Fowle. and, according to his late grammars, Dr. Webster. But, in contriving what to make of my or mine, our or ours, thy or thine, your or yours, his, her or hers, its, and their or theirs, they are as far from any agreement, or even from self-consistency, as the cleverest of them could ever imagine. To the person, the number, the gender, and the case, of each of these words, they either profess themselves to be total strangers, or else prove themselves so, by the absurdities they teach. Brightland calls them "Possessive Qualities, or Qualities of Possession;" in which class he also embraces all nouns of the possessive case. Johnson calls them pronouns; and then says of them, "The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or change of termination."—Gram., p. 6. Fisher calls them "Personal Possessive Qualities;" admits the person of my, our, &c.; but supposes mine, ours, &c. to supply the place of the nouns which govern them! Mennye makes them one of his three classes of pronouns, "personal, possessive, and relative;" giving to both forms the rank which Murray once gave, and which Allen now gives, to the first form only. Cardell places them among his "defining adjectives." With Fowle, these, and all other possessives, are "possessive adjectives." Cooper, in his grammar of 1828. copies the last scheme of Murray: in that of 1831, he avers that the personal pronouns "want the possessive case." Now, like Webster and Wilson, he will have mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, to be pronouns of the nominative or the objective case. Dividing the pronouns into six general classes, he makes these the fifth; calling them "Possessive Pronouns," but preferring in a note the monstrous name, "Possessive Pronouns Substitute." His sixth class are what he calls, "The Possessive Pronominal Adjectives;" namely, "my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, its, own, and sometimes mine and thine."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 43. But all these he has, unquestionably, either misplaced or misnamed; while he tells us, that, "Simplicity of arrangement should be the object of every compiler."—Ib., p. 33. Dr. Perley, (in whose scheme of grammar all the pronouns are nouns,) will have my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their, to be in the possessive case; but of mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, he says, "These may be called Desiderative Personal Pronouns."—Perley's Gram., p. 15.

OBS. 10.—Kirkham, though he professes to follow Murray, declines the simple personal pronouns as I have declined them; and argues admirably, that my, thy, his, &c., are pronouns of the possessive case, because, "They always stand for nouns in the possessive case." But he afterwards contradicts both himself and the common opinion of all former grammarians, in referring mine, thine, hers, &c., to the class of "Compound Personal Pronouns." Nay, as if to outdo even himself in absurdity, he first makes mine, thine, hers, ours, &c., to be compounds, by assuming that, "These pluralizing adjuncts, ne and s, were, no doubt, formerly detached from the pronouns with which they now coalesce;" and then, because he finds in each of his supposed compounds the signification of a pronoun and its governing noun, reassumes, in parsing them, the very principle of error, on which he condemns their common classification. He says, "They should be parsed as two words." He also supposes them to represent the nouns which govern them—nouns with which they do not agree in any respect! Thus is he wrong in almost every thing he says about them. See Kirkham's Gram., p. 99, p. 101, and p. 104. Goodenow, too, a still later writer, adopts the major part of all this absurdity. He will have my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, for the possessive case of his personal pronouns; but mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, he calls "compound possessive pronouns, in the subjective or [the] objective case."—Text-Book of E. Gram., p. 33. Thus he introduces a new class, unknown to his primary division of the pronouns, and not included in his scheme of their declension. Fuller, too, in a grammar produced at Plymouth, Mass., in 1822, did nearly the same thing. He called I, thou, he, she, and it, with their plurals, "antecedent pronouns;" took my, thy, his, her, &c., for their only possessive forms in his declension; and, having passed from them by the space of just half his book, added: "Sometimes, to prevent the repetition of the same word, an antecedent pronoun in the possessive case, is made to represent, both the pronoun and a noun; as, 'That book is mine'—i. e. 'my book.' MINE is a compound antecedent pronoun, and is equivalent to my book. Then parse my, and book, as though they were both expressed."—Fuller's Gram., p. 71.

OBS. 11.—Amidst all this diversity of doctrine at the very centre of grammar, who shall so fix its principles that our schoolmasters and schoolmistresses may know what to believe and teach? Not he that speculates without regard to other men's views; nor yet he that makes it a merit to follow implicitly "the footsteps of" one only. The true principles of grammar are with the learned; and that man is in the wrong, with whom the most learned will not, in general, coincide. Contradiction of falsities, is necessary to the maintenance of truth; correction of errors, to the success of science. But not every man's errors can be so considerable as to deserve correction from other hands than his own. Misinstruction in grammar has for this reason generally escaped censure. I do not wish any one to coincide with me merely through ignorance of what others inculcate. If doctors of divinity and doctors of laws will contradict themselves in teaching grammar, so far as they do so, the lovers of consistency will find it necessary to deviate from their track. Respecting these pronouns, I learned in childhood, from Webster, a doctrine which he now declares to be false. This was nearly the same as Lowth's, which is quoted in the sixth observation above. But, in stead of correcting its faults, this zealous reformer has but run into others still greater. Now, with equal reproach to his etymology, his syntax, and his logic, he denies that our pronouns have any form of the possessive case at all. But grant the obvious fact, that substitution is one thing, and ellipsis an other, and his whole argument is easily overthrown; for it is only by confounding these, that he reaches his absurd conclusion.

OBS. 12.—Dr. Webster's doctrine now is, that none of the English pronouns have more than two cases. He says, "mine, thine, his, hers, yours, and theirs, are usually considered as [being of] the possessive case. But the three first are either attributes, and used with nouns, or they are substitutes. The three last are always substitutes, used in the place of names WHICH ARE UNDERSTOOD."—"That mine, thine, his, [ours,] yours, hers, and theirs, do not constitute a possessive case, is demonstrable; for they are constantly used as the nominatives to verbs and as the objectives after verbs and prepositions, as in the following passages. 'Whether it could perform its operations of thinking and memory out of a body organized as ours is.'—Locke. 'The reason is, that his subject is generally things; theirs, on the contrary, is persons.'—Camp. Rhet. 'Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes, called men.'—Wycherley to Pope. It is needless to multiply proofs. We observe these pretended possessives uniformly used as nominatives or objectives.[210] Should it be said that a noun is understood; I reply, this cannot be true," &c.—Philosophical Gram., p. 35; Improved Gram., p. 26. Now, whether it be true or not, this very position is expressly affirmed by the Doctor himself, in the citation above; though he is, unquestionably, wrong in suggesting that the pronouns are "used in the place of [those] names WHICH ARE UNDERSTOOD." They are used in the place of other names—the names of the possessors; and are governed by those which he here both admits and denies to be "understood."

OBS. 13.—The other arguments of Dr. Webster against the possessive case of pronouns, may perhaps be more easily answered than some readers imagine. The first is drawn from the fact that conjunctions connect like cases. "Besides, in three passages just quoted, the word yours is joined by a connective to a name in the same case; 'To ensure yours and their immortality.' 'The easiest part of yours and my design.' 'My sword and yours are kin.' Will any person pretend that the connective here joins different cases?"—Improved Gram., p. 28; Philosophical Gram., p. 36. I answer, No. But it is falsely assumed that yours is here connected by and to immortality, to design, or to sword; because these words are again severally understood after yours: or, if otherwise, the two pronouns alone are connected by and, so that the proof is rather, that their and my are in the possessive case. The second argument is drawn from the use of the preposition of before the possessive. "For we say correctly, 'an acquaintance of yours, ours, or theirs'—of being the sign of the possessive; but if the words in themselves are possessives, then there must be two signs of the same case, which is absurd."—Improved Gram., p. 28; Phil. Gr., 36. I deny that of is here the sign of the possessive, and affirm that it is taken partitively, in all examples of this sort. "I know my sheep, and am known of mine," is not of this kind; because of here means by—a sense in which the word is antiquated. In recurring afterwards to this argument, the Doctor misquotes the following texts, and avers that they "are evidently meant to include the whole number: 'Sing to the Lord, all ye saints of his.'—Ps. 30, 4. 'He that heareth these sayings of mine.'—Matt. 7."—Improved Gram., p. 29; Phil. Gr., 38. If he is right about the meaning, however, the passages are mistranslated, as well as misquoted: they ought to be, "Sing unto the Lord, O ye his Saints."—"Every one that heareth these my sayings." But when a definitive particle precedes the noun, it is very common with us, to introduce the possessive elliptically after it; and what Dr. Wilson means by suggesting that it is erroneous, I know not: "When the preposition of precedes mine, ours, yours, &c. the errour lies, not in this, that there are double possessive cases, but in forming an implication of a noun, which the substitute already denotes, together with the persons."—Essay on Gram., p. 110.

OBS. 14.—In his Syllabus of English Grammar, Dr. Wilson teaches thus: "My, our, thy, your, his, her, its, their, whose, and whosesoever are possessive pronominal adjectives. Ours, yours, hers, and theirs are pronoun substantives, used either as subjects, or [as] objects; as singulars, or [as] plurals; and are substituted both for [the names of] the possessors, and [for those of the] things possessed. His, its, whose, mine, and thine, are sometimes used as such substantives; but also are at other times pronominal possessive adjectives."—Wilson's Syllabus, p. X. Now compare with these three positions, the following three from the same learned author. "In Hebrew, the adjective generally agrees with its noun in gender and number, but pronouns follow the gender of their antecedents, and not of the nouns with which they stand. So in English, my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their, agree with the nouns they represent, in number, gender, and person. But adjectives, having no change expressive of number, gender, or case, cannot accord with their nouns."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 192. "Ours, yours, hers, and theirs, are most usually considered possessive cases of personal pronouns; but they are, more probably, possessive substitutes, not adjectives, but nouns."—Ib., p. 109. "Nor can mine or thine, with any more propriety than ours, yours, &c. be joined to any noun, as possessive adjectives and possessive cases may."—Ib., p. 110. Whoever understands these instructions, cannot but see their inconsistency.

OBS. 15.—Murray argues at some length, without naming his opponents, that the words which he assumes to be such, are really personal pronouns standing rightfully in the possessive case; and that, "they should not, on the slight pretence of their differing from nouns, be dispossessed of the right and privilege, which, from time immemorial they have enjoyed."—Octavo Gram., p. 53. Churchill as ably shows, that the corresponding terms, which Lowth calls pronominal adjectives, and which Murray and others will have to be pronouns of no case, are justly entitled to the same rank. "If mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, be the possessive case; my, thy, her, our, your, their, must be the same. Whether we say, 'It is John's book,' or, 'The book is John's;' John's is not less the possessive case in one instance, than it is in the other. If we say, 'It is his book,' or, 'The book is his;' 'It is her book,' or, 'The book is hers;' 'It is my book,' or, 'The book is mine;' 'It is your book,' or, 'The book is yours;' are not these parallel instances? Custom has established it as a law, that this case of the pronoun shall drop its original termination, for the sake of euphony, when it precedes the noun that governs it; retaining it only where the noun is understood: but this certainly makes no alteration in the nature of the word; so that either my is as much a possessive case as mine; or mine and my are equally pronominal adjectives."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 221. "Mr. Murray considers the phrases, 'our desire,' 'your intention,' 'their resignation,' as instances of plural adjectives agreeing with singular nouns; and consequently exceptions to the general (may we not say universal?) rule: but if they [the words our, your, their,] be, as is attempted to be proved above, the possessive cases of pronouns, no rule is here violated."—Ib., p. 224.

OBS. 16.—One strong argument, touching this much-disputed point of grammar, was incidentally noticed in the observations upon antecedents: an adjective cannot give person, number, and gender, to a relative pronoun; because, in our language, adjectives do not possess these qualities; nor indeed in any other, except as they take them by immediate agreement with nouns or pronouns in the same clause. But it is undeniable, that my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, do sometimes stand as antecedents, and give person, number, and gender to relatives, which head other clauses. For the learner should remember, that, "When a relative pronoun is used, the sentence is divided into two parts; viz. the antecedent sentence, or that which contains the antecedent; and the relative sentence, containing the relative."—Nixon's Parser, p. 123. We need not here deny, that Terence's Latin, as quoted in the grammars, "Omnes laudare fortunas meas, qui haberem gnatum tali ingeuio præditum," is quite as intelligible syntax, as can literally be made of it in English—"That all would praise my fortunes, who had a son endued with such a genius." For, whether the Latin be good or not, it affords no argument against us, except that of a supposed analogy; nor does the literality of the version prove, at all points, either the accuracy or the sameness of the construction.

OBS. 17.—Surely, without some imperative reason, we ought not, in English, to resort to such an assumption as is contained in the following Rule: "Sometimes the relative agrees in person with that pronoun substantive, from which the possessive pronoun adjective is derived; as, Pity my condition, who am so destitute. I rejoice at thy lot, who art so fortunate. We lament his fate, who is so unwary. Beware of her cunning, who is so deceitful. Commiserate our condition, who are so poor. Tremble at your negligence, who are so careless. It shall be their property, who are so diligent. We are rejoicing at thy lot, who hast been so fortunate."—Nixon's Parser, p. 142. In his explanation of the last of these sentences, the author says, "Who is a relative pronoun; in the masculine gender, singular number, second person, and agrees with thee, implied in the adjective thy. RULE.—Sometimes the relative agrees in person, &c. And it is the nominative to the verb hast been. RULE.—When no nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is the nominative to the verb."—Ib., p. 143. A pupil of G. Brown's would have said, "Who is a relative pronoun, representing 'thy,' or the person addressed, in the second person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to the rule which says, 'A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:' and is in the nominative case, being the subject of hast been; according to the rule which says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is—who hast been; that is, thy lot, or the lot of thee, who hast been."

OBS. 18.—Because the possessive case of a noun or pronoun is usually equivalent in meaning to the preposition of and the objective case, some grammarians, mistaking this equivalence of meaning for sameness of case, have asserted that all our possessives have a double form. Thus Nixon: "When the particle of comes between two substantives signifying different things, it is not to be considered a preposition, but the sign of the substantive's being in the possessive case, equally as if the apostrophic s had been affixed to it; as, 'The skill of Cæsar,' or Cæsar's skill.'"—English Parser, p. 38. "When the apostrophic s is used, the genitive is the former of the two substantives; as, 'John's house:' but when the particle of is used, it is the latter; as, 'The house of John.'"—Ib., p. 46. The work here quoted is adapted to two different grammars; namely, Murray's and Allen's. These the author doubtless conceived to be the best English grammars extant. And it is not a little remarkable, that both of these authors, as well as many others, teach in such a faulty manner, that their intentions upon this point may be matter of dispute. "When Murray, Allen, and others, say, 'we make use of the particle of to express the relation of the genitive,' the ambiguity of their assertion leaves it in doubt whether or not they considered the substantive which is preceded by of and an other substantive, as in the genitive case."—Nixon's English Parser, p. 38. Resolving this doubt according to his own fancy, Nixon makes the possessive case of our personal pronouns to be as follows: "mine or of me, ours or of us; thine or of thee, yours or of you; his or of him, theirs or of them; hers or of her, theirs or of them; its or of it, theirs or of them."—English Parser, p. 43. This doctrine gives us a form of declension that is both complex and deficient. It is therefore more objectionable than almost any of those which are criticised above. The arguments and authorities on which the author rests his position, are not thought likely to gain many converts; for which reason, I dismiss the subject, without citing or answering them.

OBS. 19.—In old books, we sometimes find the word I written for the adverb ay, yes: as, "To dye, to sleepe; To sleepe, perchance to dreame; I, there's the rub."—Shakspeare, Old Copies. The British Grammar, printed in 1784, and the Grammar of Murray the schoolmaster, published some years earlier than Lindley Murray's, say: "We use I as an Answer, in a familiar, careless, or merry Way; as, 'I, I, Sir, I, I;' but to use ay, is accounted rude, especially to our Betters." See Brit. Gram., p. 198. The age of this rudeness, or incivility, if it ever existed, has long passed away; and the fashion seems to be so changed, that to write or utter I for ay, would now in its turn be "accounted rude"—the rudeness of ignorance—a false orthography, or a false pronunciation. In the word ay, the two sounds of ah-ee are plainly heard; in the sound of I, the same elements are more quickly blended. (See a note at the foot of page 162.) When this sound is suddenly repeated, some writers make a new word of it, which must be called an interjection: as, "'Pray, answer me a question or two.' 'Ey, ey, as many as you please, cousin Bridget, an they be not too hard.'"—Burgh's Speaker, p. 99. "Ey, ey, 'tis so; she's out of her head, poor thing."—Ib., p. 100. This is probably a corruption of ay, which is often doubled in the same manner: thus,

"Ay, ay, Antipholus, look strange, and frown."—Shakspeare.

OBS. 20.—The common fashion of address being nowadays altogether in the plural form, the pronouns thou, thy, thine, thee, and thyself, have become unfamiliar to most people, especially to the vulgar and uneducated. These words are now confined almost exclusively to the writings of the poets, to the language of the Friends, to the Holy Scriptures, and to the solemn services of religion. They are, however, the only genuine representatives of the second person singular, in English; and to displace them from that rank in grammar, or to present you, your, and yours, as being literally singular, though countenanced by several late writers, is a useless and pernicious innovation. It is sufficient for the information of the learner, and far more consistent with learning and taste, to say, that the plural is fashionably used for the singular, by a figure of syntax; for, in all correct usage of this sort, the verb is plural, as well as the pronoun—Dr. Webster's fourteen authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. For, surely, "You was" cannot be considered good English, merely because that number of respectable writers have happened, on some particular occasions, to adopt the phrase; and even if we must needs concede this point, and grant to the Doctor and his converts, that "You was is primitive and correct," the example no more proves that you is singular, than that was is plural. And what is one singular irregular preterit, compared with all the verbs in the language?

OBS. 21.—In our present authorized version of the Bible, the numbers and cases of the second person are kept remarkably distinct,[211] the pronouns being always used in the following manner: thou for the nominative, thy or thine for the possessive, and thee for the objective, singular; ye for the nominative, your or yours for the possessive, and you for the objective, plural. Yet, before that version was made, fashionable usage had commonly substituted you for ye, making the former word nominative as well as objective, and applying it to one hearer as well as to more. And subsequently, as it appears, the religious sect that entertained a scruple about applying you to an individual, fell for the most part into an ungrammatical practice of putting thee for thou; making, in like manner, the objective pronoun to be both nominative and objective; or, at least, using it very commonly so in their conversation. Their manner of speaking, however, was not—or, certainly, with the present generation of their successors, is not—as some grammarians represent it to be, that formal and antique phraseology which we call the solemn style.[212] They make no more use of the pronoun ye, or of the verbal termination eth, than do people of fashion; nor do they, in using the pronoun thou, or their improper nominative thee, ordinarily inflect with st or est the preterits or the auxiliaries of the accompanying verbs, as is done in the solemn style. Indeed, to use the solemn style familiarly, would be, to turn it into burlesque; as when Peter Pindar "telleth what he troweth." [213] And let those who think with Murray, that our present version of the Scriptures is the best standard of English grammar,[214] remember that in it they have no warrant for substituting s or es for the old termination eth, any more than for ceasing to use the solemn style of the second person familiarly. That version was good in its day, yet it shows but very imperfectly what the English language now is. Can we consistently take for our present standard, a style which does not allow us to use you in the nominative case, or its for the possessive? And again, is not a simplification of the verb as necessary and proper in the familiar use of the second person singular, as in that of the third? This latter question I shall discuss in a future chapter.

OBS. 22.—The use of the pronoun ye in the nominative case, is now mostly confined to the solemn style;[215] but the use of it in the objective, which is disallowed in the solemn style, and nowhere approved by our grammarians, is nevertheless common when no emphasis falls upon the word: as,

   "When you're unmarried, never load ye
    With jewels; they may incommode ye."—Dr. King, p. 384.

Upon this point, Dr. Lowth observes, "Some writers have used ye as the objective case plural of the pronoun of the second person, very improperly and ungrammatically; [as,]

'The more shame for ye; holy men I thought ye.' Shak. Hen. VIII.

    'But tyrants dread ye, lest your just decree
    Transfer the pow'r, and set the people free.' Prior.

'His wrath, which one day will destroy ye both.' Milt. P. L. ii. 734.

Milton uses the same manner of expression in a few other places of his Paradise Lost, and more frequently in his [smaller] poems, It may, perhaps, be allowed in the comic and burlesque style, which often imitates a vulgar and incorrect pronunciation; but in the serious and solemn style, no authority is sufficient to justify so manifest a solecism."—Lowth's Gram., p. 22. Churchill copies this remark, and adds; "Dryden has you as the nominative, and ye as the objective, in the same passage:[216]

    'What gain you, by forbidding it to tease ye?
    It now can neither trouble ye, nor please ye.'

Was this from a notion, that you and ye, thus employed, were more analogous to thou and thee in the singular number?"—Churchill's Gram., p. 25. I answer, No; but, more probably, from a notion, that the two words, being now confessedly equivalent in the one case, might as well be made so in the other: just as the Friends, in using thee for you, are carelessly converting the former word into a nominative, to the exclusion of thou; because the latter has generally been made so, to the exclusion of ye. When the confounding of such distinctions is begun, who knows where it will end? With like ignorance, some writers suppose, that the fashion of using the plural for the singular is a sufficient warrant for putting the singular for the plural: as,

   "The joys of love, are they not doubly thine,
    Ye poor! whose health, whose spirits ne'er decline?"
        —Southwick's Pleas. of Poverty.

    "But, Neatherds, go look to the kine,
      Their cribs with fresh fodder supply;
    The task of compassion be thine,
      For herbage the pastures deny."—Perfect's Poems, p. 5.

OBS. 23.—When used in a burlesque or ludicrous manner, the pronoun ye is sometimes a mere expletive; or, perhaps, intended rather as an objective governed by a preposition understood. But, in such a construction, I see no reason to prefer it to the regular objective you; as,

   "He'll laugh ye, dance ye, sing ye, vault, look gay,
    And ruffle all the ladies in his play."—King, p. 574.

Some grammarians, who will have you to be singular as well as plural, ignorantly tell us, that "ye always means more than one." But the fact is, that when ye was in common use, it was as frequently applied to one person as you: thus,

   "Farewell my doughter lady Margarete,
    God wotte full oft it grieued hath my mynde,
    That ye should go where we should seldome mete:
    Now am I gone, and haue left you behynde."—Sir T. More, 1503.

In the following example, ye is used for thee, the objective singular; and that by one whose knowledge of the English language, is said to have been unsurpassed:—

   "Proud Baronet of Nova Scotia!
    The Dean and Spaniard must reproach ye."—Swift.

So in the story of the Chameleon:—

"'Tis green, 'tis green, Sir, I assure ye."—Merrick.

Thus we have ye not only for the nominative in both numbers, but at length for the objective in both; ye and you being made everywhere equivalent, by very many writers. Indeed this pronoun has been so frequently used for the objective case, that one may well doubt any grammarian's authority to condemn it in that construction. Yet I cannot but think it ill-chosen in the third line below, though right in the first:—

   "Ye! who have traced the Pilgrim to the scene
    Which is his last, if in your memories dwell
    A thought which once was his, if on ye swell
    A single recollection, not in vain
    He wore his sandal-shoon, and scallop-shell."—Byron.

OBS. 24.—The three pronouns of the third person, he, she, and it, have always formed their plural number after one and the same manner, they, their or theirs, them. Or, rather, these plural words, which appear not to be regular derivatives from any of the singulars, have ever been applied alike to them all. But it, the neuter pronoun singular, had formerly no variation of cases, and is still alike in the nominative and the objective. The possessive its is of comparatively recent origin. In our common Bible, the word is not found, except by misprint; nor do other writings of the same age contain it. The phrase, of it, was often used as an equivalent; as, "And it had three ribs in the mouth of it between the teeth of it."—Dan., vii, 5. That is—"in its mouth, between its teeth." But, as a possessive case was sometimes necessary, our ancestors used to borrow one; commonly from the masculine, though sometimes from the feminine. This produced what now appears a strange confusion of the genders: as, "Learning hath his infancy, when it is but beginning, and almost childish; then his youth, when it is luxuriant and juvenile; then his strength of years, when it is solid and reduced; and lastly his old age, when it waxeth dry and exhaust."—Bacon's Essays, p. 58. "Of beaten work shall the candlestick be made: his shaft, and his branches, his bowls, his knops, and his flowers, shall be of the same."—Exodus, xxv, 31. "They came and emptied the chest, and took it and carried it to his place again."—2 Chron., xxiv, 11. "Look not thou upon the wine, when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself aright."—Prov., xxiii, 31. "The tree is known by his fruit."—Matt., xii, 33. "When thou tillest the ground, it shall not henceforth yield unto thee her strength."—Gen., iv, 12. "He that pricketh the heart, maketh it to show her knowledge."—Eccl., xxii, 19. Shakspeare rarely, if ever, used its; and his style is sometimes obscure for the want of it: as,

   "There is no vice so simple, but assumes
    Some mark of virtue on his outward parts."
        —Merch. of Venice.

    "The name of Cassius honours this corruption,
    And chastisement doth therefore hide his head."
        —Jul. Cæs., Act iv.

OBS. 25.—The possessive case of pronouns should never be written with an apostrophe. A few pronominal adjectives taken substantively receive it; but the construction which it gives them, seems to make them nouns: as, one's, other's, and, according to Murray, former's and latter's. The real pronouns that end in s, as his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, though true possessives after their kind, have no occasion for this mark, nor does good usage admit it. Churchill, with equal disregard of consistency and authority, gives it to one of them, and denies it to the rest. Referring to the classification of these words as possessives, and of my, thy, her, our, your, their, as adjectives, he says: "It seems as if the termination in s had led to the distinction: but no one will contend, that ours is the possessive case of our, or theirs of their; though ours, yours, hers, and theirs, are often very improperly spelt with an apostrophe, a fault not always imputable to the printer; while in it's, which is unquestionably the possessive case of it, the apostrophe, by a strange perverseness, is almost always omitted."—Churchill Gram., p. 222. The charge of strange perverseness may, in this instance, I think, be retorted upon the critic; and that, to the fair exculpation of those who choose to conform to the general usage which offends him.

OBS. 26.—Of the compound personal pronouns, this author gives the following account: "Self, in the plural selves, a noun, is often combined with the personal pronouns, in order to express emphasis, or opposition, or the identity of the subject and [the] object of a verb; and thus forms a pronoun relative: as, 'I did it myself;' 'he was not himself, when he said so;' 'the envious torment themselves more than others.' Formerly self and selves were used simply as nouns, and governed the pronoun, which was kept distinct from it [them] in the possessive case: but since they [the pronoun and the noun] have coalesced into one word, they [the compounds] are used only in the following forms: for the first person, myself, ourselves; for the second, thyself, or yourself, yourselves; for the third, himself, herself, itself, themselves: except in the regal style, in which, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, [making] ourself. Each of these is the same in all three cases."—Churchill's Gram., p. 75. In a note referring to the close of this explanation, he adds: "Own also is often employed with the possessive cases of the personal pronouns by way of emphasis, or opposition; but separately, as an adjective, and not combining with them to form a relative: as, 'I did it of my own free will:' 'Did he do it with his own hand?'"—Ib., p. 227.

OBS. 27.—The preceding instructions, faulty and ungrammatical as they are, seem to be the best that our writers have furnished upon this point. To detect falsities and blunders, is half the grammarian's duty. The pronouns of which the term self or selves forms a part, are used, not for the connecting of different clauses of a sentence, but for the purpose of emphatic distinction in the sense. In calling them "relatives," Churchill is wrong, even by his own showing. They have not the characteristics which he himself ascribes to relatives; but are compound personal pronouns, and nothing else. He is also manifestly wrong in asserting, that they are severally "the same in all three cases." From the very nature of their composition, the possessive case is alike impossible to them all. To express ownership with emphasis or distinction, we employ neither these compounds nor any others; but always use the simple possessives with the separate adjective own: as, "With my own eyes,"—"By thy own confession,"—"To his own house,"—"For her own father,"—"By its own weight,"—"To save our own lives,"—"For your own sake,"—"In their own cause."

OBS. 28.—The phrases, my own, thy own, his own, and so forth, Dr. Perley, in his little Grammar, has improperly converted by the hyphen into compound words: calling them the possessive forms of myself, thyself, himself, and so forth; as if one set of compounds could constitute the possessive case of an other! And again, as if the making of eight new pronouns for two great nations, were as slight a feat, as the inserting of so many hyphens! The word own, anciently written owen, is an adjective; from an old form of the perfect participle of the verb to owe; which verb, according to Lowth and others, once signified to possess. It is equivalent to due, proper, or peculiar; and, in its present use as an adjective, it stands nowhere else than between the possessive case and the name of the thing possessed; as, "The Boy's Own Book,"—"Christ's own words,"—"Solomon's own and only son." Dr. Johnson, while he acknowledges the abovementioned derivation, very strangely calls own a noun substantive; and, with not more accuracy, says: "This is a word of no other use than as it is added to the possessive pronouns, my, thy, his, our, your, their."—Quarto Dict., w. Own. O. B. Peirce, with obvious untruth, says, "Own is used in combination with a name or substitute, and as a part of it, to constitute it emphatic."—Gram., p. 63. He writes it separately, but parses it as a part of the possessive noun or pronoun which precedes it!

OBS. 29.—The word self was originally an adjective, signifying same, very, or particular; but, when used alone, it is now generally a noun. This may have occasioned the diversity which appears in the formation of the compound personal pronouns. Dr. Johnson, in his great Dictionary, calls self a pronoun; but he explains it as being both adjective and substantive, admitting that, "Its primary signification seems to be that of an adjective."—Again he observes, "Myself, himself, themselves, and the rest, may, contrary to the analogy of my, him, them, be used as nominatives." Hisself, itsself, and theirselves, would be more analogical than himself, itself, themselves; but custom has rejected the former, and established the latter. When an adjective qualifies the term self, the pronouns are written separately in the possessive case; as, My single self,—My own self,—His own self,—Their own selves. So, anciently, without an adjective: as, "A man shall have diffused his life, his self, and his whole concernments so far, that he can weep his sorrows with an other's eyes."—South. "Something valuable for its self without view to anything farther."—Harris's Hermes, p. 293. "That they would willingly, and of their selves endeavour to keep a perpetual chastity."—Stat. Ed. VI. in Lowth's Gram., p. 26. "Why I should either imploy my self in that study or put others upon it."—Walker's English Particles, p. xiv. "It is no matter whether you do it by your proctor, or by your self."—Ib., p. 96. The compound oneself is sometimes written in stead of the phrase one's self; but the latter is preferable, and more common. Even his self, when written as two words, may possibly be right in some instances; as,

   "Scorn'd be the wretch that quits his genial bowl,
     His loves, his friendships, ev'n his self, resigns;
    Perverts the sacred instinct of his soul,
     And to a ducat's dirty sphere confines."
        —SHENSTONE: Brit. Poets, Vol. vii, p. 107.

OBS. 30.—In poetry, and even in some compositions not woven into regular numbers, the simple personal pronouns are not unfrequently used, for brevity's sake, in a reciprocal sense; that is, in stead of the compound personal pronouns, which are the proper reciprocals: as, "Wash you, make you clean."—Isaiah, i, 16. "I made me great works; I builded me houses; I planted me vineyards; I made me gardens and orchards."—Ecclesiastes, ii, 4. "Thou shalt surely clothe thee with them all as with an ornament, and bind them on thee as a bride doeth."—Isaiah, xlix, 18. Compare with these the more regular expression: "As a bridegroom decketh himself with ornaments, and as a bride adorneth herself with jewels."—Isaiah, lxi, 10. This phraseology is almost always preferable in prose; the other is a poetical license, or peculiarity: as,

"I turn me from the martial roar."—Scott's L. L., p. 97.

"Hush thee, poor maiden, and be still."—Ib., p. 110.

"Firmer he roots him the ruder it blow."—Ib., p. 49.

OBS. 31.—To accommodate the writers of verse, the word ever is frequently contracted into e'er, pronounced like the monosyllable air. An easy extension of this license, gives us similar contractions of all the compound relative pronouns; as, whoe'er or whosoe'er, whose'er or whosesoe'er, whome'er or whomsoe'er, whiche'er or whichsoe'er, whate'er or whatsoe'er. The character and properties of these compounds are explained, perhaps sufficiently, in the observations upon the classes of pronouns. Some of them are commonly parsed as representing two cases at once; there being, in fact, an ellipsis of the noun, before or after them: as,

"Each art he prompts, each charm he can create, Whate'er he gives, are given for you to hate."—Pope's Dunciad.

OBS. 32.—For a form of parsing the double relative what, or its compound whatever or whatsoever, it is the custom of some teachers, to suggest equivalent words, and then proceed to explain these, in lieu of the word in question. This is the method of Russell's Gram., p. 99; of Merchants, p. 110; of Kirkham's, p. 111; of Gilbert's, p. 92. But it should be remembered that equivalence of meaning is not sameness of grammatical construction; and, even if the construction be the same, to parse other equivalent words, is not really to parse the text that is given. A good parser, with the liberty to supply obvious ellipses, should know how to explain all good English as it stands; and for a teacher to pervert good English into false doctrine, must needs seem the very worst kind of ignorance. What can be more fantastical than the following etymology, or more absurd than the following directions for parsing? "What is compounded of which that. These words have been contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still retained: what—wh[ich—t]hat; (which-that.) Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat, and finally what."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 111. This bald pedantry of "tha qua, qua tha," was secretly borrowed from the grammatical speculations of William S. Cardell:[217] the "which-that" notion contradicts it, and is partly of the borrower's own invention. If what is a compound, it was compounded more than a thousand years ago; and, of course, long before any part of the English language existed as such. King Alfred used it, as he found it, in the Saxon form of hwæt. The Scotch afterwards spelled it quhat. Our English grammarians have improperly called it a compound; and Kirkham, still more absurdly, calls the word others a compound, and mine, thine, ours, yours, &e. compounds.[218]

OBS. 33.—According to this gentleman's notion of things, there is, within the little circle of the word what, a very curious play of antecedent parts and parts relative—a dodging contra-dance of which that and that which, with things which, and so forth. Thus: "When what is a compound relative you must always parse it as two words; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give it case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, giving it a case likewise. Example: 'I will try what (that which) can be found in female delicacy.' Here that, the antecedent part of what, is in the obj. case, governed by the verb 'will try;' which, the relative part, is in the nom. case to 'can be found.' 'I have heard what (i.e. that which, or the thing which) has been alleged.' "—Kirkham's Gram., p. 111. Here, we sec, the author's "which-that" becomes that which, or something else. But this is not a full view of his method. The following vile rigmarole is a further sample of that "New Systematick Order of Parsing," by virtue of which he so very complacently and successfully sets himself above all other grammarians: "'From what is recorded, he appears, &c.' What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which.—Thing, the antecedent part of what, is a noun, the name of a thing—com. the name of a species—neuter gender, it has no sex—third person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. 'from,' and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which I refer.) Which, the relative part of what, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to 'thing' for its antecedent—neut. gender, third person, sing, number, because the antecedent is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. Rel. pron. &c. Which is in the nom. case to the verb 'is recorded,' agreeably to RULE 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 113.

OBS. 34.—The distinction which has been made by Murray and others, between etymological parsing and syntactical—or, between that exercise which simply classifies and describes the words of a sentence, and that which adds to this the principles of their construction—is rejected by Kirkham, and also by Ingersoll, Fuller, Smith, Sanborn, Mack, and some others, it being altogether irreconcilable with their several modes of confounding the two main parts of grammar. If such a distinction is serviceable, the want of it is one of the inherent faults of the schemes which they have adopted. But, since "grammar is the art of speaking and writing with propriety" who that really values clearness and accuracy of expression, can think the want of them excusable in models prescribed for the exercise of parsing? And is it not better to maintain the distinction above named, than to interlace our syntactical parsing with broken allusions to the definitions which pertain to etymology? If it is, this new mode of parsing, which Kirkham claims to have invented, and Smith pretends to have got from Germany, whatever boast may be made of it, is essentially defective and very immethodical.[219] This remark applies not merely to the forms above cited, respecting the pronoun what, but to the whole method of parsing adopted by the author of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures."

OBS. 35.—The forms of etymological parsing which I have adopted, being designed to train the pupil, in the first place, by a succession of easy steps, to a rapid and accurate description of the several species of words, and a ready habit of fully defining the technical terms employed in such descriptions, will be found to differ more from the forms of syntactical parsing, than do those of perhaps any other grammarian. The definitions, which constitute so large a portion of the former, being omitted as soon as they are thoroughly learned, give place in the latter, to the facts and principles of syntax. Thus have we fullness in the one part, conciseness in the other, order and distinctness in both. The separation of etymology from syntax, however, though judiciously adopted by almost all grammarians, is in itself a mere matter of convenience. No one will pretend that these two parts of grammar are in their nature totally distinct and independent. Hence, though a due regard to method demands the maintenance of this ancient and still usual division of the subject, we not unfrequently, in treating of the classes and modifications of words, exhibit contingently some of the principles of their construction. This, however, is very different from a purposed blending of the two parts, than which nothing can be more unwise.

OBS. 36.—The great peculiarity of the pronoun what, or of its compound whatever or whatsoever, is a peculiarity of construction, rather than of etymology. Hence, in etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to notice it only as a relative, though the construction be double. It is in fact a relative; but it is one that reverses the order of the antecedent, whenever the noun is inserted with it. But as the noun is usually suppressed, and as the supplying of it is attended with an obvious difficulty, arising from the transposition, we cut the matter short, by declaring the word to have, as it appears to have, a double syntactical relation. Of the foregoing example, therefore—viz., "From what is recorded," &c.,—a pupil of mine, in parsing etymologically, would say thus: "What is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb." In parsing syntactically, he would say thus: "What is a double relative, including both antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that which. As antecedent, it is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; being governed by from; according to the rule which says, 'A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is goverved [sic—KTH] by it in the objective case.' Because the meaning is—from what. As relative, it is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case; being the subject of is recorded; according to the rule which says, 'A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is—what is recorded."

OBS. 37.—The word what, when uttered independently as a mark of surprise, or as the prelude to an emphatic question which it does not ask, becomes an interjection; and, as such, is to be parsed merely as other interjections are parsed: as, "What! came the word of God out from you? or came it unto you only?"—1 Cor., xiv, 36. "What! know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God?"—1 Cor., vi, 19. "But what! is thy servant a dog, that he should do this great thing?"—2 Kings, viii, 13. "What! are you so ambitious of a man's good word, who perhaps in an hour's time shall curse himself to the pit of hell?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 152.

"What! up and down, carv'd like an apple-tart?"—Shakspeare.

"What! can you lull the winged winds asleep?"—Campbell.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS V.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, and PRONOUNS.

The definitions to be given in the Fifth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, and one for a verb, a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus."—Rom., ix, 20.

Nay is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

But is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

O is an interjection. 1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind.

Man is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Who is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which a question is asked. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Art is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

That is a relative pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Repliest is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Against is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

God is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known, or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Shall is a verb, auxiliary to say, and may be taken with it.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Thing is a common noun of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Formed is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb.

Say, or shall say, is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Him is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

That is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Formed is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Why is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Hast is a verb, auxiliary to made, and may be taken with it.

Thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Made, or hast made, is a verb. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon.

Me is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Thus is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"Every man has undoubtedly an inward perception of the celestial goodness by which he is quickened. But, if to obtain some ideas of God, it be not necessary for us to go beyond ourselves, what an unpardonable indolence it is in those who will not descend into themselves that they may find him?"—Calvin's Institutes, B. i, Ch. 5.

"Jesus answered, If I honour myself, my honour is nothing: it is my Father that honoureth me; of whom ye say, that he is your God: yet ye have not known him; but I know him."—John, viii, 54.

"What! have ye not houses to eat and to drink in? or despise ye the church of God, and shame them that have not? What shall I say to you? shall I praise you in this? I praise you not."—1 Cor., xi, 22.

"We know not what we ought to wish for, but He who made us, knows."—Burgh's Dignity, Vol. ii, p. 20.

"And who is he that will harm you, if ye be followers of that which is good?"—1 Peter, iii, 13.

"For we dare not make ourselves of the number, or compare ourselves with some that commend themselves: but they, measuring themselves by themselves, and comparing themselves among themselves, are not wise."—2 Cor., x, 12.

"Whatever is humane, is wise; whatever is wise, is just; whatever is wise, just, and humane, will be found the true interest of states."—Dr. Rush, on Punishments, p. 19.

"But, methinks, we cannot answer it to ourselves, as-well-as to our Maker, that we should live and die ignorant of ourselves, and thereby of him, and of the obligations which we are under to him for ourselves."—William Penn.

"But where shall wisdom be found? and where is the place of understanding?
The depth saith, 'It is not in me;' and the sea saith, 'It is not with me.'
Destruction and death say, 'We have heard the fame thereof with our
ears.'"—See Job, xxviii, 12, 14, 22; and Blair's Lect., p. 417.

   "I still had hopes, my latest hours to crown,
    Amidst these humble bow'rs to lay me down."—Goldsmith.

    "Why dost thou then suggest to me distrust,
    Knowing who I am, as I know who thou art?"—Milton, P. R.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"I would, methinks, have so much to say for myself, that if I fell into the hands of him who treated me ill, he should be sensible when he did so: his conscience should be on my side, whatever became of his inclination."—Steele, Spect., No. 522.

"A boy should understand his mother tongue well before he enters upon the study of a dead language; or, at any rate, he should be made perfect master of the meaning of all the words which are necessary to furnish him with a translation of the particular author which he is studying."—Gallaudet, Lit. Conv., p. 206.

"No discipline is more suitable to man, or more congruous to the dignity of his nature, than that which refines his taste, and leads him to distinguish, in every subject, what is regular, what is orderly, what is suitable, and what is fit and proper."—Kames's El. of Crit., i, 275.

"Simple thoughts are what arise naturally; what the occasion or the subject suggests unsought; and what, when once suggested, are easily apprehended by all. Refinement in writing, expresses a less natural and [less] obvious train of thought."—Blair's Rhet., p. 184.

"Where the story of an epic poem is founded on truth, no circumstances must be added, but such as connect naturally with what are known to be true: history may be supplied, but it must not be contradicted."—See Kames's El. of Crit., ii, 280.

"Others, I am told, pretend to have been once his friends. Surely they are their enemies, who say so; for nothing can be more odious than to treat a friend as they have treated him. But of this I cannot persuade myself, when I consider the constant and eternal aversion of all bad writers to a good one."—Cleland, in Defence of Pope.

   "From side to side, he struts, he smiles, he prates,
    And seems to wonder what's become of Yates."—Churchill.

    "Alas! what sorrows gloom'd that parting day,
    That call'd them from their native walks away!"—Goldsmith.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"It is involved in the nature of man, that he cannot be indifferent to an event that concerns him or any of his connexions: if it be fortunate, it gives him joy; if unfortunate, it gives him sorrow."—Kames's El. of Crit., i, 62.

"I knew a man who had relinquished the sea for a country life: in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount with a level summit, resembling most accurately a quarter-deck, not only in shape, but in size; and here he generally walked."—Ib., p. 328.

"I mean, when we are angry with our Maker. For against whom else is it that our displeasure is pointed, when we murmur at the distribution of things here, either because our own condition is less agreeable than we would have it, or because that of others is more prosperous than we imagine they deserve?"—Archbishop Seeker.

"Things cannot charge into the soul, or force us upon any opinions about them; they stand aloof and are quiet. It is our fancy that makes them operate and gall us; it is we that rate them, and give them their bulk and value."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 212.

"What is your opinion of truth, good-nature, and sobriety? Do any of these virtues stand in need of a good word; or are they the worse for a bad one? I hope a diamond will shine ne'er the less for a man's silence about the worth of it."—Ib., p. 49.

"Those words which were formerly current and proper, have now become obsolete and barbarous. Alas! this is not all: fame tarnishes in time too; and men grow out of fashion, as well as languages."—Ib., p. 55.

   "O Luxury! thou curs'd by Heaven's decree,
    How ill exchang'd are things like these for thee."—Goldsmith.

    "O, then, how blind to all that truth requires,
    Who think it freedom when a part aspires!"—Id.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS OF PRONOUNS.

LESSON I.—RELATIVES.

"At the same time that we attend to this pause, every appearance of sing-song and tone must be carefully guarded against."—Murray's English Reader, p. xx.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word that had not clearly the construction either of a pronoun or of a conjunction. But, according to Observation 18th, on the Classes of Pronouns, "The word that, or indeed any other word, should never be so used as to leave the part of speech uncertain." Therefore, the expression should be altered: thus, "While we attend to this pause, every appearance of singsong must be carefully avoided."]

"For thou shalt go to all that I shall send thee."—Jeremiah, i, 7; Gurney's Obs., p. 223. "Ah! how happy would it have been for me, had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years that I have possessed my kingdom."—See Sanborn's Gram., p. 242. "In the same manner that relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed."—Ib., p. 71. "Parse or mention all the other nouns in the parsing examples, in the same manner that you do the word in the form of parsing."—Ib., p. 8. "The passive verb will always be of the person and number that the verb be is, of which it is in part composed."—Ib., p. 53. "You have been taught that a verb must always be of the same person and number that its nominative is."—Ib., p. 68. "A relative pronoun, also, must always be of the same person, number, and even gender that its antecedent is."—Ib., p. 68. "The subsequent is always in the same case that the word is, which asks the question."—Ib., p. 95. "One sometimes represents an antecedent noun in the same definite manner that personal pronouns do."—Ib., p. 98. "The mind being carried forward to the time that an event happens, easily conceives it to be present."—Ib., p. 107. "Save and saving are parsed in the same manner that except and excepting are."—Ib., p. 123. "Adverbs describe, qualify, or modify the meaning of a verb in the same manner that adjectives do nouns."—Ib., p. 16. "The third person singular of verbs, is formed in the same manner, that the plural number of nouns is."—Ib., p. 41. "He saith further: 'that the apostles did not anew baptize such persons, that had been baptized with the baptism of John.'"—Barclay's Works, i, 292. "For we which live, are always delivered unto death for Jesus' sake."—2 Cor., iv, 11. "For they, which believe in God, must be careful to maintain good works."—Barclay's Works, i, 431. "Nor yet of those which teach things which they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."—Ib., i, 435. "So as to hold such bound in heaven, whom they bind on earth, and such loosed in heaven, whom they loose on earth."—Ib., i, 478. "Now, if it be an evil to do any thing out of strife; then such things that are seen so to be done, are they not to be avoided and forsaken?"—Ib., i, 522. "All such who satisfy themselves not with the superficies of religion."—Ib., ii, 23. "And he is the same in substance, what he was upon earth, both in spirit, soul and body."—Ib., iii, 98. "And those that do not thus, are such, to whom the Church of Rome can have no charity."—Ib., iii, 204. "Before his book he placeth a great list of that he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the Quakers."—Ib., iii, 257. "And this is that he should have proved."—Ib., iii, 322. "Three of which were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university."—Ib., iii, 180. "Therefore it is not lawful for any whatsoever * * * to force the consciences of others."—Ib., ii, 13. "What is the cause that the former days were better than these?"—Eccl., vii, 10. "In the same manner that the term my depends on the name books."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 54. "In the same manner as the term house depends on the relative near."—Ib., p. 58. "James died on the day that Henry returned."—Ib., p. 177.

LESSON II.—DECLENSIONS.

"Other makes the plural others, when it is found without it's substantive."—Priestley's Gram., p. 12.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun it's is written with an apostrophe. But, according to Observation 25th, on the Declensions of Pronouns, "The possessive case of pronouns should never be written with an apostrophe." Therefore, this apostrophe should be omitted; thus, "Other makes the plural others, when it is found without its substantive."]

"But his, her's, our's, your's, their's, have evidently the form of the possessive case."—Lowth's Gram., p. 23. "To the Saxon possessive cases, hire, ure, eower, hira, (that is, her's, our's, your's, their's,) we have added the s, the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns."—Ib., p. 23. "Upon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both their's and our's."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: 1 Cor., i, 2. "In this Place His Hand is clearly preferable either to Her's or It's." [220]—Harris's Hermes, p. 59. "That roguish leer of your's makes a pretty woman's heart ake."—ADDISON: in Joh. Dict. "Lest by any means this liberty of your's become a stumbling-block."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: 1 Cor., viii, 9. "First person: Sing. I, mine, me; Plur. we, our's, us."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 16. "Second person: Sing. thou, thine, thee; Plur. ye or you, your's, you."—Ib. "Third person: Sing. she, her's, her; Plur. they, their's, them."—Ib. "So shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not your's."—SCOTT ET AL.: Jer., v, 19. "Second person, Singular: Nom. thou or you, Poss. thine or yours, Obj. thee or you."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 13. "Second person, Dual: Nom. Gyt, ye two; Gen. Incer, of ye two; Dat. Inc, incrum, to ye two; Acc. Inc, ye two; Voc. Eala inc, O ye two; Abl. Inc, incrum, from ye two."—Gwill's Saxon Gram., p. 12. "Second person, Plural; Nom. Ge, ye; Gen. Eower, of ye; Dat. Eow, to ye; Acc. Eow, ye; Voc. Eala ge, O ye; Abl. Eow, from ye."—Ib. (written in 1829.) "These words are, mine, thine, his, her's, our's, your's, their's, and whose."—Cardell's Essay, p. 88. "This house is our's, and that is your's. Their's is very commodious."—Ib., p. 90. "And they shall eat up thine harvest, and thy bread: they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds."—Jeremiah, v, 17. "Whoever and Whichever are thus declined. Sing. and Plu. nom. whoever, poss. whoseever, obj. whomever. Sing. and Plu. nom. whichever, poss. whoseever, obj. whichever."—Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram., p. 38. "The compound personal pronouns are thus declined; Sing. N. Myself, P. my-own, O. myself; Plur. N. ourselves, P. our-own, O. ourselves. Sing. N. Thyself or yourself, P. thy-own or your-own, O. thyself or yourself;" &c.—Perley's Gram., p. 16. "Every one of us, each for hisself, laboured how to recover him."—SIDNEY: in Priestley's Gram., p. 96. "Unless when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest their selves."—Wright's Gram., p. 49. "It not only exists in time, but is time its self."—Ib., p. 75. "A position which the action its self will palpably deny."—Ib., p. 102. "A difficulty sometimes presents its self."—Ib., p. 165. "They are sometimes explanations in their selves."—Ib., p. 249. "Our's, Your's, Their's, Her's, It's."—S. Barrett's Gram., p. 24.

   "Their's the wild chace of false felicities:
    His, the compos'd possession of the true."
        —Murray's E. Reader, p. 216.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"It is the boast of Americans, without distinction of parties, that their government is the most free and perfect, which exists on the earth."—Dr. Allen's Lectures, p. 18.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the relative which is here intended to be taken in a restrictive sense. But, according to Observation 26th, on the Classes of Pronouns, (and others that follow it,) the word who or which, with a comma before it, does not usually limit the preceding term. Therefore, which should be that, and the comma should be omitted; thus,—"that their government is the most free and perfect that exists on the earth."]

"Children, who are dutiful to their parents, enjoy great prosperity."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 69. "The scholar, who improves his time, sets an example worthy of imitation."—Ib., p. 69. "Nouns and pronouns, which signify the same person, place, or thing, agree in case."—Cooper's Gram., p. 115. "An interrogative sentence is one, which asks a question."—Ib., p. 114. "In the use of words and phrases, which in point of time relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed."—Ib., p. 146; see L. Murray's Rule xiii. "The same observations, which have been made respecting the effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and participle."—Murray's Gram., p. 193. "The reason that they have not the same use of them in reading, may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method, in which the art of reading is taught."—Ib., p. 252. "Since the time that reason began to exert her powers, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in every breast, without a moment's suspension or pause."—Murray's Key, p. 271; Merchant's Gram., p. 212. "In speaking of such who greatly delight in the same."—Notes to Dunciad, 177. "Except such to whom the king shall hold out the golden sceptre, that he may live."—Esther, iv, 11.—"But the same day that Lot went out of Sodom, it rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and destroyed them all."—Luke, xvii, 29. "In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns which have not yet come under our notice."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 129. "Three natural distinctions of time are all which can exist."—Rail's Gram., p. 15. "We have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and which seem to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient."—Murray's Gram., p. 68; Hall's, 14. "This point encloses a part of a sentence which may be omitted without materially injuring the connexion of the other members."—Hall's Gram., p. 39. "Consonants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a Vowel."—Bucke's Gram., p. 9. "Words are not simple sounds, but sounds, which convey a meaning to the mind."—Ib., p. 16. "Nature's postures are always easy; and which is more, nothing but your own will can put you out of them."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 197. "Therefore ought we to examine our ownselves, and prove our ownselves."—Barclay's Works, i, 426. "Certainly it had been much more natural, to have divided Active Verbs into Immanent, or such whose Action is terminated in it self, and Transient, or such whose Action is terminated in something without it self."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 273. "This is such an advantage which no other lexicon will afford."—DR. TAYLOR: in Pike's Lex., p. iv. "For these reasons, such liberties are taken in the Hebrew tongue with those words as are of the most general and frequent use."—Pike's Heb. Lexicon, p. 184. "At the same time that we object to the laws, which the antiquarian in language would impose upon us, we must enter our protest against those authors, who are too fond of innovations."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 136.

CHAPTER VI.—VERBS.

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou lovest, he loves. VERBS are so called, from the Latin Verbum, a Word; because the verb is that word which most essentially contains what is said in any clause or sentence.

An English verb has four CHIEF TERMS, or PRINCIPAL PARTS, ever needful to be ascertained in the first place; namely, the Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Participle. The Present is that form of the verb, which is the root of all the rest; the verb itself; or that simple term which we should look for in a dictionary: as, be, act, rule, love, defend, terminate.

The Preterit is that simple form of the verb, which denotes time past; and which is always connected with some noun or pronoun, denoting the subject of the assertion: as, I was, I acted, I ruled, I loved, I defended.

The Imperfect Participle is that which ends commonly[221] in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion: as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating.

The Perfect Participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion: as, been, acted, ruled, loved.

CLASSES.

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four classes; regular and irregular, redundant and defective.

I. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, love, loved, loving, loved.

II. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, see, saw, seeing, seen.

III. A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven.

IV. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, beware, ought, quoth.

Verbs are divided again, with respect to their signification, into four classes; active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, and neuter.

I. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object; as, "Cain slew Abel."—"Cassius loved Brutus."

II. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object; as, "John walks."—"Jesus wept."

III. A. passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon; as, "I am compelled."—"Cæsar was slain."

IV. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being; as, "There was light."—"The babe sleeps."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—So various have been the views of our grammarians, respecting this complex and most important part of speech, that almost every thing that is contained in any theory or distribution of the English verbs, may be considered a matter of opinion and of dispute. Nay, the essential nature of a verb, in Universal Grammar, has never yet been determined by any received definition that can be considered unobjectionable. The greatest and most acute philologists confess that a faultless definition of this part of speech, is difficult, if not impossible, to be formed. Horne Tooke, at the close of his Diversions of Purley, cites with contempt nearly a dozen different attempts at a definition, some Latin, some English, some French; then, with the abruptness of affected disgust, breaks off the catalogue and the conversation together, leaving his readers to guess, if they can, what he conceived a verb to be. He might have added some scores of others, and probably would have been as little satisfied with any one of them. A definition like that which is given above, may answer in some degree the purpose of distinction; but, after all, we must judge what is, and what is not a verb, chiefly from our own observation of the sense and use of words.[222]

OBS. 2.—Whether participles ought to be called verbs or not, is a question that has been much disputed, and is still variously decided; nor is it possible to settle it in any way not liable to some serious objections. The same may perhaps be said of all the forms called infinitives. If the essence of a verb be made to consist in affirmation, predication, or assertion, (as it is in many grammars,) neither infinitives nor participles can be reckoned verbs, without a manifest breach of the definition. Yet are the former almost universally treated as verbs, and by some as the only pure verbs; nor do all deny them this rank, who say that affirmation is essential to a verb. Participles, when unconnected with auxiliaries, are most commonly considered a separate part of speech; but in the formation of many of our moods and tenses, we take them as constituent parts of the verb. If there is absurdity in this, there is more in undertaking to avoid it; and the inconvenience should be submitted to, since it amounts to little or nothing in practice. With auxiliaries, then, participles are verbs: without auxiliaries, they are not verbs, but form a separate part of speech.

OBS. 3.—The number of verbs in our language, amounts unquestionably to four or five thousand; some say, (perhaps truly,) to eight thousand. All these, whatever be the number, are confessedly regular in their formation, except about two hundred. For, though the catalogues in our grammars give the number somewhat variously, all the irregular, redundant, and defective verbs, put together, are commonly reckoned fewer than two hundred. I admit, in all, two hundred and nineteen. The regular verbs, therefore, are vastly more numerous than those which deviate from the stated form. But, since many of the latter are words of very frequent occurrence, the irregular verbs appear exceedingly numerous in practice, and consequently require a great deal of attention. The defective verbs being very few, and most of these few being mere auxiliaries, which are never parsed separately, there is little occasion to treat them as a distinct class; though Murray and others have ranked them so, and perhaps it is best to follow their example. The redundant verbs, which are regular in one form and irregular in an other, being of course always found written either one way or the other, as each author chooses, may be, and commonly have been, referred in parsing to the class of regular or irregular verbs accordingly. But, as their number is considerable, and their character peculiar, there may be some advantage in making them a separate class. Besides, the definition of an irregular verb, as given in any of our grammars, seems to exclude all such as may form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed.

OBS. 4.—In most grammars and dictionaries, verbs are divided, with respect to their signification, into three classes only; active, passive, and neuter. In such a division, the class of active verbs includes those only which are active-transitive, and all the active-intransitive verbs are called neuter. But, in the division adopted above, active-intransitive verbs are made a distinct class; and those only are regarded as neuter, which imply a state of existence without action. When, therefore, we speak of verbs without reference to their regimen, we may, if we please, apply the simple term active to all those which express action, whether transitive or intransitive. "We act whenever we do any thing; but we may act without doing any thing."—Crabb's Synonymes.

OBS. 5.—Among the many English grammars in which verbs are divided, as above mentioned, into active, passive, and neuter, only, are those of the following writers: Lowth, Murray, Ainsworth, Alden, Allen, Alger, Bacon, Bicknell, Blair, Bullions, (at first,) Charles Adams, Bucke, Cobbett, Cobbin, Dilworth, A. Flint, Frost, (at first,) Greenleaf, Hall, Johnson,[223] Lennie, Picket, Pond, Sanborn, R. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, and Wright. These authors, and many more, agree, that, "A verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being."—L. Murray. Yet, according to their scheme, such words as walk, run, fly, strive, struggle, wrestle, contend, are verbs neuter. In view of this palpable absurdity, I cannot but think it was a useful improvement upon the once popular scheme of English grammar, to make active-intransitive verbs a distinct class, and to apply the term neuter to those few only which accord with the foregoing definition. This had been done before the days of Lindley Murray, as may be seen in Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 56, and in the old British Grammar, p. 153, each published many years before the appearance of his work;[224] and it has often been done since, and is preferred even by many of the professed admirers and followers of Murray; as may be seen in the grammars of Comly, Fisk, Merchant, Kirkham, and others.

OBS. 6.—Murray himself quotes this improved distribution, and with some appearance of approbation; but strangely imagines it must needs be inconvenient in practice. Had he been a schoolmaster, he could hardly have so judged. He says, "Verbs have been distinguished by some writers, into the following kinds:—

"1st. Active-transitive, or those which denote an action that passes from the agent to some object: as, Cæsar conquered Pompey.

"2d. Active-intransitive, or those which express that kind of action, which has no effect upon any thing beyond itself: as, Cæsar walked.

"3d. Passive, or those which express, not action, but passion, whether pleasing or painful: as, Portia was loved; Pompey was conquered.

"4th. Neuter, or those which express an attribute that consists neither in action nor passion: as, Cæsar stood.

"This appears to be an orderly arrangement. But if the class of active-intransitive verbs were admitted, it would rather perplex than assist the learner: for the difference between verbs active and neuter, as transitive and intransitive is easy and obvious: but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and [those which are] intransitively active, is not always clear. It is, indeed, often very difficult, if not impossible to be ascertained."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 60.[225]

OBS. 7.—The following note, from a book written on purpose to apply the principles of Murray's Grammar, and of Allen's, (the two best of the foregoing two dozen,) may serve as an offset to the reason above assigned for rejecting the class of active-intransitive verbs: "It is possible that some teachers may look upon the nice distinction here made, between the active transitive and the active intransitive verbs, as totally unnecessary. They may, perhaps, rank the latter with the neuter verbs. The author had his choice of difficulties: on the one hand, he was aware that his arrangement might not suit the views of the above-mentioned persons; and, on the other, he was so sensible of the inaccuracy of their system, and of its clashing with the definitions, as well as rules, laid down in almost every grammar, that he was unwilling to bring before the public a work containing so well-known and manifest an error. Of what use can Murray's definition of the active verb be, to one who endeavours to prove the propriety of thus assigning an epithet to the various parts of speech, in the course of parsing? He says, 'A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon.' In the sentence, 'William hastens away,' the active intransitive verb hastens has indeed an agent, 'William,' but where is the object? Again, he says, 'Active verbs govern the objective case;' although it is clear it is not the active meaning of the verb which requires the objective case, but the transitive, and that only. He adds, 'A verb neuter expresses neither action, nor passion, but being, or a state of being;' and the accuracy of this definition is borne out by the assent of perhaps every other grammarian. If, with this clear and forcible definition before our eyes, we proceed to class active intransitive verbs with neuter verbs, and direct our pupils to prove such a classification by reciting Murray's definition of the neuter verb, we may indeed expect from a thinking pupil the remonstrance which was actually made to a teacher on that system, while parsing the verb 'to run.' 'Sir,' asks the boy, 'does not to run imply action, for it always makes me perspire?'"—Nixon's English Parser, p. 9.

OBS. 8.—For the consideration of those classical scholars who may think we are bound by the authority of general usage, to adhere to the old division of verbs into active, passive, and neuter, it may be proper to say, that the distribution of the verbs in Latin, has been as much a matter of dispute among the great grammarians of that language, as has the distribution of English verbs, more recently, among ourselves; and often the points at issue were precisely the same.[226] To explain here the different views of the very old grammarians, as Charisius, Donatus, Servius, Priscian; or even to notice the opinions of later critics, as Sanctius, Scioppius, Vossius, Perizonius; might seem perhaps a needless departure from what the student of mere English grammar is concerned to know. The curious, however, may find interesting citations from all these authors, under the corresponding head, in some of our Latin grammars. See Prat's Grammatica Latina, 8vo, London, 1722. It is certain that the division of active verbs, into transitive and intransitive—or, (what is the same thing,) into "absolute and transitive"—or, into "immanent and transient"—is of a very ancient date. The notion of calling passive verbs transitive, when used in their ordinary and proper construction, as some now do, is, I think, a modern one, and no small error.

OBS. 9.—Dr. Adam's distribution of verbs, is apparently the same as the first part of Murray's; and his definitions are also in nearly the same words. But he adds, "The verb Active is also called Transitive, when the action passeth over to the object, or hath an effect on some other thing; as, scribo literas, I write letters: but when the action is confined within the agent, and passeth not over to any object, it is called Intransitive; as, ambulo, I walk; curro, I run: [fist] which are likewise called Neuter Verbs."—Adam's Latin and English Gram., p. 79. But he had just before said, "A Neuter verb properly expresses neither action nor passion, but simply the being, state, or condition of things; as, dormio, I sleep; sedeo, I sit."—Ibid. Verbs of motion or action, then, must needs be as improperly called neuter, in Latin, as in English. Nor is this author's arrangement orderly in other respects; for he treats of "Deponent and Common Verbs," of "Irregular Verbs," of "Defective Verbs," and of "Impersonal Verbs," none of which had he mentioned in his distribution. Nor are the late revisers of his grammar any more methodical.

OBS. 10.—The division of our verbs into active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, and neuter, must be understood to have reference not only to their signification as of themselves, but also to their construction with respect to the government of an objective word after them. The latter is in fact their most important distinction, though made with reference to a different part of speech. The classical scholar, too, being familiar with the forms of Latin and Greek verbs, will doubtless think it a convenience, to have the arrangement as nearly correspondent to those ancient forms, as the nature of our language will admit. This is perhaps the strongest argument for the recognition of the class of passive verbs in English. Some grammarians, choosing to parse the passive participle separately, reject this class of verbs altogether; and, forming their division of the rest with reference to the construction alone, make but two classes, transitive and intransitive. Such is the distribution adopted by C. Alexander, D. Adams, Bingham, Chandler, E. Cobb, Harrison, Nutting, and John Peirce; and supported also by some British writers, among whom are McCulloch and Grant. Such too was the distribution of Webster, in his Plain and Comprehensive Grammar, as published in 1800. He then taught: "We have no passive verb in the language; and those which are called neuter are mostly active."—Page 14. But subsequently, in his Philosophical, Abridged, and Improved Grammars, he recognized "a more natural and comprehensive division" of verbs, "transitive, intransitive, and passive."—Webster's Rudiments, p. 20. This, in reality, differs but little from the old division into active, passive, and neuter. In some grammars of recent date, as Churchill's, R. W. Bailey's, J. R. Brown's, Butler's, S. W. Clark's, Frazee's, Hart's, Hendrick's, Perley's, Pinneo's, Weld's, Wells's, Mulligan's, and the improved treatises of Bullions and Frost, verbs are said to be of two kinds only, transitive and intransitive; but these authors allow to transitive verbs a "passive form," or "passive voice,"—absurdly making all passive verbs transitive, and all neuters intransitive, as if action were expressed by both. For this most faulty classification, Dr. Bullions pretends the authority of "Mr. Webster;" and Frazee, that of "Webster, Bullions, and others."—Frazee's Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 30. But if Dr. Webster ever taught the absurd doctrine that passive verbs are transitive, he has contradicted it far too much to have any weight in its favour.

OBS. 11.—Dalton makes only two classes; and these he will have to be active and passive: an arrangement for which he might have quoted Scaliger, Sanctius, and Scioppius. Ash and Coar recognize but two, which they call active and neuter. This was also the scheme of Bullions, in his Principles of E. Gram., 4th Edition, 1842. Priestley and Maunder have two, which they call transitive and neuter; but Maunder, like some named above, will have transitive verbs to be susceptible of an active and a passive voice, and Priestley virtually asserts the same. Cooper, Day, Davis, Hazen, Hiley, Webster, Wells, (in his 1st Edition,) and Wilcox. have three classes; transitive, intransitive, and passive. Sanders's Grammar has three; "Transitive, Intransitive, and Neuter;" and two voices, both transitive! Jaudon has four: transitive, intransitive, auxiliary, and passive. Burn has four; active, passive, neuter, and substantive. Cardell labours hard to prove that all verbs are both active and transitive; and for this, had he desired their aid, he might have cited several ancient authorities.[227] Cutler avers, "All verbs are active;" yet he divides them "into active transitive, active intransitive, and participial verbs."—Grammar and Parser, p. 31. Some grammarians, appearing to think all the foregoing modes of division useless, attempt nothing of the kind. William Ward, in 1765, rejected all such classification, but recognized three voices; "Active, Passive, and Middle; as, I call, I am called, I am calling." Farnum, in 1842, acknowledged the first two of these voices, but made no division of verbs into classes.

OBS. 12.—If we admit the class of active-intransitive verbs, that of verbs neuter will unquestionably be very small. And this refutes Murray's objection, that the learner will "often" be puzzled to know which is which. Nor can it be of any consequence, if he happen in some instances to decide wrong. To be, to exist, to remain, to seem, to lie, to sleep, to rest, to belong, to appertain, and perhaps a few more, may best be called neuter; though some grammarians, as may be inferred from what is said above, deny that there are any neuter verbs in any language. "Verba Neutra, ait Sanctius, nullo pacto esse possunt; quia, teste Aristotele, omnis motus, actio, vel passio, nihil medium est."—Prat's Latin Gram., p. 117. John Grant, in his Institutes of Latin Grammar, recognizes in the verbs of that language the distinction which Murray supposes to be so "very difficult" in those of our own; and, without falling into the error of Sanctius, or of Lily,[228] respecting neuter verbs, judiciously confines the term to such as are neuter in reality.

OBS. 13.—Active-transitive verbs, in English, generally require, that the agent or doer of the action be expressed before them in the nominative case, and the object or receiver of the action, after them in the objective; as, "Cæsar conquered Pompey." Passive verbs, which are never primitives, but always derived from active-transitive verbs, (in order to form sentences of like import from natural opposites in voice and sense,) reverse this order, change the cases of the nouns, and denote that the subject, named before them, is affected by the action; while the agent follows, being introduced by the preposition by: as, "Pompey was conquered by Cæsar." But, as our passive verb always consists of two or more separable parts, this order is liable to be varied, especially in poetry; as,

   "How many things by season seasoned are
    To their right praise and true perfection!"—Shakspeare.

    "Experience is by industry achieved,
    And perfected by the swift course of time."—Id.

OBS. 14.—Most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. Active verbs are transitive whenever there is any person or thing expressed or clearly implied on which the action terminates; as, "I knew him well, and every truant knew."—Goldsmith. When they do not govern such an object, they are intransitive, whatever may be their power on other occasions; as, "The grand elementary principles of pleasure, by which he knows, and feels, and lives, and moves."—Wordsworth's Pref., p. xxiii. "The Father originates and elects. The Son mediates and atones. The Holy Spirit regenerates and sanctifies."—Gurney's Portable Evidences, p. 66. "Spectators remark, judges decide, parties watch."—Blair's Rhet., p. 271. "In a sermon, a preacher may explain, demonstrate, infer, exhort, admonish, comfort."—Alexander's E. Gram., p. 91.

OBS. 15.—Some verbs may be used in either an active or a neuter sense. In the sentence, "Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb; but in the sentence, "Here I rest my hopes," rest is an active-transitive verb, and governs hopes. And a few that are always active in a grammatical sense, as necessarily requiring an object after them, do not always indicate such an exertion of force as we commonly call action. Such perhaps are the verbs to have, to possess, to owe, to cost; as, "They have no wine."—"The house has a portico."—"The man possesses no real estate."—"A son owes help and honour to his father."—Holyday. "The picture cost a crown."—Wright, p. 181. Yet possibly even these may be sometimes rather active-intransitive; as, "I can bear my part; 'tis my occupation: have at it with you."—Shakspeare. "Kings have to deal with their neighbours."—Bacon. "She will let her instructions enter where folly now possesses."—Shakspeare.

   "Thou hast deserv'd more love than I can show;
    But 'tis thy fate to give, and mine to owe."—Dryden.

OBS. 16.—An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its object, will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form: the object of the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and the preposition itself being retained with the verb, as an adverb: as, (Active,) "They laughed at him."—(Passive,) "He was laughed at." "For some time the nonconformists were connived at."—Robertson's America, Vol. ii, p. 414. "Every man shall be dealt equitably with."—Butler's Analogy, p. 212. "If a church would be looked up to, it must stand high."—Parker's Idea, p. 15.

OBS. 17.—In some instances, what is commonly considered the active form of the verb, is used in a passive sense; and, still oftener, as we have no other passive form that so well denotes continuance, we employ the participle in ing in that sense also: as, "I'll teach you all what's owing to your Queen."—Dryden. That is—what is due, or owed. "The books continue selling; i.e. upon the sale, or to be sold."—Priestley's Gram., p. 111. "So we say the brass is forging; i.e. at the forging, or in [being forged."]—Ib. "They are to blame; i.e. to be blamed."—Ib. Hence some grammarians seem to think, that in our language the distinction between active and passive verbs is of little consequence: "Mr. Grant, however, observes, p. 65, 'The component parts of the English verb, or name of action, are few, simple, and natural; they, consist of three words, as plough, ploughing, ploughed. Now these words, and their inflections, may be employed either actively or passively. Actively, 'They plough the fields; they are ploughing the fields; they ploughed, or have ploughed, the fields.' Passively, 'The fields plough well; the fields are ploughing; the fields are ploughed.' This passive use of the present tense and participle is, however, restricted to what he denominates 'verbs of external, material, or mechanical action;' and not to be extended to verbs of sensation and perception; e.g. love, feel, see, &c."—Nutting's Gram., p. 40.

MODIFICATIONS.

Verbs have modifications of four kinds; namely, Moods, Tenses, Persons and Numbers.

MOODS.

Moods [229] are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner.

There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative.

The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number: as, "To die,—to sleep;—To sleep!—perchance, to dream!"

The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing: as, I write; you know: or asks a question; as, "Do you know?"—"Know ye not?"

The Potential mood is that form of the verb which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as, "I can walk; he may ride; we must go."

The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, and contingent: as, "If thou go, see that thou offend not."—"See thou do it not."—Rev., xix, 10.

The Imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting: as, "Depart thou."—"Be comforted."—"Forgive me."—"Go in peace."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The Infinitive mood is so called in opposition to the other moods, in which the verb is said to be finite. In all the other moods, the verb has a strict connexion, and necessary agreement in person and number, with some subject or nominative, expressed or understood; but the infinitive is the mere verb, without any such agreement, and has no power of completing sense with a noun. In the nature of things, however, all being, action, or passion, not contemplated abstractly as a thing, belongs to something that is, or acts, or is acted upon. Accordingly infinitives have, in most instances, a reference to some subject of this kind; though their grammatical dependence connects them more frequently with some other term. The infinitive mood, in English, is distinguished by the preposition to; which, with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it, and may be said to govern it. In dictionaries, and grammars, to is often used as a mere index, to distinguish verbs from the other parts of speech. But this little word has no more claim to be ranked as a part of the verb, than has the conjunction if, which is the sign of the subjunctive. It is the nature of a preposition, to show the relation of different things, thoughts, or words, to each other; and this "sign of the infinitive" may well be pursued separately as a preposition, since in most instances it manifestly shows the relation between the infinitive verb and some other term. Besides, by most of our grammarians, the present tense of the infinitive mood is declared to be the radical form of the verb; but this doctrine must be plainly untrue, upon the supposition that this tense is a compound.

OBS. 2.—The Indicative mood is so called because its chief use is, to indicate, or declare positively, whatever one wishes to say. It is that form of the verb, which we always employ when we affirm or deny any thing in a direct and independent manner. It is more frequently used, and has a greater number of tenses, than any other mood; and is also, in our language, the only one in which the principal verb is varied in termination. It is not, however, on all occasions, confined to its primary use; else it would be simply and only declarative. But we use it sometimes interrogatively, sometimes conditionally; and each of these uses is different from a simple declaration. Indeed, the difference between a question and an assertion is practically very great. Hence some of the old grammarians made the form of inquiry a separate mood, which they called the Interrogative Mood. But, as these different expressions are distinguished, not by any difference of form in the verb itself, but merely by a different order, choice, or delivery of the words, it has been found most convenient in practice, to treat them as one mood susceptible of different senses. So, in every conditional sentence, the prot'asis, or condition, differs considerably from the apod'osis, or principal clause, even where both are expressed as facts. Hence some of our modern grammarians, by the help of a few connectives, absurdly merge a great multitude of Indicative or Potential expressions in what they call the Subjunctive Mood. But here again it is better to refer still to the Indicative or Potential mood whatsoever has any proper sign of such mood, even though it occur in a dependent clause.

OBS. 3.—The Potential mood is so called because the leading idea expressed by it, is that of the power of performing some action. This mood is known by the signs may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. Some of these auxiliaries convey other ideas than that of power in the agent; but there is no occasion to explain them severally here. The potential mood, like the indicative, may be used in asking a question; as, "Must I budge? must I observe you? must I stand and crouch under your testy humour?"—Shakspeare. No question can be asked in any other mood than these two. By some grammarians, the potential mood has been included in the subjunctive, because its meaning is often expressed in Latin by what in that language is called the subjunctive. By others, it has been entirely rejected, because all its tenses are compound, and it has been thought the words could as well be parsed separately. Neither of these opinions is sufficiently prevalent, or sufficiently plausible, to deserve a laboured refutation. On the other hand, James White, in his Essay on the English Verb, (London, 1761,) divided this mood into the following five: "the Elective," denoted by may or might; "the Potential," by can or could; "the Determinative" by would; "the Obligative," by should; and "the Compulsive," by must. Such a distribution is needlessly minute. Most of these can as well be spared as those other "moods, Interrogative, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, Precative, &c.", which Murray mentions only to reject. See his Octavo Gram., p. 68.

OBS. 4.—The Subjunctive mood is so called because it is always subjoined to an other verb. It usually denotes some doubtful contingency, or some supposition contrary to fact. The manner of its dependence is commonly denoted by one of the following conjunctions; if, that, though, lest, unless. The indicative and potential moods, in all their tenses, may be used in the same dependent manner, to express any positive or potential condition; but this seems not to be a sufficient reason for considering them as parts of the subjunctive mood. In short, the idea of a "subjunctive mood in the indicative form," (which is adopted by Chandler, Frazee, Fisk, S. S. Greene, Comly, Ingersoll, R. C. Smith, Sanborn, Mack, Butler, Hart, Weld, Pinneo, and others,) is utterly inconsistent with any just notion of what a mood is; and the suggestion, which we frequently meet with, that the regular indicative or potential mood may be thrown into the subjunctive by merely prefixing a conjunction, is something worse than nonsense. Indeed, no mood can ever be made a part of an other, without the grossest confusion and absurdity. Yet, strange as it is, some celebrated authors, misled by an if, have tangled together three of them, producing such a snarl of tenses as never yet can have been understood without being thought ridiculous. See Murray's Grammar, and others that agree with his late editions.

OBS. 5.—In regard to the number and form of the tenses which should constitute the subjunctive mood in English, our grammarians are greatly at variance; and some, supposing its distinctive parts to be but elliptical forms of the indicative or the potential,[230] even deny the existence of such a mood altogether. On this point, the instructions published by Lindley Murray, however commended and copied, are most remarkably vague and inconsistent.[231] The early editions of his Grammar gave to this mood six tenses, none of which had any of the personal inflections; consequently there was, in all the tenses, some difference between it and the indicative. His later editions, on the contrary, make the subjunctive exactly like the indicative, except in the present tense, and in the choice of auxiliaries for the second-future. Both ways, he goes too far. And while at last he restricts the distinctive form of the subjunctive to narrower bounds than he ought, and argues against, "If thou loved, If thou knew," &c., he gives to this mood not only the last five tenses of the indicative, but also all those of the potential, with its multiplied auxiliaries; alleging, "that as the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, by the expression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c.[232] being superadded to it, so the potential mood may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive."—Octavo Gram., p. 82. According to this, the subjunctive mood of every regular verb embraces, in one voice, as many as one hundred and thirty-eight different expressions; and it may happen, that in one single tense a verb shall have no fewer than fifteen different forms in each person and number. Six times fifteen are ninety; and so many are the several phrases which now compose Murray's pluperfect tense of the subjunctive mood of the verb to strow—a tense which most grammarians very properly reject as needless! But this is not all. The scheme not only confounds the moods, and utterly overwhelms the learner with its multiplicity, but condemns as bad English what the author himself once adopted and taught for the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood, "If thou loved, If thou knew," &c., wherein he was sustained by Dr. Priestley, by Harrison, by Caleb Alexander, by John Burn, by Alexander Murray, the schoolmaster, and by others of high authority. Dr. Johnson, indeed, made the preterit subjunctive like the indicative; and this may have induced the author to change his plan, and inflect this part of the verb with st. But Dr. Alexander Murray, a greater linguist than either of them, very positively declares this to be wrong: "When such words as if, though, unless, except, whether, and the like, are used before verbs, they lose their terminations of est, eth, and s, in those persons which commonly have them. No speaker of good English, expressing himself conditionally, says, Though thou fallest, or Though he falls, but, Though thou fall, and Though he fall; nor, Though thou camest, but, Though, or although, thou came."—History of European Languages, Vol. i, p. 55.

OBS. 6.—Nothing is more important in the grammar of any language, than a knowledge of the true forms of its verbs. Nothing is more difficult in the grammar of our own, than to learn, in this instance and some others, what forms we ought to prefer. Yet some authors tell us, and Dr. Lowth among the rest, that our language is wonderfully simple and easy. Perhaps it is so. But do not its "simplicity and facility" appear greatest to those who know least about it?—i.e., least of its grammar, and least of its history? In citing a passage from the eighteenth chapter of Ezekiel, Lord Kames has taken the liberty to change the word hath to have seven times in one sentence. This he did, upon the supposition that the subjunctive mood has a perfect tense which differs from that of the indicative; and for such an idea he had the authority of Dr. Johnson's Grammar, and others. The sentence is this: "But if he be a robber, a shedder of blood; if he have eaten upon the mountains, and defiled his neighbour's wife; if he have oppressed the poor and needy, have spoiled by violence, have not restored the pledge, have lift up his eyes to idols, have given forth upon usury, and have taken increase: shall he live? he shall not live."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 261. Now, is this good English, or is it not? One might cite about half of our grammarians in favour of this reading, and the other half against it; with Murray, the most noted of all, first on one side, and then on the other. Similar puzzles may be presented concerning three or four other tenses, which are sometimes ascribed, and sometimes denied, to this mood. It seems to me, after much examination, that the subjunctive mood in English should have two tenses, and no more; the present and the imperfect. The present tense of this mood naturally implies contingency and futurity, while the imperfect here becomes an aorist, and serves to suppose a case as a mere supposition, a case contrary to fact. Consequently the foregoing sentence, if expressed by the subjunctive at all, ought to be written thus: "But if he be a robber, a shedder of blood; if he eat upon the mountains, and defile his neighbour's wife; if he oppress the poor and needy, spoil by violence, restore not the pledge, lift up his eyes to idols, give forth upon usury, and take increase; shall he live? he shall not live."

OBS. 7.—"Grammarians generally make a present and a past time under the subjunctive mode."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 100. These are the tenses which are given to the subjunctive by Blair, in his "Practical Grammar." If any one will give to this mood more tenses than these, the five which are adopted by Staniford, are perhaps the least objectionable: namely, "Present, If thou love, or do love; Imperfect, If thou loved, or did love; Perfect, If thou have loved; Pluperfect, If thou had loved; Future, If thou should or would love."—Staniford's Gram., p. 22. But there are no sufficient reasons for even this extension of its tenses.—Fisk, speaking of this mood, says: "Lowth restricts it entirely to the present tense."—"Uniformity on this point is highly desirable."—"On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. Lowth."—English Grammar Simplified, p. 70. His desire of uniformity he has both heralded and backed by a palpable misstatement. The learned Doctor's subjunctive mood, in the second person singular, is this: "Present time. Thou love; AND, Thou mayest love. Past time. Thou mightest love; AND, Thou couldst, &c. love; and have loved."—Lowth's Gram., p. 38. But Fisk's subjunctive runs thus: "Indic. form, If thou lovest; varied form, If thou love." And again: "Present tense, If thou art, If thou be; Imperfect tense, If thou wast, If thou wert."—Fisk's Grammar Simplified, p. 70. His very definition of the subjunctive mood is illustrated only by the indicative; as, "If thou walkest."—"I will perform the operation, if he desires it."—Ib., p. 69. Comly's subjunctive mood, except in some of his early editions, stands thus: "Present tense, If thou lovest; Imperfect tense, If thou lovedst or loved; First future tense, If thou (shalt) love."—Eleventh Ed., p. 41. This author teaches, that the indicative or potential, when preceded by an if, "should be parsed in the subjunctive mood."—Ib., p. 42. Of what is in fact the true subjunctive, he says: "Some writers use the singular number in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, without any variation; as, 'if I love, if thou love, if he love.' But this usage must be ranked amongst the anomalies of our language."—Ib., p. 41. Cooper, in his pretended "Abridgment of Murray's Grammar, Philad., 1828," gave to the subjunctive mood the following form, which contains all six of the tenses: "2d pers. If thou love, If thou do love, If thou loved, If thou did love, If thou have loved, If thou had loved, If thou shall (or will) love, If thou shall (or will) have loved." This is almost exactly what Murray at first adopted, and afterwards rejected; though it is probable, from the abridger's preface, that the latter was ignorant of this fact. Soon afterwards, a perusal of Dr. Wilson's Essay on Grammar dashed from the reverend gentleman's mind the whole of this fabric; and in his "Plain and Practical Grammar, Philad., 1831," he acknowledges but four moods, and concludes some pages of argument thus: "From the above considerations, it will appear to every sound grammarian, that our language does not admit a subjunctive mode, at least, separate and distinct from the indicative and potential."—Cooper's New Gram., p. 63.

OBS. 8.—The true Subjunctive mood, in English, is virtually rejected by some later grammarians, who nevertheless acknowledge under that name a greater number and variety of forms than have ever been claimed for it in any other tongue. All that is peculiar to the Subjunctive, all that should constitute it a distinct mood, they represent as an archaism, an obsolete or antiquated mode of expression, while they willingly give to it every form of both the indicative and the potential, the two other moods which sometimes follow an if. Thus Wells, in his strange entanglement of the moods, not only gives to the subjunctive, as well as to the indicative, a "Simple" or "Common Form," and a "Potential Form;" not only recognizes in each an "Auxiliary Form," and a "Progressive Form;" but encumbers the whole with distinctions of style,—with what he calls the "Common Style," and the "Ancient Style;" or the "Solemn Style," and the "Familiar Style:" yet, after all, his own example of the Subjunctive, "Take heed, lest any man deceive you," is obviously different from all these, and not explainable under any of his paradigms! Nor is it truly consonant with any part of his theory, which is this: "The subjunctive of all verbs except be, takes the same form as the indicative. Good writers were formerly much accustomed to drop the personal termination in the subjunctive present, and write 'If he have,' 'If he deny,' etc., for 'If he has,' 'If he denies,' etc.; but this termination is now generally retained, unless an auxiliary is understood. Thus, 'If he hear,' may properly be used for 'If he shall hear' or 'If he should hear,' but not for 'If he hears.'"—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 83; 3d Ed., p. 87. Now every position here taken is demonstrably absurd. How could "good writers" indite "much" bad English by dropping from the subjunctive an indicative ending which never belonged to it? And how can a needless "auxiliary" be "understood," on the principle of equivalence, where, by awkwardly changing a mood or tense, it only helps some grammatical theorist to convert good English into bad, or to pervert a text? The phrases above may all be right, or all be wrong, according to the correctness or incorrectness of their application: when each is used as best it may be, there is no exact equivalence. And this is true of half a dozen more of the same sort; as, "If he does hear,"—"If he do hear,"—"If he is hearing,"—"If he be hearing,"—"If he shall be hearing,"—"If he should be hearing."

OBS. 9.—Similar to Wells's, are the subjunctive forms of Allen H. Weld. Mistaking annex to signify prefix, this author teaches thus: "ANNEX if, though, unless, suppose, admit, grant, allow, or any word implying a condition, to each tense of the Indicative and Potential modes, to form the subjunctive; as, If thou lovest or love. If he loves, or love. Formerly it was customary to omit the terminations in the second and third persons of the present tense of the Subjunctive mode. But now the terminations are generally retained, except when the ellipsis of shall or should is implied; as, If he obey, i. e., if he shall, or should obey."—Weld's Grammar, Abridged Edition, p. 71. Again: "In general, the form of the verb in the Subjunctive, is the same as that of the Indicative; but an elliptical form in the second and third person [persona] singular, is used in the following instances: (1.) Future contingency is expressed by the omission of the Indicative termination; as, If he go, for, if he shall go. Though he slay me, i.e., though he should slay me. (2.) Lest and that annexed to a command are followed by the elliptical form of the Subjunctive; as, Love not sleep [,] lest thou come to poverty. (3.) If with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the elliptical form; as, If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke."—Ib., p. 126. As for this scheme, errors and inconsistencies mark every part of it. First, the rule for forming the subjunctive is false, and is plainly contradicted by all that is true in the examples: "If thou love," or, "If he love" contains not the form of the indicative. Secondly, no terminations have ever been "generally" omitted from, or retained in, the form of the subjunctive present; because that part of the mood, as commonly exhibited, is well known to be made of the radical verb, without inflection. One might as well talk of suffixes for the imperative, "Love thou," or "Do thou love." Thirdly, shall or should can never be really implied in the subjunctive present; because the supposed ellipsis, needless and unexampled, would change the tense, the mood, and commonly also the meaning. "If he shall," properly implies a condition of future certainty; "If he should," a supposition of duty: the true subjunctive suggests neither of these. Fourthly, "the ellipsis of shall, or should," is most absurdly called above, "the omission of the Indicative termination." Fifthly, it is very strangely supposed, that to omit what pertains to the indicative or the potential mood, will produce an "elliptical form of the Subjunctive." Sixthly, such examples as the last, "If he do but touch the hills," having the auxiliary do not inflected as in the indicative, disprove the whole theory.

OBS. 10.—In J. B. Chandler's grammars, are taken nearly the same views of the "Subjunctive or Conditional Mood," that have just been noticed. "This mood," we are told, "is only the indicative or potential mood, with the word if placed before the nominative case."—Gram. of 1821, p. 48; Gram. of 1847, p. 73. Yet, of even this, the author has said, in the former edition, "It would, perhaps, be better to abolish the use of the subjunctive mood entirely. Its use is a continual source of dispute among grammarians, and of perplexity to scholars."—Page 33. The suppositive verb were,—(as, "Were I a king,"—"If I were a king,"—) which this author formerly rejected, preferring was, is now, after six and twenty years, replaced in his own examples; and yet he still attempts to disgrace it, by falsely representing it as being only "the indicative plural" very grossly misapplied! See Chandler's Common School Gram., p. 77.

OBS. 11.—The Imperative mood is so called because it is chiefly used in commanding. It is that brief form of the verb, by which we directly urge upon others our claims and wishes. But the nature of this urging varies according to the relation of the parties. We command inferiors; exhort equals; entreat superiors; permit whom we will;—and all by this same imperative form of the verb. In answer to a request, the imperative implies nothing more than permission. The will of a superior may also be urged imperatively by the indicative, future. This form is particularly common in solemn prohibitions; as, "Thou shalt not kill. * * * Thou shalt not steal."—Exodus, xx, 13 and 15. Of the ten commandments, eight are negative, and all these are indicative in form. The other two are in the imperative mood: "Remember the sabbath day to keep it holy. Honour thy father and thy mother."—Ib. But the imperative form may also be negative: as, "Touch not; taste not; handle not."—Colossians, ii, 21.

TENSES.

Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which distinguish time. There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future, and the Second-future.

The Present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place: as, "I hear a noise; somebody is coming."

The Imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past: as, "I saw him yesterday, and hailed him as he was passing."

The Perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past: as, "I have seen him to-day; something must have detained him."

The Pluperfect tense is that which expresses what had taken place, at some past time mentioned: as, "I had seen him, when I met you."

The First-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter: as, "I shall see him again, and I will inform him."

The Second-future tense is that which expresses what will have taken place, at some future time mentioned: as, "I shall have seen him by tomorrow noon."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The terms here defined are the names usually given to those parts of the verb to which they are in this work applied; and though some of them are not so strictly appropriate as scientific names ought to be, it is thought inexpedient to change them. In many old grammars, and even in the early editions of Murray, the three past tenses are called the Preterimperfect, Preterperfect, and Preterpluperfect. From these names, the term Preter, (which is from the Latin preposition præter, meaning beside, beyond, or past,) has been well dropped for the sake of brevity.[233]

OBS. 2.—The distinctive epithet Imperfect, or Preterimperfect, appears to have been much less accurately employed by the explainers of our language, than it was by the Latin grammarians from whom it was borrowed. That tense which passes in our schools for the Imperfect, (as, I slept, did sleep, or was sleeping,) is in fact, so far as the indicative mood is concerned, more completely past, than that which we call the Perfect. Murray indeed has attempted to show that the name is right; and, for the sake of consistency, one could wish he had succeeded. But every scholar must observe, that the simple preterit, which is the first form of this tense, and is never found in any other, as often as the sentence is declarative, tells what happened within some period of time fully past, as last week, last year; whereas the perfect tense is used to express what has happened within some period of time not yet fully past, as this week, this year. As to the completeness of the action, there is no difference; for what has been done to-day, is as completely done, as what was achieved a year ago. Hence it is obvious that the term Imperfect has no other applicability to the English tense so called, than what it may have derived from the participle in ing, which we use in translating the Latin imperfect tense: as, Dormiebam, I was sleeping; Legebam, I was reading; Docebam, I was teaching. And if for this reason the whole English tense, with all its variety of forms in the different moods, "may, with propriety, be denominated imperfect;" surely, the participle itself should be so denominated a fortiori: for it always conveys this same idea, of "action not finished," be the tense of its accompanying auxiliary what it may.

OBS. 3.—The tenses do not all express time with equal precision; nor can the whole number in any language supersede the necessity of adverbs of time, much less of dates, and of nouns that express periods of duration. The tenses of the indicative mood, are the most definite; and, for this reason, as well as for some others, the explanations of all these modifications of the verb, are made with particular reference to that mood. Some suppose the compound or participial form, as I am writing, to be more definite in time, than the simple form, as I write, or the emphatic form, as I do write; and accordingly they divide all the tenses into Indefinite and Definite. Of this division Dr. Webster seems to claim the invention; for he gravely accuses Murray of copying it unjustly from him, though the latter acknowledges in a note upon his text, it "is, in part, taken from Webster's Grammar."—Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 73. The distribution, as it stands in either work, is not worth quarrelling about: it is evidently more cumbersome than useful. Nor, after all, is it true that the compound form is more definite in time than the other. For example; "Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, was always betraying his unhappiness."—Art of Thinking, p. 123. Now, if was betraying were a more definite tense than betrayed, surely the adverb "always" would require the latter, rather than the former.

OBS. 4.—The present tense, of the indicative mood, expresses not only what is now actually going on, but general truths, and customary actions: as, "Vice produces misery."—"He hastens to repent, who gives sentence quickly."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 71. "Among the Parthians, the signal is given by the drum, and not by the trumpet."—Justin. Deceased authors may be spoken of in the present tense, because they seem to live in their works; as, "Seneca reasons and moralizes well."—Murray. "Women talk better than men, from the superior shape of their tongues: an ancient writer speaks of their loquacity three thousand years ago."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 27.

OBS. 5.—The text, John, viii, 58, "Before Abraham was, I am," is a literal Grecism, and not to be cited as an example of pure English: our idiom would seem to require, "Before Abraham was, I existed." In animated narrative, however, the present tense is often substituted for the past, by the figure enallage. In such cases, past tenses and present may occur together; because the latter are used merely to bring past events more vividly before us: as, "Ulysses wakes, not knowing where he was."—Pope. "The dictator flies forward to the cavalry, beseeching them to dismount from their horses. They obeyed; they dismount, rush onward, and for vancouriers show their bucklers."—Livy. On this principle, perhaps, the following couplet, which Murray condemns as bad English, may be justified:—

   "Him portion'd maids, apprentic'd orphans blest,
    The young who labour, and the old who rest."
        See Murray's Key, R. 13.

OBS. 6.—The present tense of the subjunctive mood, and that of the indicative when preceded by as soon as, after, before, till, or when, is generally used with reference to future time; as, "If he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent?"—Matt., vii, 10. "If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee? Follow thou me."—John, xxi, 22. "When he arrives, I will send for you." The imperative mood has but one tense, and that is always present with regard to the giving of the command; though what is commanded, must be done in the future, if done at all. So the subjunctive may convey a present supposition of what the will of an other may make uncertain: as, "If thou count me therefore a partner, receive him as myself."—St. Paul to Philemon, 17. The perfect indicative, like the present, is sometimes used with reference to time that is relatively future; as, "He will be fatigued before he has walked a mile."—"My lips shall utter praise, when thou hast taught me thy statutes."—Psalms, cxix, 171. "Marvel not at this: for the hour is coming, in the which all that are in the graves, shall hear his voice, and shall come forth; they that have done good, unto the resurrection of life; and they that have done evil, unto the resurrection of damnation."—John, v, 28.

OBS. 7.—What is called the present infinitive, can scarcely be said to express any particular time.[234] It is usually dependent on an other verb, and therefore relative in time. It may be connected with any tense of any mood: as, "I intend to do it; I intended to do it; I have intended to do it; I had intended to do it;" &c. For want of a better mode of expression, we often use the infinitive to denote futurity, especially when it seems to be taken adjectively; as, "The time to come,"—"The world to come,"—"Rapture yet to be." This, sometimes with the awkward addition of about, is the only substitute we have for the Latin future participle in rus, as venturus, to come, or about to come. This phraseology, according to Horne Tooke, (see Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 457,) is no fitter than that of our ancestors, who for this purpose used the same preposition, but put the participle in ing after it, in lieu of the radical verb, which we choose to employ: as, "Generacions of eddris, who shewide to you to fle fro wraththe to comynge?"—Matt., iii, 7. Common Version: "O generation of vipers! who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to come?" "Art thou that art to comynge, ether abiden we another?"—Matt., xi, 3. Common Version: "Art thou he that should come, or do we look for another?" "Sotheli there the ship was to puttyng out the charge."—Dedis, xxi, 3. Common Version: "For there the ship was to unlade her burden."—Acts, xxi, 3. Churchill, after changing the names of the two infinitive tenses to "Future imperfect" and "Future perfect," adds the following note: "The tenses of the infinitive mood are usually termed present and preterperfect: but this is certainly improper; for they are so completely future, that what is called the present tense of the infinitive mood is often employed simply to express futurity; as, 'The life to come.'"—New Gram., p. 249.

OBS. 8.—The pluperfect tense, when used conditionally, in stead of expressing what actually had taken place at a past time, almost always implies that the action thus supposed never was performed; on the contrary, if the supposition be made in a negative form, it suggests that the event had occurred: as, "Lord, if thou hadst been here, my brother had not died."—John, xi, 32. "If I had not come and spoken unto them, they had not had sin; but now they have no cloak for their sin."—John, xv, 22. "If thou hadst known, even thou, at least in this thy day, the things which belong unto thy peace! But now they are hid from thine eyes."—Luke, xix, 42. The supposition is sometimes indicated by a mere transposition of the verb and its subject; in which case, the conjunction if is omitted; as, "Had ye believed Moses, ye would have believed me."—John, v, 46.

"Had I but fought as wont, one thrust Had laid De Wilton in the dust."—Scott

OBS. 9.—In the language of prophecy we find the past tenses very often substituted for the future, especially when the prediction is remarkably clear and specific. Man is a creature of present knowledge only; but it is certain, that He who sees the end from the beginning, has sometimes revealed to him, and by him, things deep in futurity. Thus the sacred seer who is esteemed the most eloquent of the ancient prophets, more than seven hundred years before the events occurred, spoke of the vicarious sufferings of Christ as of things already past, and even then described them in the phraseology of historical facts: "Surely he hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows: yet we did esteem him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted. But he was wounded for our transgressions; he was bruised for our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and by his stripes we are healed."—Isaiah, liii, 4 and 5. Multiplied instances of a similar application of the past tenses to future events, occur in the Bible, especially in the writings of this prophet.

PERSONS AND NUMBERS.

The person and number of a verb are those modifications in which it agrees with its subject or nominative.

In each number, there are three persons; and in each person, two numbers: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 3d per. He loves; 3d per. They love.

Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place.

Where the verb is varied, the second person singular is regularly formed by adding st or est to the first person; and the third person singular, in like manner, by adding s or es: as, I see, thou seest, he sees; I give, thou givest, he gives; I go, thou goest, he goes; I fly, thou fliest, he flies; I vex, thou vexest, he vexes; I lose, thou losest, he loses.

Where the verb is not varied to denote its person and number, these properties are inferred from its subject or nominative: as, If I love, if thou love, if he love; if we love, if you love, if they love.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—It is considered a principle of Universal Grammar, that a finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative in person and number. Upon this principle, we ascribe to every such verb the person and number of the nominative word, whether the verb itself be literally modified by the relation or not. The doctrine must be constantly taught and observed, in every language in which the verbs have any variations of this kind. But suppose an instance, of a language in which all the verbs were entirely destitute of such inflections; the principle, as regards that language, must drop. Finite verbs, in such a case, would still relate to their subjects, or nominatives, agreeably to the sense; but they would certainly be rendered incapable of adding to this relation any agreement or disagreement. So the concords which belong to adjectives and participles in Latin and Greek, are rejected in English, and there remains to these parts of speech nothing but a simple relation to their nouns according to the sense. And by the fashionable substitution of you for thou, the concord of English verbs with their nominatives, is made to depend, in common practice, on little more than one single terminational s, which is used to mark one person of one number of one tense of one mood of each verb. So near does this practice bring us to the dropping of what is yet called a universal principle of grammar.[235]

OBS. 2.—In most languages, there are in each tense, through all the moods of every verb, six different terminations to distinguish the different persons and numbers. This will be well understood by every one who has ever glanced at the verbs as exhibited in any Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, or Italian grammar. To explain it to others, a brief example shall be given: (with the remark, that the Latin pronouns, here inserted, are seldom expressed, except for emphasis:) "Ego amo, I love; Tu amas, Thou lovest; Ille amat, He loves; Nos amamus, We love; Vos amatis, You love; Illi amant, They love." Hence it may be perceived, that the paucity of variations in the English verb, is a very striking peculiarity of our language. Whether we are gainers or losers by this simplicity, is a question for learned idleness to discuss. The common people who speak English, have far less inclination to add new endings to our verbs, than to drop or avoid all the remains of the old. Lowth and Murray tell us, "This scanty provision of terminations is sufficient for all the purposes of discourse;" and that, "For this reason, the plural termination en, (they loven, they weren,) formerly in use, was laid aside as unnecessary, and has long been obsolete."—Lowth's Gram., p. 31; Murray's, 63.

OBS. 3.—Though modern usage, especially in common conversation, evidently inclines to drop or shun all unnecessary suffixes and inflections, still it is true, that the English verb in some of its parts, varies its termination, to distinguish, or agree with, the different persons and numbers. The change is, however, principally confined to the second and third persons singular of the present tense of the indicative mood, and to the auxiliaries hast and has of the perfect. In the ancient biblical style, now used only on solemn occasions, the second person singular is distinguished through all the tenses of the indicative and potential moods. And as the use of the pronoun thou is now mostly confined to the solemn style, the terminations of that style are retained in connexion with it, through all the following examples of the conjugation of verbs. In the plural number, there is no variation of ending, to denote the different persons; and the verb in the three persons plural, (with the two exceptions are and were, from am and was,) is the same as in the first person singular. Nor does the use of you for the singular, warrant its connexion with any other than the plural form of the verb. This strange and needless confusion of the numbers, is, in all languages that indulge it, a practical inconvenience. It would doubtless have been much better, had thou and you still kept their respective places—the one, nominative singular—the other, objective plural—as they appear in the Bible. But as the English verb is always attended by a noun or a pronoun, expressing the subject of the affirmation, no ambiguity arises from the want of particular terminations in the verb, to distinguish the different persons and numbers.

OBS. 4.—Although our language, in its ordinary use, exhibits the verbs in such forms only, as will make, when put together, but a very simple conjugation; there is probably no other language on earth, in which it would be so difficult for a learned grammarian to fix, settle, and exhibit, to the satisfaction of himself and others, the principles, paradigms, rules, and exceptions, which are necessary for a full and just exhibition of this part of speech. This difficulty is owing, partly to incompatibilities or unsettled boundaries between the solemn and the familiar style; partly to differences in the same style between ancient usage and modern; partly to interfering claims of new and old forms of the preterit and the perfect participle; partly to the conflicting notions of different grammarians respecting the subjunctive mood; and partly to the blind tenacity with which many writers adhere to rugged derivatives, and prefer unutterable contractions to smooth and easy abbreviations. For example: a clergyman says to a lucky gamester, (1.) "You dwell in a house which you neither planned nor built." A member of the Society of Friends would say, (2.) "Thou dwellst in a house which thou neither planned nor built." Or, if not a scholar, as likely as not, (3.) "Thee dwells in a house which thee neither planned nor built." The old or solemn style would b3, (4.) "Thou dwellest in a house which thou neither plannedst nor buildedst." Some untasteful and overgrammatical poet will have it, (5.) "Thou dwell'st in halls thou neither plann'dst nor build'dst." The doctrine of Murray's Grammar, and of most others, would require, (6.) "Thou dwellest in a house which thou neither plannedst nor builtest." Or, (according to this author's method of avoiding unpleasant sounds,) the more complex form, (7.) "Thou dost dwell in a house which thou neither didst plan nor didst build." Out of these an other poet will make the line, (8.) "Dost dwell in halls which thou nor plann'dst nor built'st." An other, more tastefully, would drop the st of the preterit, and contract the present, as in the second instance above: thus,

(9.) "Thou dwellst in halls thou neither planned nor built, And revelst there in riches won by guilt."

OBS. 5.—Now let all these nine different forms of saying the same thing, by the same verbs, in the same mood, and the same two tenses, be considered. Let it also be noticed, that for these same verbs within these limits, there are yet other forms, of a complex kind; as, "You do dwell," or, "You are dwelling;" used in lieu of, "Thou dost dwell," or, "Thou art dwelling:" so, "You did plan," or, "You were planning;" used in lieu of, "Thou didst plan," or, "Thou wast planning." Take into the account the opinion of Dr. Webster and others, that, "You was planning," or, "You was building," is a still better form for the singular number; and well "established by national usage, both here and in England."—Improved Gram., p. 25. Add the less inaccurate practice of some, who use was and did familiarly with thou; as, "Thou was planning, did thou build?" Multiply all this variety tenfold, with a view to the other moods and tenses of these three verbs, dwell, plan, and build; then extend the product, whatever it is, from these three common words, to all the verbs in the English language. You will thus begin to have some idea of the difficulty mentioned in the preceding observation. But this is only a part of it; for all these things relate only to the second person singular of the verb. The double question is, Which of these forms ought to be approved and taught for that person and number? and which of them ought to be censured and rejected as bad English? This question is perhaps as important, as any that can arise in English grammar. With a few candid observations by way of illustration, it will be left to the judgement of the reader.

OBS. 6.—The history of youyouing and thoutheeing appears to be this. Persons in high stations, being usually surrounded by attendants, it became, many centuries ago, a species of court flattery, to address individuals of this class, in the plural number, as if a great man were something more than one person. In this way, the notion of greatness was agreeably multiplied, and those who laid claim to such honour, soon began to think themselves insulted whenever they were addressed with any other than the plural pronoun.[236] Humbler people yielded through fear of offence; and the practice extended, in time, to all ranks of society: so that at present the customary mode of familiar as well as complimentary address, is altogether plural; both the verb and the pronoun being used in that form.[237] This practice, which confounds one of the most important distinctions of the language, affords a striking instance of the power of fashion. It has made propriety itself seem improper. But shall it be allowed, in the present state of things, to confound our conjugations and overturn our grammar? Is it right to introduce it into our paradigms, as the only form of the second person singular, that modern usage acknowledges? Or is it expedient to augment by it that multiplicity of other forms, which must either take this same place or be utterly rejected? With due deference to those grammarians who have adopted one or the other of these methods, the author of this work answers all these questions decidedly in the negative. It is not to be denied, that the use of the plural for the singular is now so common as to form the customary mode of address to individuals of every rank. The Society of Friends, or Quakers, however, continue to employ the singular number in familiar discourse; and custom, which has now destroyed the compliment of the plural, has removed also the supposed opprobrium of the singular, and placed it on an equality with the plural in point of respect. The singular is universally employed in reference to the Supreme Being; and is generally preferred in poetry. It is the language of Scripture, and of the Prayer-Book; and is consistently retained in nearly all our grammars; though not always, perhaps, consistently treated.

OBS. 7.—Whatever is fashionable in speech, the mere disciples of fashion will always approve; and, probably, they will think it justifiable to despise or neglect all that is otherwise. These may be contented with the sole use of such forms of address as, "You, you, sir;"—"You, you, madam." But the literati who so neglect all the services of religion, as to forget that these are yet conducted in English independently of all this fashionable youyouing, must needs be poor judges of what belongs to their own justification, either as grammarians or as moral agents. A fashion by virtue of which millions of youths are now growing up in ignorance of that form of address which, in their own tongue, is most appropriate to poetry, and alone adapted to prayer, is perhaps not quite so light a matter as some people imagine. It is at least so far from being a good reason for displacing that form from the paradigms of our verbs in a grammar, that indeed no better needs be offered for tenaciously retaining it. Many children may thus learn at school what all should know, and what there is little chance for them to learn elsewhere. Not all that presume to minister in religion, are well acquainted with what is called the solemn style. Not all that presume to explain it in grammars, do know what it is. A late work, which boasted the patronage of De Witt Clinton, and through the influence of false praise came nigh to be imposed by a law of New York on all the common schools of that State; and which, being subsequently sold in Philadelphia for a great price, was there republished under the name of the "National School Manual;" gives the following account of this part of grammar: "In the solemn and poetic styles, the second person singular, in both the above tenses, is thou; and the second person plural, is ye, or you. The verb, to agree with the second person singular, changes its termination. Thus: 2d person, sing. Pres. Tense, Thou walkest, or Thou walketh. Imperfect Tense, Thou walkedst. In the third person singular, in the above styles, the verb has sometimes a different termination; as, Present Tense, He, she, or it walks or walketh. The above form of inflection may be applied to all verbs used in the solemn or poetic styles; but for ordinary purposes, I have supposed it proper to employ the form of the verb, adopted in common conversation, as least perplexing to young minds."—Bartlett's Common School Manual, Part ii, p. 114. What can be hoped from an author who is ignorant enough to think "Thou walketh" is good English? or from one who tells us, that "It walks" is of the solemn style? or from one who does not know that you is never a nominative in the style of the Bible?

OBS. 8.—Nowhere on earth is fashion more completely mistress of all the tastes and usages of society, than in France. Though the common French Bible still retains the form of the second person singular, which in that language is shorter and perhaps smoother than the plural; yet even that sacred book, or at least the New Testament, and that by different persons, has been translated into more fashionable French, and printed at Paris, and also at New York, with the form of address everywhere plural; as, "Jesus anticipated him, saying, 'What do you think, Simon? of whom do the kings of the earth take taxes and tribute?'"—Matt., xvii, 24. "And, going to prayers, they said, '0 Lord, you who know the hearts of all men, show which of these two you have chosen.'"—Acts, i, 24. This is one step further in the progress of politeness, than has yet been taken in English. The French grammarians, however, as far as I can perceive, have never yet disturbed the ancient order of their conjugations and declensions, by inserting the plural verb and pronoun in place of the singular; and, in the familiarity of friendship, or of domestic life, the practice which is denominated tutoyant, or thoutheeing, is far more prevalent in France than in England. Also, in the prayers of the French, the second person singular appears to be yet generally preserved, as it is in those of the English and the Americans. The less frequent use of it in the familiar conversation of the latter, is very probably owing to the general impression, that it cannot be used with propriety, except in the solemn style. Of this matter, those who have laid it aside themselves, cannot with much modesty pretend to judge for those who have not; or, if they may, there is still a question how far it is right to lay it aside. The following lines are a sort of translation from Horace; and I submit it to the reader, whether it is comely for a Christian divine to be less reverent toward God, than a heathen poet; and whether the plural language here used, does not lack the reverence of the original, which is singular:—

   "Preserve, Almighty Providence!
    Just what you gave me, competence."—Swift.

OBS. 9.—The terms, solemn style, familiar style, modern style, ancient style, legal style, regal style, nautic style, common style, and the like, as used in grammar, imply no certain divisions of the language; but are designed merely to distinguish, in a general way, the occasions on which some particular forms of expression may be considered proper, or the times to which they belong. For what is grammatical sometimes, may not be so always. It would not be easy to tell, definitely, in what any one of these styles consists; because they all belong to one language, and the number or nature of the peculiarities of each is not precisely fixed. But whatever is acknowledged to be peculiar to any one, is consequently understood to be improper for any other: or, at least, the same phraseology cannot belong to styles of an opposite character; and words of general use belong to no particular style.[238] For example: "So then it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that showeth mercy."—Rom., ix, 16. If the termination eth is not obsolete, as some say it is, all verbs to which this ending is added, are of the solemn style; for the common or familiar expression would here be this; "So then it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of God that shows mercy." Ben Jonson, in his grammar, endeavoured to arrest this change of eth to s; and, according to Lindley Murray, (Octavo Gram., p. 90,) Addison also injudiciously disapproved it. In spite of all such objections, however, some future grammarian will probably have to say of the singular ending eth, as Lowth and Murray have already said of the plural en: "It was laid aside as unnecessary."

OBS. 10.—Of the origin of the personal terminations of English verbs, that eminent etymologist Dr. Alexander Murray, gives the following account: "The readers of our modern tongue may be reminded, that the terminations, est, eth, and s, in our verbs, as in layest, layeth, and laid'st, or laidest; are the faded remains of the pronouns which were formerly joined to the verb itself, and placed the language, in respect of concise expression, on a level with the Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit, its sister dialects."—History of European Languages, Vol. i, p. 52. According to this, since other signs of the persons and numbers are now employed with the verb, it is not strange that there should appear a tendency to lay aside such of these endings as are least agreeable and least necessary. Any change of this kind will of course occur first in the familiar style. For example: "Thou wentest in to men uncircumcised, and didst eat with them."—Acts, xi, 3. "These things write I unto thee, that thou mayst know how thou oughtest to behave thyself in the house of God."—1 Tim., iii, 15. These forms, by universal consent, are now of the solemn style; and, consequently, are really good English in no other. For nobody, I suppose, will yet pretend that the inflection of our preterits and auxiliaries by st or est, is entirely obsolete;[239] and surely no person of any literary taste ever uses the foregoing forms familiarly. The termination est, however, has in some instances become obsolete; or has faded into st or t, even in the solemn style. Thus, (if indeed, such forms ever were in good use,) diddest has become didst; havest, hast; haddest, hadst; shallest, shalt; willest, wilt; and cannest, canst. Mayest, mightest, couldest, wouldest, and shouldest, are occasionally found in books not ancient; but mayst, mightst, couldst, wouldst, and shouldst, are abundantly more common, and all are peculiar to the solemn style. Must, burst, durst, thrust, blest, curst, past, lost, list, crept, kept, girt, built, felt, dwelt, left, bereft, and many other verbs of similar endings, are seldom, if ever, found encumbered with an additional est. For the rule which requires this ending, has always had many exceptions that have not been noticed by grammarians.[240] Thus Shakspeare wrote even in the present tense, "Do as thou list," and not "Do as thou listest." Possibly, however, list may here be reckoned of the subjunctive mood; but the following example from Byron is certainly in the indicative:—

"And thou, who never yet of human wrong Lost the unbalanced scale, great Nemesis!"—Harold, C. iv, st. 132.

OBS. 11.—Any phraseology that is really obsolete, is no longer fit to be imitated even in the solemn style; and what was never good English, is no more to be respected in that style, than in any other. Thus: "Art not thou that Egyptian, which before these days madest an uproar, and leddest out into the wilderness four thousand men that were murderers?"—Acts, xxi, 38. Here, (I think,) the version ought to be, "Art not thou that Egyptian, who a while ago made an uproar, and led out into the wilderness four thousand men, that were murderers?" If so, there is in this no occasion to make a difference between the solemn and the familiar style. But what is the familiar form of expression for the texts cited before? The fashionable will say, it is this: "You went in to men uncircumcised, and did eat with them."—"I write these things to you, that you may know how you ought to behave yourself in the house of God." But this is not literally of the singular number: it is no more singular, than vos in Latin, or vous in French, or we used for I in English, is singular. And if there remains to us any other form, that is both singular and grammatical, it is unquestionably the following: "Thou went in to men uncircumcised, and did eat with them."—"I write these things to thee, that thou may know how thou ought to behave thyself in the house of God." The acknowledged doctrine of all the teachers of English grammar, that the inflection of our auxiliaries and preterits by st or est is peculiar to "the solemn style," leaves us no other alternative, than either to grant the propriety of here dropping the suffix for the familiar style, or to rob our language of any familiar use of the pronoun thou forever. Who, then, are here the neologists, the innovators, the impairers of the language? And which is the greater innovation, merely to drop, on familiar occasions, or when it suits our style, one obsolescent verbal termination,—a termination often dropped of old as well as now,—or to strike from the conjugations of all our verbs one sixth part of their entire scheme?[241]

   "O mother myn, that cleaped were Argyue,
    Wo worth that day that thou me bare on lyue."—Chaucer.

OBS. 12.—The grammatical propriety of distinguishing from the solemn style both of the forms presented above, must be evident to every one who considers with candour the reasons, analogies, and authorities, for this distinction. The support of the latter is very far from resting solely on the practice of a particular sect; though this, if they would forbear to corrupt the pronoun while they simplify the verb, would deserve much more consideration than has ever been allowed it. Which of these modes of address is the more grammatical, it is useless to dispute; since fashion rules the one, and a scruple of conscience is sometimes alleged for the other. A candid critic will consequently allow all to take their choice. It is enough for him, if he can demonstrate to the candid inquirer, what phraseology is in any view allowable, and what is for any good reason reprehensible. That the use of the plural for the singular is ungrammatical, it is neither discreet nor available to affirm; yet, surely, it did not originate in any regard to grammar rules. Murray the schoolmaster, whose English Grammar appeared some years before that of Lindley Murray, speaks of it as follows: "Thou, the second person singular, though strictly grammatical, is seldom used, except in addresses to God, in poetry, and by the people called Quakers. In all other cases, a fondness for foreign manners,[242] and the power of custom, have given a sanction to the use of you, for the second person singular, though contrary to grammar,[243] and attended with this particular inconveniency, that a plural verb must be used to agree with the pronoun in number, and both applied to a single person; as, you are, or you were,—not you wast, or you was."—Third Edition, Lond., 1793, p. 34. This author everywhere exhibits the auxiliaries, mayst, mightst, couldst, wouldst, and shouldst, as words of one syllable; and also observes, in a marginal note, "Some writers begin to say, 'Thou may, thou might,' &c."—Ib., p. 36. Examples of this are not very uncommon: "Thou shall want ere I want."—Old Motto; Scott's Lay, Note 1st to Canto 3. "Thyself the mournful tale shall tell."—Felton's Gram., p. 20.

   "One sole condition would I dare suggest,
    That thou would save me from my own request."—Jane Taylor.

OBS. 13.—In respect to the second person singular, the grammar of Lindley Murray makes no distinction between the solemn and the familiar style; recognizes in no way the fashionable substitution of you for thou; and, so far as I perceive, takes it for granted, that every one who pretends to speak or write grammatically, must always, in addressing an individual, employ the singular pronoun, and inflect the verb with st or est, except in the imperative mood and the subjunctive present. This is the more remarkable, because the author was a valued member of the Society of Friends; and doubtless his own daily practice contradicted his doctrine, as palpably as does that of every other member of the Society. And many a schoolmaster, taking that work for his text-book, or some other as faulty, is now doing precisely the same thing. But what a teacher is he, who dares not justify as a grammarian that which he constantly practices as a man! What a scholar is he, who can be led by a false criticism or a false custom, to condemn his own usage and that of every body else! What a casuist is he, who dares pretend conscience for practising that which he knows and acknowledges to be wrong! If to speak in the second person singular without inflecting our preterits and auxiliaries, is a censurable corruption of the language, the Friends have no alternative but to relinquish their scruple about the application of you to one person; for none but the adult and learned can ever speak after the manner of ancient books: children and common people can no more be brought to speak agreeably to any antiquated forms of the English language, than according to the imperishable models of Greek and Latin. He who traces the history of our vernacular tongue, will find it has either simplified or entirely dropped several of its ancient terminations; and that the st or est of the second person singular, never was adopted in any thing like the extent to which our modern grammarians have attempted to impose it. "Thus becoming unused to inflections, we lost the perception of their meaning and nature."—Philological Museum, i, 669. "You cannot make a whole people all at once talk in a different tongue from that which it has been used to talk in: you cannot force it to unlearn the words it has learnt from its fathers, in order to learn a set of newfangled words out of [a grammar or] a dictionary."—Ib., i, 650. Nor can you, in this instance, restrain our poets from transgressing the doctrine of Lowth and Murray:—

   "Come, thou pure Light,—which first in Eden glowed.
    And threw thy splendor round man's calm abode."—Alonzo Lewis.

OBS. 14.—That which has passed away from familiar practice, may still be right in the solemn style, and may there remain till it becomes obsolete. But no obsolescent termination has ever yet been recalled into the popular service. This is as true in other languages as in our own: "In almost every word of the Greek," says a learned author, "we meet with contractions and abbreviations; but, I believe, the flexions of no language allow of extension or amplification. In our own we may write sleeped or slept, as the metre of a line or the rhythm of a period may require; but by no license may we write sleepeed."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, 4to, p. 107. But, if after contracting sleeped into slept, we add an est and make sleptest, is there not here an extension of the word from one syllable to two? Is there not an amplification that is at once novel, disagreeable, unauthorized, and unnecessary? Nay, even in the regular and established change, as of loved to lovedst, is there not a syllabic increase, which is unpleasant to the ear, and unsuited to familiar speech? Now, to what extent do these questions apply to the verbs in our language? Lindley Murray, it is presumed, had no conception of that extent; or of the weight of the objection which is implied in the second. With respect to a vast number of our most common verbs, he himself never knew, nor does the greatest grammarian now living know, in what way he ought to form the simple past tense in the second person singular, otherwise than by the mere uninflected preterit with the pronoun thou. Is thou sleepedst or thou sleptest, thou leavedst or thou leftest, thou feeledst or thou feltest, thou dealedst or thou dealtest, thou tossedst or thou tostest, thou losedst or thou lostest, thou payedst or thou paidest, thou layedst or thou laidest, better English than thou slept, thou left, thou felt, thou dealt, thou tossed, thou lost, thou paid, thou laid? And, if so, of the two forms in each instance, which is the right one? and why? The Bible has "saidst" and "layedst;" Dr. Alexander Murray, "laid'st" and "laidest!" Since the inflection of our preterits has never been orderly, and is now decaying and waxing old, shall we labour to recall what is so nearly ready to vanish away?

   "Tremendous Sea! what time thou lifted up
    Thy waves on high, and with thy winds and storms
    Strange pastime took, and shook thy mighty sides
    Indignantly, the pride of navies fell."—Pollok, B. vii, l. 611.

OBS. 15.—Whatever difficulty there is in ascertaining the true form of the preterit itself, not only remains, but is augmented, when st or est is to be added for the second person of it. For, since we use sometimes one and sometimes the other of these endings; (as, said_st_, saw_est_, bid_st_, knew_est_, loved_st_, went_est_;) there is yet need of some rule to show which we ought to prefer. The variable formation or orthography of verbs in the simple past tense, has always been one of the greatest difficulties that the learners of our language have had to encounter. At present, there is a strong tendency to terminate as many as we can of them in ed, which is the only regular ending. The pronunciation of this ending, however, is at least threefold; as in remembered, repented, relinquished. Here the added sounds are, first d, then ed, then t; and the effect of adding st, whenever the ed is sounded like t, will certainly be a perversion of what is established as the true pronunciation of the language. For the solemn and the familiar pronunciation of ed unquestionably differ. The present tendency to a regular orthography, ought rather to be encouraged than thwarted; but the preferring of mixed to mixt, whipped to whipt, worked to wrought, kneeled to knelt, and so forth, does not make mixedst, whippedst, workedst, kneeledst, and the like, any more fit for modern English, than are mixtest, whiptest, wroughtest, kneltest, burntest, dweltest, heldest, giltest, and many more of the like stamp. And what can be more absurd than for a grammarian to insist upon forming a great parcel of these strange and crabbed words for which he can quote no good authority? Nothing; except it be for a poet or a rhetorician to huddle together great parcels of consonants which no mortal man can utter,[244] (as lov'dst, lurk'dst, shrugg'dst,) and call them "words." Example: "The clump of subtonick and atonick elements at the termination of such words as the following, is frequently, to the no small injury of articulation, particularly slighted: couldst, wouldst, hadst, prob'st, prob'dst, hurl'st, hurl'dst, arm'st, arm'dst, want'st, want'dst, burn'st, burn'dst, bark'st, bark'dst, bubbl'st, bubbl'dst, troubbl'st, troubbl'dst."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 42. The word trouble may receive the additional sound of st, but this gentleman does not here spell so accurately as a great author should. Nor did they who penned the following lines, write here as poets should:—

   "Of old thou build'st thy throne on righteousness."
        —Pollok's C. of T., B. vi, l. 638.

    "For though thou work'dst my mother's ill."
        —Byron's Parasina.

    "Thou thyself doat'dst on womankind, admiring."
        —Milton's P. R., B. ii, l. 175.

    "But he, the sev'nth from thee, whom thou beheldst."
        —Id., P. L., B. xi, l. 700.

    "Shall build a wondrous ark, as thou beheldst."
        —Id., ib., B. xi, l. 819.

    "Thou, who inform'd'st this clay with active fire!"
        —Savage's Poems, p. 247.

    "Thy valiantness was mine, thou suck'dst it from me."
        —Shak., Coriol., Act iii.

    "This cloth thou dipp'dst in blood of my sweet boy."
        —Id., Henry VI, P. i.

    "Great Queen of arms, whose favour Tydeus won;
    As thou defend'st the sire, defend the son."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. x, l. 337.

OBS. 16.—Dr. Lowth, whose popular little Grammar was written in or about 1758, made no scruple to hem up both the poets and the Friends at once, by a criticism which I must needs consider more dogmatical than true; and which, from the suppression of what is least objectionable in it, has become, her hands, the source of still greater errors: "Thou in the polite, and even in the familiar style, is disused, and the plural you is employed instead of it; we say, you have, not thou hast. Though in this case, we apply you to a single person, yet the verb too must agree with it in the plural number; it must necessarily be, you have, not you hast. You was is an enormous solecism,[245] and yet authors of the first rank have inadvertently fallen into it. * * * On the contrary, the solemn style admits not of you for a single person. This hath led Mr. Pope into a great impropriety in the beginning of his Messiah:—

   'O thou my voice inspire,
    Who touch'd Isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire!'

The solemnity of the style would not admit of you for thou, in the pronoun; nor the measure of the verse touchedst, or didst touch, in the verb, as it indispensably ought to be, in the one or the other of those two forms; you, who touched, or thou, who touchedst, or didst touch.

   'Just of thy word, in every thought sincere;
    Who knew no wish, but what the world might hear.'—Pope.

It ought to be your in the first line, or knewest in the second. In order to avoid this grammatical inconvenience, the two distinct forms of thou and you, are often used promiscuously by our modern poets, in the same paragraph, and even in the same sentence, very inelegantly and improperly:—

   'Now, now, I seize, I clasp thy charms;
    And now you burst, ah cruel! from my arms.'—Pope."
        —Lowth's English Gram., p. 34.

OBS. 17.—The points of Dr. Lowth's doctrine which are not sufficiently true, are the following: First, it is not true, that thou, in the familiar style, is totally disused, and the plural you employed universally in its stead; though Churchill, and others, besides the good bishop, seem to represent it so. It is now nearly two hundred years since the rise of the Society of Friends: and, whatever may have been the practice of others before or since, it is certain, that from their rise to the present day, there have been, at every point of time, many thousands who made no use of you for thou; and, but for the clumsy forms which most grammarians hold to be indispensable to verbs of the second person singular, the beautiful, distinctive, and poetical words, thou, thyself, thy, thine, and thee, would certainly be in no danger yet of becoming obsolete. Nor can they, indeed, at any rate, become so, till the fairest branches of the Christian Church shall wither; or, what should seem no gracious omen, her bishops and clergy learn to pray in the plural number, for fashion's sake. Secondly, it is not true, that, "thou, who touch'd," ought indispensably to be, "thou, who touchedst, or didst touch." It is far better to dispense with the inflection, in such a case, than either to impose it, or to resort to the plural pronoun. The "grammatical inconvenience" of dropping the st or est of a preterit, even in the solemn style, cannot be great, and may be altogether imaginary; that of imposing it, except in solemn prose, is not only real, but is often insuperable. It is not very agreeable, however, to see it added to some verbs, and dropped from others, in the same sentence: as,

   "Thou, who didst call the Furies from the abyss,
    And round Orestes bade them howl and hiss."
        —Byron's Childe Harold, Canto iv, st. 132.

   "Thou satt'st from age to age insatiate,
    And drank the blood of men, and gorged their flesh."
        —Pollok's Course of Time, B. vii, l. 700.

OBS. 18.—We see then, that, according to Dr. Lowth and others, the only good English in which one can address an individual on any ordinary occasion, is you with a plural verb; and that, according to Lindley Murray and others, the only good English for the same purpose, is thou with a verb inflected with st or est. Both parties to this pointed contradiction, are more or less in the wrong. The respect of the Friends for those systems of grammar which deny them the familiar use of the pronoun thou, is certainly not more remarkable, than the respect of the world for those which condemn the substitution of the plural you. Let grammar be a true record of existing facts, and all such contradictions must vanish. And, certainly, these great masters here contradict each other, in what every one who reads English, ought to know. They agree, however, in requiring, as indispensable to grammar, what is not only inconvenient, but absolutely impossible. For what "the measure of verse will not admit," cannot be used in poetry; and what may possibly be crowded into it, will often be far from ornamental. Yet our youth have been taught to spoil the versification of Pope and others, after the following manner: "Who touch'd Isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire." Say, "Who touchedst or didst touch."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 180. "For thee that ever felt another's wo." Say, "Didst feel."—Ib. "Who knew no wish but what the world might hear." Say, "Who knewest or didst know."—Ib. "Who all my sense confin'd." Say, "Confinedst or didst confine."—Ib., p. 186. "Yet gave me in this dark estate." Say, "Gavedst or didst give."—Ib. "Left free the human will."—Pope. Murray's criticism extends not to this line, but by the analogy we must say, "Leavedst or leftest." Now it would be easier to fill a volume with such quotations, and such corrections, than to find sufficient authority to prove one such word as gavedst, leavedst, or leftest, to be really good English. If Lord Byron is authority for "work'dst," he is authority also for dropping the st, even where it might be added:—

    ——"Thou, who with thy frown
    Annihilated senates."
        —Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Canto iv, st. 83.

OBS. 19.—According to Dr. Lowth, as well as Coar and some others, those preterits in which ed is sounded like t, "admit the change of ed into t; as, snacht, checkt, snapt, mixt, dropping also one of the double letters, dwelt, past."—Lowth's Gram., p. 46. If this principle were generally adopted, the number of our regular verbs would be greatly diminished, and irregularities would be indefinitely increased. What confusion the practice must make in the language, especially when we come to inflect this part of the verb with st or est, has already been suggested. Yet an ingenious and learned writer, an able contributor to the Philological Museum, published at Cambridge, England, in 1832; tracing the history of this class of derivatives, and finding that after the ed was contracted in pronunciation, several eminent writers, as Spenser, Milton, and others, adopted in most instances a contracted form of orthography; has seriously endeavoured to bring us back to their practice. From these authors, he cites an abundance of such contractions as the following: 1. "Stowd, hewd, subdewd, joyd, cald, expeld, compeld, spoild, kild, seemd, benumbd, armd, redeemd, staind, shund, paynd, stird, appeard, perceivd, resolvd, obeyd, equald, foyld, hurld, ruind, joynd, scatterd, witherd," and others ending in d. 2. "Clapt, whipt, worshipt, lopt, stopt, stampt, pickt, knockt, linkt, puft, stuft, hist, kist, abasht, brusht, astonisht, vanquisht, confest, talkt, twicht," and many others ending in t. This scheme divides our regular verbs into three classes; leaving but very few of them to be written as they now are. It proceeds upon the principle of accommodating our orthography to the familiar, rather than to the solemn pronunciation of the language. "This," as Dr. Johnson observes, "is to measure by a shadow." It is, whatever show of learning or authority may support it, a pernicious innovation. The critic says, "I have not ventured to follow the example of Spenser and Milton throughout, but have merely attempted to revive the old form of the preterit in t."—Phil. Museum, Vol. i, p. 663. "We ought not however to stop here," he thinks; and suggests that it would be no small improvement, "to write leveld for levelled, enameld for enamelled, reformd for reformed," &c.

OBS. 20.—If the multiplication of irregular preterits, as above described, is a grammatical error of great magnitude; the forcing of our old and well-known irregular verbs into regular forms that are seldom if ever used, is an opposite error nearly as great. And, in either case, there is the same embarrassment respecting the formation of the second person. Thus Cobbett, in his English Grammar in a Series of Letters, has dogmatically given us a list of seventy verbs, which, he says, are, "by some persons, erroneously deemed irregular;" and has included in it the words, blow, build, cast, cling, creep, freeze, draw, throw, and the like, to the number of sixty; so that he is really right in no more than one seventh part of his catalogue. And, what is more strange, for several of the irregularities which he censures, his own authority may be quoted from the early editions of this very book: as, "For you could have thrown about seeds."—Edition of 1818, p. 13. "For you could have throwed about seeds."—Edition of 1832, p. 13. "A tree is blown down."—Ed. of 1818, p. 27. "A tree is blowed down."—Ed. of 1832, p. 25. "It froze hard last night. Now, what was it that froze so hard?"—Ed. of 1818, p. 38. "It freezed hard last night. Now, what was it that freezed so hard?"—Ed. of 1832, p. 35. A whole page of such contradictions may be quoted from this one grammarian, showing that he did not know what form of the preterit he ought to prefer. From such an instructor, who can find out what is good English, and what is not? Respecting the inflections of the verb, this author says, "There are three persons; but, our verbs have no variation in their spelling, except for the third person singular."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 88. Again: "Observe, however, that, in our language, there is no very great use in this distinction of modes; because, for the most part, our little signs do the business, and they never vary in the letters of which they are composed."—Ib., ¶ 95. One would suppose, from these remarks, that Cobbett meant to dismiss the pronoun thou entirely from his conjugations. Not so at all. In direct contradiction to himself, he proceeds to inflect the verb as follows: "I work, Thou workest, He works; &c. I worked, Thou workedst, He worked; &c. I shall or will work, Thou shalt or wilt work, He shall or will work;" &c.—Ib., ¶ 98. All the compound tenses, except the future, he rejects, as things which "can only serve to fill up a book."

OBS. 21.—It is a common but erroneous opinion of our grammarians, that the unsyllabic suffix st, wherever found, is a modern contraction of the syllable est. No writer, however, thinks it always necessary to remind his readers of this, by inserting the sign of contraction; though English books are not a little disfigured by questionable apostrophes inserted for no other reason. Dr. Lowth says, "The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, inclines [incline] us to contract even all our regular verbs: thus loved, turned, are commonly pronounced in one syllable lov'd, turn'd: and the second person, which was originally in three syllables, lovedest, turnedest, is [say has] now become a dissyllable, lovedst, turnedst."—Lowth's Gram., p. 45; Hiley's, 45; Churchill's, 104. See also Priestley's Gram., p. 114; and Coar's, p. 102. This latter doctrine, with all its vouchers, still needs confirmation. What is it but an idle conjecture? If it were true, a few quotations might easily prove it; but when, and by whom, have any such words as lovedest, turnedest, ever been used? For aught I see, the simple st is as complete and as old a termination for the second person singular of an English verb, as est; indeed, it appears to be older: and, for the preterit, it is, and (I believe) always has been, the most regular, if not the only regular, addition. If sufferedest, woundedest, and killedest, are words more regular than sufferedst, woundedst, killedst, then are heardest, knewest, slewest, sawest, rannest, metest, swammest, and the like, more regular than heardst, knewst, slewst, sawst, ranst, metst, swamst, satst, saidst, ledst, fledst, toldst, and so forth; but not otherwise.[246] So, in the solemn style, we write seemest, deemest, swimmest, like seemeth, deemeth, swimmeth, and so forth; but, when we use the form which has no increase of syllables, why is an apostrophe more necessary in the second person, than in the third?—in seemst, deemst, swimst, than in seems, deems, swims? When final e is dropped from the verb, the case is different; as,

   "Thou cutst my head off with a golden axe,
    And smil'st upon the stroke that murders me."—Shakspeare.

OBS. 22.—Dr. Lowth supposes the verbal termination s or es to have come from a contraction of eth. He says, "Sometimes, by the rapidity of our pronunciation, the vowels are shortened or lost; and the consonants, which are thrown together, do not coalesce with one another, and are therefore changed into others of the same organ, or of a kindred species. This occasions a farther deviation from the regular form: thus, loveth, turneth, are contracted into lov'th, turn'th, and these, for easier pronunciation, immediately become loves, turns."—Lowth's Gram., p. 46; Hiley's, 45. This etymology may possibly be just, but certainly such contractions as are here spoken of, were not very common in Lowth's age, or even in that of Ben Jonson, who resisted the s. Nor is the sound of sharp th very obviously akin to flat s. The change would have been less violent, if lov'st and turnst had become loves and turns; as some people nowadays are apt to change them, though doubtless this is a grammatical error: as,

   "And wheresoe'er thou casts thy view."
        —Cowley.

    "Nor thou that flings me floundering from thy back."
        —Bat. of Frogs and Mice, 1,123.

    "Thou sitt'st on high, and measures destinies."
        —Pollok, Course of Time, B. vi, 1, 668.

OBS. 23.—Possibly, those personal terminations of the verb which do not form syllables, are mere contractions or relics of est and eth, which are syllables; but it is perhaps not quite so easy to prove them so, as some authors imagine. In the oldest specimens given by Dr. Johnson in his History of the English Language,—specimens bearing a much earlier date than the English language can claim,—even in what he calls "Saxon in its highest state of purity," both st and th are often added to verbs, without forming additional syllables, and without any sign of contraction. Nor were verbs of the second person singular always inflected of old, in those parts to which est was afterwards very commonly added. Examples: "Buton ic wat thæt thu hoefst thara wæpna."—King Alfred. "But I know that thou hast those weapons." "Thæt thu oncnawe thara worda sothfæstnesse. of tham the thu geloered eart."—Lucæ, i, 4. "That thou mightest know the certainty of those things wherein thou hast been instructed."—Luke, i, 4. "And thu nemst his naman Johannes."—Lucæ, i, 13. "And his name schal be clepid Jon."—Wickliffe's Version. "And thou shalt call his name John."—Luke, i, 13. "And he ne drincth win ne beor."—Lucæ, i, 15. "He schal not drinke wyn ne sydyr."—Wickliffe. "And shall drink neither wine nor strong drink."—Luke, i, 15. "And nu thu bist suwigende. and thu sprecan ne miht oth thone dæg the thas thing gewurthath. fortham thu minum wordum ne gelyfdest. tha beoth on hyra timan gefyllede."—Lucæ, i, 20. "And lo, thou schalt be doumbe, and thou schalt not mowe speke, til into the day in which these thingis schulen be don, for thou hast not beleved to my wordis, whiche schulen be fulfild in her tyme."—Wickliffe. "And, behold, thou shalt be dumb, and not able to speak, until the day that[247] these things shall be performed, because thou believest not my words, which shall be fulfilled in their season."—Luke, i, 20.

   "In chaungyng of her course, the chaunge shewth this,
    Vp startth a knaue, and downe there falth a knight."
        —Sir Thomas More.

OBS. 24.—The corollary towards which the foregoing observations are directed, is this. As most of the peculiar terminations by which the second person singular is properly distinguished in the solemn style, are not only difficult of utterance, but are quaint and formal in conversation; the preterits and auxiliaries of our verbs are seldom varied in familiar discourse, and the present is generally simplified by contraction, or by the adding of st without increase of syllables. A distinction between the solemn and the familiar style has long been admitted, in the pronunciation of the termination ed, and in the ending of the verb in the third person singular; and it is evidently according to good taste and the best usage, to admit such a distinction in the second person singular. In the familiar use of the second person singular, the verb is usually varied only in the present tense of the indicative mood, and in the auxiliary hast of the perfect. This method of varying the verb renders the second person singular analogous to the third, and accords with the practice of the most intelligent of those who retain the common use of this distinctive and consistent mode of address. It disencumbers their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and useless terminations, which serve only, when uttered, to give an uncouth prominency to words not often emphatic; and, without impairing the strength or perspicuity of the language, increases its harmony, and reduces the form of the verb in the second person singular nearly to the same simplicity as in the other persons and numbers. It may serve also, in some instances, to justify the poets, in those abbreviations for which they have been so unreasonably censured by Lowth, Murray, and some other grammarians: as,

   "And thou their natures knowst, and gave them names,
    Needless to thee repeated."—Milton, P. L., Book vii, line 494.

OBS. 25.—The writings of the Friends, being mostly of a grave cast, afford but few examples of their customary manner of forming the verb in connexion with the pronoun thou, in familiar discourse. The following may serve to illustrate it: "Suitable to the office thou layst claim to."—R. BARCLAY'S Works, Vol. i, p. 27. "Notwithstanding thou may have sentiments opposite to mine."—THOMAS STORY. "To devote all thou had to his service;"—"If thou should come;"—"What thou said;"—"Thou kindly contributed;"—"The epistle which thou sent me;"—"Thou would perhaps allow;"—"If thou submitted;"—"Since thou left;"—"Should thou act;"—"Thou may be ready;"—"That thou had met;"—"That thou had intimated;"—"Before thou puts" [putst];—"What thou meets" [meetst];—"If thou had made;"—"I observed thou was;"—"That thou might put thy trust;"—"Thou had been at my house."—JOHN KENDALL. "Thou may be plundered;"—"That thou may feel;"—"Though thou waited long, and sought him;"—"I hope thou will bear my style;"—"Thou also knows" [knowst];—"Thou grew up;"—"I wish thou would yet take my counsel."—STEPHEN CRISP. "Thou manifested thy tender regard, stretched forth thy delivering hand, and fed and sustained us."—SAMUEL FOTHERGILL. The writer has met with thousands that used the second person singular in conversation, but never with any one that employed, on ordinary occasions, all the regular endings of the solemn style. The simplification of the second person singular, which, to a greater or less extent, is everywhere adopted by the Friends, and which is here defined and explained, removes from each verb eighteen of these peculiar terminations; and, (if the number of English verbs be, as stated by several grammarians, 8000,) disburdens their familiar dialect of 144,000 of these awkward and useless appendages.[248] This simplification is supported by usage as extensive as the familiar use of the pronoun thou; and is also in accordance with the canons of criticism: "The first canon on this subject is, All words and phrases which are remarkably harsh and unharmonious, and not absolutely necessary, should be rejected." See Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, B. ii, Ch. ii, Sec. 2, Canon Sixth, p. 181. See also, in the same work, (B. hi, Ch. iv, Sec. 2d,) an express defence of "those elisions whereby the sound is improved;" especially of the suppression of the "feeble vowel in the last syllable of the preterits of our regular verbs;" and of "such abbreviations" as "the eagerness of conveying one's sentiments, the rapidity and ease of utterance, necessarily produce, in the dialect of conversation."—Pages 426 and 427. Lord Kames says, "That the English tongue, originally harsh, is at present much softened by dropping many redundant consonants, is undoubtedly true; that it is not capable of being further mellowed without suffering in its force and energy, will scarce be thought by any one who possesses an ear."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 12.

OBS. 26.—The following examples are from a letter of an African Prince, translated by Dr. Desaguillier of Cambridge, England, in 1743, and published in a London newspaper: "I lie there too upon the bed thou presented me;"—"After thou left me, in thy swimming house;"—"Those good things thou presented me;"—"When thou spake to the Great Spirit and his Son." If it is desirable that our language should retain this power of a simple literal version of what in others may be familiarly expressed by the second person singular, it is clear that our grammarians must not continue to dogmatize according to the letter of some authors hitherto popular. But not every popular grammar condemns such phraseology as the foregoing. "I improved, Thou improvedst, &c. This termination of the second person preterit, on account of its harshness, is seldom used, and especially in the irregular verbs."—Harrison's Gram., p. 26. "The termination est, annexed to the preter tenses of verbs, is, at best, a very harsh one, when it is contracted, according to our general custom of throwing out the e; as learnedst, for learnedest; and especially, if it be again contracted into one syllable, as it is commonly pronounced, and made learndst. * * * I believe a writer or speaker would have recourse to any periphrasis rather than say keptest, or keptst. * * * Indeed this harsh termination est is generally quite dropped in common conversation, and sometimes by the poets, in writing."—Priestley's Gram., p. 115. The fact is, it never was added with much uniformity. Examples: "But like the hell hounde thou waxed fall furious, expressing thy malice when thou to honour stied."—FABIAN'S CHRONICLE, V. ii, p. 522: in Tooke's Divers., T. ii, p. 232.

   "Thou from the arctic regions came. Perhaps
    Thou noticed on thy way a little orb,
    Attended by one moon—her lamp by night."
        —Pollok, B. ii, l. 5.

    "'So I believ'd.'—No, Abel! to thy grief,
    So thou relinquish'd all that was belief."
        —Crabbe, Borough, p. 279.

OBS. 27.—L. Murray, and his numerous copyists, Ingersoll, Greenleaf, Kirkham, Fisk, Flint, Comly, Alger, and the rest; though they insist on it, that the st of the second person can never be dispensed with, except in the imperative mood and some parts of the subjunctive; are not altogether insensible of that monstrous harshness which their doctrine imposes upon the language. Some of them tell us to avoid this by preferring the auxiliaries dost and didst: as dost burst, for burstest; didst check, for checkedst. This recommendation proceeds on the supposition that dost and didst are smoother syllables than est and edst; which is not true: didst learn is harsher than either learnedst or learntest; and all three of them are intolerable in common discourse. Nor is the "energy, or positiveness," which grammarians ascribe to these auxiliaries, always appropriate. Except in a question, dost and didst, like do, does, and did, are usually signs of emphasis; and therefore unfit to be substituted for the st, est, or edst, of an unemphatic verb. Kirkham, who, as we have seen, graces his Elocution with such unutterable things, as "prob'dst, hurl'dst, arm'dst, want'dst, burn'dst, bark'dst, bubbl'dst, troubbl'dst," attributes the use of the plural for the singular, to a design of avoiding the raggedness of the latter. "In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the frequent recurrence of the termination est, edst, in the adaptation of our verbs to the nominative thou, a modern innovation which substitutes you for thou, in familiar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style. You was formerly restricted to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 99. A modern innovation, forsooth! Does not every body know it was current four hundred years ago, or more? Certainly, both ye and you were applied in this manner, to the great, as early as the fourteenth century. Chaucer sometimes used them so, and he died in 1400. Sir T. More uses them so, in a piece dated 1503.

   "O dere cosyn, Dan Johan, she sayde,
    What eyleth you so rathe to aryse?"—Chaucer.

Shakspeare most commonly uses thou, but he sometimes has you in stead of it. Thus, he makes Portia say to Brutus:

"You suddenly arose, and walk'd about, Musing, and sighing, with your arms across; And when I ask'd you what the matter was, You star'd upon me with ungentle looks."—J. Cæsar, Act ii, Sc. 2.

OBS. 28.—"There is a natural tendency in all languages to throw out the rugged parts which improper consonants produce, and to preserve those which are melodious and agreeable to the ear."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 29. "The English tongue, so remarkable for its grammatical simplicity, is loaded with a great variety of dull unmeaning terminations. Mr. Sheridan attributes this defect, to an utter inattention to what is easy to the organs of speech and agreeable to the ear; and further adds, that, 'the French having been adopted as the language of the court, no notice was taken, of the spelling or pronunciation of our words, until the reign of queen Anne.' So little was spelling attended to in the time of Elizabeth, that Dr. Johnson informs us, that on referring to Shakspeare's will, to determine how his name was spelt, he was found to have written it himself [in] no less [fewer] than three different ways."—Ib., p. 477. In old books, our participial or verbal termination ed, is found written in about a dozen different ways; as, ed, de, d, t, id, it, yd, yt, ede, od, ud. For est and eth, we find sometimes the consonants only; sometimes, ist or yst, ith or yth; sometimes, for the latter, oth or ath; and sometimes the ending was omitted altogether. In early times also the th was an ending for verbs of the third person plural, as well as for those of the third person singular;[249] and, in the imperative mood, it was applied to the second person, both singular and plural: as,

"Demith thyself, that demist other's dede; And trouthe the shall deliver, it's no drede."—Chaucer.

OBS. 29.—It must be obvious to every one who has much acquaintance with the history of our language, that this part of its grammar has always been quite as unsettled as it is now; and, however we may wish to establish its principles, it is idle to teach for absolute certainty that which every man's knowledge may confute. Let those who desire to see our forms of conjugation as sure as those of other tongues, study to exemplify in their own practice what tends to uniformity. The best that can be done by the author of a grammar, is, to exhibit usage, as it has been, and as it is; pointing out to the learner what is most fashionable, as well as what is most orderly and agreeable. If by these means the usage of writers and speakers cannot be fixed to what is fittest for their occasions, and therefore most grammatical, there is in grammar no remedy for their inaccuracies; as there is none for the blunders of dull opinionists, none for the absurdities of Ignorance stalled in the seats of Learning. Some grammarians say, that, whenever the preterit of an irregular verb is like the present, it should take edst for the second person singular. This rule, (which is adopted by Walker, in his Principles, No. 372,) gives us such words as cast-edst, cost-edst, bid-dedst, burst-edst, cut-tedst, hit-tedst, let-tedst, put-tedst, hurt-edst, rid-dedst, shed-dedst, &c. But the rule is groundless. The few examples which may be adduced from ancient writings, in support of this principle, are undoubtedly formed in the usual manner from regular preterits now obsolete; and if this were not the case, no person of taste could think of employing, on any occasion, derivatives so uncouth. Dr. Johnson has justly remarked, that "the chief defect of our language, is ruggedness and asperity." And this defect, as some of the foregoing remarks have shown, is peculiarly obvious, when even the regular termination of the second person singular is added to our preterits. Accordingly, we find numerous instances among the poets, both ancient and modern, in which that termination is omitted. See Percy's Reliques of Ancient Poetry, everywhere.

"Thou, who of old the prophet's eye unsealed."—Pollok.

"Thou saw the fields laid bare and waste."—Burns.[250]

OBS. 30.—With the familiar form of the second person singular, those who constantly put you for thou can have no concern; and many may think it unworthy of notice, because Murray has said nothing about it: others will hastily pronounce it bad English, because they have learned at school some scheme of the verb, which implies that this must needs be wrong. It is this partial learning which makes so much explanation here necessary. The formation of this part of speech, form it as you will, is central to grammar, and cannot but be very important. Our language can never entirely drop the pronoun thou, and its derivatives, thy, thine, thee, thyself, without great injury, especially to its poetry. Nor can the distinct syllabic utterance of the termination ed be now generally practised, except in solemn prose. It is therefore better, not to insist on those old verbal forms against which there are so many objections, than to exclude the pronoun of the second person singular from all such usage, whether familiar or poetical, as will not admit them. It is true that on most occasions you may be substituted for thou, without much inconvenience; and so may we be substituted for I, with just as much propriety; though Dr. Perley thinks the latter usage "is not to be encouraged."—Gram., p. 28. Our authors and editors, like kings and emperors, are making we for I their most common mode of expression. They renounce their individuality to avoid egotism. And when all men shall have adopted this enallage, the fault indeed will be banished, or metamorphosed, but with it will go an other sixth part of every English conjugation. The pronouns in the following couplet are put for the first person singular, the second person singular, and the second person plural; yet nobody will understand them so, but by their antecedents:

"Right trusty, and so forth—we let you to know We are very ill used by you mortals below."—Swift.

OBS. 31.—It is remarkable that some, who forbear to use the plural for the singular in the second person, adopt it without scruple, in the first. The figure is the same in both; and in both, sufficiently common. Neither practice is worthy to be made more general than it now is. If thou should not be totally sacrificed to what was once a vain compliment, neither should I, to what is now an occasional, and perhaps a vain assumption. Lindley Murray, who does not appear to have used you for thou, and who was sometimes singularly careful to periphrase [sic—KTH] and avoid the latter, nowhere in his grammar speaks of himself in the first person singular. He is often "the Compiler;" rarely, "the Author;" generally, "We:" as, "We have distributed these parts of grammar, in the mode which we think most correct and intelligible."—Octavo Gram., p. 58. "We shall not pursue this subject any further."—Ib., p. 62. "We shall close these remarks on the tenses."—Ib., p. 76. "We presume no solid objection can be made."—Ib., p. 78. "The observations which we have made."—Ib., p. 100. "We shall produce a remarkable example of this beauty from Milton."—Ib., p. 331. "We have now given sufficient openings into this subject."—Ib., p. 334. This usage has authority enough; for it was not uncommon even among the old Latin grammarians; but he must be a slender scholar, who thinks the pronoun we thereby becomes singular. What advantage or fitness there is in thus putting we for I, the reader may judge. Dr. Blair did not hesitate to use I, as often as ho had occasion; neither did Lowth, or Johnson, or Walker, or Webster: as, "I shall produce a remarkable example of this beauty from Milton."—Blair's Rhet., p. 129. "I have now given sufficient openings into this subject."—Ib., p. 131. So in Lowth's Preface: "I believe,"—"I am persuaded,"—"I am sure,"—"I think,"—"I am afraid,"—"I will not take upon me to say."

OBS. 32.—Intending to be critical without hostility, and explicit without partiality, I write not for or against any sect, or any man; but to teach all who desire to know the grammar of our tongue. The student must distinctly understand, that it is necessary to speak and write differently, according to the different circumstances or occasions of writing. Who is he that will pretend that the solemn style of the Bible may be used in familiar discourse, without a mouthing affectation? In preaching, or in praying, the ancient terminations of est for the second person singular and eth for the third, as well as ed pronounced as a separate syllable for the preterit, are admitted to be generally in better taste than the smoother forms of the familiar style: because the latter, though now frequently heard in religious assemblies, are not so well suited to the dignity and gravity of a sermon or a prayer. In grave poetry also, especially when it treats of scriptural subjects, to which you put for thou is obviously unsuitable, the personal terminations of the verb, though from the earliest times to the present day they have usually been contracted and often omitted by the poets, ought still perhaps to be considered grammatically necessary, whenever they can be uttered, agreeably to the notion of our tuneless critics. The critical objection to their elision, however, can have no very firm foundation while it is admitted by some of the objectors themselves, that, "Writers generally have recourse to this mode of expression, that they may avoid harsh terminations."— Irving's Elements of English Composition, p. 12. But if writers of good authority, such as Pope, Byron, and Pollok, have sometimes had recourse to this method of simplifying the verb, even in compositions of a grave cast, the elision may, with tenfold stronger reason, be admitted in familiar writing or discourse, on the authority of general custom among those who choose to employ the pronoun thou in conversation.

   "But thou, false Arcite, never shall obtain," &c.
        —Dryden, Fables.

    "These goods thyself can on thyself bestow."
        —Id., in Joh. Dict.

    "What I show, thy self may freely on thyself bestow."
        —Id., Lowth's Gram., p. 26.

    "That thou might Fortune to thy side engage."
        —Prior.

    "Of all thou ever conquered, none was left."
        —Pollok, B. vii, l. 760.

    "And touch me trembling, as thou touched the man," &c.
        —Id., B. x, l. 60.

OBS. 33.—Some of the Friends (perhaps from an idea that it is less formal) misemploy thee for thou; and often join it to the third person of the verb in stead of the second. Such expressions as, thee does, thee is, thee has, thee thinks, &c., are double solecisms; they set all grammar at defiance. Again, many persons who are not ignorant of grammar, and who employ the pronoun aright, sometimes improperly sacrifice concord to a slight improvement in sound, and give to the verb the ending of the third person, for that of the second. Three or four instances of this, occur in the examples which have been already quoted. See also the following, and many more, in the works of the poet Burns; who says of himself, "Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings, I made an excellent English scholar; and, by the time I was ten or eleven years of age, I was a critic in substantives, VERBS, and particles:"—"But when thou pours;"—"There thou shines chief;"—"Thou clears the head;"—"Thou strings the nerves;"—"Thou brightens black despair;"—"Thou comes;"—"Thou travels far;"—"Now thou's turned out;"—"Unseen thou lurks;"—"O thou pale orb that silent shines." This mode of simplifying the verb, confounds the persons; and, as it has little advantage in sound, over the regular contracted form of the second person, it ought to be avoided. With this author it may be, perhaps, a Scotticism: as,

   "Thou paints auld nature to the nines,
    In thy sweet Caledonian lines."—Burns to Ramsay.

"Thou paintst old nature," would be about as smooth poetry, and certainly much better English. This confounding of the persons of the verb, however, is no modern peculiarity. It appears to be about as old as the use of s for th or eth. Spenser, the great English poet of the sixteenth century, may be cited in proof: as,

   "Siker, thou's but a lazy loord,
    And rekes much of thy swinke."—Joh. Dict., w. Loord.

OBS. 34.—In the solemn style, (except in poetry, which usually contracts these forms,) the second person singular of the present indicative, and that of the irregular preterits, commonly end in est, pronounced as a separate syllable, and requiring the duplication of the final consonant, according to Rule 3d for Spelling: as, I run, thou runnest; I ran, thou rannest. But as the termination ed, in solemn discourse, constitutes a syllable, the regular preterits form the second person singular by assuming st, without further increase of syllables: as, I loved, thou lovedst; not, "lovedest," as Chandler made it in his English Grammar, p. 41, Edition of 1821; and as Wells's rule, above cited, if literally taken, would make it. Dost and hast, and the three irregular preterits, wast, didst, and hadst, are permanently contracted; though doest and diddest are sometimes seen in old books. Saidst is more common, and perhaps more regular, than saidest. Werest has long been contracted into wert: "I would thou werest either cold or hot."—W. Perkins, 1608.[251] The auxiliaries shall and will change the final l to t, and become shalt and wilt. To the auxiliaries, may, can, might, could, would, and should, the termination est was formerly added; but they are now generally written with st only, and pronounced as monosyllables, even in solemn discourse. Murray, in quoting the Scriptures, very often charges mayest to mayst, mightest to mightst, &c. Some other permanent contractions are occasionally met with, in what many grammarians call the solemn style; as bidst for biddest, fledst for fleddest, satst for sattest:

   "Riding sublime, thou bidst the world adore,
    And humblest nature with thy northern blast."
        —Thomson.

    "Fly thither whence thou fledst."
         —Milton, P. L., B. iv, l. 963.

    "Unspeakable, who sitst above these heavens."
        —Id., ib., B. v, l. 156.

    "Why satst thou like an enemy in wait?"
        —Id., ib., B. iv, l. 825.

OBS. 35.—The formation of the third person singular of verbs, is now precisely the same as that of the plural number of nouns: as, love, loves; show, shows; boast, boasts; fly, flies; reach, reaches. This form began to be used about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The ending seems once to have been es, sounded as s or z: as,

   "And thus I see among these pleasant thynges
    Eche care decayes, and yet my sorrow sprynges."—Earl of Surry.

"With throte yrent, he roares, he lyeth along."—Sir T. Wyat.

"He dyeth, he is all dead, he pantes, he restes."—Id., 1540.

In all these instances, the e before the s has become improper. The es does not here form a syllable; neither does the eth, in "lyeth" and "dyeth." In very ancient times, the third person singular appears to have been formed by adding th or eth nearly as we now add s or es[252] Afterwards, as in our common Bible, it was formed by adding th to verbs ending in e, and eth to all others; as, "For he that eateth and drinketh unworthily, eateth and drinketh damnation to himself."—1 Cor., xi, 29. "He quickeneth man, who is dead in trespasses and sins; he keepeth alive the quickened soul, and leadeth it in the paths of life; he scattereth, subdueth, and conquereth the enemies of the soul."—I. Penington. This method of inflection, as now pronounced, always adds a syllable to the verb. It is entirely confined to the solemn style, and is little used. Doth, hath, and saith, appear to be permanent contractions of verbs thus formed. In the days of Shakspeare, both terminations were common, and he often mixed them, in a way which is not very proper now: as,

   "The quality of mercy is not strained;
    It droppeth, as the gentle rain from heaven
    Upon the place beneath: it is twice bless'd;
    It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes."
        —Merchant of Venice.

OBS. 36.—When the second person singular is employed in familiar discourse, with any regard to correctness, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that which is now adopted in the third person singular. When the verb ends with a sound which will unite with that of st or s, the second person singular is formed by adding s only, and the third, by adding s only; and the number of syllables is not increased: as, I read, thou readst, he reads; I know, thou knowst, he knows; I take, thou takest, he takes; I free, thou freest, he frees. For, when the verb ends in mute a, no termination renders this a vocal in the familiar style, if a synæresis can take place. To prevent their readers from ignorantly assuming the pronunciation of the solemn style, the poets have generally marked such words with an apostrophe: as,

   "Look what thy soul holds dear, imagine it
    To lie the way thou go'st, not whence thou com'st."—Shak.

OBS. 37.—But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite with that of st or s, the second and third persons are formed by adding est and es; or, if the first person end in mute e, the st and s render that e vocal; so that the verb acquires an additional syllable: as, I trace, thou tracest, he traces; I pass, thou passest, he passes; I fix, thou fixest, he fixes; I preach, thou preachest, he preaches; I blush, thou blushest, he blushes; I judge, thou judgest, he judges. But verbs ending in o or y preceded by a consonant, do not exactly follow either of the foregoing rules. In these, y is changed into i; and, to both o and i, est and es are added without increase of syllables: as, I go, thou goest, he goes; I undo, thou undoest,[253] he undoes; I fly, thou fliest, he flies; I pity, thou pitiest, he pities. Thus, in the following lines, goest must be pronounced like ghost; otherwise, we spoil the measure of the verse:

   "Thou goest not now with battle, and the voice
    Of war, as once against the rebel hosts;
    Thou goest a Judge, and findst the guilty bound;
    Thou goest to prove, condemn, acquit, reward."—Pollok, B. x.

In solemn prose, however, the termination is here made a separate syllable: as, I go, thou goëst, he goëth; I undo, thou undoëst, he undoëth; I fly, thou fliëst, he fliëth; I pity, thou pitiëst, he pitiëth.

OBS. 38.—The auxiliaries do, dost, does,—(pronounced doo, dust, duz; and not as the words dough, dosed, doze,—) am, art, is,—have, hast, has,—being also in frequent use as principal verbs of the present tense, retain their peculiar forms, with distinction of person and number, when they help to form the compound tenses of other verbs. The other auxiliaries are not varied, or ought not to be varied, except in the solemn style. Example of the familiar use: "That thou may be found truly owning it."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 234.

OBS. 39.—The only regular terminations that are added to English verbs, are ing, d or e, st or est, s or es, th or eth[254] Ing, and th or eth, always add a syllable to the verb; except in doth, hath, saith.[255] The rest, whenever their sound will unite with that of the final syllable of the verb, are usually added without increasing the number of syllables; otherwise, they are separately pronounced. In solemn discourse, however, ed and est are by most speakers uttered distinctly in all cases; except sometimes when a vowel precedes: as in sanctified, glorified, which are pronounced as three syllables only. Yet, in spite of this analogy, many readers will have sanctifiest and glorifiest to be words of four syllables. If this pronunciation is proper, it is only so in solemn prose. The prosody of verse will show how many syllables the poets make: as,

   "Thou diedst, a most rare boy, of melancholy!"
        —Shak., Cymb., Act iv, sc. 2.

    "Had not a voice thus warn'd me: What thou seest,
    What there thou seest, fair creature, is thyself."
        —Milton, B. iv, l. 467.

    "By those thou wooedst from death to endless life."
        —Pollok, B. ix, l. 7.

    "Attend: that thou art happy, owe to God;
    That thou continuest such, owe to thyself"
        —Milton, B. v, l. 520.

OBS. 40.—If the grave and full form of the second person singular must needs be supposed to end rather with the syllable est than with st only, it is certain that this form may be contracted, whenever the verb ends in a sound which will unite with that of st. The poets generally employ the briefer or contracted forms; but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent method of writing them. Some usually insert the apostrophe, and, after a single vowel, double the final consonant before st; as, hold'st, bidd'st, said'st, ledd'st, wedd'st, trimm'st, may'st, might'st, and so forth: others, in numerous instances, add st only, and form permanent contractions; as, holdst, bidst, saidst, ledst, wedst, trimst, mayst, mightst, and so forth. Some retain the vowel e, in the termination of certain words, and suppress a preceding one; as, quick'nest, happ'nest, scatt'rest, rend'rest, rend'redst, slumb'rest, slumb'redst: others contract the termination of such words, and insert the apostrophe; as, quicken'st, happen'st, scatter'st, render'st, render'dst, slumber'st, slumber'dst. The nature and idiom of our language, "the accent and pronunciation of it," incline us to abbreviate or "contract even all our regular verbs;" so as to avoid, if possible, an increase of syllables in the inflection of them. Accordingly, several terminations which formerly constituted distinct syllables, have been either wholly dropped, or blended with the final syllables of the verbs to which they are added. Thus the plural termination en has become entirely obsolete; th or eth is no longer in common use; ed is contracted in pronunciation; the ancient ys or is, of the third person singular, is changed to s or es, and is usually added without increase of syllables; and st or est has, in part, adopted the analogy. So that the proper mode of forming these contractions of the second person singular, seems to be, to add st only; and to insert no apostrophe, unless a vowel is suppressed from the verb to which this termination is added: as, thinkst, sayst, bidst, sitst, satst, lov'st, lov'dst, slumberst, slumber'dst.

   "And know, for that thou slumberst on the guard,
    Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar."—Cotton.

OBS. 41.—Ho man deserves more praise for his attention to English pronunciation, than John Walker. His Pronouncing Dictionary was, for a long period, the best standard of orthoëpy, that our schools possessed. But he seems to me to have missed a figure, in preferring such words as quick'nest, strength'nest, to the smoother and more regular forms, quickenst, strengthenst. It is true that these are rough words, in any form you can give them; but let us remember, that needless apostrophes are as rough to the eye, as needless st's to the ear. Our common grammarians are disposed to encumber the language with as many of both as they can find any excuse for, and vastly more than can be sustained by any good argument. In words that are well understood to be contracted in pronunciation, the apostrophe is now less frequently used than it was formerly. Walker says, "This contraction of the participial ed, and the verbal en, is so fixed an idiom of our pronunciation, that to alter it, would be to alter the sound of the whole language. It must, however, be regretted that it subjects our tongue to some of the most hissing, snapping, clashing, grinding sounds that ever grated the ears of a Vandal; thus, rasped, scratched, wrenched, bridled, fangled, birchen, hardened, strengthened, quickened, &c. almost frighten us when written as they are actually pronounced, as rapt, scratcht, wrencht, bridl'd, fangl'd, birch'n, strength'n'd, quick'n'd, &c.; they become still more formidable when used contractedly in the solemn style, which never ought to be the case; for here instead of thou strength'n'st or strength'n'd'st, thou quick'n'st or quick'n'd'st, we ought to pronounce thou strength'nest or strength'nedst, thou quick'nest or quick'nedst, which are sufficiently harsh of all conscience."—Principles, No. 359. Here are too many apostrophes; for it does not appear that such words as strengthenedest and quickenedest ever existed, except in the imagination of certain grammarians. In solemn prose one may write, thou quickenest, thou strengthenest, or thou quickenedst, thou strengthenedst; but, in the familiar style, or in poetry, it is better to write, thou quickenst, thou strengthenst, thou quickened, thou strengthened. This is language which it is possible to utter; and it is foolish to strangle ourselves with strings of rough consonants, merely because they are insisted on by some superficial grammarians. Is it not strange, is it not incredible, that the same hand should have written the two following lines, in the same sentence? Surely, the printer has been at fault.

   "With noiseless foot, thou walkedst the vales of earth"—
    "Most honourable thou appeared, and most
    To be desired."—Pollok's Course of Time, B. ix, l. 18, and l. 24.

OBS. 42.—It was once a very common practice, to retain the final y, in contractions of the preterit or of the second person of most verbs that end in y, and to add the consonant terminations d, st, and dst, with an apostrophe before each; as, try'd for tried, reply'd for replied, try'st for triest, try'dst for triedst. Thus Milton:—

   "Thou following cry'dst aloud, Return, fair Eve;
    Whom fly'st thou? whom thou fly'st, of him thou art."
        —P. L., B. iv, l. 481.

This usage, though it may have been of some advantage as an index to the pronunciation of the words, is a palpable departure from the common rule for spelling such derivatives. That rule is, "The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is changed into i before an additional termination." The works of the British poets, except those of the present century, abound with contractions like the foregoing; but late authors, or their printers, have returned to the rule; and the former practice is wearing out and becoming obsolete. Of regular verbs that end in ay, ey, or oy, we have more than half a hundred; all of which usually retain the y in their derivatives, agreeably to an other of the rules for spelling. The preterits of these we form by adding ed without increase of syllables; as, display, displayed; survey, surveyed; enjoy, enjoyed. These also, in both tenses, may take st without increase of syllables; as, display'st, display'dst; survey'st, survey'dst; enjoy'st, enjoy'dst. All these forms, and such as these, are still commonly considered contractions, and therefore written with the apostrophe; but if the termination st is sufficient of itself to mark the second person singular, as it certainly is considered to be as regards one half of them, and as it certainly was in the Saxon tongue still more generally, then for the other half there is no need of the apostrophe, because nothing is omitted. Est, like es, is generally a syllabic termination; but st, like s, is not. As signs of the third person, the s and the es are always considered equivalent; and, as signs of the second person, the st and the est are sometimes, and ought to be always, considered so too. To all verbs that admit the sound, we add the s without marking it as a contraction for es; and there seems to be no reason at all against adding the st in like manner, whenever we choose to form the second person without adding a syllable to the verb. The foregoing observations I commend to the particular attention of all those who hope to write such English as shall do them honour—to every one who, from a spark of literary ambition, may say of himself,

                  ————-"I twine
    My hopes of being remembered in my line
    With my land's language."—Byron's Childe Harold, Canto iv, st. 9.

THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS.

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles.

There are four PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of every simple and complete verb; namely, the Present, the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Participle.[256] A verb which wants any of these parts, is called defective; such are most of the auxiliaries.

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, with their variations.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The present, or the verb in the present tense, is radically the same in all the moods, and is the part from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is commonly considered the root, or simplest form, of the English verb. We usually place the preposition TO before it; but never when with an auxiliary it forms a compound tense that is not infinitive: there are also some other exceptions, which plainly show, that the word to is neither a part of the verb, as Cobbett, R. C. Smith, S. Kirkham, and Wells, say it is; nor a part of the infinitive mood, as Hart and many others will have it to be, but a distinct preposition. (See, in the Syntax of this work, Observations on Rule 18th.) The preterit and the perfect participle are regularly formed by adding d or ed, and the imperfect participle, by adding ing, to the present.

OBS. 2.—The moods and tenses, in English, are formed partly by inflections, or changes made in the verb itself, and partly by the combination of the verb or its participle, with a few short verbs, called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. This view of the subject, though disputed by some, is sustained by such a preponderance both of authority and of reason, that I shall not trouble the reader with any refutation of those who object to it. Murray the schoolmaster observes, "In the English language, the times and modes of verbs are expressed in a perfect, easy, and beautiful manner, by the aid of a few little words called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. The possibility of a thing is expressed by can or could; the liberty to do a thing, by may or might; the inclination of the will, by will or would; the necessity of a thing, by must or ought, shall or should. The preposition to is never expressed after the helping verbs, except after ought."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 112. See nearly the same words in Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 36; and in the British Gram., p. 125.

OBS. 3.—These authors are wrong in calling ought a helping verb, and so is Oliver B. Peirce, in calling "ought to," and "ought to have" auxiliaries; for no auxiliary ever admits the preposition to after it or into it: and Murray of Holdgate is no less in fault, for calling let an auxiliary; because no mere auxiliary ever governs the objective case. The sentences, "He ought to help you," and, "Let him help you," severally involve two different moods: they are equivalent to, "It is his duty to help you;"—"Permit him to help you." Hence ought and let are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs.

OBS. 4.—Though most of the auxiliaries are defective, when compared with other verbs; yet these three, do, be, and have, being also principal verbs, are complete: but the participles of do and have are not used as auxiliaries; unless having, which helps to form the third or "compound perfect" participle, (as having loved,) may be considered such. The other auxiliaries have no participles.

OBS. 5.—English verbs are principally conjugated by means of auxiliaries; the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, being the present and the imperfect; as, I love, I loved. And even here an auxiliary is usually preferred in questions and negations; as, "Do you love?"—"You do not love." "Did he love?"—"He did not love." "Do I not yet grieve?"—"Did she not die?" All the other tenses, even in their simplest form, are compounds.

OBS. 6.—Dr. Johnson says, "Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did love; simply for I love, or I loved; but this is considered as a vitious mode of speech."—Gram., in 4to Dict., p. 8. He also somewhere tells us, that these auxiliaries "are not proper before be and have;" as, "I do be," for I am; "I did have," for I had. The latter remark is generally true, and it ought to be remembered;[257] but, in the imperative mood, be and have will perhaps admit the emphatic word do before them, in a colloquial style: as, "Now do be careful;"—"Do have a little discretion." Sanborn repeatedly puts do before be, in this mood: as, "Do you be. Do you be guarded. Do thou be. Do thou be guarded."—Analytical Gram., p. 150. "Do thou be watchful."—Ib., p. 155. In these instances, he must have forgotten that he had elsewhere said positively, that, "Do, as an auxiliary, is never used with the verb be or am."—Ib., p. 112. In the other moods, it is seldom, if ever, proper before be; but it is sometimes used before have, especially with a negative: as, "Those modes of charity which do not have in view the cultivation of moral excellence, are essentially defective."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 428. "Surely, the law of God, whether natural or revealed, does not have respect merely to the external conduct of men."—Stuart's Commentary on Romans, p. 158. "And each day of our lives do we have occasion to see and lament it."—Dr. Bartlett's Lecture on Health, p. 5. "Verbs, in themselves considered, do not have person and number."—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 21. [This notion of Smith's is absurd. Kirkham taught the same as regards "person."] In the following example, does he is used for is,—the auxiliary is,—and perhaps allowably: "It is certain from scripture, that the same person does in the course of life many times offend and be forgiven."—West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 182.

OBS. 7.—In the compound tenses, there is never any variation of ending for the different persons and numbers, except in the first auxiliary: as, "Thou wilt have finished it;" not, "Thou wilt hast finishedst it;" for this is nonsense. And even for the former, it is better to say, in the familiar style, "Thou will have finished it;" for it is characteristic of many of the auxiliaries, that, unlike other verbs, they are not varied by s or eth, in the third person singular, and never by st or est, in the second person singular, except in the solemn style. Thus all the auxiliaries of the potential mood, as well as shall and will of the indicative, are without inflection in the third person singular, though will, as a principal verb, makes wills or willeth, as well as willest, in the indicative present. Hence there appears a tendency in the language, to confine the inflection of its verbs to this tense only; and to the auxiliary have, hast, has, which is essentially present, though used with a participle to form the perfect. Do, dost, does, and am, art, is, whether used as auxiliaries or as principal verbs, are always of the indicative present.

OBS. 8.—The word need,—(though, as a principal verb and transitive, it is unquestionably both regular and complete,—having all the requisite parts, need, needed, needing, needed,—and being necessarily inflected in the indicative present, as, I need, thou needst or needest, he needs or needeth,—) is so frequently used without inflection, when placed before an other verb to express a necessity of the being, action, or passion, that one may well question whether it has not become, under these circumstances, an auxiliary of the potential mood; and therefore proper to be used, like all the other auxiliaries of this mood, without change of termination. I have not yet knowingly used it so myself, nor does it appear to have been classed with the auxiliaries, by any of our grammarians, except Webster.[258] I shall therefore not presume to say now, with positiveness, that it deserves this rank; (though I incline to think it does;) but rather quote such instances as have occurred to me in reading, and leave the student to take his choice, whether to condemn as bad English the uninflected examples, or to justify them in this manner. "He that can swim, need not despair to fly."—Johnson's Rasselas, p. 29. "One therefore needs not expect to do it."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 155. "In so doing I should only record some vain opinions of this age, which a future one need not know."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 345. "That a boy needs not be kept at school."—LISDSEY: in Kirkham's Elocution, p. 164. "No man need promise, unless he please."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 312. "What better reason needs be given?"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 51. "He need assign no other reason for his conduct."—Wayland, ib., p. 214. "Sow there is nothing that a man needs be ashamed of in all this."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 45. "No notice need be taken of the advantages."—Walker's Rhyming Dict., Vol. ii, p. 304. "Yet it needs not be repeated."—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 51. "He need not be anxious."—Greenleaf's Gram. Simplified, p. 38. "He needs not be afraid."—Fisk's Gram. Simplified, p. 124. "He who will not learn to spell, needs not learn to write."—Red Book, p. 22. "The heeder need be under no fear."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 38.[259] "More need not be said about it."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 272. "The object needs not be expressed."—Booth's Introduct. to Dict., p. 37. "Indeed, there need be no such thing."—Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 71. "This needs to be illustrated."—Ib., p. 81. "And no part of the sentence need be omitted."—Parkhurst's Grammar for Beginners, p. 114. "The learner needs to know what sort of words are called verbs."—Ib., p. 6. "No one need be apprehensive of suffering by faults of this kind."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 171. "The student who has bought any of the former copies needs not repent."—Dr. Johnson, Adv. to Dict. "He need not enumerate their names."—Edward's First Lessons in Grammar, p. 38. "A quotation consisting of a word or two only need not begin with a capital."—Churchill's Gram., p. 383. "Their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked."—Ib., p. 72; Murray's Octavo Gram., 51. "One need only open Lord Clarendon's history, to find examples every where."—Blair's Rhet., p. 108. "Their sex is commonly known, and needs not be marked."—Lowth's Gram., p. 21; Murray's Duodecimo Gram., p. 51. "Nobody need be afraid he shall not have scope enough."—LOCKE: in Sanborn's Gram., p. 168. "No part of the science of language, needs to be ever uninteresting to the pursuer."—Nutting's Gram., p. vii. "The exact amount of knowledge is not, and need not be, great."—Todd's Student's Manual, p. 44. "He needs to act under a motive which is all-pervading."—Ib., p. 375. "What need be said, will not occupy a long space."—Ib., p. 244. "The sign TO needs not always be used."—Bucke's Gram., p. 96. "Such as he need not be ashamed of."—Snelling's Gift for Scribblers, p. 23.

"Needst thou—need any one on earth—despair?"—Ib., p. 32.

    "Take timely counsel; if your dire disease
    Admits no cure, it needs not to displease."—Ib., p. 14.

OBS. 9.—If need is to be recognized as an auxiliary of the potential mood, it must be understood to belong to two tenses; the present and the perfect; like may, can, and must: as, "He need not go, he need not have gone; Thou need not go, Thou need not have gone;" or, in the solemn style, "Thou needst not go, Thou needst not have gone." If, on the contrary, we will have it to be always a principal verb, the distinction of time should belong to itself, and also the distinction of person and number, in the parts which require it: as, "He needs not go. He needed not go; Thou needst not go, Thou needed not go;" or, in the solemn style, "Thou needest not go, Thou neededst not go." Whether it can be right to say, "He needed not have gone," is at least questionable. From the observations of Murray, upon relative tenses, under his thirteenth rule of syntax, it seems fair to infer that he would have judged this phraseology erroneous. Again, "He needs not have gone," appears to be yet more objectionable, though for the same reason. And if, "He need not have gone," is a correct expression, need is clearly proved to be an auxiliary, and the three words taken together must form the potential perfect. And so of the plural; for the argument is from the connexion of the tenses, and not merely from the tendency of auxiliaries to reject inflection: as, "They need not have been under great concern about their public affairs."—Hutchinson's History, i, 194, From these examples, it may be seen that an auxiliary and a principal verb have some essential difference; though these who dislike the doctrine of compound tenses, pretend not to discern any. Take some further citations; a few of which are erroneous in respect to time. And observe also that the regular verb sometimes admits the preposition to after it: "' There is great dignity in being waited for,' said one who had the habit of tardiness, and who had not much else of which he need be vain."—Students Manual, p. 64. "But he needed not have gone so far for more instances."— Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 143. "He need not have said, 'perhaps the virtue.'"—Sedgwick's Economy, p. 196. "I needed not to ask how she felt."—Abbott's Young Christian, p. 84. "It need not have been so."—Ib., p. 111. "The most unaccommodating politician need not absolutely want friends."—Hunts Feast of the Poets, p. iii. "Which therefore needs not be introduced with much precaution."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 326. "When an obscurer term needs to be explained by one that is clearer."—Ib., p. 367. "Though, if she had died younger, she need not have known it."—West's Letters, p. 120. "Nothing need be said, but that they were the most perfect barbarisms."—Blair's Rhet., p. 470. "He need not go."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 36. "He needed but use the word body."—LOCKE: in Joh. Dict. "He need not be required to use them."—Parker's Eng. Composition, p. 50. "The last consonant of appear need not be doubled."—Dr. Webster. "It needs the less to be inforced."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 158. "Of these pieces of his, we shall not need to give any particular account."—Seneca's Morals, p. vi "And therefore I shall need say the less of them."—Scougal, p. 1101. "This compounding of words need occasion no surprise."—Cardell's Essay on Language, p. 87.

"Therefore stay, thou needst not to be gone."—Shakspeare.

"Thou need na start awa sae hasty."—Burns, Poems, p. 15.

"Thou need na jouk behint the hallan."—Id., ib., p. 67.

OBS. 10.—The auxiliaries, except must, which is invariable, have severally two forms in respect to tense, or time; and when inflected in the second and third persons singular, are usually varied in the following manner:—

TO DO.

PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PRESENT.

Sing. I do, thou dost, he does; Plur. We do, you do, they do.

IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN of THE INDICATIVE IMPERFECT.

Sing. I did, thou didst, he did; Plur. We did, you did, they did.

TO BE.

PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PRESENT.

Sing. I am, thou art, he is; Plur. We are, you are, they are.

IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE IMPERFECT.

Sing. I was, thou wast, he was; Plur. We were, you were; they were.

TO HAVE.

PRESENT TENSE; BUT SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PERFECT.

Sing. I have, thou hast, he has; Plur. We have, you have, they have.

IMPERFECT TENSE; BUT SIGN OF THE INDICATIVE PLUPERFECT.

Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had; Plur. We had, you had, they had.

SHALL AND WILL.

These auxiliaries have distinct meanings, and, as signs of the future, they are interchanged thus:

PRESENT TENSE; BUT SIGNS OF THE INDICATIVE FIRST-FUTURE.

1. Simply to express a future action or event:—

Sing. I shall, thou wilt, he will; Plur. We shall, you will, they will.

2. To express a promise, command, or threat:—

Sing.: I will, thou shalt, he shall; Plur. We will, you shall, they shall.

IMPERFECT TENSE; BUT, AS SIGNS, AORIST, OR INDEFINITE.

1. Used with reference to duty or expediency:—

Sing. I should, thou shouldst, he should; Plur. We should, you should, they should.

2. Used with reference to volition or desire:—

Sing. I would, thou wouldst, he would; Plur. We would, you would, they would.

MAY.

PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL PRESENT.

Sing. I may, thou mayst, he may; Plur. We may, you may, they may.

IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL IMPERFECT.

Sing. I might, thou mightst, he might; Plur. We might, you might, they might.

CAN.

PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL PRESENT.

Sing. I can, thou canst, he can; Plur. We can, you can, they can.

IMPERFECT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL IMPERFECT.

Sing. I could, thou couldst, he could; Plur. We could, you could, they could.

MUST.

PRESENT TENSE; AND SIGN OF THE POTENTIAL PRESENT.

Sing. I must, thou must, he must; Plur. We must, you must, they must.

If must is ever used in the sense of the Imperfect tense, or Preterit, the form is the same as that of the Present: this word is entirely invariable.

OBS. 11.—Several of the auxiliaries are occasionally used as mere expletives, being quite unnecessary to the sense: as, 1. DO and DID: "And it is night, wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth."—Psalms, civ, 20. "And ye, that on the sands with printless foot do chase the ebbing Neptune, and do fly him when he comes back."—Shak. "And if a man did need a poison now."—Id. This needless use of do and did is now avoided by good writers. 2. SHALL, SHOULD, and COULD: "'Men shall deal unadvisedly sometimes, which after-hours give leisure to repent of.' I should advise you to proceed. I should think it would succeed. He, it should seem, thinks otherwise."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 65. "I could wish you to go."—Ib., p. 71. 3. WILL, &c. The following are nearly of the same character, but not exactly: "The isle is full of noises; sometimes a thousand twanging instruments will hum about mine ears."—Shak. "In their evening sports she would steal in amongst them."—Barbauld.

"His listless length at noontide would he stretch."—Gray.

OBS. 12.—As our old writers often formed the infinitive in en, so they sometimes dropped the termination of the perfect participle. Hence we find, in the infancy of the language, done used for do, and do for done; and that by the same hand, with like changes in other verbs: as, "Thou canst nothing done."—Chaucer. "As he was wont to done."—Id. "The treson that to women hath be do."—Id. "For to ben honourable and free."—Id. "I am sworn to holden it secre."—Id. "Our nature God hath to him unyte."—Douglas. "None otherwise negligent than I you saie haue I not bee."—Id. See W. Allen's E. Gram., p. 97.

   "But netheless the thynge is do,
    That fals god was soone go."—GOWER: H. Tooke, Vol. i, p. 376.

OBS. 13.—"May is from the Anglo-Saxon, mægan, to be able. In the parent language also, it is used as an auxiliary. It is exhibited by Fortescue, as a principal verb; 'They shall may do it:' i. e. they shall be able (to) do it."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 70. "May not, was formerly used for must not; as, 'Graces for which we may not cease to sue.' Hooker."—Ib., p. 91. "May frequently expresses doubt of the fact; as, 'I may have the book in my library, but I think I have not.' It is used also, to express doubt, or a consequence, with a future signification; as, 'I may recover the use of my limbs, but I see little probability of it.'—'That they may receive me into their houses.' Luke, xvi, 4."—Churchill's Gram., p. 247. In these latter instances, the potential present is akin to the subjunctive. Hence Lowth and others improperly call "I may love," &c. the subjunctive mood. Others, for the same reason, and with as little propriety, deny that we have any subjunctive mood; alleging an ellipsis in every thing that bears that name: as, "'If it (may) be possible, live peaceably with all men.' Scriptures."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 61. May is also a sign of wishing, and consequently occurs often in prayer: as, "May it be thy good pleasure;"—"O that it may please thee;"—"Mayst thou be pleased." Hence the potential is akin also to the imperative: the phrases, "Thy will be done,"—"May thy will be done,"—"Be thy will done,"—"Let thy will be done,"—are alike in meaning, but not in mood or construction.

OBS. 14.—Can, to be able, is etymologically the same as the regular verbs ken, to see, and con, to learn; all of them being derived from the Saxon connan or cunnan, to know: whence also the adjective cunning, which was formerly a participle. In the following example will and can are principal verbs: "In evil, the best condition is, not to will; the second, not to can."—Ld. Bacon. "That a verb which signifies knowledge, may also signify power, appears from these examples: Je ne saurois, I should not know how, (i. e. could not.) [Greek: Asphalisasthe hos oidate], Strengthen it as you know how, (i. e. as you can.) Nescio mentiri, I know not how to (i.e. I cannot) lie."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 71. Shall, Saxon sceal, originally signified to owe; for which reason should literally means ought. In the following example from Chaucer, shall is a principal verb, with its original meaning:

   "For, by the faith I shall to God, I wene,
    Was neuer straungir none in hir degre."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 64.

OBS. 15.—Do and did are auxiliary only to the present infinitive, or the radical verb; as, do throw, did throw: thus the mood of do throw or to throw is marked by do or to. Be, in all its parts, is auxiliary to either of the simple participles; as, to be throwing, to be thrown; I am throwing, I am thrown: and so, through the whole conjugation. Have and had, in their literal use, are auxiliary to the perfect participle only; as, have thrown, had thrown. Have is from the Saxon habban, to possess; and, from the nature of the perfect participle, the tenses thus formed, suggest in general a completion of the action. The French idiom is similar to this: as, J'ai vu, I have seen. Shall and should, will and would, may and might, can and could, must, and also need, (if we call the last a helping verb,) are severally auxiliary to both forms of the infinitive, and to these only: as, shall throw, shall have thrown; should throw, should have thrown; and so of all the rest.

OBS. 16.—The form of the indicative pluperfect is sometimes used in lieu of the potential pluperfect; as, "If all the world could have seen it, the wo had been universal."—Shakspeare. That is,—"would have been universal." "I had been drowned, but that the shore was shelvy and shallow."—Id. That is,—"I should have been drowned." This mode of expression may be referred to the figure enallage, in which one word or one modification is used for an other. Similar to this is the use of were for would be: "It were injustice to deny the execution of the law to any individual;" that is, "it would be injustice."—Murray's Grammar, p. 89. In some instances, were and had been seem to have the same import; as, "Good were it for that man if he had never been born."—Mark, xiv, 21. "It had been good for that man if he had not been born."—Matt., xxvi, 24. In prose, all these licenses are needless, if not absolutely improper. In poetry, their brevity may commend them to preference; but to this style, I think, they ought to be confined: as,

   "That had been just, replied the reverend bard;
    But done, fair youth, thou ne'er hadst met me here."—Pollok.

    "The keystones of the arch!—though all were o'er,
    For us repeopled were the solitary shore."—Byron.

OBS. 17.—With an adverb of comparison or preference, as better, rather, best, as lief, or as lieve, the auxiliary had seems sometimes to be used before the infinitive to form the potential imperfect or pluperfect: as, "He that loses by getting, had better lose than get."—Penn's Maxims. "Other prepositions had better have been substituted."— Priestley's Gram., p. 166. "I had as lief say."—LOWTH: ib., p. 110. "It compels me to think of that which I had rather forget."— Bickersteth, on Prayer, p. 25. "You had much better say nothing upon the subject."—Webster's Essays, p. 147. "I had much rather show thee what hopes thou hast before thee."—Baxter. "I had rather speak five words with my understanding, than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue."—1 Cor., xiv, 19. "I knew a gentleman in America who told me how much rather he had be a woman than the man he is."—Martineau's Society in America, Vol. i, p. 153. "I had as lief go as not."— Webster's Dict., w. Lief. "I had as lieve the town crier spoke my lines."—SHAK.: Hamlet. "We had best leave nature to her own operations."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 310. "What method had he best take?"—Harris's Hermes, p. ix. These are equivalent to the phrases, might better lose—might better have been substituted—would as lief say—would rather forget—might much better say—would much rather show—would rather speak—how much rather he would be—would as lief go—should best leave—might he best take; and, for the sake of regularity, these latter forms ought to be preferred, as they sometimes are: thus, "For my own part, I would rather look upon a tree in all its luxuriancy."—Addison, Spect., No. 414; Blair's Rhet., p. 223. The following construction is different: "Augustus had like to have been slain."—S. Butler. Here had is a principal verb of the indicative imperfect. The following examples appear to be positively erroneous: "Much that was said, had better remained unsaid."—N. Y. Observer. Say, "might better have remained." "A man that is lifting a weight, if he put not sufficient strength to it, had as good put none at all."—Baxter. Say, "might as well put." "You were better pour off the first infusion, and use the latter."—Bacon. Say, "might better pour;" or, if you prefer it, "had better pour." Shakspeare has an expression which is still worse:—

   "Or, by the worth of mine eternal soul,
    Thou hadst been better have been born a dog."—Beauties, p. 295.

OBS. 18.—The form of conjugating the active verb, is often called the Active Voice, and that of the passive verb, the Passive Voice. These terms are borrowed from the Latin and Greek grammars, and, except as serving to diversify expression, are of little or no use in English grammar. Some grammarians deny that there is any propriety in them, with respect to any language. De Sacy, after showing that the import of the verb does not always follow its form of voice, adds: "We must, therefore, carefully distinguish the Voice of a Verb from its signification. To facilitate the distinction, I denominate that an Active Verb which contains an Attribute in which the action is considered as performed by the Subject; and that a Passive Verb which contains an Attribute in which the action is considered as suffered by the Subject, and performed upon it by some agent. I call that voice a Subjective Voice which is generally appropriated to the Active Verb, and that an Objective Voice which is generally appropriated to the Passive Verb. As to the Neuter Verbs, if they possess a peculiar form, I call it a Neuter Voice."—Fosdick's Translation, p. 99.

OBS. 19.—A recognition of the difference between actives and passives, in our original classification of verbs with respect to their signification,— a principle of division very properly adopted in a great majority of our grammars and dictionaries, but opinionately rejected by Webster, Bolles, and sundry late grammarians,—renders it unnecessary, if not improper, to place Voices, the Active Voice and the Passive, among the modifications of our verbs, or to speak of them as such in the conjugations. So must it be in respect to "a Neuter Voice," or any other distinction which the classification involves. The significant characteristic is not overlooked; the distinction is not neglected as nonessential; but it is transferred to a different category. Hence I cannot exactly approve of the following remark, which "the Rev. W. Allen" appears to cite with approbation: "'The distinction of active or passive,' says the accurate Mr. Jones, 'is not essential to verbs. In the infancy of language, it was, in all probability, not known. In Hebrew, the difference but imperfectly exists, and, in the early periods of it, probably did not exist at all. In Arabic, the only distinction which obtains, arises from the vowel points, a late invention compared with the antiquity of that language. And in our own tongue, the names of active and passive would have remained unknown, if they had not been learnt in Latin.'"—Allen's Elements of English Gram., p. 96.

OBS. 20.—By the conjugation of a verb, some teachers choose to understand nothing more than the naming of its principal parts; giving to the arrangement of its numbers and persons, through all the moods and tenses, the name of declension. This is a misapplication of terms, and the distinction is as needless, as it is contrary to general usage. Dr. Bullions, long silent concerning principal parts, seems now to make a singular distinction between "conjugating" and "conjugation." His conjugations include the moods, tenses, and inflections of verbs; but he teaches also, with some inaccuracy, as follows: "The principal parts of the verb are the Present indicative, the Past indicative and the Past participle. The mentioning of these parts is called CONJUGATING THE VERB."—Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 1849, p. 80.

OBS. 21.—English verbs having but very few inflections to indicate to what part of the scheme of moods and tenses they pertain, it is found convenient to insert in our conjugations the preposition to, to mark the infinitive; personal pronouns, to distinguish the persons and numbers; the conjunction if, to denote the subjunctive mood; and the adverb not, to show the form of negation. With these additions, or indexes, a verb may be conjugated in four ways:—

1. Affirmatively; as, I write, I do write, or, I am writing; and so on.

2. Negatively; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing.

3. Interrogatively; as, Write I? Do I write? or, Am I writing?

4. Interrogatively and negatively; as, Write I not? Do I not write? or, Am I not writing?

1. SIMPLE FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER.

The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which makes the present and imperfect tenses without auxiliaries; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative.

FIRST EXAMPLE.

The regular active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmatively.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. Love. Loved. Loving. Loved.

INFINITIVE MOOD.[260]

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number. It is used only in the present and perfect tenses.

PRESENT TENSE.

This tense is the root, or radical verb; and is usually preceded by the preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word: thus,

To love.

PERFECT TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle; and, like the infinitive present, is usually preceded by the preposition to: thus,

To have loved.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses.

PRESENT TENSE.

The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as the present infinitive, or radical verb; except that the verb be has am in the indicative.

1. The simple form of the present tense is varied thus:—

Singular. Plural. 1st person, I love, 1st person. We love, 2d person, Thou lovest, 2d person, You love, 3d person, He loves; 3d person, They love.

2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary do to the verb: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I do love, 1. We do love, 2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 3. He does love; 3. They do love.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

This tense, in its simple form is the preterit; which, in all regular verbs, adds d or ed to the present, but in others is formed variously.

1. The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus:—

Singular. Plural. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 3. He loved; 3. They loved.

2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to the present: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I did love, 1. We did love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 3. He did love; 3. They did love.

PERFECT TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 3. He has loved; 3. They have loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 3. He had loved; 3. They had loved.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present: thus,

1. Simply to express a future action or event:—

Singular. Plural. 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 3. He will love; 3. They will love;

2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat:—

Singular. Plural. 1. I will love, 1. We will love, 2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 3. He shall love; 3. They shall love.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved.

OBS.—The auxiliary shall may also be used in the second and third persons of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or contingency; as, "If he shall have completed the work by midsummer."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 80. So, with the conjunctive adverb when; as, "Then cometh the end, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God, even the Father; when he shall have put down all rule and all authority and power."—1 Cor., xv, 24. And perhaps will may here be used in the first person to express a promise, though such usage, I think, seldom occurs. Professor Fowler has given to this tense, first, the "Predictive" form, as exhibited above, and then a form which he calls "Promissive," and in which the auxiliaries are varied thus: "Singular. 1. I will have taken. 2. Thou shalt have taken, you shall have taken. 3. He shall have taken. Plural. 1. We will have taken. 2. Ye or you shall have taken. 3. He [say They,] shall have taken."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo., N. Y., 1850, p. 281. But the other instances just cited show that such a form is not always promissory.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the being, action, or passion. It is used in the first four tenses; but the potential imperfect is properly an aorist: its time is very indeterminate; as, "He would be devoid of sensibility were he not greatly satisfied."—Lord Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 11.

PRESENT TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical verb: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I may love, 1. We may love, 2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 3. He may love; 3. They may love.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the radical verb: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I might love, 1. We might love, 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 3. He might love; 3. They might love.

PERFECT TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have, to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, or should have, to the perfect participle: thus,

Singular. Plural. 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood is generally preceded by a conjunction; as, if, that, though, lest, unless, except. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is formed by a mere placing of the verb before the nominative; as, "Were I," for, "If I were;"—"Had he," for, "If he had;"—"Fall we" for, "If we fall;"—"Knew they," for, "If they knew." It does not vary its termination at all, in the different persons.[261] It is used in the present, and sometimes in the imperfect tense; rarely—and perhaps never properly—in any other. As this mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tenses is always relative, and generally indefinite; as,

   "It shall be in eternal restless change,
    Self-fed, and self-consum'd: if this fail,
    The pillar'd firmament is rottenness."—Milton, Comus, l. 596.

PRESENT TENSE.

This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future action or event is affirmed. It is therefore erroneously considered by some grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 2. If Thou love, 2. If you love, 3. If He love; 3. If they love.

OBS.—In this tense, the auxiliary do is sometimes employed; as, "If thou do prosper my way."—Genesis, xxiv, 42. "If he do not utter it."—Leviticus, v, 1. "If he do but intimate his desire."—Murray's Key, p. 207. "If he do promise, he will certainly perform."—Ib., p. 208. "An event which, if it ever do occur, must occur in some future period."—Hiley's Gram., (3d Ed., Lond.,) p. 89. "If he do but promise, thou art safe."—Ib., 89.

   "Till old experience do attain
    To something like prophetic strain."—MILTON: Il Penseroso.

These examples, if they are right, prove the tense to be present, and not future, as Hiley and some others suppose it to be.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

This tense, like the imperfect of the potential mood, with which it is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense; for it may refer to time past, present, or future: as, "If therefore perfection were by the Levitical priesthood, what further need was there that an other priest should rise?"—Heb., vii, 11. "They must be viewed exactly in the same light, as if the intention to purchase now existed."—Murray's Parsing Exercises, p. 24. "If it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect."—Matt., xxiv, 24. "If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing?"—1 Corinthians, xii, 17. "If the thankful refrained, it would be pain and grief to them."—Atterbury.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 3. If he loved; 3. If they loved.

OBS.—In this tense, the auxiliary did is sometimes employed. The subjunctive may here be distinguished from the indicative, by these circumstances; namely, that the time is indefinite, and that the supposition is always contrary to the fact: as, "Great is the number of those who might attain to true wisdom, if they did not already think themselves wise."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 36. This implies that they do think themselves wise; but an indicative supposition or concession—(as, "Though they did not think themselves wise, they were so—") accords with the fact, and with the literal time of the tense,—here time past. The subjunctive imperfect, suggesting the idea of what is not, and known by the sense, is sometimes introduced without any of the usual signs; as, "In a society of perfect men, where all understood what was morally right, and were determined to act accordingly, it is obvious, that human laws, or even human organization to enforce God's laws, would be altogether unnecessary, and could serve no valuable purpose."—PRES. SHANNON: Examiner, No. 78.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in the second person of the present tense.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. 2. Love [thou,] or Do thou love;

Plural. 2. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love.

OBS.—In the Greek language, which has three numbers, the imperative mood is used in the second and third persons of them all; and has also several different tenses, some of which cannot be clearly rendered in English. In Latin, this mood has a distinct form for the third person, both singular and plural. In Italian, Spanish, and French, the first person plural is also given it. Imitations of some of these forms are occasionally employed in English, particularly by the poets. Such imitations must be referred to this mood, unless by ellipsis and transposition we make them out to be something else; and against this there are strong objections. Again, as imprecation on one's self is not impossible, the first person singular may be added; so that this mood may possibly have all the persons and numbers. Examples: "Come we now to his translation of the Iliad."—Pope's Pref. to Dunciad. "Proceed we therefore in our subject."—Ib. "Blessed be he that blesseth thee."—Gen., xxvii, 29. "Thy kingdom come."—Matt., vi, 10. "But pass we that."—W. Scott. "Third person: Be he, Be they."—Churchill's Gram., p. 92.

"My soul, turn from them—turn we to survey," &c.—Goldsmith.

"Then turn we to her latest tribune's name."—Byron.

    "Where'er the eye could light these words you read:
    'Who comes this way—behold, and fear to sin!'"—Pollok.

    "Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms,
    And live the rest, secure of future harms."—Pope.

    "Cursed be I that did so!—All the charms
    Of Sycorax, toads, beetles, bats, light on you!"—Shakspeare.

"Have done thy charms, thou hateful wither'd hag!"—Idem.

PARTICIPLES.

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Loving. Loved. Having loved.

SYNOPSIS OF THE FIRST EXAMPLE.

FIRST PERSON SINGULAR.

IND. I love or do love, I loved or did love, I have loved. I had loved, I shall or will love, I shall or will have loved. POT. I may, can, or must love; I might, could, would, or should love; I may, can, or must have loved; I might, could, would, or should have loved. SUBJ. If I love, If I loved.

SECOND PERSON SINGULAR.

IND. Thou lovest or dost love, Thou lovedst or didst love, Thou hast loved, Thou hadst loved, Thou shalt or wilt love, Thou shalt or wilt have loved. POT. Thou mayst, canst, or must love; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love; Thou mayst, canst, or must have loved; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or shouldst have loved. SUBJ. If thou love, If thou loved. IMP. Love [thou,] or Do thou love.

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR.

IND. He loves or does love, He loved or did love, He has loved, He had loved, He shall or will love, He shall or will have loved. POT. He may, can, or must love; He might, could, would, or should love; He may, can, or must have loved; He might, could, would, or should have loved. SUBJ. If he love, If he loved.

FIRST PERSON PLURAL.

IND. We love or do love, We loved or did loved, We have loved, We had loved, We shall or will love, We shall or will have loved. POT. We may, can, or must love, We might, could, would, or should love; We may, can, or must have loved; We might, could, would, or should have loved. SUBJ. If we love, If we loved.

SECOND PERSON PLURAL.

IND. You love or do love, You loved or did love, You have loved, You had loved, You shall or will love, You shall or will have loved. POT. You may, can, or must love; You might, could, would, or should love; You may, can, or must have loved; You might, could, would, or should have loved. SUBJ. If you love, If you loved. IMP. Love [ye or you,] or Do you love.

THIRD PERSON PLURAL.

IND. They love or do love, They loved or did love, They have loved, They had loved, They shall or will love, They shall or will have loved. POT. They may, can, or must love; They might, could, would, or should love; They may, can, or must have loved; They might, could, would, or should have loved. SUBJ. If they love, If they loved.

FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.'

NOTE.—In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus:

IND. Thou lov'st or dost love, Thou loved or did love, Thou hast loved, Thou had loved, Thou shall or will love, Thou shall or will have loved. POT. Thou may, can, or must love; Thou might, could, would, or should love; Thou may, can, or must have loved; Thou might, could, would, or should have loved. SUBJ. If thou love, If thou loved. IMP. Love [thou,] or Do thou love.

SECOND EXAMPLE.

The irregular active verb SEE, conjugated affirmatively.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. See. Saw. Seeing. Seen.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. To See.

PERFECT TENSE. To have seen.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I see, 2. Thou seest, 3. He sees;

Plural. 1. We see, 2. You see, 3. They see.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I saw, 2. Thou sawest, 3. He saw;

Plural. 1. We saw, 2. You saw, 3. They saw.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I have seen, 2. Thou hast seen, 3. He has seen;

Plural. 1. We have seen, 2. You have seen, 3. They have seen.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I had seen, 2. Thou hadst seen, He had seen;

Plural. 1. We had seen, 2. You had seen, 3. They had seen.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE.

Singular. 1. I shall see, 2. Thou wilt see, He will see;

Plural. 1. We shall see, 2. You will see, 3. They will see.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE.

Singular. 1. I shall have seen, 2. Thou wilt have seen, 3. He will have seen;

Plural. 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have seen, 3. They will have seen.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I may see, 2. Thou mayst see, 3. He may see;

Plural. 1. We may see, 2. You may see, 3. They may see.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I might see, 2. Thou mightst see, 3. He might see;

Plural. 1. We might see, 2. You might see, 3. They might see.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I may have seen, 2. Thou mayst have seen, 3. He may have seen;

Plural. 1. We may have seen, 2. You may have seen, 3. They may have seen.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. 1. I might have seen, 2. Thou mightst have seen, 3. He might have seen;

Plural. 1. We might have seen, 2. You might have seen, 3. They might have seen.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. 1. If I see, 2. If thou see, 3. If he see;

Plural. 1. If we see, 2. If you see, 3. If they see.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. 1. If I saw, 2. If thou saw, 3. If he saw;

Plural. 1. If we saw, 2. If you saw, 3. If they saw.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. 2. See [thou,] or Do thou see; Plural. 2. See [ye or you,] or Do you see.

PARTICIPLES.

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect.

Seeing. Seen. Having seen.

NOTES.

NOTE I—The student ought to be able to rehearse the form of a verb, not only according to the order of the entire conjugation, but also according to the synopsis of the several persons and numbers. One sixth part of the paradigm, thus recited, gives in general a fair sample of the whole: and, in class recitations, this mode of rehearsal will save much time: as, IND. I see or do see, I saw or did see, I have seen, I had seen, I shall or will see, I shall or will have seen. POT. I may, can, or must see; I might, could, would, or should see; I may, can, or must have seen; I might, could, would, or should have seen. SUBJ. If I see, If I saw.

NOTE II.—In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou seest or dost see, Thou saw or did see, Thou hast seen, Thou had seen, Thou shall or will see, Thou shall or will have seen. POT. Thou may, can, or must see; Thou might, could, would, or should see; Thou may, can, or must have seen; Thou might, could, would, or should have seen. SUBJ. If thou see, If thou saw. IMP. See [thou,] or Do thou see.

THIRD EXAMPLE.

The irregular neuter verb BE, conjugated affirmatively.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. Be. Was. Being. Been.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
To be.

PERFECT TENSE.
To have been.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I am, 1. We are, 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 3. He is; 3. They are.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. Thou wast, (or wert,)[262] 2. You were, 3. He was; 3. They were.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 3. He has been; 3. They have been.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 3. He had been; 3. They had been.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 3. He will be; 3. They will be.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 3. He will have been; 3. They will have been.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I may be, 1. We may be, 2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 3. He may be, 3. They may be.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I might be, 1. We might be, 2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 3. He might be; 3. They might be.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 3. He may have been; 3. They may have been.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 3. He might have been; 3. They might have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I be, 1. If we be, 2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 3. If he be; 3. If they be.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I were,[263] 1. If we were, 2. If thou were, or wert,[264] 2. If you were, 3. If he were; If they were.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be; Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be.

PARTICIPLES.

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Being. Been. Having been.

FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.'

NOTE.—In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou art, Thou was, Thou hast been, Thou had been, Thou shall or will be, Thou shall or will have been. POT. Thou may, can, or must be; Thou might, could, would, or should be; Thou may, can, or must have been; Thou might, could, would, or should have been. SUBJ. If thou be, If thou were. IMP. Be [thou,] or Do thou be.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—It appears that be, as well as am, was formerly used for the indicative present: as, "I be, Thou beest, He be; We be, Ye be, They be." See Brightland's Gram., p. 114. Dr. Lowth, whose Grammar is still preferred at Harvard University, gives both forms, thus: "I am, Thou art, He is; We are, Ye are, They are. Or, I be, Thou beest, He is; We be, Ye be, They be." To the third person singular, he subjoins the following example and remark: "'I think it be thine indeed, for thou liest in it.' Shak. Hamlet. Be, in the singular number of this time and mode, especially in the third person, is obsolete; and is become somewhat antiquated in the plural."—Lowth's Gram., p. 36. Dr. Johnson gives this tense thus: "Sing. I am; thou art; he is; Plur. We are, or be; ye are, or be; they are, or be." And adds, "The plural be is now little in use."—Gram. in Johnson's Dict., p. 8. The Bible commonly has am, art, is, and are, but not always; the indicative be occurs in some places: as, "We be twelve brethren."—Gen., xlii, 32. "What be these two olive branches?"—Zech., iv, 12. Some traces of this usage still occur in poetry: as,

   "There be more things to greet the heart and eyes
    In Arno's dome of Art's most princely shrine,
    Where Sculpture with her rainbow sister vies;
    There be more marvels yet—but not for mine."
        —Byron's Childe Harold, Canto iv, st. 61.

OBS. 2.—Respecting the verb wert, it is not easy to determine whether it is most properly of the indicative mood only, or of the subjunctive mood only, or of both, or of neither. The regular and analogical form for the indicative, is "Thou wast;" and for the subjunctive, "If thou were." Brightland exhibits, "I was or were, Thou wast or wert, He was or were," without distinction of mood, for the three persons singular; and, for the plural, were only. Dr. Johnson gives us, for the indicative, "Thou wast, or wert;" with the remark, "Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be used in the indicative."—Johnson's Gram., p. 8. In his conjunctive (or subjunctive) mood, he has, "Thou beest," and "Thou wert." So Milton wrote, "If thou beest he."—P. Lost, B. i, l. 84. Likewise Shakspeare: "If thou beest Stephano."—Tempest. This inflection of be is obsolete: all now say, "If thou be." But wert is still in use, to some extent, for both moods; being generally placed by the grammarians in the subjunctive only, but much oftener written for the indicative: as, "Whate'er thou art or wert."—Byron's Harold, Canto iv, st. 115. "O thou that wert so happy!"—Ib., st. 109. "Vainly wert thou wed."—Ib., st. 169.

OBS. 3.—Dr. Lowth gave to this verb, BE, that form of the subjunctive mood, which it now has in most of our grammars; appending to it the following examples and questions: "'Before the sun, Before the Heavens, thou wert.'—Milton. 'Remember what thou wert.'—Dryden. 'I knew thou wert not slow to hear.'—Addison. 'Thou who of old wert sent to Israel's court.'—Prior. 'All this thou wert.'—Pope. 'Thou, Stella, wert no longer young.'—Swift. Shall we, in deference to these great authorities," asks the Doctor, "allow wert to be the same with wast, and common to the indicative and [the] subjunctive mood? or rather abide by the practice of our best ancient writers; the propriety of the language, which requires, as far as may be, distinct forms, for different moods; and the analogy of formation in each mood; I was, thou wast; I were, thou wert? all which conspire to make wert peculiar to the subjunctive mood."—Lowth's Gram., p. 37; Churchill's, p. 251. I have before shown, that several of the "best ancient writers" did not inflect the verb were, but wrote "thou were;" and, surely, "the analogy of formation," requires that the subjunctive be not inflected. Hence "the propriety which requires distinct forms," requires not wert, in either mood. Why then should we make this contraction of the old indicative form werest, a solitary exception, by fixing it in the subjunctive only, and that in opposition to the best authorities that ever used it? It is worthier to take rank with its kindred beest, and be called an archaism.

OBS. 4.—The chief characteristical difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, is, that in the latter the verb is not inflected at all, in the different persons: IND. "Thou magnifiest his work." SUBJ. "Remember that thou magnify his work."—Job, xxxvi, 24. IND. "He cuts off, shuts up, and gathers together." SUBJ. "If he cut off, and shut up, or gather together, then who can hinder him?"—Job, xl, 10. There is also a difference of meaning. The Indicative, "If he was," admits the fact; the Subjunctive, "If he were," supposes that he was not. These moods may therefore be distinguished by the sense, even when their forms are alike: as, "Though it thundered, it did not rain."—"Though it thundered, he would not hear it." The indicative assumption here is, "Though it did thunder," or, "Though there was thunder;" the subjunctive, "Though it should thunder," or, "Though there were thunder." These senses are clearly different. Writers however are continually confounding these moods; some in one way, some in an other. Thus S. R. Hall, the teacher of a Seminary for Teachers: "SUBJ. Present Tense. 1. If I be, or am, 2. If thou be, or art, 3. If he be, or is; 1. If we be, or are, 2. If ye or you be, or are, 3. If they be, or are. Imperfect Tense. 1. If I were, or was, 2. If thou wert, or wast, 3. If he were, or was; 1. If we were, 2. If ye or you were, 3. If they were."—Hall's Grammatical Assistant, p. 11. Again: "SUBJ. Present Tense. 1. If I love, 2. If thou lovest, 3. If he love," &c. "The remaining tenses of this mode, are, in general, similar to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative mode, only with the conjunction prefixed."—Ib., p. 20. Dr. Johnson observes, "The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently confounded; or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some convenience of versification does not invite its revival. It is used among the purer writers of former times; as, 'Doubtless thou art our father, though Abraham be ignorant of us, and Israel acknowledge us not.'"—Gram. in Joh. Dict., p. 9. To neglect the subjunctive mood, or to confound it with the indicative, is to augment several of the worst faults of the language.

II. COMPOUND OR PROGRESSIVE FORM.

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes; as, "I am writing a letter."—"He is sitting idle."—"They are going." This form of the verb denotes a continuance of the action or state of being, and is, on many occasions, preferable to the simple form of the verb.

FOURTH EXAMPLE.

The irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively, in the Compound Form.

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SIMPLE VERB.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. R=ead. R~ead. R=eading. R~ead.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.
To be reading.

PERFECT TENSE.
To have been reading.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 3. He is reading; 3. They are reading.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 3. He was reading; 3. They were reading.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 3. He has been reading; 3. They have been reading.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 3. He had been reading; 3. They had been reading.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 3. He will be reading; 3. They will be reading.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been reading, 1. We shall have been reading, 2. Thou wilt have been reading, 2. You will have been reading, 3. He will have been reading; 3. They will have been reading.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I may be reading, 1. We may be reading, 2. Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 3. He may be reading; 3. They may be reading.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 3. He might be reading; 3. They might be reading.

PERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I may have been reading, 1. We may have been reading, 2. Thou mayst have been reading, 2. You may have been reading, 3. He may have been reading; 3. They may have been reading.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been reading, 1. We might have been reading, 2. Thou mightst have been reading, 2. You might have been reading, 3. He might have been reading; 3. They might have been reading.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 3. If he be reading; 3. If they be reading.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 2. If thou were reading, 2. If you were reading, 3. If he were reading; 3. If they were reading.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading;
Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or Do you be reading.

PARTICIPLES.

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Being reading. ————- Having been reading.

FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.'

NOTE.—In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou art reading, Thou was reading, Thou hast been reading, Thou had been reading, Thou shall or will be reading, Thou shall or will have been reading. POT. Thou may, can, or must be reading; Thou might, could, would, or should be reading; Thou may, can, or must have been reading; Thou might, could, would, or should have been reading. SUBJ. If thou be reading, If thou were reading. IMP. Be [thou,] reading, or Do thou be reading.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Those verbs which, in their simple form, imply continuance, do not admit the compound form: thus we say, "I respect him;" but not, "I am respecting him." This compound form seems to imply that kind of action, which is susceptible of intermissions and renewals. Affections of the mind or heart are supposed to last; or, rather, actions of this kind are complete as soon as they exist. Hence, to love, to hate, to desire, to fear, to forget, to remember, and many other such verbs, are incapable of this method of conjugation.[265] It is true, we often find in grammars such models, as, "I was loving, Thou wast loving, He was loving," &c. But this language, to express what the authors intend by it, is not English. "He was loving," can only mean, "He was affectionate:" in which sense, loving is an adjective, and susceptible of comparison. Who, in common parlance, has ever said, "He was loving me," or any thing like it? Yet some have improperly published various examples, or even whole conjugations, of this spurious sort. See such in Adam's Gram., p. 91; Gould's Adam, 83; Bullions's English Gram., 52; his Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 92; Chandler's New Gram., 85 and 86; Clark's, 80; Cooper's Plain and Practical, 70; Frazee's Improved, 66 and 69; S. S. Greene's, 234; Guy's, 25; Hallock's, 103; Hart's, 88; Hendrick's, 38; Lennie's, 31; Lowth's, 40; Harrison's, 34; Perley's, 36; Pinneo's Primary, 101.

OBS. 2.—Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification; as, "The books are now selling."—Allen's Gram., p. 82. "As the money was paying down."—Ainsworth's Dict., w. As. "It requires no motion in the organs whilst it is forming."—Murray's Gram., p. 8. "Those works are long forming which must always last."—Dr. Chetwood. "While the work of the temple was carrying on."—Dr. J. Owen. "The designs of Providence are carrying on."—Bp. Butler. "A scheme, which has been carrying on, and is still carrying on."—Id., Analogy, p. 188. "We are permitted to know nothing of what is transacting in the regions above us."—Dr. Blair. "While these things were transacting in Germany."—Russell's Modern Europe, Part First, Let. 59. "As he was carrying to execution, he demanded to be heard."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 163. "To declare that the action was doing or done."—Booth's Introd., p. 28. "It is doing by thousands now."—Abbott's Young Christian, p. 121. "While the experiment was making, he was watching every movement."—Ib., p. 309. "A series of communications from heaven, which had been making for fifteen hundred years."—Ib., p. 166. "Plutarch's Lives are re-printing."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 64. "My Lives are reprinting."—DR. JOHNSON: Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict., p. xlvi. "All this has been transacting within 130 miles of London."—BYRON: Perley's Gram., p. 37. "When the heart is corroding by vexations."—Student's Manual, p. 336. "The padlocks for our lips are forging."—WHITTIER: Liberator, No. 993. "When his throat is cutting."—Collier's Antoninus. "While your story is telling."—Adams's Rhet., i, 425. "But the seeds of it were sowing some time before."—Bolingbroke, on History, p. 168. "As soon as it was formed, nay even whilst it was forming."—Ib., p. 163. "Strange schemes of private ambition were formed and forming there."—Ib., p. 291. "Even when it was making and made."—Ib., 299. "Which have been made and are making."—HENRY CLAY: Liberator, ix, p. 141. "And they are in measure sanctified, or sanctifying, by the power thereof."—Barclay's Works, i, 537. "Which is now accomplishing amongst the uncivilized countries of the earth."—Chalmers, Sermons, p. 281. "Who are ruining, or ruined, [in] this way."—Locke, on Ed., p. 155. "Whilst they were undoing."—Ibid. "Whether he was employing fire to consume [something,] or was himself consuming by fire."—Crombie, on Etym. and Syntax, p. 148. "At home, the greatest exertions are making to promote its progress."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. iv. "With those [sounds] which are uttering."—Ib., p. 125. "Orders are now concerting for the dismissal of all officers of the Revenue marine."—Providence Journal, Feb. 1, 1850. Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics, under the notion that the participle in ing must never be passive; but the usage is unquestionably of far better authority, and, according to my apprehension, in far better taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead; as, "The books are now being sold."—"In all the towns about Cork, the whiskey shops are being closed, and soup, coffee, and tea houses [are] establishing generally."—Dublin Evening Post, 1840.

OBS. 3.—The question here is, Which is the most correct expression, "While the bridge was building,"—"While the bridge was a building,"—or, "While the bridge was being built?" And again, Are they all wrong? If none of these is right, we must reject them all, and say, "While they were building the bridge;"—"While the bridge was in process of erection;"—or resort to some other equivalent phrase. Dr. Johnson, after noticing the compound form of active-intransitives, as, "I am going"—"She is dying,"—"The tempest is raging,"—"I have been walking," and so forth, adds: "There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it a passive signification:[266] as, The grammar is now printing, Grammatica jam nunc chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, Æra excuduntur. This is, in my opinion," says he, "a vitious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, but now somewhat obsolete: The book is a printing, The brass is a forging; a being properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns signifying action, according to the analogy of this language."—Gram. in Joh. Dict., p. 9.

OBS. 4.—A is certainly sometimes a preposition; and, as such, it may govern a participle, and that without converting it into a "verbal noun." But that such phraseology ought to be preferred to what is exhibited with so many authorities, in a preceding paragraph, and with an example from Johnson among the rest, I am not prepared to concede. As to the notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conjugation, as, "The bridge is being built," "The bridge was being built," and so forth, it is one of the most absurd and monstrous innovations ever thought of. Yet some two or three men, who seem to delight in huge absurdities, declare that this "modern innovation is likely to supersede" the simpler mode of expression. Thus, in stead of, "The work is now publishing," they choose to say, "The work is now being published."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 82. This is certainly no better English than, "The work was being published, has been being published, had been being published, shall or will be being published, shall or will have been being published;" and so on, through all the moods and tenses. What a language shall we have when our verbs are thus conjugated!

OBS. 5.—A certain Irish critic, who even outdoes in rashness the above-cited American, having recently arrived in New York, has republished a grammar, in which he not only repudiates the passive use of the participle in ing, but denies the usual passive form of the present tense, "I am loved, I am smitten" &c., as taught by Murray and others, to be good English; and tells us that the true form is, "I am being loved, I am being smitten," &c. See the 98th and 103d pages of Joseph W. Wright's Philosophical Grammar, (Edition of 1838,) dedicated "TO COMMON SENSE!" [267] But both are offset, if not refuted, by the following observations from a source decidedly better: "It has lately become common to use the present participle passive [,] to express the suffering of an action as continuing, instead of the participle in -ing in the passive sense; thus, instead of, 'The house is building,' we now very frequently hear, 'The house is being built.' This mode of expression, besides being awkward, is incorrect, and does not express the idea intended. This will be obvious, I think, from the following considerations.

"1. The expression, 'is being,' is equivalent to 'is,' and expresses no more; just as, 'is loving,' is equivalent to, 'loves.' Hence, 'is being built,' is precisely equivalent to, 'is built.'

"2. 'Built,' is a perfect participle; and therefore cannot, in any connexion, express an action, or the suffering of an action, now in progress. The verb to be, signifies to exist; 'being,' therefore, is equivalent to 'existing.' If then we substitute the synonyme, the nature of the expression will be obvious; thus, 'the house is being built,' is, in other words, 'the house is existing built,' or more simply as before, 'the house is built;' plainly importing an action not progressing, but now existing in a finished state.

"3. If the expression, 'is being built,' be a correct form of the present indicative passive, then it must be equally correct to say in the perfect, 'has been being built;' in the past perfect, 'had been being built;' in the present infinitive,'to be being built;' in the perfect infinitive,'to have been being built;' and in the present participle, 'being being built;' which all will admit to be expressions as incorrect as they are inelegant, but precisely analogous to that which now begins to prevail."—Bullions's Principles of English Gram., p. 58.

OBS. 6.—It may be replied, that the verbs to be and to exist are not always synonymous; because the former is often a mere auxiliary, or a mere copula, whereas the latter always means something positive, as to be in being, to be extant. Thus we may speak of a thing as being destroyed, or may say, it is annihilated; but we can by no means speak of it as existing destroyed, or say, it exists annihilated. The first argument above is also nugatory. These drawbacks, however, do not wholly destroy the force of the foregoing criticism, or at all extenuate the obvious tautology and impropriety of such phrases as, is being, was being, &c. The gentlemen who affirm that this new form of conjugation "is being introduced into the language," (since they allow participles to follow possessive pronouns) may very fairly be asked, "What evidence have you of its being being introduced?" Nor can they, on their own principles, either object to the monstrous phraseology of this question, or tell how to better it![268]

OBS. 7.—D. H. Sanborn, an other recent writer, has very emphatically censured this innovation, as follows: "English and American writers have of late introduced a new kind of phraseology, which has become quite prevalent in the periodical and popular publications of the day. Their intention, doubtless, is, to supersede the use of the verb in the definite form, when it has a passive signification. They say, 'The ship is being built,'—'time is being wasted,"—'the work is being advanced,' instead of, 'the ship is building, time is wasting, the work is advancing.' Such a phraseology is a solecism too palpable to receive any favor; it is at war with the practice of the most distinguished writers in the English language, such as Dr. Johnson and Addison. "When an individual says, 'a house is being burned,' he declares that a house is existing, burned, which is impossible; for being means existing, and burned, consumed by fire. The house ceases to exist as such, after it is consumed by fire. But when he says, 'a house is burning,' we understand that it is consuming by fire; instead of inaccuracy, doubt, and ambiguity, we have a form of expression perfectly intelligible, beautiful, definite, and appropriate."—Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 102.

OBS. 8.—Dr. Perley speaks of this usage thus: "An attempt has been made of late to introduce a kind of passive participial voice; as, 'The temple is being built.' This ought not to be encouraged. For, besides being an innovation, it is less convenient than the use of the present participle in the passive sense. Being built signifies action finished; and how can, Is being built, signify an action unfinished?"—Perley's Gram., p. 37.

OBS. 9.—The question now before us has drawn forth, on either side, a deal of ill scholarship and false logic, of which it would be tedious to give even a synopsis. Concerning the import of some of our most common words and phrases, these ingenious masters,—Bullions, Sanborn, and Perley,—severally assert some things which seem not to be exactly true. It is remarkable that critics can err in expounding terms so central to the language, and so familiar to all ears, as "be, being, being built, burned, being burned, is, is burned, to be burned," and the like. That to be and to exist, or their like derivatives, such as being and existing, is and exists, cannot always explain each other, is sufficiently shown above; and thereby is refuted Sanborn's chief argument, that, "is being burned," involves the contradiction of "existing, burned," or "consumed by fire." According to his reasoning, as well as that of Bullions, is burned must mean exists consumed; was burned, existed consumed; and thus our whole passive conjugation would often be found made up of bald absurdities! That this new unco-passive form conflicts with the older and better usage of taking the progressive form sometimes passively, is doubtless a good argument against the innovation; but that "Johnson and Addison" are fit representatives of the older "practice" in this case, may be doubted. I know not that the latter has anywhere made use of such phraseology; and one or two examples from the former are scarcely an offset to his positive verdict against the usage. See OBS. 3rd, above.

OBS. 10.—As to what is called "the present or the imperfect participle passive,"—as, "being burned," or "being burnt,"—if it is rightly interpreted in any of the foregoing citations, it is, beyond question, very improperly thus named. In participles, ing denotes continuance: thus being usually means continuing to be; loving, continuing to love; building, continuing to build,—or (as taken passively) continuing to be built: i. e., (in words which express the sense more precisely and certainly,) continuing to be in process of construction. What then is "being built," but "continuing to be built," the same, or nearly the same, as "building" taken passively? True it is, that built, when alone, being a perfect participle, does not mean "in process of construction," but rather, "constructed" which intimates completion; yet, in the foregoing passive phrases, and others like them, as well as in all examples of this unco-passive voice, continuance of the passive state being first suggested, and cessation of the act being either regarded as future or disregarded, the imperfect participle passive is for the most part received as equivalent to the simple imperfect used in a passive sense. But Dr. Bullions, who, after making "is being built precisely equivalent to is built," classes the two participles differently, and both erroneously,—the one as a "present participle," and the other, of late, as a "past,"—has also said above, "'Built,' is a perfect participle: and THEREFORE cannot, in any connexion, express an action, or the suffering of an action, now in progress." And Dr. Perley, who also calls the compound of being a "present participle," argues thus: "Being built signifies an action, finished; and how can Is being built, signify an action unfinished?" To expound a passive term actively, or as "signifying action," is, at any rate, a near approach to absurdity; and I shall presently show that the fore-cited notion of "a perfect participle," now half abandoned by Bullions himself, has been the seed of the very worst form of that ridiculous neology which the good Doctor was opposing.

OBS. 11.—These criticisms being based upon the meaning of certain participles, either alone or in phrases, and the particular terms spoken of being chiefly meant to represent classes, what is said of them may be understood of their kinds. Hence the appropriate naming of the kinds, so as to convey no false idea of any participle's import, is justly brought into view; and I may be allowed to say here, that, for the first participle passive, which begins with "being," the epithet "Imperfect" is better than "Present," because this compound participle denotes, not always what is present, but always the state of something by which an action is, or was, or will be, undergone or undergoing—a state continuing, or so regarded, though perhaps the action causative may be ended—or sometimes perhaps imagined only, and not yet really begun. With a marvellous instability of doctrine, for the professed systematizer of different languages and grammars, Dr. Bullions has recently changed his names of the second and third participles, in both voices, from "Perfect" and "Compound Perfect," to "Past" and "Perfect." His notion now is, that, "The Perfect participle is always compound; as, Having finished, Having been finished."—Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Grammar, 1849, p. 77. And what was the "Perfect" before, in his several books, is now called the "Past;" though, with this change, he has deliberately made an other which is repugnant to it: this participle, being the basis of three tenses always, and of all the tenses sometimes, is now allowed by the Doctor to lend the term "perfect" to the three,—"Present-perfect, Past-perfect, Future-perfect,"—even when itself is named otherwise!

OBS. 12.—From the erroneous conception, that a perfect participle must, in every connexion, express "action finished," action past,—or perhaps from only a moiety of this great error,—the notion that such a participle cannot, in connexion with an auxiliary, constitute a passive verb of the present tense,—J. W. Wright, above-mentioned, has not very unnaturally reasoned, that, "The expression, 'I am loved,' which Mr. Murray has employed to exhibit the passive conjugation of the present tense, may much more feasibly represent past than present time."—See Wright's Philosophical Gram., p. 99. Accordingly, in his own paradigm of the passive verb, he has formed this tense solely from what he calls the participle present, thus: "I am being smitten, Thou art being smitten," &c.—Ib., p. 98. His "Passed Tense," too, for some reason which I do not discover, he distinguishes above the rest by a double form, thus: "I was smitten, or being smitten; Thou wast smitten, or being smitten;" &c.—P. 99. In his opinion, "Few will object to the propriety of the more familiar phraseology, 'I am in the ACT,—or, suffering the ACTION of BEING SMITTEN;' and yet," says he, "in substance and effect, it is wholly the same as, 'I am being smitten,' which is THE TRUE FORM of the verb in the present tense of the passive voice!"—Ibid. Had we not met with some similar expressions of English or American blunderers, "the act or action of being smitten," would be accounted a downright Irish bull; and as to this ultra notion of neologizing all our passive verbs, by the addition of "being,"—with the author's cool talk of "the presentation of this theory, and [the] consequent suppression of that hitherto employed,"—there is a transcendency in it, worthy of the most sublime aspirant among grammatical newfanglers.

OBS. 13.—But, with all its boldness of innovation, Wright's Philosophical Grammar is not a little self-contradictory in its treatment of the passive verb. The entire "suppression" of the usual form of its present tense, did not always appear, even to this author, quite so easy and reasonable a matter, as the foregoing citations would seem to represent it. The passive use of the participle in ing, he has easily disposed of: despite innumerable authorities for it, one false assertion, of seven syllables, suffices to make it quite impossible.[269] But the usual passive form, which, with some show of truth, is accused of not having always precisely the same meaning as the progressive used passively,—that is, of not always denoting continuance in the state of receiving continued action,—and which is, for that remarkable reason, judged worthy of rejection, is nevertheless admitted to have, in very many instances, a conformity to this idea, and therefore to "belong [thus far] to the present tense."—P. 103. This contradicts to an indefinite extent, the proposition for its rejection. It is observable also, that the same examples, 'I am loved' and 'I am smitten,'—the same "tolerated, but erroneous forms," (so called on page 103,) that are given as specimens of what he would reject,—though at first pronounced "equivalent in grammatical construction," censured for the same pretended error, and proposed to be changed alike to "the true form" by the insertion of "being,"—are subsequently declared to "belong to" different classes and different tenses. "I am loved," is referred to that "numerous" class of verbs, which "detail ACTION of prior, but retained, endured, and continued existence; and therefore, in this sense, belong to the present tense." But "I am smitten," is idly reckoned of an opposite class, (said by Dr. Bullions to be "perhaps the greater number,") whose "ACTIONS described are neither continuous in their nature, nor progressive in their duration; but, on the contrary, completed and perfected; and [which] are consequently descriptive of passed time and ACTION."—Wright's Gram., p. 103. Again: "In what instance soever this latter form and signification can be introduced, their import should be, and, indeed, ought to be, supplied by the perfect tense construction:—for example, 'I am smitten,' [should] be, 'I have been smitten.'"—Ib. Here is self-contradiction indefinitely extended in an other way. Many a good phrase, if not every one, that the author's first suggestion would turn to the unco-passive form, his present "remedy" would about as absurdly convert into "the perfect tense."

OBS. 14.—But Wright's inconsistency, about this matter, ends not here: it runs through all he says of it; for, in this instance, error and inconsistency constitute his whole story. In one place, he anticipates and answers a question thus: "To what tense do the constructions, 'I am pleased;' 'He is expected;' 'I am smitten;' 'He is bound;' belong?" "We answer:—So far as these and like constructions are applicable to the delineation of continuous and retained ACTION, they express present time; and must be treated accordingly."—P. 103. This seems to intimate that even, "I am smitten," and its likes, as they stand, may have some good claim to be of the present tense; which suggestion is contrary to several others made by the author. To expound this, or any other passive term, passively, never enters his mind: with him, as with sundry others, "ACTION," "finished ACTION," or "progressive ACTION," is all any passive verb or participle ever means! No marvel, that awkward perversions of the forms of utterance and the principles of grammar should follow such interpretation. In Wright's syntax a very queer distinction is apparently made between a passive verb, and the participle chiefly constituting it; and here, too, through a fancied ellipsis of "being" before the latter, most, if not all, of his other positions concerning passives, are again disastrously overthrown by something worse—a word "imperceptibly understood." "'I am smitten;' 'I was smitten;' &c., are," he says, "the universally acknowledged forms of the VERBS in these tenses, in the passive voice:—not of the PARTICIPLE. In all verbal constructions of the character of which we have hitherto treated, (see page 103) and, where the ACTIONS described are continuous in their operations,—the participle BEING is imperceptibly omitted, by ellipsis."—P. 144.

OBS. 15.—Dr. Bullions has stated, that, "The present participle active, and the present participle passive, are not counterparts to each other in signification; [,] the one signifying the present doing, and the other the present suffering of an action, [;] for the latter always intimates the present being of an ACT, not in progress, but completed."—Prin. of Eng. Gram., p. 58. In this, he errs no less grossly than in his idea of the "action or the suffering" expressed by "a perfect participle," as cited in OBS. 5th above; namely, that it must have ceased. Worse interpretation, or balder absurdity, is scarcely to be met with; and yet the reverend Doctor, great linguist as he should be, was here only trying to think and tell the common import of a very common sort of English participles; such as, "being loved" and "being seen." In grammar, "an act," that has "present being," can be nothing else than an act now doing, or "in progress;" and if, "the present being of an ACT not in progress," were here a possible thought, it surely could not be intimated by any such participle. In Acts, i, 3 and 4, it is stated, that our Saviour showed himself to the apostles, "alive after his passion, by many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, and speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God; and, being assembled together with them commanded them that they should not depart from Jerusalem." Now, of these misnamed "present participles," we have here one "active," one "passive," and two others—(one in each form—) that are neuter; but no present time, except what is in the indefinite date of "pertaining." The events are past, and were so in the days of St. Luke. Yet each of the participles denotes continuance: not, indeed, in or to the present time, but for a time. "Being seen" means continuing to be seen; and, in this instance, the period of the continuance was "forty days" of time past. But, according to the above-cited "principle of English Grammar," so long and so widely inculcated by "the Rev. Peter Bullions, D. D., Professor of Languages," &c.,—a central principle of interpretation, presumed by him to hold "always"—this participle must intimate "the present being of an act, not in progress, but completed;"—that is, "the present being of" the apostles' act in formerly seeing the risen Saviour!

OBS. 16.—This grammarian has lately taken a deal of needless pains to sustain, by a studied division of verbs into two classes, similar to those which are mentioned in OBS. 13th above, a part of the philosophy of J. W. Wright, concerning our usual form of passives in the present tense. But, as he now will have it, that the two voices sometimes tally as counterparts, it is plain that he adheres but partially to his former erroneous conception of a perfect or "past" participle, and the terms which hold it "in any connexion." The awkward substitutes proposed by the Irish critic, he does not indeed countenance; but argues against them still, and, in some respects, very justly. The doctrine now common to these authors, on this point, is the highly important one, that, in respect to half our verbs, what we commonly take for the passive present, is not such—that, in "the second class, (perhaps the greater number,) the present-passive implies that the act expressed by the active voice has ceased. Thus, 'The house is built.' * * * Strictly speaking, then," says the Doctor, "the PAST PARTICIPLE with the verb TO BE is not the present tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used; that is, this form does not express passively the doing of the act."—Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Grammar, Ed. of 1849, p. 235. Thus far these two authors agree; except that Wright seems to have avoided the incongruity of calling that "the present-passive" which he denies to be such. But the Doctor, approving none of this practitioner's "remedies," and being less solicitous to provide other treatment than expulsion for the thousands of present passives which both deem spurious, adds, as from the chair, this verdict: "These verbs either have no present-passive, or it is made by annexing the participle in ing, in its passive sense, to the verb to be; as, 'The house is building.'"—Ib., p. 236.

OBS. 17.—It would seem, that Dr. Bullions thinks, and in reality Wright also, that nothing can be a present passive, but what "expresses passively the DOING of the act." This is about as wise, as to try to imagine every active verb to express actively the receiving of an act! It borders exceedingly hard upon absurdity; it very much resembles the nonsense of "expressing receptively the giving of something!" Besides, the word "DOING," being used substantively, does not determine well what is here meant; which is, I suppose, continuance, or an unfinished state of the act received—an idea which seems adapted to the participle in ing, but which it is certainly no fault of a participle ending in d, t, or n, not to suggest. To "express passively the doing of the act," if the language means any thing rational, may be, simply to say, that the act is or was done. For "doings" are, as often as any-wise, "things done," as buildings are fabrics built; and "is built," and "am smitten," the gentlemen's choice examples of false passives, and of "actions finished,"—though neither of them necessarily intimates either continuance or cessation of the act suffered, or, if it did, would be the less or the more passive or present,—may, in such a sense, "express the doing of the act," if any passives can:—nay, the "finished act" has such completion as may be stated with degrees of progress or of frequency; as, "The house is partly built."—"I am oftener smitten." There is, undoubtedly, some difference between the assertions, "The house is building,"—and, "The house is partly built;" though, for practical purposes, perhaps, we need not always be very nice in choosing between them. For the sake of variety, however, if for nothing else, it is to be hoped, the doctrine above-cited, which limits half our passive verbs of the present tense, to the progressive form only, will not soon be generally approved. It impairs the language more than unco-passives are likely ever to corrupt it.

OBS. 18.—"No startling novelties have been introduced," says the preface to the "Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language." To have shunned all shocking innovations, is only to have exercised common prudence. It is not pretended, that any of the Doctor's errors here remarked upon, or elsewhere in this treatise, will startle any body; but, if errors exist, even in plausible guise, it may not be amiss, if I tell of them. To suppose every verb or participle to be either "transitive" or "intransitive," setting all passives with the former sort, all neuters with the latter; (p. 59;)—to define the transitive verb or participle as expressing always "an act DONE by one person or thing to another;" (p. 60;)—to say, after making passive verbs transitive, "The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case," and, "A verb that does not make sense with an objective after it, is intransitive;" (p. 60;)—to insist upon a precise and almost universal identity of "meaning" in terms so obviously contrasted as are the two voices, "active" and "passive;" (pp. 95 and 235;)—to allege, as a general principle, "that whether we use the active, or the passive voice, the meaning is the same, except in some cases in the present tense;" (p. 67;)—to attribute to the forms naturally opposite in voice and sense, that sameness of meaning which is observable only in certain whole sentences formed from them; (pp. 67, 95, and 235;)—to assume that each "VOICE is a particular form of the verb," yet make it include two cases, and often a preposition before one of them; (pp. 66, 67, and 95;)—to pretend from the words, "The PASSIVE VOICE represents the subject of the verb as acted upon," (p. 67,) that, "According to the DEFINITION, the passive voice expresses, passively, the same thing that the active does actively;" (p. 235;)—to affirm that, "'Cæsar conquered Gaul,' and 'Gaul was conquered by Cæsar,' express precisely the same idea,"—and then say, "It will be felt at once that the expressions, 'Cæsar conquers Gaul,' and 'Gaul is conquered by Cæsar,' do not express the same thing;" (p. 235;)—to deny that passive verbs or neuter are worthy to constitute a distinct class, yet profess to find, in one single tense of the former, such a difference of meaning as warrants a general division of verbs in respect to it; (ib.;)—to announce, in bad English, that, "In regard to this matter [,] there are evidently Two CLASSES of verbs; namely, those whose present-passive expresses precisely the same thing, passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in which it does not:" (ib.;)—to do these several things, as they have been done, is, to set forth, not "novelties" only, but errors and inconsistencies.

OBS. 19.—Dr. Bullions still adheres to his old argument, that being after its own verb must be devoid of meaning; or, in his own words, "that is being built, if it mean anything, can mean nothing more than is built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed."—Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 237. He had said, (as cited in OBS. 5th above,) "The expression, 'is being,' is equivalent to is, and expresses no more; just as, 'is loving,' is equivalent to 'loves.' Hence, 'is being built,' is precisely equivalent to 'is built.'"—Principles of E. Gram., p. 58. He has now discovered "that there is no progressive form of the verb to be, and no need of it:" and that, "hence, there is no such expression in English as is being."—Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 236. He should have noticed also, that "is loving" is not an authorized "equivalent to loves;" and, further, that the error of saying "is being built," is only in the relation of the first two words to each other. If "is being," and "is loving," are left unused for the same reason, the truth may be, that is itself, like loves, commonly denotes "continuance;" and that being after it, in stead of being necessary or proper, can only be awkwardly tautologous. This is, in fact, THE GRAND OBJECTION to the new phraseology—"is being practised"—"am being smitten"—and the like. Were there no danger that petty writers would one day seize upon it with like avidity, an other innovation, exactly similar to this in every thing but tense—similar in awkwardness, in tautology, in unmistakeableness—might here be uttered for the sake of illustration. Some men conceive, that "The perfect participle is always compound; as, having seen, having written;"—and that the simple word, seen or written, had originally, and still ought to have, only a passive construction. For such views, they find authorities. Hence, in lieu of the common phrases, "had we seen," "we have written," they adopt such English as this; "Had we having seen you, we should have stopped."—"We have having written but just now, to our correspondent." Now, "We are being smitten," is no better grammar than this;—and no worse: "The idea intended" is in no great jeopardy in either case.

OBS. 20.—J. R. Chandler, of Philadelphia, in his Common School Grammar of 1847, has earnestly undertaken the defence of this new and much-mooted passive expression: which he calls "the Definite Passive Voice," or "the Passive Voice of the Definite Form." He admits it, however, to be a form that "does not sound well,"—a "novelty that strikes the ear unpleasantly;" but he will have the defect to be, not in the tautologous conceit of "is being," "was being," "has been being," and the like, but in everybody's organ of hearing,—supposing all ears corrupted, "from infancy," to a distaste for correct speech, by "the habit of hearing and using words ungrammatically!"—See p. 89. Claiming this new form as "the true passive," in just contrast with the progressive active, he not only rebukes all attempts "to evade" the use of it, "by some real or supposed equivalent," but also declares, that, "The attempt to deprive the transitive definite verb of [this] its passive voice, is to strike at the foundation of the language, and to strip it of one of its most important qualities; that of making both actor and sufferer, each in turn and at pleasure, the subject of conversation."—Ibid. Concerning equivalents, he evidently argues fallaciously; for he urges, that the using of them "does not dispense with the necessity of the definite passive voice."—P. 88. But it is plain, that, of the many fair substitutes which may in most cases be found, if any one is preferred, this form, and all the rest, are of course rejected for the time.

OBS. 21.—By Chandler, as well as others, this new passive form is justified only on the supposition, that the simple participle in ing can never with propriety be used passively. No plausible argument, indeed, can be framed for it, without the assumption, that the simpler form, when used in the same sense, is ungrammatical. But this is, in fact, a begging of the main question; and that, in opposition to abundant authority for the usage condemned. (See OBS. 3d, above.) This author pretends that, "The RULE of all grammarians declares the verb is, and a present participle (is building, or is writing), to be in the active voice" only.—P. 88. (I add the word "only," but this is what he means, else he merely quibbles.) Now in this idea he is wrong, and so are the several grammarians who support the principle of this imaginary "RULE." The opinion of critics in general would be better represented by the following suggestions of the Rev. W. Allen: "When the English verb does not signify mental affection, the distinction of voice is often disregarded: thus we say, actively, they were selling fruit; and, passively, the books are now selling. The same remark applies to the participle used as a noun: as, actively, drawing is an elegant amusement, building is expensive; and, passively, his drawings are good, this is a fine building."—Allen's Elements of E. Gram., p. 82.

OBS. 22.—Chandler admits, that, "When it is said, 'The house is building,' the meaning is easily obtained; though," he strangely insists, "it is exactly opposite to the assertion."—P. 89. He endeavours to show, moreover, by a fictitious example made for the purpose, that the progressive form, if used in both voices, will be liable to ambiguity. It may, perhaps, be so in some instances; but, were there weight enough in the objection to condemn the passive usage altogether, one would suppose there might be found, somewhere, an actual example or two of the abuse. Not concurring with Dr. Bullions in the notion that the active voice and the passive usually "express precisely the same thing," this critic concludes his argument with the following sentence: "There is an important difference between doing and suffering; and that difference is grammatically shown by the appropriate use of the active and passive voices of a verb."—Chandler's Common School Gram., p. 89.

OBS. 23.—The opinion given at the close of OBS. 2d above, was first published in 1833. An opposite doctrine, with the suggestion that it is "improper to say, 'the house is building,' instead of 'the house is being built,'"—is found on page 64th of the Rev. David Blair's Grammar, of 1815,—"Seventh Edition," with a preface dated, "October 20th, 1814." To any grammarian who wrote at a period much earlier than that, the question about unco-passives never occurred. Many critics have passed judgement upon them since, and so generally with reprobation, that the man must have more hardihood than sense, who will yet disgust his readers or hearers with them.[270] That "This new form has been used by some respectable writers," we need not deny; but let us look at the given "instances of it: 'For those who are being educated in our seminaries.' R. SOUTHEY.—'It was being uttered.' COLERIDGE.—'The foundation was being laid.' BRIT. CRITIC."—English Grammar with Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict., p. xlvi. Here, for the first example, it would be much better to say, "For those who are educated," [271]—or, "who are receiving their education;" for the others, "It was uttering,"—"was uttered,"—or, "was in uttering."—"The foundation was laying,"—"was laid,"—or, "was about being laid." Worcester's opinion of the "new form" is to be inferred from his manner of naming it in the following sentence: "Within a few years, a strange and awkward neologism has been introduced, by which the present passive participle is substituted, in such cases as the above, for the participle in ing."—Ibid. He has two instances more, in each of which the phrase is linked with an expression of disapprobation; "' It [[Greek: tetymmenos]] signifies properly, though in uncouth English, one who is being beaten.' ABP. WHATELY.—'The bridge is being built, and other phrases of the like kind, have pained the eye.' D. BOOTH."—Ibid.[272]

OBS. 24.—Richard Hiley, in the third edition of his Grammar, published in London, in 1840, after showing the passive use of the participle in ing, proceeds thus: "No ambiguity arises, we presume, from the use of the participle in this manner. To avoid, however, affixing a passive signification to the participle in ing, an attempt has lately been made to substitute the passive participle in its place. Thus instead of 'The house was building,' 'The work imprinting,' we sometimes hear, 'The house was being built,' 'The work is being printed.' But this mode is contrary to the English idiom, and has not yet obtained the sanction of reputable authority."—Hiley's Gram., p. 30.

OBS. 25.—Professor Hart, of Philadelphia, whose English Grammar was first published in 1845, justly prefers the usage which takes the progressive form occasionally in a passive sense; but, in arguing against the new substitute, he evidently remoulds the early reasoning of Dr. Bullions, errors and all; a part of which he introduces thus: "I know the correctness of this mode of expression has lately been very much assailed, and an attempt, to some extent successful, has been made [,] to introduce the form [,] 'is being built.' But, in the first place, the old mode of expression is a well established usage of the language, being found in our best and most correct writers. Secondly, is being built does not convey the idea intended, [;] namely [,] that of progressive action. Is being, taken together, means simply is, just as is writing means writes; therefore, is being built means is built, a perfect and not a progressive ACTION. Or, if being [and] built be taken together, they signify an ACTION COMPLETE, and the phrase means, as before, the house is (EXISTS) being built."—Hart's Gram., p. 76. The last three sentences here are liable to many objections, some of which are suggested above.

OBS. 26.—It is important, that the central phraseology of our language be so understood, as not to be misinterpreted with credit, or falsely expounded by popular critics and teachers. Hence errors of exposition are the more particularly noticed in these observations. In "being built," Prof. Hart, like sundry authors named above, finds nothing but "ACTION COMPLETE." Without doubt, Butler interprets better, when he says, "'The house is built,' denotes an existing state, rather than a completed action." But this author, too, in his next three sentences, utters as many errors; for he adds: "The name of the agent cannot be expressed in phrases of this kind. We cannot say, 'The house is built by John.' When we say, 'The house is built by mechanics,' we do not express an existing state."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 80. Unquestionably, "is built by mechanics," expresses nothing else than the "existing state" of being "built by mechanics," together with an affirmation:—that is, the "existing state" of receiving the action of mechanics, is affirmed of "the house." And, in my judgement, one may very well say, "The house is built by John;" meaning, "John is building the house." St. Paul says, "Every house is builded by SOME MAN."—Heb., iii, 4. In this text, the common "name of the agent" is "expressed."

OBS. 27.—Wells and Weld, whose grammars date from 1846, being remarkably chary of finding anything wrong in "respectable writers," hazard no opinion of their own, concerning the correctness or incorrectness of either of the usages under discussion. They do not always see absurdity in the approbation of opposites; yet one should here, perhaps, count them with the majorities they allow. The latter says, "The participle in ing is sometimes used passively; as, forty and six years was this temple in building; not in being built."—Weld's English Gram., 2d Ed., p. 170. Here, if he means to suggest, that "in being built" would "not" be good English, he teaches very erroneously; if his thought is, that this phrase would "not" express the sense of the former one, "in building," he palpably contradicts his own position! But he proceeds, in a note, thus: "The form of expression, is being built, is being committed, &c., is almost universally condemned by grammarians; but it is sometimes met with in respectable writers. It occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs, and in hasty compositions."—Ibid. Wells comments thus: "Different opinions have long existed among critics respecting this passive use of the imperfect participle. Many respectable writers substitute the compound passive participle; as, 'The house is being built;' 'The book is being printed.' But the prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form; as, 'The house is building.'"—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 148; 113th Ed., p. 161.[273]

OBS. 28.—S. W. Clark, in the second edition of his Practical Grammar, stereotyped and published in New York in 1848, appears to favour the insertion of "being" into passive verbs; but his instructions are so obscure, so often inaccurate, and so incompatible one with an other, that it is hard to say, with certainty, what he approves. In one place, he has this position: "The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by adding the Passive Participle of that verb, to the verb be. EXAMPLES—To be loved. I am feared. They are worshipped."—Page 69. In an other, he has this: "When the Subject is to be represented as receiving the action, the Passive Participle should be used. EXAMPLE—Henry's lesson is BEING RECITED."—P. 132. Now these two positions utterly confound each other; for they are equally general, and "the Passive Participle" is first one thing, and then an other. Again, he has the following assertions, both false: "The Present (or First) Participle always ends in ing, and is limited to the Active Voice. The Past (or Second) Participle of Regular Verbs ends in d or ed, and is limited to the Passive Voice."—P. 131. Afterwards, in spite of the fancied limitation, he acknowledges the passive use of the participle in ing, and that there is "authority" for it; but, at the same time, most absurdly supposes the word to predicate "action," and also to be wrong: saying, "Action is sometimes predicated of a passive subject. EXAMPLE—'The house is building,.. for.. 'The house is being built,'.. which means.. The house is becoming built." On this, he remarks thus: "This is one of the instances in which Authority is against Philosophy. For an act cannot properly be predicated of a passive agent. Many good writers properly reject this idiom. 'Mansfield's prophecy is being realized.'—MICHELET'S LUTHER."—Clark's Practical Gram., p. 133. It may require some study to learn from this which idiom it is. that these "many good writers reject:" but the grammarian who can talk of "a passive agent," without perceiving that the phrase is self-contradictory and absurd, may well be expected to entertain a "Philosophy" which is against "Authority," and likewise to prefer a ridiculous innovation to good and established usage.

OBS. 29.—As most verbs are susceptible of both forms, the simple active and the compound or progressive, and likewise of a transitive and an intransitive sense in each; and as many, when taken intransitively, may have a meaning which is scarcely distinguishable from that of the passive form; it often happens that this substitution of the imperfect participle passive for the simple imperfect in ing, is quite needless, even when the latter is not considered passive. For example: "See by the following paragraph, how widely the bane is being circulated!"—Liberator, No. 999, p. 34. Here is circulating would be better; and so would is circulated. Nor would either of these much vary the sense, if at all; for "circulate" may mean, according to Webster, "to be diffused," or, as Johnson and Worcester have it, "to be dispersed." See the second marginal note on p. 378.

OBS. 30.—R. G. Parker appears to have formed a just opinion of the "modern innovation," the arguments for which are so largely examined in the foregoing observations; but the "principle" which he adduces as "conclusive" against it, if principle it can be called, has scarcely any bearing on the question; certainly no more than has the simple assertion of one reputable critic, that our participle in ing may occasionally be used passively. "Such expressions as the following," says he, "have recently become very common, not only in the periodical publications of the day, but are likewise finding favor with popular writers; as, 'The house is being built.' 'The street is being paved.' 'The actions that are now being performed,' &c. 'The patents are being prepared.' The usage of the best writers does not sanction these expressions; and Mr. Pickbourn lays down the following principle, which is conclusive upon the subject. 'Whenever the participle in ing is joined by an auxiliary verb to a nominative capable of the action, it is taken actively; but, when joined to one incapable of the action, it becomes passive. If we say, The man are building a house, the participle building is evidently used in an active sense; because the men are capable of the action. But when we say, The house is building, or, Patents are preparing, the participles building and preparing must necessarily be understood in a passive sense; because neither the house nor the patents are capable of action.'—See Pickbourn on the English Verb, pp. 78-80."—Parker's Aids to English Composition, p. 105. Pickbourn wrote his Dissertation before the question arose which he is here supposed to decide. Nor is he right in assuming that the common Progressive Form, of which he speaks, must be either active-transitive or passive: I have shown above that it may be active-intransitive, and perhaps, in a few instances, neuter. The class of the verb is determined by something else than the mere capableness of the "nominative."

III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS.

Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound form; being made from active-transitive verbs, by adding the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, through all its changes: thus from the active-transitive verb love, is formed the passive verb be loved.

FIFTH EXAMPLE.

The regular passive verb BE LOVED, conjugated affirmatively.

PRINCIPAL PARTS or THE ACTIVE VERB.

Present. Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle.

Love. Loved. Loving. Loved.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
To be loved.

PERFECT TENSE.
To have been loved.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 3. He is loved; 3. They are loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 3. He was loved; 3. They were loved.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved.

PLUPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 3. He had been loved; 3. They had been loved.

FIRST-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved.

SECOND-FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 3. He will have been loved; 3. They will have been loved.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 3. He may be loved; 3. They may be loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 3. He might be loved; 3. They might be loved.

PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 3. He may have been loved; 3. They may have been loved.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 3. He might have been loved; 3. They might have been loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Singular. Plural. 1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 2. If thou were loved, 2. If you were loved, 3. If he were loved; 3. If they were loved.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved; Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved.

PARTICIPLES.

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. Being loved. Loved. Having been loved.

FAMILIAR FORM WITH 'THOU.' NOTE.—In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and more properly formed thus: IND. Thou art loved, Thou was loved, Thou hast been loved, Thou had been loved, Thou shall or will be loved, Thou shall or will have been loved. POT. Thou may, can, or must be loved; Thou might, could, would, or should be loved; Thou may, can, or must have been loved; Thou might, could, would, or should have been loved. SUBJ. If thou be loved, If thou were loved. IMP. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—A few active-intransitive verbs, that signify mere motion, change of place, or change of condition, may be put into this form, with a neuter signification; making not passive but neuter verbs, which express nothing more than the state which results from the change: as, "I am come."—"She is gone."—"He is risen."—"They are fallen." These are what Dr. Johnson and some others call "neuter passives;" a name which never was very proper, and for which we have no frequent use.

OBS. 2.—Most neuter verbs of the passive form, such as, "am grown, art become, is lain, are flown, are vanished, are departed, was sat, were arrived," may now be considered errors of conjugation, or perhaps of syntax. In the verb, to be mistaken, there is an irregularity which ought to be particularly noticed. When applied to persons, this verb is commonly taken in a neuter sense, and signifies, to be in error, to be wrong; as, "I am mistaken, thou art mistaken, he is mistake." But, when used of things, it is a proper passive verb, and signifies, to be misunderstood, or to be taken wrong; as, "The sense of the passage is mistaken; that is, not rightly understood." See Webster's Dict., w. Mistaken. "I have known a shadow across a brook to be mistaken for a footbridge."

OBS. 3.—Passive verbs may be easily distinguished from neuter verbs of the same form, by a reference to the agent or instrument, common to the former class, but not to the latter. This frequently is, and always may be, expressed after passive verbs; but never is, and never can be, expressed after neuter verbs: as, "The thief has been caught by the officer."— "Pens are made with a knife." Here the verbs are passive; but, "I am not yet ascended," (John, xx, 17,) is not passive, because it does not convey the idea of being ascended by some one's agency.

OBS. 4.—Our ancient writers, after the manner of the French, very frequently employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense; but, with a very few exceptions, present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary have in preference to be, whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not passive; as, "They have arrived,"—not, "They are arrived." Hence such examples as the following, are not now good English: "All these reasons are now ceased."—Butler's Analogy, p. 157. Say, "have now ceased." "Whether he were not got beyond the reach of his faculties."—Ib., p. 158. Say, "had not got." "Which is now grown wholly obsolete."—Churchill's Gram., p. 330. Say, "has now grown." "And when he was entered into a ship."—Bible. Say, "had entered."— "What is become of decency and virtue?"—Murray's Key, p. 196. Say, "has become."

OBS. 5.—Dr. Priestley says, "It seems not to have been determined by the English grammarians, whether the passive participles of verbs neuter require the auxiliary am or have before them. The French, in this case, confine themselves strictly to the former. 'What has become of national liberty?' Hume's History, Vol. 6. p. 254. The French would say, what is become; and, in this instance, perhaps, with more propriety."— Priestley's Gram., p. 128. It is no marvel that those writers who have not rightly made up their minds upon this point of English grammar, should consequently fall into many mistakes. The perfect participle of a neuter verb is not "passive," as the doctor seems to suppose it to be; and the mode of conjugation which he here inclines to prefer, is a mere Gallicism, which is fast wearing out from our language, and is even now but little countenanced by good writers.

OBS. 6.—There are a few verbs of the passive form which seem to imply that a person's own mind is the agent that actuates him; as, "The editor is rejoiced to think," &c.—Juvenile Keepsake. "I am resolved what to do."—Luke, xvi, 4. "He was resolved on going to the city to reside."—Comly's Gram., p. 114. "James was resolved not to indulge himself."—Murray's Key, ii, 220. "He is inclined to go."—"He is determined to go."—"He is bent on going." These are properly passive verbs, notwithstanding there are active forms which are nearly equivalent to most of them; as, "The editor rejoices to think."—"I know what to do."—"He had resolved on going."—"James resolved not to indulge himself." So in the phrase, "I am ashamed to beg," we seem to have a passive verb of this sort; but, the verb to ashame being now obsolete, ashamed is commonly reckoned an adjective. Yet we cannot put it before a noun, after the usual manner of adjectives. To be indebted, is an other expression of the same kind. In the following example, "am remember'd" is used for do remember, and, in my opinion, inaccurately:

   "He said mine eyes were black, and my hair black;
    And, now I am remember'd, scorn'd at me."—Shakspeare.

IV. FORM OF NEGATION.

A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb not after it, or after the first auxiliary; but the infinitive and participles take the negative first: as, Not to love, Not to have loved; Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved.

FIRST PERSON SINGULAR.

IND. I love not, or I do not love; I loved not, or I did not love; I have not loved; I had not loved; I shall not, or will not, love; I shall not, or will not, have loved. POT. I may, can, or must not love; I might, could, would, or should not love; I may, can, or must not have loved; I might, could, would, or should not have loved, SUBJ. If I love not, If I loved not.

SECOND PERSON SINGULAR.

SOLEMN STYLE:—IND. Thou lovest not, or Thou dost not love; Thou lovedst not, or Thou didst not love; Thou hast not loved; Thou hadst not loved; Thou shalt not, or wilt not, love; Thou shalt not, or wilt not, have loved. POT. Thou mayst, canst, or must not love; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst not love; Thou mayst, canst, or must not have loved; Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst not have loved. SUBJ. If thou love not, If thou loved not. IMP. Love [thou] not, or Do thou not love.

FAMILIAR STYLE:—IND. Thou lov'st not, or Thou dost not love; Thou loved not, or Thou did not love; Thou hast not loved; Thou had not loved; Thou shall not, or will not, love; Thou shall not, or will not, have loved. POT. Thou may, can, or must not love; Thou might, could, would, or should not love; Thou may, can, or must not have loved; Thou might, could, would, or should not have loved. SUBJ. If thou love not, If thou loved not. IMP. Love [thou] not, or Do [thou] not love.

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR.

IND. He loves not, or He does not love; He loved not, or He did not love; He has not loved; He had not loved; He shall not, or will not, love; He shall not, or will not, have loved. POT. He may, can, or must not love; He might, could, would, or should not love; He may, can, or must not have loved; He might, could, would, or should not have loved. SUBJ. If he love not, If he loved not.

V. FORM OF QUESTION.

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliary: as,

FIRST PERSON SINGULAR.

IND. Love I? or Do I love? Loved I? or Did I love? Have I loved? Had I
loved? Shall I love? Shall I have loved? POT. May, can, or must I love?
Might, could, would, or should I love? May, can, or must I have loved?
Might, could, would, or should I have loved?

SECOND PERSON SINGULAR.

SOLEMN STYLE:—IND. Lovest thou? or Dost thou love? Lovedst thou? or Didst thou love? Hast thou loved? Hadst thou loved? Wilt thou love? Wilt thou have loved? POT. Mayst, canst, or must thou love? Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou love? Mayst, canst, or must thou have loved? Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou have loved?

FAMILIAR STYLE:—IND. Lov'st thou? or Dost thou love? Loved thou? or Did thou love? Hast thou loved? Had thou loved? Will thou love? Will thou have loved? POT. May, can, or must thou love? Might, could, would, or should thou love? May, can, or must thou have loved? Might, could, would, or should thou have loved?

THIRD PERSON SINGULAR.

IND. Loves he? or Does he love? Loved he? or Did he love? Has he loved? Had he loved? Shall or will he love? Will he have loved? POT. May, can, or must he love? Might, could, would, or should he love? May, can, or must he have loved? Might, could, would, or should he have loved?

VI. FORM OF QUESTION WITH NEGATION.

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary: as,

FIRST PERSON PLURAL.

IND. Love we not? or Do we not love? Loved we not? or Did we not love? Have we not loved? Had we not loved? Shall we not love? Shall we not have loved? POT. May, can, or must we not love? Might, could, would, or should we not love? May, can, or must we not have loved? Might, could, would, or should we not have loved?

SECOND PERSON PLURAL.

IND. See ye not? or Do you not see? Saw ye not? or Did you not see? Have you not seen? Had you not seen? Will you not see? Will you not have seen? POT. May, can, or must you not see? Might, could, would, or should you not see? May, can, or must you not have seen? Might, could, would, or should you not have seen?

THIRD PERSON PLURAL.

IND. Are they not loved? Were they not loved? Have they not been loved? Had they not been loved? Shall or will they not be loved? Will they not have been loved? May, can, or must they not be loved? Might, could, would, or should they not be loved? May, can, or must they not have been loved? Might, could, would, or should they not have been loved?

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—In a familiar question or negation, the compound or auxiliary form of the verb is, in general, preferable to the simple: as, "No man lives to purpose, who does not live for posterity."—Dr. Wayland. It is indeed so much more common, as to seem the only proper mode of expression: as, "Do I say these things as a man?"—"Do you think that we excuse ourselves?"—"Do you not know that a little leaven leavens the whole lump?"—"Dost thou revile?" &c. But in the solemn or the poetic style, though either may be used, the simple form is more dignified, and perhaps more graceful: as, "Say I these things as a man?"—1 Cor., ix, 8. "Think ye that we excuse ourselves?"—2 Cor., xii, 19. "Know ye not that a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump?"—1 Cor., v, 6. "Revilest thou God's high priest?"—Acts. "King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?"—Ib. "Understandest thou what thou readest?"—Ib. "Of whom speaketh the prophet this?"—Id. "And the man of God said, Where fell it?"—2 Kings, vi, 6.

"What! heard ye not of lowland war?"—Sir W. Scott, L. L.

"Seems he not, Malise, like a ghost?"—Id., L. of Lake.

    "Where thinkst thou he is now? Stands he, or sits he?
    Or does he walk? or is he on his horse?"—Shak., Ant. and Cleop.

OBS. 2.—In interrogative sentences, the auxiliaries shall and will are not always capable of being applied to the different persons agreeably to their use in simple declarations: thus, "Will I go?" is a question which there never can be any occasion to ask in its literal sense; because none knows better than I, what my will or wish is. But "Shall I go?" may properly be asked; because shall here refers to duty, and asks to know what is agreeable to the will of an other. In questions, the first person generally requires shall; the second, will; the third admits of both: but, in the second-future, the third, used interrogatively, seems to require will only. Yet, in that figurative kind of interrogation which is sometimes used to declare a negative, there may be occasional exceptions to these principles; as, "Will I eat the flesh of bulls, or drink the blood of goats?"—Psalms, 1, 13. That is, I will not eat, &c.

OBS. 3.—Cannot is not properly one word, but two: in parsing, the adverb must be taken separately, and the auxiliary be explained with its principal. When power is denied, can and not are now generally united—perhaps in order to prevent ambiguity; as, "I cannot go." But when the power is affirmed, and something else is denied, the words are written separately; as, "The Christian apologist can not merely expose the utter baseness of the infidel assertion, but he has positive ground for erecting an opposite and confronting assertion in its place."—Dr. Chalmers. The junction of these terms, however, is not of much importance to the sense; and, as it is plainly contrary to analogy, some writers,—(as Dr. Webster, in his late or "improved" works; Dr. Bullions, in his; Prof. W. C. Fowler, in his new "English Grammar," 8vo; R. C. Trench, in his "Study of Words;" T. S. Pinneo, in his "revised" grammars; J. R. Chandler, W. S. Cardell, O. B. Peirce,—) always separate them. And, indeed, why should we write, "I cannot go, Thou canst not go, He cannot go?" Apart from the custom, we have just as good reason to join not to canst as to can; and sometimes its union with the latter is a gross error: as, "He cannot only make a way to escape, but with the injunction to duty can infuse the power to perform."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 287. The fear of ambiguity never prevents us from disjoining can and not whenever we wish to put a word between them: as, "Though the waves thereof toss themselves, yet can they not prevail; though they roar, yet can they not pass over it."—Jeremiah, v, 22. "Which then I can resist not."—Byron's Manfred, p. 1.

"Can I not mountain maiden spy, But she must bear the Douglas eye?"—Scott.

OBS. 4.—In negative questions, the adverb not is sometimes placed before the nominative, and sometimes after it: as, "Told not I thee?"—Numb., xxiii, 26. "Spake I not also to thy messengers?"—Ib., xxiv, 12. "Cannot I do with you as this potter?"—Jer., xviii, 6. "Art not thou a seer?"—2 Sam., xv, 27. "Did not Israel know?"—Rom., x, 19. "Have they not heard?"—Ib., 18. "Do not they blaspheme that worthy name?"—James, ii, 7. This adverb, like every other, should be placed where it will sound most agreeably, and best suit the sense. Dr. Priestley imagined that it could not properly come before the nominative. He says, "When the nominative case is put after the verb, on account of an interrogation, no other word should be interposed between them. [EXAMPLES:] 'May not we here say with Lucretius?'—Addison on Medals, p. 29. May we not say? 'Is not it he.' [?] Smollett's Voltaire, Vol 18, p. 152. Is it not he. [?]"—Priestley's Gram., p. 177.

OBS. 5.—In grave discourse, or in oratory, the adverb not is spoken as distinctly as other words; but, ordinarily, when placed before the nominative, it is rapidly slurred over in utterance and the o is not heard. In fact, it is generally (though inelegantly) contracted in familiar conversation, and joined to the auxiliary: as, IND. Don't they do it? Didn't they do it? Haven't they done it? Hadn't they done it? Shan't, or won't they do it? Won't they have done it? POT. Mayn't, can't, or mustn't they do it? Mightn't, couldn't, wouldn't, or shouldn't they do it? Mayn't, can't, or mustn't they have done it? Mightn't, couldn't, wouldn't, or shouldn't they have done it?

OBS. 6.—Well-educated people commonly utter their words with more distinctness and fullness than the vulgar, yet without adopting ordinarily the long-drawn syllables of poets and orators, or the solemn phraseology of preachers and prophets. Whatever may be thought of the grammatical propriety of such contractions as the foregoing, no one who has ever observed how the English language is usually spoken, will doubt their commonness, or their antiquity. And it may be observed, that, in the use of these forms, the distinction of persons and numbers in the verb, is almost, if not entirely, dropped. Thus don't is used for dost not or does not, as properly as for do not; and, "Thou can't do it, or shan't do it," is as good English as, "He can't do it, or shan't do it." Will, according to Webster, was anciently written woll: hence won't acquired the o, which is long in Walker's orthoëpy. Haven't, which cannot be used for has not or hast not, is still further contracted by the vulgar, and spoken ha'nt, which serves for all three. These forms are sometimes found in books; as, "WONT, a contraction of woll not, that is, will not."—Webster's Dict. "HA'NT, a contraction of have not or has not."—Id. "WONT, (w=ont or w~unt,) A contraction of would not:— used for will not."—Worcester's Dict. "HAN'T, (hänt or h=ant,) A vulgar contraction for has not, or have not."—Id. In the writing of such contractions, the apostrophe is not always used; though some think it necessary for distinction's sake: as, "Which is equivalent, because what can't be done won't be done."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 312.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, see, saw, seeing, seen. Of this class of verbs there are about one hundred and ten, beside their several derivatives and compounds.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Regular verbs form their preterits and perfect participles, by adding d to final e, and ed to all other terminations; the final consonant of the verb being sometimes doubled, (as in dropped,) and final y sometimes changed into i, (as in cried,) agreeably to the rules for spelling in such cases. The verb hear, heard, hearing, heard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. Heard is pronounced h~erd by all our lexicographers, except Webster: who formerly wrote it heerd, and still pronounces it so; alleging, in despite of universal usage against him, that it is written "more correctly heared."—Octavo Dict., 1829. Such pronunciation would doubtless require this last orthography, "heared;" but both are, in fact, about as fanciful as his former mode of spelling, which ran thus: "Az I had heerd suggested by frends or indifferent reeders."—Dr. Webster's Essays, Preface, p. 10.

OBS. 2.—When a verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes improperly substituted for ed, making the preterit and the perfect participle irregular in spelling, when they are not so in sound; as, distrest for distressed, tost for tossed, mixt for mixed, cract for cracked. These contractions are now generally treated as errors in writing; and the verbs are accordingly (with a few exceptions) accounted regular. Lord Kames commends Dean Swift for having done "all in his power to restore the syllable ed;" says, he "possessed, if any man ever did, the true genius of the English tongue;" and thinks that in rejecting these ugly contractions, "he well deserves to be imitated."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 12. The regular orthography is indeed to be preferred in all such cases; but the writing of ed restores no syllable, except in solemn discourse; and, after all, the poems of Swift have so very many of these irregular contractions in t, that one can hardly believe his lordship had ever read them. Since the days of these critics still more has been done towards the restoration of the ed, in orthography, though not in sound; but, even at this present time, our poets not unfrequently write, est for essed or ess'd, in forming the preterits or participles of verbs that end in the syllable ess. This is an ill practice, which needlessly multiplies our redundant verbs, and greatly embarrasses what it seems at first to simplify: as,

   "O friend! I know not which way I must look
    For comfort, being, as I am, opprest,
    To think that now our life is only drest
    For show."—Wordsworth's Poetical Works, 8vo, p. 119.

OBS. 3.—When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitution of t for ed produces an irregularity in sound as well as in writing. In some such irregularities, the poets are indulged for the sake of rhyme; but the best speakers and writers of prose prefer the regular form, wherever good use has sanctioned it: thus learned is better than learnt; burned, than burnt; penned, than pent; absorbed, than absorbt; spelled, than spelt; smelled, than smelt. So many of this sort of words as are allowably contracted, belong to the class of redundant verbs, among which they may be seen in a subsequent table.

OBS. 4.—Several of the irregular verbs are variously used by the best authors; redundant forms are occasionally given to some verbs, without sufficient authority; and many preterits and participles which were formerly in good use, are now obsolete, or becoming so. The simple irregular verbs in English are about one hundred and ten, and they are nearly all monosyllables. They are derived from the Saxon, in which language they are also, for the most part, irregular.

OBS. 5.—The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular verbs, as they are now generally used. In this list, those preterits and participles which are supposed to be preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. Nearly all compounds that follow the form of their simple verbs, or derivatives that follow their primitives, are here purposely omitted. Welcome and behave are always regular, and therefore belong not here. Some words which are obsolete, have also been omitted, that the learner might not mistake them for words in present use. Some of those which are placed last, are now little used.

LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS.

                                    Imperfect Perfect
Present. Preterit. Participle. Participle.
Arise, arose, arising, arisen.
Be, was, being, been.
Bear, bore or bare, bearing, borne or born.[274]
Beat, beat, beating, beaten or beat.
Begin, began or begun,[275] beginning, begun.
Behold, beheld, beholding, beheld.
Beset, beset, besetting, beset.
Bestead, bestead, besteading, bestead.[276]
Bid, bid or bade, bidding, bidden or bid.
Bind, bound, bing, bound.
Bite, bit, biting, bitten or bit.
Bleed, bled, bleeding, bled.
Break, broke,[277] breaking, broken.
Breed, bred, breeding, bred.
Bring, brought, bringing, brought.
Buy, bought, buying, bought.
Cast, cast, casting, cast.
Chide, chid, chiding, chidden or chid.
Choose, chose, choosing, chosen.
Cleave,[278] cleft or clove, cleaving, cleft or cloven.
Cling, clung, clinging, clung.
Come, came, coming, come.
Cost, cost, costing, cost.
Cut, cut, cutting, cut.
Do, did, doing, done.
Draw, drew, drawing, drawn.
Drink, drank, drinking, drunk, or drank.[279]
Drive, drove, driving, driven.
Eat, ate or ~eat, eating, eaten or eat.
Fall, fell, falling, fallen.
Feed, fed, feeding, fed.
Feel, felt, feeling, felt.
Fight, fought, fighting, fought.
Find, found, finding, found.
Flee, fled, fleeing, fled.
Fling, flung, flinging, flung.
Fly, flew, flying, flown.
Forbear, forbore, forbearing, forborne.
Forsake, forsook, forsaking, forsaken.
Get, got, getting, got or gotten.
Give, gave, giving, given.
Go, went, going, gone.
Grow, grew, growing, grown.
Have, had, having, had.
Hear, heard, hearing, heard.
Hide, hid, hiding, hidden or hid.
Hit, hit, hitting, hit.
Hold, held, holding, held or holden.[280]
Hurt, hurt, hurting, hurt.[281]
Keep, kept,[282] keeping, kept.
Know, knew, knowing, known.
Lead, led, leading, led.
Leave, left, leaving, left.
Lend, lent, lending, lent.
Let, let, letting, let
Lie,[283] lay, lying, lain.
Lose, lost, losing, lost.
Make, made, making, made.
Meet, met, meeting, met.
Outdo, outdid, outdoing, outdone.
Put, put, putting, put.
Read, r~ead, reading, r~ead.
Rend, rent, rending, rent.[284]
Rid, rid, ridding, rid.
Ride, rode, riding, ridden or rode.
Ring, rung or rang, ringing, rung.
Rise, rose, rising, risen.
Run, ran or run, running, run.
Say, said, saying, said.[285]
See, saw, seeing, seen.
Seek, sought, seeking, sought.
Sell, sold, selling, sold.
Send, sent, sending, sent.
Set, set, setting, set.
Shed, shed, shedding, shed.
Shoe, shod, shoeing, shod.[286]
Shoot, shot, shooting, shot.
Shut, shut, shutting, shut.
Shred, shred, shredding, shred.
Shrink, shrunk or shrank, shrinking, shrunk or shrunken.
Sing, sung or sang,[287] singing, sung.
Sink, sunk or sank, sinking, sunk.
Sit, sat, sitting, sat.[288]
Slay, slew, slaying, slain.
Sling, slung, slinging, slung.
Slink, slunk or slank, slinking, slunk.
Smite, smote, smiting, smitten or smit.
Speak, spoke, speaking, spoken.
Spend, spent, spending, spent.
Spin, spun, spinning, spun.
Spit, spit or spat, spitting, spit or spitten.
Spread, spread, spreading, spread.
Spring, sprung or sprang, springing, sprung.
Stand, stood, standing, stood.
Steal, stole, stealing, stolen.
Stick, stuck, sticking, stuck.
Sting, stung, stinging, stung.
Stink, stunk or stank, stinking, stunk.
Stride, strode or strid, striding, stridden
                                                      or strid.[289]
Strike, struck, striking, struck or stricken.
Swear, swore, swearing, sworn.
Swim, swum or swam, swimming, swum.
Swing, swung or swang, swinging, swung.
Take, took, taking, taken.
Teach, taught, teaching, taught.
Tear, tore, tearing, torn.
Tell, told, telling, told.
Think, thought, thinking, thought.
Thrust, thrust, thrusting, thrust.
Tread, trod, treading, trodden or trod.
Wear, wore, wearing, worn.
Win, won, winning, won.
Write, wrote, writing, written.[290]

REDUNDANT VERBS.

A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Of this class of verbs, there are about ninety-five, beside sundry derivatives and compounds.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Those irregular verbs which have more than one form for the preterit or for the perfect participle, are in some sense redundant; but, as there is no occasion to make a distinct class of such as have double forms that are never regular, these redundancies are either included in the preceding list of the simple irregular verbs, or omitted as being improper to be now recognized for good English. Several examples of the latter kind, including both innovations and archaisms, will appear among the improprieties for correction, at the end of this chapter. A few old preterits or participles may perhaps be accounted good English in the solemn style, which are not so in the familiar: as, "And none spake a word unto him."—Job, ii, 13. "When I brake the five loaves."—Mark, viii, 19. "And he drave them from the judgement-seat."—Acts, xviii, 16. "Serve me till I have eaten and drunken."—Luke, xvii, 8. "It was not possible that he should be holden of it."—Acts, ii, 24. "Thou castedst them down into destruction."—Psal., lxxiii, 18. "Behold, I was shapen in iniquity."—Ib., li, 5. "A meat-offering baken in the oven."—Leviticus, ii, 4.

"With casted slough, and fresh celerity."—SHAK., Henry V.

"Thy dreadful vow, loaden with death."—ADDISON: in Joh. Dict.

OBS. 2.—The verb bet is given in Worcester's Dictionary, as being always regular: "BET, v. a. [i. BETTED; pp. BETTING, BETTED.] To wager; to lay a wager or bet. SHAK."—Octavo Dict. In Ainsworth's Grammar, it is given as being always irregular: "Present, Bet; Imperfect, Bet; Participle, Bet."—Page 36. On the authority of these, and of some others cited in OBS. 6th below, I have put it with the redundant verbs. The verb prove is redundant, if proven, which is noticed by Webster, Bolles, and Worcester, is an admissible word. "The participle proven is used in Scotland and in some parts of the United States, and sometimes, though rarely, in England.—'There is a mighty difference between not proven and disproven.' DR. TH. CHALMERS. 'Not proven.' QU. REV."—Worcester's Universal and Critical Dict. The verbs bless and dress are to be considered redundant, according to the authority of Worcester, Webster, Bolles, and others. Cobbett will have the verbs, cast, chide, cling, draw, grow, shred, sling, slink, spring, sting, stride, swim, swing, and thrust, to be always regular; but I find no sufficient authority for allowing to any of them a regular form; and therefore leave them, where they always have been, in the list of simple irregulars. These fourteen verbs are a part of the long list of seventy which this author says, "are, by some persons, erroneously deemed irregular." Of the following nine only, is his assertion true; namely, dip, help, load, overflow, slip, snow, stamp, strip, whip. These nine ought always to be formed regularly; for all their irregularities may well be reckoned obsolete. After these deductions from this most erroneous catalogue, there remain forty-five other very common verbs, to be disposed of contrary to this author's instructions. All but two of these I shall place in the list of redundant verbs; though for the use of throwed I find no written authority but his and William B. Fowle's. The two which I do not consider redundant are spit and strew, of which it may be proper to take more particular notice.

OBS. 3.—Spit, to stab, or to put upon a spit, is regular; as, "I spitted frogs, I crushed a heap of emmets."—Dryden. Spit, to throw out saliva, is irregular, and most properly formed thus: spit, spit, spitting, spit. "Spat is obsolete."—Webster's Dict. It is used in the Bible; as, "He spat on the ground, and made clay of the spittle."—John, ix, 6. L. Murray gives this verb thus: "Pres. Spit; Imp. spit, spat; Perf. Part. spit, spitten." NOTE: "Spitten is nearly obsolete."—Octavo Gram., p. 106. Sanborn has it thus: "Pres. Spit; Imp. spit; Pres. Part. spitting; Perf. Part. spit, spat."—Analytical Gram., p. 48. Cobbett, at first, taking it in the form, "to spit, I spat, spitten," placed it among the seventy which he so erroneously thought should be made regular; afterwards he left it only in his list of irregulars, thus: "to spit, I spit, spitten."—Cobbett's E. Gram., of 1832, p. 54. Churchill, in 1823, preferring the older forms, gave it thus: "Spit, spat or spit, spitten or spit."—New Gram., p. 111. NOTE:—"Johnson gives spat as the preterimperfect, and spit or spitted as the participle of this verb, when it means to pierce through with a pointed instrument: but in this sense, I believe, it is always regular; while, on the other hand, the regular form is now never used, when it signifies to eject from the mouth; though we find in Luke, xviii, 32, 'He shall be spitted on.'"—Churchill's New Gram., p. 264. This text ought to have been, "He shall be spit upon."

OBS. 4.—To strew is in fact nothing else than an other mode of spelling the verb to strow; as shew is an obsolete form for show; but if we pronounce the two forms differently, we make them different words. Walker, and some others, pronounce them alike, stro; Sheridan, Jones, Jameson, and Webster, distinguish them in utterance, stroo and stro. This is convenient for the sake of rhyme, and perhaps therefore preferable. But strew, I incline to think, is properly a regular verb only, though Wells and Worcester give it otherwise: if strewn has ever been proper, it seems now to be obsolete. EXAMPLES: "Others cut down branches from the trees, and strewed them in the way."—Matt., xxi, 8. "Gathering where thou hast not strewed."—Matt., xxv, 24.

   "Their name, their years, spelt by th' unletter'd muse,
    The place of fame and elegy supply;
    And many a holy text around she strews,
    That teach the rustic moralist to die."—Gray.

OBS. 5.—The list which I give below, prepared with great care, exhibits the redundant verbs, as they are now generally used, or as they may be used without grammatical impropriety.[291] Those forms which are supposed to be preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. No words are inserted here, but such as some modern authors countenance. L. Murray recognizes bereaved, catched, dealed, digged, dwelled, hanged, knitted, shined, spilled; and, in his early editions, he approved of bended, builded, creeped, weaved, worked, wringed. His two larger books now tell us, "The Compiler has not inserted such verbs as learnt, spelt, spilt, &c. which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed."—Octavo Gram., p. 107; Duodecimo, p. 97. But if he did not, in all his grammars, insert, "Spill, spilt, R. spilt, R.," (pp. 106, 96,) preferring the irregular form to the regular, somebody else has done it for him. And, what is remarkable, many of his amenders, as if misled by some evil genius, have contradicted themselves in precisely the same way! Ingersoll, Fisk, Merchant, and Hart, republish exactly the foregoing words, and severally become "The Compiler" of the same erroneous catalogue! Kirkham prefers spilt to spilled, and then declares the word to be "improperly terminated by t instead of ed."—Gram., p. 151. Greenleaf, who condemns learnt and spelt, thinks dwelt and spilt are "the only established forms;" yet he will have dwell and spill to be "regular" verbs, as well as "irregular!"—Gram. Simp., p. 29. Webber prefers spilled to spilt; but Picket admits only the latter. Cobbett and Sanborn prefer bereaved, builded, dealed, digged, dreamed, hanged, and knitted, to bereft, built, dealt, dug, dreamt, hung, and knit. The former prefers creeped to crept, and freezed to froze; the latter, slitted to slit, wringed to wrung; and both consider, "I bended," "I bursted" and "I blowed," to be good modern English. W. Allen acknowledges freezed and slided; and, like Webster, prefers hove to hoven: but the latter justly prefers heaved to both. EXAMP.: "The supple kinsman slided to the helm."—New Timon. "The rogues slided me into the river."—Shak. "And the sand slided from beneath my feet."— DR. JOHNSON: in Murray's Sequel, p. 179. "Wherewith she freez'd her foes to congeal'd stone."—Milton's Comus, l. 449. "It freezed hard last night. Now, what was it that freezed so hard?"—Emmons's Gram., p. 25. "Far hence lies, ever freez'd, the northern main."—Savage's Wanderer, l. 57. "Has he not taught, beseeched, and shed abroad the Spirit unconfined?"—Pollok's Course of Time, B. x, l. 275.

OBS. 6.—D. Blair supposes catched to be an "erroneous" word and unauthorized: "I catch'd it," for "I caught it," he sets down for a "vulgarism."—E. Gram., p. 111. But catched is used by some of the most celebrated authors. Dearborn prefers the regular form of creep: "creep, creeped or crept, creeped or crept."—Columbian Gram., p. 38. I adopt no man's opinions implicitly; copy nothing without examination; but, to prove all my decisions to be right, would be an endless task. I shall do as much as ought to be expected, toward showing that they are so. It is to be remembered, that the poets, as well as the vulgar, use some forms which a gentleman would be likely to avoid, unless he meant to quote or imitate; as,

   "So clomb the first grand thief into God's fold;
    So since into his church lewd hirelings climb."
        —Milton, P. L., B. iv, l. 192.

   "He shore his sheep, and, having packed the wool,
    Sent them unguarded to the hill of wolves."
        —Pollok, C. of T., B. vi, l. 306.

                      ———"The King of heav'n
    Bar'd his red arm, and launching from the sky
    His writhen bolt, not shaking empty smoke,
    Down to the deep abyss the flaming felon strook."
        —Dryden.

OBS. 7.—The following are examples in proof of some of the forms acknowledged below: "Where etiquette and precedence abided far away."—Paulding's Westward-Ho! p. 6. "But there were no secrets where Mrs. Judith Paddock abided."—Ib., p. 8. "They abided by the forms of government established by the charters."—John Quincy Adams, Oration, 1831. "I have abode consequences often enough in the course of my life."—Id., Speech, 1839. "Present, bide, or abide; Past, bode, or abode."—Coar's Gram., p. 104. "I awaked up last of all."—Ecclus., xxxiii, 16. "For this are my knees bended before the God of the spirits of all flesh."—Wm. Penn. "There was never a prince bereaved of his dependencies," &c.—Bacon. "Madam, you have bereft me of all words."—Shakspeare. "Reave, reaved or reft, reaving, reaved or reft. Bereave is similar."—Ward's Practical Gram., p. 65. "And let them tell their tales of woful ages, long ago betid."—Shak. "Of every nation blent, and every age."—Pollok, C. of T., B vii, p. 153. "Rider and horse,—friend, foe,—in one red burial blent!"—Byron, Harold, C. iii, st. 28. "I builded me houses."—Ecclesiastes, ii, 4. "For every house is builded by some man; but he that built all things is God."—Heb. iii, 4. "What thy hands builded not, thy wisdom gained."—Milton's P. L., X, 373. "Present, bet; Past, bet; Participle, bet."— Mackintosh's Gram., p. 197; Alexander's, 38. "John of Gaunt loved him well, and betted much upon his head."—SHAKSPEARE: Joh. Dict, w. Bet. "He lost every earthly thing he betted."—PRIOR: ib. "A seraph kneeled."—Pollok, C. T., p. 95.

   "At first, he declared he himself would be blowed,
    Ere his conscience with such a foul crime he would load."
        —J. R. Lowell.

"They are catched without art or industry."—Robertson's Amer.,-Vol. i, p. 302. "Apt to be catched and dazzled."—Blair's Rhet., p. 26. "The lion being catched in a net."—Art of Thinking, p. 232. "In their self-will they digged down a wall."—Gen., xlix, 6. "The royal mother instantly dove to the bottom and brought up her babe unharmed."— Trumbull's America, i, 144. "The learned have diven into the secrets of nature."—CARNOT: Columbian Orator, p. 82. "They have awoke from that ignorance in which they had slept."—London Encyclopedia. "And he slept and dreamed the second time."—Gen., xli, 5. "So I awoke."—Ib., 21. "But he hanged the chief baker."—Gen., xl, 22. "Make as if you hanged yourself."—ARBUTHNOT: in Joh. Dict. "Graven by art and man's device."—Acts, xvii, 29. "Grav'd on the stone beneath yon aged thorn."—Gray. "That the tooth of usury may be grinded."—Lord Bacon. "MILN-EE, The hole from which the grinded corn falls into the chest below."—Glossary of Craven, London, 1828. "UNGRUND, Not grinded."— Ibid. "And he built the inner court with three rows of hewed stone."—1 Kings, vi, 36. "A thing by which matter is hewed."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 378. "SCAGD or SCAD meaned distinction, dividing."—Ib., i, 114. "He only meaned to acknowledge him to be an extraordinary person."—Lowth's Gram., p. 12. "The determines what particular thing is meaned."—Ib., p. 11. "If Hermia mean'd to say Lysander lied."—Shak. "As if I meaned not the first but the second creation."—Barclay's Works, iii, 289. "From some stones have rivers bursted forth."—Sale's Koran, Vol. i, p. 14.

   "So move we on; I only meant
    To show the reed on which you leant."—Scott, L. L., C. v, st. 11.

OBS. 8.—Layed, payed, and stayed, are now less common than laid, paid, and staid; but perhaps not less correct, since they are the same words in a more regular and not uncommon orthography: "Thou takest up that [which] thou layedst not down."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, SMITH'S, BRUCE'S: Luke, xix, 21. Scott's Bible, in this place, has "layest," which is wrong in tense. "Thou layedst affliction upon our loins."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Psalms, lxvi, 11. "Thou laidest affliction upon our loins."—SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S. "Thou laidst affliction upon our loins."—SMITH'S BIBLE, Stereotyped by J. Howe. "Which gently lay'd my knighthood on my shoulder."—SINGER'S SHAKSPEARE: Richard II, Act i, Sc. 1. "But no regard was payed to his remonstrance."—Smollett's England, Vol. iii, p. 212. "Therefore the heaven over you is stayed from dew, and the earth is stayed from her fruit."—Haggai, i, 10. "STAY, i. STAYED or STAID; pp. STAYING, STAYED or STAID."—Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict. "Now Jonathan and Ahimaaz stayed by En-rogel."—2 Sam., xvii, 17. "This day have I payed my vows."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Prov, vii, 14. Scott's Bible has "paid." "They not only stayed for their resort, but discharged divers."—HAYWARD: in Joh. Dict. "I stayed till the latest grapes were ripe."—Waller's Dedication. "To lay is regular, and has in the past time and participle layed or laid."—Lowth's Gram., p. 54. "To the flood, that stay'd her flight."—Milton's Comus, l. 832. "All rude, all waste, and desolate is lay'd."—Rowe's Lucan, B. ix, l. 1636. "And he smote thrice, and stayed."—2 Kings, xiii, 18.

   "When Cobham, generous as the noble peer
    That wears his honours, pay'd the fatal price
    Of virtue blooming, ere the storms were laid."—Shenstone, p. 167.

OBS. 9.—By the foregoing citations, lay, pay, and stay, are clearly proved to be redundant. But, in nearly all our English grammars, lay and pay are represented as being always irregular; and stay is as often, and as improperly, supposed to be always regular. Other examples in proof of the list: "I lit my pipe with the paper."—Addison.

   "While he whom learning, habits, all prevent,
    Is largely mulct for each impediment."—Crabbe, Bor., p. 102.
    "And then the chapel—night and morn to pray,
    Or mulct and threaten'd if he kept away."—Ib., p. 162.

"A small space is formed, in which the breath is pent up."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 493. "Pen, when it means to write, is always regular. Boyle has penned in the sense of confined."—Churchill's Gram., p. 261. "So far as it was now pled."—ANDERSON: Annals of the Bible, p. 25. "Rapped with admiration."—HOOKER: Joh. Dict. "And being rapt with the love of his beauty."—Id., ib. "And rapt in secret studies."—SHAK.: ib. "I'm rapt with joy."—ADDISON: ib. "Roast with fire."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Exod., xii, 8 and 9. "Roasted with fire."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Exod., xii, 8 and 9. "Upon them hath the light shined."—Isaiah, ix, 2. "The earth shined with his glory."—Ezekiel, xliii, 2. "After that he had showed wonders."—Acts, vii, 36. "Those things which God before had showed."—Acts, iii, 18. "As shall be shewed in Syntax."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 28. "I have shown you, that the two first may be dismissed."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 10. "And in this struggle were sowed the seeds of the revolution."—Everett's Address, p. 16. "Your favour showed to the performance, has given me boldness."—Jenks's Prayers, Ded. "Yea, so have I strived to preach the gospel."—Rom., xv, 20. "Art thou, like the adder, waxen deaf?"—Shakspeare. "Hamstring'd behind, unhappy Gyges died."—Dryden. "In Syracusa was I born and wed."—Shakspeare. "And thou art wedded to calamity."—Id. "I saw thee first, and wedded thee."—Milton. "Sprung the rank weed, and thrived with large increase."—Pope. "Some errors never would have thriven, had it not been for learned refutation."—Book of Thoughts, p. 34. "Under your care they have thriven."—Junius, p. 5. "Fixed by being rolled closely, compacted, knitted."—Dr. Murray's Hist., Vol. i, p. 374. "With kind converse and skill has weaved."—Prior. "Though I shall be wetted to the skin."—Sandford and Merton, p. 64. "I speeded hither with the very extremest inch of possibility."—Shakspeare. "And pure grief shore his old thread in twain."—Id. "And must I ravel out my weaved-up follies?"—Id., Rich. II. "Tells how the drudging Goblin swet."—Milton's L'Allegro. "Weave, wove or weaved, weaving, wove, weaved, or woven."—Ward's Gram., p. 67.

   "Thou who beneath the frown of fate hast stood,
    And in thy dreadful agony sweat blood."—Young, p. 238.

OBS. 10.—The verb to shake is now seldom used in any other than the irregular form, shake, shook, shaking, shaken; and, in this form only, is it recognized by our principal grammarians and lexicographers, except that Johnson improperly acknowledges shook as well as shaken for the perfect participle: as, "I've shook it off."—DRYDEN: Joh. Dict. But the regular form, shake, shaked, shaking, shaked, appears to have been used by some writers of high reputation; and, if the verb is not now properly redundant, it formerly was so. Examples regular: "The frame and huge foundation of the earth shak'd like a coward."—SHAKSPEARE: Hen. IV. "I am he that is so love-shaked."—ID.: As You Like it. "A sly and constant knave, not to be shak'd."—ID.: Cymbeline: Joh. Dict. "I thought he would have shaked it off."—TATTLER: ib. "To the very point I shaked my head at."—Spectator, No. 4. "From the ruin'd roof of shak'd Olympus."—Milton's Poems. "None hath shak'd it off."—Walker's English Particles, p. 89. "They shaked their heads."—Psalms, cix, 25. Dr. Crombie says, "Story, in his Grammar, has, most unwarrantably, asserted, that the Participle of this Verb should be shaked."—ON ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, p. 198. Fowle, on the contrary, pronounces shaked to be right. See True English Gram., p. 46.

OBS. 11.—All former lists of our irregular and redundant verbs are, in many respects, defective and erroneous; nor is it claimed for those which are here presented, that they are absolutely perfect. I trust, however, they are much nearer to perfection, than are any earlier ones. Among the many individuals who have published schemes of these verbs, none have been more respected and followed than Lowth, Murray, and Crombie; yet are these authors' lists severally faulty in respect to as many as sixty or seventy of the words in question, though the whole number but little exceeds two hundred, and is commonly reckoned less than one hundred and eighty. By Lowth, eight verbs are made redundant, which I think are now regular only: namely, bake, climb, fold, help, load, owe, wash. By Crombie, as many: to wit, bake, climb, freight, help, lift, load, shape, writhe. By Murray, two: load and shape. With Crombie, and in general with the others too, twenty-seven verbs are always irregular, which I think are sometimes regular, and therefore redundant: abide, beseech, blow, burst, creep, freeze, grind, lade, lay, pay, rive, seethe, shake, show, sleep, slide, speed, string, strive, strow, sweat, thrive, throw, weave, weep, wind, wring. Again, there are, I think, more than twenty redundant verbs which are treated by Crombie,—and, with one or two exceptions, by Lowth and Murray also,—as if they were always regular: namely, betide, blend, bless, burn, dive, dream, dress, geld, kneel, lean, leap, learn, mean, mulct, pass, pen, plead, prove, reave, smell, spell, stave, stay, sweep, wake, whet, wont. Crombie's list contains the auxiliaries, which properly belong to a different table. Erroneous as it is, in all these things, and more, it is introduced by the author with the following praise, in bad English: "Verbs, which depart from this rule, are called Irregular, of which I believe the subsequent enumeration to be nearly complete."—TREATISE ON ETYM. AND SYNT., p. 192.

OBS. 12.—Dr. Johnson, in his Grammar of the English Tongue, recognizes two forms which would make teach and reach redundant. But teached is now "obsolete," and rought is "old," according to his own Dictionary. Of loaded and loaden, which he gives as participles of load, the regular form only appears to be now in good use. For the redundant forms of many words in the foregoing list, as of abode or abided, awaked or awoke, besought or beseeched, caught or catched, hewed or hewn, mowed or mown, laded or laden, seethed or sod, sheared or shore, sowed or sown, waked or woke, wove or weaved, his authority may be added to that of others already cited. In Dearborn's Columbian Grammar, published in Boston in 1795, the year in which Lindley Murray's Grammar first appeared in York, no fewer than thirty verbs are made redundant, which are not so represented by Murray. Of these I have retained nineteen in the following list, and left the other eleven to be now considered always regular. The thirty are these: "bake, bend, build, burn, climb, creep, dream, fold, freight, geld, heat, heave, help, lay, leap, lift, light, melt, owe, quit, rent, rot, seethe, spell, split, strive, wash, weave, wet, work." See Dearborn's Gram., p. 37-45.

LIST OF THE REDUNDANT VERBS.

Imperfect Present. Preterit. Participle. Perfect Participle.

Abide, abode or abided, abiding, abode or abided.
Awake, awaked or awoke, awaking, awaked or awoke.
Belay, belayed or belaid, belaying, belayed or belaid.
Bend, bent or bended, bending, bent or bended.
Bereave, bereft or bereaved, bereaving, bereft or bereaved.
Beseech, besought or beseeched, beseeching, besought or beseeched.
Bet, betted or bet, betting, betted or bet.
Betide, betided or betid, betiding, betided or betid.
Bide, bode or bided, biding, bode or bided.
Blend, blended or blent, blending, blended or blent.
Bless, blessed or blest, blessing, blessed or blest.
Blow, blew or blowed, blowing, blown or blowed.
Build, built or builded, building, built or builded.
Burn, burned or burnt, burning, burned or burnt.
Burst, burst or bursted, bursting, burst or bursted.
Catch, caught or catched, catching, caught or catched.
Clothe, clothed or clad, clothing, clothed or clad.
Creep, crept or creeped, creeping, crept or creeped.
Crow, crowed or crew, crowing, crowed.
Curse, cursed or curst, cursing, cursed or curst.
Dare, dared or durst, daring, dared.
Deal, dealt or dealed, dealing, dealt or dealed.
Dig, dug or digged, digging, dug or digged.
Dive, dived or dove, diving, dived or diven.
Dream, dreamed or dreamt, dreaming, dreamed or dreamt.
Dress, dressed or drest, dressing, dressed or drest.
Dwell, dwelt or dwelled, dwelling, dwelt or dwelled.
Freeze, froze or freezed, freezing, frozen or freezed.
Geld, gelded or gelt, gelding, gelded or gelt.
Gild, gilded or gilt, gilding, gilded or gilt.
Gird, girded or girt, girding, girded or girt.
Grave, graved, graving, graved or graven.
Grind, ground or grinded, grinding, ground or grinded.
Hang, hung or hanged, hanging, hung or hanged.
Heat, heated or het, heating, heated or het.
Heave, heaved or hove, heaving, heaved or hoven.
Hew, hewed, hewing, hewed or hewn.
Kneel, kneeled or knelt, kneeling, kneeled or knelt.
Knit, knit or knitted, knitting, knit or knitted.
Lade, laded, lading, laded or laden.
Lay, laid or layed, laying, laid or layed.
Lean, leaned or leant, leaning, leaned or leant.
Leap, leaped or leapt, leaping, leaped or leapt.[292]
Learn, learned or learnt, learning, learned or learnt.
Light, lighted or lit, lighting, lighted or lit.
Mean, meant or meaned, meaning, meant or meaned.
Mow, mowed, mowing, mowed or mown.
Mulct, mulcted or mulct, mulcting, mulcted or mulct.
Pass, passed or past, passing, passed or past.
Pay, paid or payed, paying, paid or payed.
Pen, penned or pent, penning, penned or pent.
 (to coop,)
Plead, pleaded or pled, pleading, pleaded or pled.
Prove, proved, proving, proved or proven.
Quit, quitted or quit, quitting, quitted or quit.[293]
Rap, rapped or rapt, rapping, rapped or rapt.
Reave, reft or reaved, reaving, reft or reaved.
Rive, rived, riving, riven or rived.
Roast, roasted or roast, roasting, roasted or roast.
Saw, sawed, sawing, sawed or sawn.
Seethe, seethed or sod, seething, seethed or sodden.
Shake, shook or shaked, shaking, shaken or shaked.
Shape, shaped, shaping, shaped or shapen.
Shave, shaved, shaving, shaved or shaven.
Shear, sheared or shore, shearing, sheared or shorn.
Shine, shined or shone, shining, shined or shone.
Show, showed, showing, showed or shown.
Sleep, slept or sleeped, sleeping, slept or sleeped.
Slide, slid or slided, sliding, slidden, slid,
                                                    or slided.
Slit, slitted or slit, slitting, slitted or slit.
Smell, smelled or smelt, smelling, smelled or smelt.
Sow, sowed, sowing, sowed or sown.
Speed, sped or speeded, speeding, sped or speeded.
Spell, spelled or spelt, spelling, spelled or spelt.
Spill, spilled or spilt, spilling, spilled or spilt.
Split, split or splitted, splitting, split
                                                     or splitted.[294]
Spoil, spoiled or spoilt, spoiling, spoiled or spoilt.
Stave, stove or staved, staving, stove or staved.
Stay, staid or stayed, staying, staid or stayed.
String, strung or stringed, stringing, strung or stringed.
Strive, strived or strove, striving, strived or striven.
Strow, strowed, strowing, strowed or strown.
Sweat, sweated or sweat, sweating, sweated or sweat.
Sweep, swept or sweeped, sweeping, swept or sweeped.
Swell, swelled, swelling, swelled or swollen.
Thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven.
Throw, threw or throwed, throwing, thrown or throwed.
Wake, waked or woke, waking, waked or woke.
Wax, waxed, waxing, waxed or waxen.
Weave, wove or weaved, weaving, woven or weaved.
Wed, wedded or wed, wedding, wedded or wed.
Weep, wept or weeped, weeping, wept or weeped.
Wet, wet or wetted, wetting, wet or wetted.
Whet, whetted or whet, whetting, whetted or whet.[295]
Wind, wound or winded, winding, wound or winded.
Wont, wont or wonted, wonting, wont or wonted.
Work, worked or wrought, working, worked or wrought.
Wring, wringed or wrung, wringing, wringed or wrung.[296]

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses; as, beware, ought, quoth.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1. When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the tenses usually derived from those parts are also, of course, wanting. All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, if we compare them with other verbs, are defective; but, as auxiliaries, they lack nothing; for no complete verb is used throughout as an auxiliary, except be. And since an auxiliary differs essentially from a principal verb, the propriety of referring may, can, must, and shall, to the class of defective verbs, is at least questionable. In parsing there is never any occasion to call them defective verbs, because they are always taken together with their principals. And though we may technically say, that their participles are "wanting," it is manifest that none are needed.

OBS. 2. Will is sometimes used as a principal verb, and as such it is regular and complete; will, willed, willing, willed: as, "His Majesty willed that they should attend."—Clarendon. "He wills for them a happiness of a far more exalted and enduring nature."—Gurney. "Whether thou willest it to be a minister to our pleasure."—Harris. "I will; be thou clean."—Luke, v, 13. "Nevertheless, not as I will, but as thou will."—Matt., xxvi, 39. "To will is present with me."—Rom., vii, 18. But would is sometimes also a principal verb; as, "What would this man?"—Pope. "Would God that all the Lord's people were prophets."—Numb., xi, 29. "And Israel would none of me."—Psalm, lxxxi, 11. If we refer this indefinite preterit to the same root, will becomes redundant; will, willed or would, willing, willed. In respect to time, would is less definite than willed, though both are called preterits. It is common, and perhaps best, to consider them distinct verbs. The latter only can be a participle: as,

   "How rarely does it meet with this time's guise,
    When man was will'd to love his enemies!"—Shakspeare.

OBS. 3. The remaining defective verbs are only five or six questionable terms, which our grammarians know not well how else to explain; some of them being now nearly obsolete, and others never having been very proper. Begone is a needless coalition of be and gone, better written separately, unless Dr. Johnson is right in calling the compound an interjection: as,

   "Begone! the goddess cries with stern disdain,
    Begone! nor dare the hallow'd stream to stain!"—Addison.

Beware also seems to be a needless compound of be and the old adjective ware, wary, aware, cautious. Both these are, of course, used only in those forms of expression in which be is proper; as, "Beware of dogs, beware of evil workers, beware of the concision."—Philippians, iii, 2. "But we must beware[297] of carrying our attention to this beauty too far."—Blair's Rhet., p. 119. These words were formerly separated: as, "Of whom be thou ware also."—1 Tim., iv, 15. "They were ware of it."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: Acts, xiii, 6. "They were aware of it."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: ib. "And in an hour that he is not ware of him."—Johnson's Dict., w. Ware. "And in an hour that he is not aware of."—COMMON BIBLES: Matt., xxiv, 50. "Bid her well be ware and still erect."—MILTON: in Johnson's Dict. "That even Silence was took ere she was ware."—Id., Comus, line 558. The adjective ware is now said to be "obsolete;" but the propriety of this assertion depends upon that of forming such a defective verb. What is the use of doing so?

"This to disclose is all thy guardian can; Beware of all, but most beware of man."—Pope.

The words written separately will always have the same meaning, unless we omit the preposition of, and suppose the compound to be a transitive verb. In this case, the argument for compounding the terms appears to be valid; as,

"Beware the public laughter of the town; Thou springst a-leak already in thy crown."—Dryden.

OBS. 4. The words ought and own, without question, were originally parts of the redundant verb to owe; thus: owe, owed or ought, owing, owed or own. But both have long been disjoined from this connexion, and hence owe has become regular. Own, as now used, is either a pronominal adjective, as, "my own hand," or a regular verb thence derived, as, "to own a house." Ought, under the name of a defective verb, is now generally thought to be properly used, in this one form, in all the persons and numbers of the present and the imperfect tense of the indicative and subjunctive moods. Or, if it is really of one tense only, it is plainly an aorist; and hence the time must be specified by the infinitive that follows: as, "He ought to go; He ought to have gone." "If thou ought to go; If thou ought to have gone." Being originally a preterit, it never occurs in the infinitive mood, and is entirely invariable, except in the solemn style, where we find oughtest in both tenses; as, "How thou oughtest to behave thyself."—1 Tim., iii, 15. "Thou oughtest therefore to have put my money to the exchangers."—Matt., xxiv, 27. We never say, or have said, "He, she, or it, oughts or oughteth." Yet we manifestly use this verb in the present tense, and in the third person singular; as, "Discourse ought always to begin with a clear proposition."—Blair's Rhet., p. 217. I have already observed that some grammarians improperly call ought an auxiliary. The learned authors of Brightland's Grammar, (which is dedicated to Queen Anne,) did so; and also affirmed that must and ought "have only the present time," and are alike invariable. "It is now quite obsolete to say, thou oughtest; for ought now changes its ending no more than must."—Brightland's Gram., (approved by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.,) p. 112.

"Do, will, and shall, must, OUGHT, and may, Have, am, or be, this Doctrine will display."—Ib., p. 107.

OBS. 5.—Wis, preterit wist, to know, to think, to suppose, to imagine, appears to be now nearly or quite obsolete; but it may be proper to explain it, because it is found in the Bible: as, "I wist not, brethren, that he was the high priest."—Acts, xxiii, 5. "He himself 'wist not that his face shone.'"—Life of Schiller, p. iv. Wit, to know, and wot, knew, are also obsolete, except in the phrase to wit; which, being taken abstractly, is equivalent to the adverb namely, or to the phrase, that is to say. The phrase, "we do you to wit," (in 2 Cor., viii, 1st,) means, "we inform you." Churchill gives the present tense of this verb three forms, weet, wit, and wot; and there seems to have been some authority for them all: as, "He was, to weet, a little roguish page."—Thomson. "But little wotteth he the might of the means his folly despiseth."—Tupper's Book of Thoughts, p. 35. To wit, used alone, to indicate a thing spoken of, (as the French use their infinitive, savoir, à savoir, or the phrase, c'est à savoir,) is undoubtedly an elliptical expression: probably for, "I give you to wit;" i. e., "I give you to know." Trow, to think, occurs in the Bible; as, "I trow not."—N. Test. And Coar gives it as a defective verb; and only in the first person singular of the present indicative, "I trow." Webster and Worcester mark the words as obsolete; but Sir W. Scott, in the Lady of the Lake, has this line:

"Thinkst thou he trow'd thine omen ought?"—Canto iv, stanza 10.

Quoth and quod, for say, saith, or said, are obsolete, or used only in ludicrous language. Webster supposes these words to be equivalent, and each confined to the first and third persons of the present and imperfect tenses of the indicative mood. Johnson says, that, "quoth you," as used by Sidney, is irregular; but Tooke assures us, that "The th in quoth, does not designate the third person."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 323. They are each invariable, and always placed before the nominative: as, quoth I, quoth he.

"Yea, so sayst thou, (quod Tröylus,) alas!"—Chaucer.

"I feare, quod he, it wyll not be."—Sir T. More.

"Stranger, go! Heaven be thy guide! Quod the beadsman of Nith-side."—Burns.

OBS. 6.—Methinks, (i. e., to me it thinks,) for I think, or, it seems to me, with its preterit methought, (i. e., to me it thought,) is called by Dr. Johnson an "ungrammatical word." He imagined it to be "a Norman corruption, the French being apt to confound me and I."—Joh. Dict. It is indeed a puzzling anomaly in our language, though not without some Anglo-Saxon or Latin parallels; and, like its kindred, "me seemeth," or "meseems," is little worthy to be countenanced, though often used by Dryden, Pope, Addison, and other good writers. Our lexicographers call it an impersonal verb, because, being compounded with an objective, it cannot have a nominative expressed. It is nearly equivalent to the adverb apparently; and if impersonal, it is also defective; for it has no participles, no "methinking," and no participial construction of "methought;" though Webster's American Dictionary, whether quarto or octavo, absurdly suggests that the latter word may be used as a participle. In the Bible, we find the following text: "Me thinketh the running of the foremost is like the running of Ahimaaz."—2 Sam., xviii, 27. And Milton improperly makes thought an impersonal verb, apparently governing the separate objective pronoun him; as,

"Him thought he by the brook of Cherith stood." —P. R., B. ii, l. 264.

OBS. 7.—Some verbs from the nature of the subjects to which they refer, are chiefly confined to the third person singular; as, "It rains; it snows; it freezes; it hails; it lightens; it thunders." These have been called impersonal verbs; because the neuter pronoun it, which is commonly used before them, does not seem to represent any noun, but, in connexion with the verb, merely to express a state of things. They are however, in fact, neither impersonal nor defective. Some, or all of them, may possibly take some other nominative, if not a different person; as, "The Lord rained upon Sodom, and upon Gomorrah, brimstone and fire."—Gen., xix, 24. "The God of glory thundereth."—Psalms, xxix, 3. "Canst thou thunder with a voice like him?"—Job, xl, 9. In short, as Harris observes, "The doctrine of Impersonal Verbs has been justly rejected by the best grammarians, both ancient and modern."—Hermes, p. 175.

OBS. 8.—By some writers, words of this kind are called Monopersonal Verbs; that is, verbs of one person. This name, though not very properly compounded, is perhaps more fit than the other; but we have little occasion to speak of these verbs as a distinct class in our language. Dr. Murray says, "What is called an impersonal verb, is not so; for lic-et, juv-at, and oport-et, have Tha, that thing, or it, in their composition."—History of European Languages, Vol. ii, p. 146. Ail, irk, and behoove, are regular verbs and transitive; but they are used only in the third person singular: as, "What ails you?"—"It irks me."—"It behooves you." The last two are obsolescent, or at least not in very common use. In Latin, passive verbs, or neuters of the passive form, are often used impersonally, or without an obvious nominative; and this elliptical construction is sometimes imitated in English, especially by the poets: as,

   "Meanwhile, ere thus was sinn'd and judg'd on earth,
    Within the gates of Hell sat Sin and Death."
        —Milton, P. L., B. x, l. 230.

   "Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run
    By angels many and strong, who interpos'd."
        —Id., B. vi, l. 335.

LIST OF THE DEFECTIVE VERBS.

Present. Preterit.
Beware, ———
Can, could.
May, might.
Methinks, methought.
Must, must.[298]
Ought, ought.[298]
Shall, should,
Will[299] would.
Quoth, quoth.
Wis, wist.[300]
Wit, wot.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS VI—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Sixth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, and VERBS.

The definitions to be given in the Sixth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, and one for a participle, an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness; because, properly speaking, that is riot our own which is imposed upon us."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 109.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Freedom is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Choice is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is; the name of any person, place, or thing, that can he known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Seems is a regular neuter verb, from seem, seemed, seeming, seemed; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one. Essential is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; essential, more essential, most essential; or, essential, less essential, least essential. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs.

To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Happiness is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Because is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Properly is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Speaking is a participle. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb.

That is a pronominal adjective, not compared; standing for that thing, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. [See OBS. 14th, p. 290.] 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Is is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

Not is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Our is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and possessive case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property.

Own is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood. 3. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees cannot be compared.

Which is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Is imposed is a regular passive verb, from the active verb, impose, imposed, imposing, imposed,—passive, to be imposed; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A passive verb is a verb that represents the subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted upon. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

Upon is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"He has desires after the kingdom, and mates no question but it shall be his; he wills, runs, strives, believes, hopes, prays, reads scriptures, observes duties, and regards ordinances."—Penington, ii, 124.

"Wo unto you, lawyers! for ye have taken away the key of knowledge: ye enter not in yourselves, and them that were entering in ye hindered."—Luke, xi, 52.

"Above all other liberties, give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely, according to my conscience."—Milton.

"Eloquence is to be looked for only in free states. Longinus illustrates this observation with a great deal of beauty. 'Liberty,' he remarks, 'is the nurse of true genius; it animates the spirit, and invigorates the hopes, of men; it excites honourable emulation, and a desire of excelling in every art.'"—Blair's Rhet., p. 237.

"None of the faculties common to man and the lower animals, conceive the idea of civil liberty, any more than that of religion."—Spurzheim, on Education, p. 259. "Whoever is not able, or does not dare, to think, or does not feel contradictions and absurdities, is unfit for a refined religion and civil liberty."—Ib., p. 258.

"The too great number of journals, and the extreme partiality of their authors, have much discredited them. A man must have great talents to please all sorts of readers; and it is impossible to please all authors, who, generally speaking, cannot bear with the most judicious and most decent criticisms."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 170.

"Son of man, I have broken the arm of Pharaoh king of Egypt; and, lo, it shall not be bound up to be healed, to put a roller to bind it, to make it strong to hold the sword."—Ezekiel, xxx, 21.

   "Yet he was humble, kind, forgiving, meek,
    Easy to be entreated, gracious, mild;
    And, with all patience and affection, taught,
    Rebuked, persuaded, solaced, counselled, warned."—Pollok, B. ix.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"What is coming, will come; what is proceeding onward, verges towards completion."—Dr. Murray's Europ. Lang., i, 324. "Sir, if it had not been for the art of printing, we should now have had no learning at all; for books would have perished faster than they could have been transcribed."—Dr. Johnson's Life, iii, 400.

"Passionate reproofs are like medicines given scalding hot: the patient cannot take them. If we wish to do good to those whom we rebuke, we should labour for meekness of wisdom, and use soft words and hard arguments."—Dodd.

"My prayer for you is, that God may guide you by his counsel, and in the end bring you to glory: to this purpose, attend diligently to the dictates of his good spirit, which you may hear within you; for Christ saith, 'He that dwelleth with you, shall be in you.' And, as you hear and obey him, he will conduct you through this troublous world, in ways of truth and righteousness, and land you at last in the habitations of everlasting rest and peace with the Lord, to praise him for ever and ever."—T. Gwin.

"By matter, we mean, that which is tangible, extended, and divisible; by mind, that which perceives, reflects, wills, and reasons. These properties are wholly dissimilar and admit of no comparison. To pretend that mind is matter, is to propose a contradiction in terms; and is just as absurd, as to pretend that matter is mind."—Gurney's Portable Evidence, p. 78.

"If any one should think all this to be of little importance, I desire him to consider what he would think, if vice had, essentially, and in its nature, these advantageous tendencies, or if virtue had essentially the direct contrary ones."—Butler, p. 99.

"No man can write simpler and stronger English than the celebrated Boz, and this renders us the more annoyed at those manifold vulgarities and slipshod errors, which unhappily have of late years disfigured his productions."—LIVING AUTHORS OF ENGLAND: The Examiner, No. 119.

   "Here Havard, all serene, in the same strains,
    Loves, hates, and rages, triumphs, and complains."—Churchill, p. 3.

    "Let Satire, then, her proper object know,
    And ere she strike, be sure she strike a foe."—John Brown.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"The Author of nature has as truly directed that vicious actions, considered as mischievous to society, should be punished, and has as clearly put mankind under a necessity of thus punishing them, as he has directed and necessitated us to preserve our lives by food."—Butler's Analogy, p. 88. "An author may injure his works by altering, and even amending, the successive editions: the first impression sinks the deepest, and with the credulous it can rarely be effaced; nay, he will be vainly employed who endeavours to eradicate it."—Werter, p. 82.

"It is well ordered, that even the most innocent blunder is not committed with impunity; because, were errors licensed where they do no hurt, inattention would grow into habit, and be the occasion of much hurt."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 285.

"The force of language consists in raising complete images; which have the effect to transport the reader, as by magic, into the very place of the important action, and to convert him as it were into a spectator, beholding every thing that passes."—Id., ib., ii, 241.

"An orator should not put forth all his strength at the beginning, but should rise and grow upon us, as his discourse advances."—Blair's Rhet., p. 309.

"When a talent is given to any one, an account is open with the giver of it, who appoints a day in which he will arrive and 'redemand his own with usury.'"—West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 74.

"Go, and reclaim the sinner, instruct the ignorant, soften the obdurate, and (as occasion shall demand) cheer, depress, repel, allure, disturb, assuage, console, or terrify."—Jerningham's Essay on Eloquence, p. 97.

   "If all the year were playing holydays,
    To sport would be as tedious as to work:
    But when they seldom come, they wish'd-for come,
    And nothing pleaseth but rare accidents."
        —Shak., Hen. V.

   "The man that once did sell the lion's skin
    While the beast liv'd, was kill'd with hunting him."
        —Id., Joh. Dict., w. Beast.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS OF VERBS.

LESSON I.—PRETERITS.

"In speaking on a matter which toucht their hearts."—Philological
Museum, Vol. i, p. 441.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb toucht is terminated in t. But, according to Observation 2nd, on the irregular verbs, touch is regular. Therefore, this t should be changed to ed; thus, "In speaking on a matter which touched their hearts."]

"Though Horace publisht it some time after."—Ib., i, 444. "The best subjects with which the Greek models furnisht him."—Ib., i, 444. "Since he attacht no thought to it."—Ib., i, 645. "By what slow steps the Greek alphabet reacht its perfection."—Ib., i, 651. "Because Goethe wisht to erect an affectionate memorial."—Ib., i, 469. "But the Saxon forms soon dropt away."—Ib., i, 668. "It speaks of all the towns that perisht in the age of Philip."—Ib., i, 252. "This enricht the written language with new words."—Ib., i, 668. "He merely furnisht his friend with matter for laughter."—Ib., i, 479. "A cloud arose and stopt the light."—Swift's Poems, p. 313. "She slipt zpadillo in her breast."—Ib., p. 371. "I guest the hand."—Ib., p. 372. "The tyrant stript me to the skin: My skin he flay'd, my hair he cropt; At head and foot my body lopt."—Ib., On a Pen, p. 338. "I see the greatest owls in you, That ever screecht or ever flew."—Ib., p. 403. "I sate with delight, from morning till night."—Ib., p. 367. "Dick nimbly skipt the gutter."—Ib., p. 375. "In at the pantry door this morn I slipt."—Ib., p. 369. "Nobody living ever toucht me but you."—Walker's Particles, p. 92. "Present, I ship; Past, I shipped or shipt; Participle, shipped or shipt."—Murray the schoolmaster. Gram., p. 31. "Then the king arose, and tare his garments."—2 Sam., xiii, 31. "When he lift up his foot, he knew not where he should set it next."—Bunyan. "He lift up his spear against eight hundred, whom he slew at one time."—2 SAM.: in Joh. Dict. "Upon this chaos rid the distressed ark."—BURNET: ib. "On whose foolish honesty, my practices rid easy."—SHAK.: ib. "That form of the first or primogenial Earth, which rise immediately out of chaos."—BURNET: ib. "Sir, how come it you have holp to make this rescue?"—SHAK.: in Joh. Dict. "He sware he had rather lose all his father's images than that table."—PEACHAM: ib. "When our language dropt its ancient terminations."—Dr. Murray's Hist., ii, 5. "When themselves they vilify'd."—Milton, P. L., xi, 515. "But I choosed rather to do thus."—Barclay's Works, i, 456. "When he plead against the parsons."— School History, p. 168. "And he that saw it, bear record."—Cutler's Gram., p. 72. "An irregular verb has one more variation, as drive, drivest, drives, drivedst, drove, driving, driven."—REV. MATT. HARRISON, on the English Language, p. 260. "Beside that village Hannibal pitcht his camp."—Walker's Particles, p. 79. "He fetcht it even from Tmolus."— Ib., p. 114. "He supt with his morning gown on."—Ib., p. 285. "There stampt her sacred name."—Barlow's Columbiad, B. i, l. 233.

   "Fixt on the view the great discoverer stood,
    And thus addrest the messenger of good."—Barlow, B, i, l. 658.

LESSON II.—MIXED.

"Three freemen were being tried at the date of our last information."—Newspaper.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the participle being is used after its own verb were. But, according to Observation 4th, on the compound form of the conjugation, this complex passive form is an absurd innovation. Therefore, the expression should be changed; thus, "Three freemen were on trial"—or, "were receiving their trial—at the date of our last information."]

"While the house was being built, many of the tribe arrived."—Ross Cox's Travels, p. 102. "But a foundation has been laid in Zion, and the church is being built upon it."—The Friend, ix, 377. "And one fourth of the people are being educated."—East India Magazine. "The present, or that which is now being done."—Beck's Gram., p. 13. "A new church, called the Pantheon, is just being completed in an expensive style."—G. A. Thompson's Guatemala, p. 467. "When I last saw him, he was grown considerably."—Murray's Key, p. 223; Merchants, 198. "I know what a rugged and dangerous path I am got into."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 83. "You were as good preach case to one on the rack."—Locke's Essay, p. 285. "Thou hast heard me, and art become my salvation."—Psal., cxviii, 21. "While the Elementary Spelling-Book was being prepared for the press."—L. Cobb's Review, p. vi. "Language is become, in modern times, more correct and accurate."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 16. "If the plan have been executed in any measure answerable to the author's wishes."—Robbins's Hist., p. 3. "The vial of wrath is still being poured out on the seat of the beast."—Christian Experience, p. 409. "Christianity was become the generally adopted and established religion of the whole Roman Empire."—Gurney's Essays, p. 35. "Who wrote before the first century was elapsed."—Ib., p. 13. "The original and analogical form is grown quite obsolete."—Lowth's Gram., p. 56. "Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, are perished."—Murray's Gram., i, 149. "The poems were got abroad and in a great many hands."—Pref. to Waller. "It is more harmonious, as well as more correct, to say, 'the bubble is almost bursted.'"—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 109. "I drave my suitor from his mad humour of love."—Shak. "Se viriliter expedivit. (Cicero.) He hath plaid the man."—Walker's Particles, p. 214. "Wilt thou kill me, as thou diddest the Egyptian yesterday."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Acts, vii, 28. "And we, methoughts, look'd up t'him from our hill."—Cowley's Davideis, B. iii, l. 386. "I fear thou doest not think as much of best things as thou oughtest."—Memoir of M. C. Thomas, p. 34. "When this work was being commenced."—Wright's Gram., p. 10. "Exercises and Key to this work are being prepared."—Ib., p. 12. "James is loved, or being loved by John."—Ib., p. 64. "Or that which is being exhibited."—Ib., p. 77. "He was being smitten."—Ib., p. 78. "In the passive state we say, 'I am being loved.'"—Ib., p. 80. "Subjunctive Mood: If I am being smitten, If thou art being smitten, If he is being smitten."—Ib., p. 100. "I will not be able to convince you how superficial the reformation is."—Chalmers's Sermons, p. 88. "I said to myself, I will be obliged to expose the folly."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 3. "When Clodius, had he meant to return that day to Rome, must have been arrived."—Adams's Rhetoric, i, 418. "That the fact has been done, is being done, or shall or will be done."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., pp. 347 and 356. "Am I being instructed?"—Wright's Gram., p. 70. "I am choosing him."—Ib., p. 112. "John, who was respecting his father, was obedient to his commands."—Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 69. "The region echos to the clash of arms."—Beattie's Poems, p. 63.

   "And sitt'st on high, and mak'st creation's top
    Thy footstool; and behold'st below thee, all."
        —Pollok, B. vi, l. 663.

    "And see if thou can'st punish sin, and let
    Mankind go free. Thou fail'st—be not surprised."
        —Id., B. ii, l. 118.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"What follows, had better been wanting altogether."—Blair's Rhet., p. 201.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrase had better been, is used in the sense of the potential pluperfect. But, according to Observation 17th, on the conjugations, this substitution of one form for another is of questionable propriety. Therefore, the regular form should here be preferred; thus, "What follows, might better have been wanting altogether."]

"This member of the sentence had much better have been omitted altogether."—Ib., p. 212. "One or [the] other of them, therefore, had better have been omitted."—Ib., p. 212. "The whole of this last member of the sentence had better have been dropped."—Ib., p. 112. "In this case, they had much better be omitted."—Ib., p. 173. "He had better have said, 'the productions'"—Ib., p. 220. "The Greeks have ascribed the origin of poetry to Orpheus, Linus, and Musæus."—Ib., p. 377. "It has been noticed long ago, that all these fictitious names have the same number of syllables."—Phil. Museum, i, 471. "When I found that he had committed nothing worthy of death, I have determined to send him."—Acts, xxv, 25. "I had rather be a door-keeper in the house of my God."—Ps., lxxxiv, 10. "As for such, I wish the Lord open their eyes."—Barclay's Works, iii. 263. "It would a made our passidge over the river very difficult."— Walley, in 1692. "We should not a been able to have carried our great guns."—Id. "Others would a questioned our prudence, if wee had."—Id. See Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 478. "Beware thou bee'st not BECÆSAR'D; i.e. Beware that thou dost not dwindle into a mere Cæsar."—Harris's Hermes, p. 183. "Thou raisedest thy voice to record the stratagems of needy heroes."—ARBUTHNOT: in Joh. Dict., w. Scalade. "Life hurrys off apace: thine is almost up already."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 19. "'How unfortunate has this accident made me!' crys such a one."—Ib., p. 60. "The muse that soft and sickly wooes the ear."—Pollok, i, 13. "A man were better relate himself to a statue."—Bacon. "I heard thee say but now, thou lik'dst not that."—Shak. "In my whole course of wooing, thou cried'st, Indeed!"—Id. "But our ears are grown familiar with I have wrote, I have drank, &c., which are altogether as ungrammatical."— Lowth's Gram., p. 63; Churchill's, 114. "The court was sat before Sir Roger came."—Addison, Spect., No. 122. "She need be no more with the jaundice possest."—Swift's Poems, p. 346. "Besides, you found fault with our victuals one day that you was here."—Ib., p. 333. "If spirit of other sort, So minded, have o'erleap'd these earthy bounds."—Milton, P. L., B. iv, l. 582. "It should have been more rational to have forborn this."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 265. "A student is not master of it till he have seen all these."—Dr. Murray's Life, p. 55. "The said justice shall summons the party."—Brevard's Digest. "Now what is become of thy former wit and humour?"—Spect., No. 532. "Young stranger, whither wand'rest thou?"—Burns, p. 29. "SUBJ.: Pres. If I love, If thou lovest, If he love. Imp. If I loved, If thou lovedst, If he loved."—Merchant's Gram., p. 51. "SUBJ.: If I do not love, If thou dost not love, If he does not love;" &c.—Ib., p. 56. "If he have committed sins, they shall be forgiven him."—James, v, 15. "Subjunctive Mood of the verb to call, second person singular: If Thou callest. If Thou calledst. If Thou hast called. If Thou hadst called. If Thou call. If Thou shalt or wilt have called."—Hiley's Gram., p. 41. "Subjunctive Mood of the verb to love, second person singular: If thou love. If thou do love. If thou lovedst. If thou didst love. If thou hast loved. If thou hadst loved. If thou shalt or wilt love. If thou shalt or wilt have loved."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 46. "I was; thou wast, or you was; he, she, or it was: We, you or ye, they, were."—White, on the English Verb, p. 51. "I taught, thou taughtedst, he taught."—Coar's English Gram., p. 66. "We say, if it rains, suppose it rains, lest it should rain, unless it rains. This manner of speaking is called the SUBJUNCTIVE mode."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 72; Abridged Ed., 59. "He is arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood."—Priestley's Gram., 163. "He had much better have let it alone."—Tooke's Diversions, i, 43. "He were better be without it."—Locke, on Education, p. 105. "Hadest not thou been by."—Beauties of Shak., p. 107. "I learned geography. Thou learnedest arithmetick. He learned grammar."—Fuller's Gram., p. 34. "Till the sound is ceased."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 126. "Present, die; Preterit, died; Perf. Participle, dead."—British Gram., p. 158; Buchanan's, 58; Priestley's, 48; Ash's, 45; Fisher's, 71; Bicknell's, 73.

   "Thou bowed'st thy glorious head to none, feared'st none."
        —Pollok, B. viii, l. 603.

   "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it."
        —N. A. Reader, p. 320.

   "As once thou slept'st, while she to life was form'd"
        —Milt., P. L., B. xi, l. 369.

   "Who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest,
    But may imagine how the bird was dead?"
        —SHAK.: Joh. Dict.

   "Which might have well becom'd the best of men."
        —Id., Ant. and Cleop.

CHAPTER VII.—PARTICIPLES.

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb: thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very essence in motion, or the privation of motion—in acting, or ceasing to act. And to all motion and rest, time and place are necessary concomitants; nor are the ideas of degree and manner often irrelevant. Hence the use of tenses and of adverbs. For whatsoever comes to pass, must come to pass sometime and somewhere; and, in every event, something must be affected somewhat and somehow. Hence it is evident that those grammarians are right, who say, that "all participles imply time." But it does not follow, that the English participles divide time, like the tenses of a verb, and specify the period of action; on the contrary, it is certain and manifest, that they do not. The phrase, "men labouring," conveys no other idea than that of labourers at work; it no more suggests the time, than the place, degree, or manner, of their work. All these circumstances require other words to express them; as, "Men now here awkwardly labouring much to little purpose." Again: "Thenceforward will men, there labouring hard and honourably, be looked down upon by dronish lordlings."

OBS. 2.—Participles retain the essential meaning of their verbs; and, like verbs, are either active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, or neuter, in their signification. For this reason, many have classed them with the verbs. But their formal meaning is obviously different. They convey no affirmation, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, like adjectives, except when they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses of their verbs; or when they have in part the nature of substantives, like the Latin gerunds. Hence some have injudiciously ranked them with the adjectives. The most discreet writers have commonly assigned them a separate place among the parts of speech; because, in spite of all opposite usages, experience has shown that it is expedient to do so.

OBS. 3.—According to the doctrine of Harris, all words denoting the attributes of things, are either verbs, or participles, or adjectives. Some attributes have their essence in motion: as, to walk, to run, to fly, to strike, to live; or, walking, running, flying, striking, living. Others have it in the privation of motion: as, to stop, to rest, to cease, to die; or, stopping, resting, ceasing, dying. And there are others which have nothing to do with either motion or its privation; but have their essence in the quantity, quality, or situation of things; as, great and small, white and black, wise and foolish, eastern and western. These last terms are adjectives; and those which denote motion or its privation, are either verbs or participles, according to their formal meaning; that is, according to their manner of attribution. See Hermes, p. 95. Verbs commonly say or affirm something of their subjects; as, "The babe wept." Participles suggest the action or attribute without affirmation; as, "A babe weeping,"—"An act regretted."

OBS. 4.—A verb, then, being expressive of some attribute, which it ascribes to the thing or person named as its subject; of time, which it divides and specifies by the tenses; and also, (with the exception of the infinitive,) of an assertion or affirmation; if we take away the affirmation and the distinction of tenses, there will remain the attribute and the general notion of time; and these form the essence of an English participle. So that a participle is something less than a verb, though derived immediately from it; and something more than an adjective, or mere attribute, though its manner of attribution is commonly the same. Hence, though the participle by rejecting the idea of time may pass almost insensibly into an adjective, and become truly a participial adjective; yet the participle and the adjective are by no means one and the same part of speech, as some will have them to be. There is always an essential difference in their meaning. For instance: there is a difference between a thinking man and a man thinking; between a bragging fellow and a fellow bragging; between a fast-sailing ship and a ship sailing fast. A thinking man, a bragging fellow, or a fast-sailing ship, is contemplated as being habitually or permanently such; a man thinking, a fellow bragging, or a ship sailing fast, is contemplated as performing a particular act; and this must embrace a period of time, whether that time be specified or not. John Locke was a thinking man; but we should directly contradict his own doctrine, to suppose him always thinking.

OBS. 5.—The English participles are all derived from the roots of their respective verbs, and do not, like those of some other languages, take their names from the tenses. On the contrary, they are reckoned among the principal parts in the conjugation of their verbs, and many of the tenses are formed from them. In the compound forms of conjugation, they are found alike in all the tenses. They do not therefore, of themselves, express any particular time; but they denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to its progress or completion. This I conceive to be their principal distinction. Respecting the participles in Latin, it has been matter of dispute, whether those which are called the present and the perfect, are really so in respect to time or not. Sanctius denies it. In Greek, the distinction of tenses in the participles is more apparent, yet even here the time to which they refer, does not always correspond to their names. See remarks on the Participles in the Port Royal Latin and Greek Grammars.

OBS. 6.—Horne Tooke supposes our participles in ed to express time past, and those in ing to have no signification of time. He says, "I did not mean to deny the adsignification of time to all the participles; though I continue to withhold it from that which is called the participle present."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 415. Upon the same point, he afterwards adds, "I am neither new nor singular; for Sanctius both asserted and proved it by numerous instances in the Latin. Such as, 'Et abfui proficiscens in Græciam.' Cicero. 'Sed postquam amans accessit pretium pollicens.' Terent. 'Ultro ad cam venies indicans te amare.' Terent. 'Turnum fugientem hæc terra videbit.' Virg."—Tooke's Div., ii, 420. Again: "And thus I have given you my opinion concerning what is called the present participle. Which I think improperly so called; because I take it to be merely the simple verb adjectived, without any adsignification of manner or time."—Tooke's Div., Vol. ii, p. 423.

OBS. 7.—I do not agree with this author, either in limiting participles in ed to time past, or in denying all signification of time to those in ing; but I admit that what is commonly called the present participle, is not very properly so denominated, either in English or in Latin, or perhaps in any language. With us, however, this participle is certainly, in very many instances, something else than "merely the simple verb adjectived." For, in the first place, it is often of a complex character, as being loved, being seen, in which two verbs are "adjectived" together, and that by different terminations. Yet do these words as perfectly coalesce in respect to time, as to everything else; and being loved or being seen is confessedly as much a "present" participle, as being, or loving, or seeing—neither form being solely confined to what now is. Again, our participle in ing stands not only for the present participle of the Latin or Greek grammarians, but also for the Latin gerund, and often for the Greek infinitive used substantively; so that by this ending, the English verb is not only adjectived, but also substantived, if one may so speak. For the participle when governed by a preposition, partakes not of the qualities "of a verb and an adjective," but rather of those of a verb and a noun.

CLASSES.

English verbs, not defective, have severally three participles;[301] which have been very variously denominated, perhaps the most accurately thus: the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may he conveniently called the First, the Second, and the Third.

I. The Imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion: as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating.

II. The Perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion: as, been, acted, ruled, loved, defended, terminated.

III. The Preperfect participle is that which takes the sign having, and implies a previous completion of the being, action, or passion: as, having loved, having seen, having written; having been loved, having been writing, having been written.

The First or Imperfect Participle, when simple, is always formed by adding ing to the radical verb; as, look, looking: when compound, it is formed by prefixing being to some other simple participle; as, being reading, being read, being completed.

The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical verb: those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, are either irregular or redundant.

The Third or Preperfect Participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, when the compound is double, and having been to the perfect or the imperfect, when the compound is triple: as, having spoken, having been spoken, having been speaking.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Some have supposed that both the simple participles denote present time; some have supposed that the one denotes present, and the other, past time; some have supposed that the first denotes no time, and the second time past; some have supposed that neither has any regard to time; and some have supposed that both are of all times. In regard to the distinction of voice, or the manner of their signification, some have supposed the one to be active, and the other to be passive; some have supposed the participle in ing to be active or neuter, and the other active or passive; and some have supposed that either of them may be active, passive, or neuter. Nor is there any more unanimity among grammarians, in respect to the compounds. Hence several different names have been loosely given to each of the participles: and sometimes with manifest impropriety; as when Buchanan, in his conjugations, calls being, "Active,"—and been, having been, having had, "Passive." Learned men may differ in opinion respecting the nature of words, but grammar can never well deserve the name of science, till at least an ordinary share of reason and knowledge appears in the language of those who teach it.

OBS. 2.—The FIRST participle has been called the Present, the Progressive, the Imperfect, the Simple Imperfect, the Indefinite, the Active, the Present Active, the Present Passive, the Present Neuter, and, in the passive voice, the Preterimperfcct, the Compound Imperfect, the Compound Passive, the Passive. The SECOND, which, though it is always but one word, some authors treat as being two participles, or three, has been called the Perfect, the Preter, the Preterperfect, the Imperfect, the Simple Perfect, the Past, the Simple Past, the First Past, the Preterit, the Passive, the Present Passive, the Perfect Active, the Past Active, the Auxiliary Perfect, the Perfect Passive, the Perfect Neuter, the Simple Perfect Active, the Simple Perfect Passive. The THIRD has been called the Compound, the Compound Active, the Compound Passive, the Compound Perfect, the Compound Perfect Active, the Compound Perfect Passive, the Compound Preter, the Present, the Present Perfect, the Past, the Second Past, the Past Compound, the Compound Past, the Prior-perfect, the Prior-present, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Preterperfect, the Preperfect.[302]

In teaching others to speak and write well, it becomes us to express our doctrines in the most suitable terms; but the application of a name is of no great consequence, so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the learner. Grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain, clear and brief. Upon the choice of his terms, the writer of this work has bestowed much reflection; yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody, or to explain, without intolerable prolixity, all the reasons for preference.

OBS. 3.—The participle in ing represents the action or state as continuing and ever incomplete; it is therefore rightly termed the IMPERFECT participle: whereas the participle in ed always, or at least usually, has reference to the action as done and complete; and is, by proper contradistinction, called the PERFECT participle. It is hardly necessary to add, that the terms perfect and imperfect, as thus applied to the English participles, have no reference to time, or to those tenses of the verb which are usually (but not very accurately) named by these epithets. The terms present and past, which some still prefer to imperfect and perfect, do denote time, and are in a kind of oblique contradistinction; but how well they apply to the participles, may be seen by the following texts: "God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself."—"We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God."—ST. PAUL: 2 Cor., v, 19, 20. Here reconciling refers to the death of Christ, and reconciled, to the desired conversion of the Corinthians; and if we call the former a present participle, and the latter a past, (as do Bullions, Burn, Clark, Felton, S. S. Greene, Lennie, Pinneo, and perhaps others,) we nominally reverse the order of time in respect to the events, and egregiously misapply both terms.

OBS. 4.—Though the participle in ing has, by many, been called the Present participle, it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time; otherwise, such expressions as, "I had been writing,"—"I shall be writing," would be solecisms. It has also been called, almost as frequently, the Active participle. But it is not always active, even when derived from an active verb; for such expressions as, "The goods are selling,"—"The ships are now building," are in use, and not without good authority: as, "And hope to allay, by rational discourse, the pains of his joints tearing asunder."—Locke's Essay, p. 285. "Insensible of the designs now forming by Philip."—Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 48. "The improved edition now publishing."—BP. HALIFAX: Pref. to Butler. "The present tense expresses an action now doing."—Emmons's Gram., p. 40. The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or passion; it is therefore properly denominated the IMPERFECT participle. If the term were applied with reference to time, it would be no more objectionable than the word present, and would be equally supported by the usage of the Greek linguists. I am no more inclined to "innovation," than are the pedants who, for the choice here made, have ignorantly brought the false charge against me. This name, authorized by Beattie and Pickbourn, is approved by Lindley Murray,[303] and adopted by several of the more recent grammarians. See the works of Dr. Crombie, J. Grant, T. O. Churchill, R. Hiley, B. H. Smart, M. Harrison, and W. G. Lewis, published in London; and J. M. M'Culloch's Grammar, published in Edinburgh; also some American grammars, as E. Hazen's, N. Butler's, D. B. Tower's, W. H. Wells's, the Sanderses'.

OBS. 5.—The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, usually denotes a completion of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated the PERFECT participle. But this completion may be spoken of as present, past, or future; for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes no distinction of time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. The conjugation of any passive verb, is a sufficient proof of all this: nor is the proof invalidated by resolving verbs of this kind into their component parts. Of the participles in ed applied to present time, the following is an example: "Such a course would be less likely to produce injury to health, than the present course pursued at our colleges."—Literary Convention, p. 118. Tooke's notion of grammatical time, appears to have been in several respects a strange one: he accords with those who call this a past participle, and denies to the other not only the name and notion of a tense, but even the general idea of time. In speaking of the old participial termination and or ende,[304] which our Anglo-Saxon ancestors used where we write ing, he says, "I do not allow that there are any present participles, or any present tense of the verb." [305]—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 41.

OBS. 6.—The Perfect participle of transitive verbs, being used in the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the Passive participle. It usually has in itself a passive signification, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, "I have written a letter," and, "I have a letter written;" the former being equivalent to Scripsi literas, and the latter to Sunt mihi literæ scriptæ. But there are many perfect participles which cannot with any propriety be called passive. Such are all those which come from intransitive or neuter verbs; and also those which so often occur in the tenses of verbs not passive. I have already noticed some instances of this misnomer; and it is better to preclude it altogether, by adhering to the true name of this Participle, THE PERFECT. Nor is that entirely true which some assert, "that this participle in the active is only found in combination;" that, "Whenever it stands alone to be parsed as a participle, it is passive."—Hart's English Gram., p. 75. See also Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 77; and Greene's Analysis, or Gram., p. 225. "Rebelled," in the following examples, cannot with any propriety be called a passive participle:

   "Rebelled, did I not send them terms of peace,
    Which not my justice, but my mercy asked?"—Pollok, x, 253.

    "Arm'd with thy might, rid Heav'n of these rebell'd,
    To their prepar'd ill mansion driven down."—Milton, vi, 737.

OBS. 7.—The third participle has most generally been called the Compound, or the Compound perfect. The latter of these terms seems to be rather objectionable on account of its length; and against the former it may be urged that, in the compound forms of conjugation, the first or imperfect participle is a compound: as, being writing, being seen. Dr. Adam calls having loved the perfect participle active, which he says must be rendered in Latin by the pluperfect of the subjunctive; as, he having loved, quum amavisset; (Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 140;) but it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb to love, whether active or passive, is the simple word loved, and not this compound. Dr. Adam, in fact, if he denies this, only contradicts himself; for, in his paradigms of the English Active Voice, he gives the participles as two only, and both simple, thus: "Present, Loving; Perfect, Loved:"—"Present, Having; Perfect, Had." So of the Neuter Verb: "Present, Being; Perfect, Been."—Ib., pp. 81 and 82. His scheme of either names or forms is no model of accuracy. On the very next page, unless there is a misprint in several editions, he calls the Second participle the "imperfect;" saying, "The whole of the passive voice in English is formed by the auxiliary verb to be, and the participle imperfect; as, I am loved, I was loved, &c." Further: "In many verbs," he adds, "the present participle also is used in a passive sense; as, These things are doing, were doing, &c.; The house is building, was building, &c."—Ib., p. 83. N. Butler, in his Practical Grammar, of 1845, names, and counts, and orders, the participles very oddly: "Every verb," he says, "has two participles—the imperfect and the perfect."—P. 78. Yet, for the verb love, he finds these six: two "IMPERFECT, Loving and Being loved;" two "PERFECT, Having loved, and Having been loved;" one "AUXILIARY PERFECT, Loved," of the "Active Voice;" and one "PASSIVE, Loved," of the "Passive Voice." Many old writers erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active, and the participle in ed or en as always passive; and some, among whom is Buchanan, making no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound having loved, place the latter with the former, and call it passive also. The absurdity of this is manifest: for having loved or having seen is active; having been or having sat is neuter; and having been loved or having been seen is passive. Again, the triple compound, having been writing, is active; and having been sitting is neuter; but if one speak of goods as having been selling low, a similar compound is passive.

OBS. 8.—Now all the compound participles which begin with having are essentially alike; and, as a class of terms, they ought to have a name adapted to their nature, and expressive of their leading characteristic. Having loved differs from the simple participle loved, in signification as well as in form; and, if this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, there is no more suitable term for it than the epithet PREPERFECT,—a word which explains itself, like prepaid or prerequisite. Of the many other names, the most correct one is PLUPERFECT,—which is a term of very nearly the same meaning. Not because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense, but because it always denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before the doing or being of something else; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb; as, "Having explained her views, it was necessary she should expatiate on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 181. Here having explained is exactly equivalent to when she had explained. Again: "I may say, He had commanded, and we obeyed; or, He having commanded, we obeyed."—Fetch's Comprehensive Gram., p. ix. Here the two phrases in Italics correspond in import, though not in construction.

OBS. 9.—Pluperfect is a derivative contracted from the Latin plusquam-perfectum, and literally signifies more than complete, or beyond the perfect; i. e., (as confirmed by use,) antecedently finished, or completed before. It is the usual name of our fourth tense; is likewise applicable to a corresponding tense in other tongues; and is a word familiar to every scholar. Yet several grammarians,—too ready, perhaps, for innovation,—have shown their willingness to discard it altogether. Bullions, Butler, Hiley, Perley, Wells, and some others, call the English pluperfect tense, the past-perfect, and understand either epithet to mean—"completed at or before a certain past time;" (Bullions's E. Gram., p. 39;) that is—"finished or past, at some past time."—Butler's Pract. Gram., p. 72. The relation of the tense is before the past, but the epithet pluperfect is not necessarily limited to this relation, any more than what is perfect is necessarily past. Butler has urged, that, "Pluperfect does not mean completed before," but is only "a technical name of a particular tense;" and, arguing from this erroneous assumption, has convinced himself, "It would be as correct to call this the second future participle, as the pluperfect."—Ib., p. 79. The technical name, as limited to the past, is preterpluperfect, from the older term præteritum plusquam perfectum; so preterperfect, from præteritum perfectum, i. e. past perfect, is the name of an other tense, now called the perfect: wherefore the substitution of past-perfect for pluperfect is the less to be commended. There may be a convenience in having the name of the tense to differ from that of the participle, and this alone induces me to prefer preperfect to pluperfect for the name of the latter.

OBS. 10.—From the participle in ed or en, we form three tenses, which the above-named authors call perfect;—"the present-perfect, the past-perfect, and the future-perfect;"—as, have seen, had seen, will have seen. Now it is, doubtless, the participle, that gives to these their perfectness; while diversity in the auxiliaries makes their difference of time. Yet it is assumed by Butler, that, in general, the simple participle in ed or en, "does not denote an action done and completed," and is not to be called perfect; (p. 80;)—that, "If we wish to express by a participle, an action completed at any time, we use the compound form, and this is THE perfect participle;" (p. 79;)—that, "The characteristic of the participle in ed is, that it implies the reception of an action;" (p. 79;)—that, hence, it should be called the passive, though it "is usually called the perfect participle;" (p. 79;)—that, "The use of this participle in the perfect tenses of the active voice should not be taken into consideration in giving it a name or a definition;" (p. 80;)—that its active, neuter, or intransitive use is not a primitive idiom of the language, but the result of a gradual change of the term from the passive to the active voice; (p. 80;)—that, "the participle has changed its mode of signification, so that, instead of being passive, it is now active in sense;" (p. 105;)—that, "having changed its original meaning so entirely, it should not be considered the same participle;" (p. 78;)—that, "in such cases, it is a perfect participle," and, "for the sake of distinction [,] this may be called the auxiliary perfect participle."—Ib. These speculations I briefly throw before the reader, without designing much comment upon them. It will be perceived that they are, in several respects, contradictory one to an other. The author himself names the participle in reference to a usage which he says, "should not be taken into consideration;" and names it absurdly too; for he calls that "the auxiliary," which is manifestly the principal term. He also identifies as one what he professes to distinguish as two.

OBS. 11.—Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before nouns to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of participial adjectives. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives, under the following circumstances: 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state; as, "A lying rogue,"—i.e., one that is addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison; as, "A more learned man." 3. When they are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb; as, "unfeeling, unfelt:" there is no verb to unfeel, therefore these words cannot be participles. Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns; participles, after them. The words beginning with un, in the following lines may be classed with participial adjectives:

   "No king, no subject was; unscutcheoned all;
    Uncrowned, unplumed, unhelmed, unpedigreed;
    Unlaced, uncoroneted, unbestarred."
        —Pollok, C. of T., B. viii, l. 89.

OBS. 12.—Participles in ing often become nouns. When preceded by an article, an adjective or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they are construed as nouns; and, if wholly such, have neither adverbs nor active regimen: as, "He laugheth at the shaking of a spear."—Job, xli, 29. "There is no searching of his understanding."—Isaiah, xl, 28. "In their setting of their threshold by ray threshold."—Ezekiel, xliii, 8. "That any man should make my glorying void."—1 Cor., ix, 15. The terms so converted form the class of verbal or participial nouns. But some late authors—(J. S. Hart, S. S. Greene, W. H. Wells, and others—) have given the name of participial nouns to many participles,—such participles, often, as retain all their verbal properties and adjuncts, and merely partake of some syntactical resemblance to nouns. Now, since the chief characteristics of such words are from the verb, and are incompatible with the specific nature of a noun, it is clearly improper to call them nouns. There are, in the popular use of participles, certain mixed constructions which are reprehensible; yet it is the peculiar nature of a participle, to participate the properties of other parts of speech,—of the verb and adjective,—of the verb and noun,—or sometimes, perhaps, of all three. A participle immediately preceded by a preposition, is not converted into a noun, but remains a participle, and therefore retains its adverb, and also its government of the objective case; as, "I thank you for helping him so seasonably." Participles in this construction correspond with the Latin gerund, and are sometimes called gerundives.

OBS. 13.—To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the learner should observe the following four things: 1. Nouns take articles and adjectives before them; participles, as such, do not. 2. Nouns may govern the possessive case before them, but not the objective after them; participles may govern the objective case, but not so properly the possessive. 3. Nouns, if they have adverbs, require the hyphen; participles take adverbs separately, as do their verbs. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things, and are sometimes declined like other nouns; participles usually refer actions to their agents or recipients, and have in English no grammatical modifications of any kind.

OBS. 14.—To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same form, observe the sense, and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it: thus, loved for being loved, is a participle; but loved for did love, is a preterit verb. So held for did hold, stung for did sting, taught for did teach, and the like, are irregular verbs; but held for being held, stung for being stung, taught for being taught, and the like, are perfect participles.

OBS. 15.—Though the English participles have no inflections, and are consequently incapable of any grammatical agreement or disagreement, those which are simple, are sometimes elegantly taken in a plural sense, with the apparent construction of nouns; but, under these circumstances, they are in reality neither nouns nor participles, but participial adjectives construed elliptically, as other adjectives often are, and relating to plural nouns understood. The ellipsis is sometimes of a singular noun, though very rarely, and much less properly. Examples: "To them who are the called according to his purpose."—Rom., x, 28. That is—"the called ones or persons." "God is not the God of the dead, but of the living."—Matt., xxii, 32. "Neither is it found in the land of the living."—Job, xxviii, 13. "The living, the living, he shall praise thee, as I do this day."—Isaiah, xxxviii, 19. "Till we are made fit to live and reign with him and all his redeemed, in the heavenly glory forever."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 18.

   "Ye blessed of my Father, come, ye just,
    Enter the joy eternal of your Lord."—Pollok, B. x, l. 591.

    "Depart from me, ye cursed, into the fire
    Prepared eternal in the gulf of Hell."—Id., B. x, l. 449.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS VII.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Seventh Praxis it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, and PARTICIPLES.

The definitions to be given in the Seventh Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle,—and one for an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it."

Religion is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Rightly is an adverb. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner.

Understood is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, understand, understood, understanding, understood. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. 2. The perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion.

And is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction, is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Practised is a perfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, practise, practised, practising, practised. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. 2. The perfect participle is that which ends commonly in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, or passion.

Has is an irregular active-transitive verb, from have, had, having, had; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Purest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree; compared regularly, pure, purer, purest. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

All is a pronominal adjective, not compared. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun or represent it understood. 3. Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees, cannot be compared.

Joys is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Attending is an imperfect participle, from the regular active-transitive verb, attend, attended, attending, attended. 1. A participle is a word derived from a verb, participating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a noun; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb. 2. The imperfect participle is that which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion.

It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"A Verb is a word whereby something or other is represented as existing, possessing, acting, or being acted upon, at some particular time, past, present, or future; and this in various manners."—White, on the English Verb, p. 1.

"Error is a savage, lurking about on the twilight borders of the circle illuminated by truth, ready to rush in and take possession, the moment her lamp grows dim."—Beecher.

"The science of criticism may be considered as a middle link, connecting the different parts of education into a regular chain."—Ld. Kames, El. of Crit., p. xxii.

"When I see a man walking, a tree growing, or cattle grazing, I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be. Nature determines us to rely on the veracity of our senses; for otherwise they could not in any degree answer their end, that of laying open things existing and passing around us."—Id., ib., i, 85.

"But, advancing farther in life, and inured by degrees to the crooked ways of men; pressing through the crowd, and the bustle of the world; obliged to contend with this man's craft, and that man's scorn; accustomed, sometimes, to conceal their sentiments, and often to stifle their feelings; they become at last hardened in heart, and familiar with corruption."—BLAIR: Murray's Sequel, p. 140.

   "Laugh'd at, he laughs again; and stricken hard,
    Turns to his stroke his adamantine scales,
    That fear no discipline of human hands."—Cowper's Task, p. 47.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"Thus shame and remorse united in the ungrateful person, and indignation united with hatred in the hearts of others, are the punishments provided by nature for injustice."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 288.

"Viewing man as under the influence of novelty, would one suspect that custom also should influence him?—Human nature, diversified with many and various springs of action, is wonderfully, and, indulging the expression, intricately constructed."—Id., ib., i, 325.

"Dryden frequently introduces three or four persons speaking upon the same subject, each throwing out his own notions separately, without regarding what is said by the rest."—Id., ib., ii, 294.

"Nothing is more studied in Chinese gardens, than to raise wonder and surprise. Sometimes one is led insensibly into a dark cavern, terminating unexpectedly in a landscape enriched with all that nature affords the most delicious."—Id., ib., ii, 334.

"The answer to the objection here implied, is obvious, even on the supposition of the questions put being answered in the affirmative."—Prof. Vethake.

"As birds flying, so will the Lord of hosts defend Jerusalem; defending also, he will deliver it; and, passing over, he will preserve it."—Isaiah, xxxi, 5.

   "Here, by the bonds of nature feebly held,
    Minds combat minds, repelling and repell'd."—Goldsmith.

    "Suffolk first died, and York, all haggled over,
    Comes to him where in gore he lay insteeped."—Shakspeare.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"Every change in the state of things is considered as an effect, indicating the agency, characterizing the kind, and measuring the degree, of its cause."—Dr. Murray, Hist. of En. L., i, 179.

"Having loved his own who were in the world, he loved them unto the end. And supper being ended, (the devil having now put it into the heart of Judas Iscariot, Simon's son, to betray him,) Jesus, knowing that the Father had given all things into his hand, and that he had come from God and was going to God, arose from supper, and laid aside his coat, and, taking a towel, girded himself: then he poured some water into a basin, and began to wash the disciples' feet, and to wipe them with the towel with which he was girded."—See John, xiii.

"Spiritual desertion is naturally and judicially incurred by sin. It is the withdrawal of that divine unction which enriches the acquiescent soul with moral power and pleasure. The subtraction leaves the mind enervated, obscured, confused, degraded, and distracted."—HOMO: N. Y. Observer.

"Giving no offence in any thing, but in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God: as unknown, and yet well known; as dying, and, behold, we live; as chastened, and not killed; as sorrowful, yet always rejoicing; as poor, yet making many rich; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things."—2 Cor., vi.

   "O may th' indulgence of a father's love,
    Pour'd forth on me, be doubled from above."—Young.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS OF PARTICIPLES.

[Fist] [As the principles upon which our participles ought to be formed, were necessarily anticipated in the preceding chapter on verbs, the reader must recur to that chapter for the doctrines by which the following errors are to be corrected. The great length of that chapter seemed a good reason for separating these examples from it, and it was also thought, that such words as are erroneously written for participles, should, for the sake of order, be chiefly noticed in this place. In many of these examples, however, the participle is not really a separate part of speech, but is in fact taken with an auxiliary to form some compound tense of its verb.]

LESSON I.—IRREGULARS.

"Many of your readers have mistook that passage."—Steele, Spect., No. 544.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the preterit verb mistook is here used for the perfect participle. But, according to the table of irregular verbs, we ought to say, mistake, mistook, mistaking, mistaken; after the form of the simple verb, take, took, taking, taken. Therefore, the sentence should be amended thus: "Many of your readers have mistaken that passage."]

"Had not my dog of a steward ran away."—Addison, Spect. "None should be admitted, except he had broke his collar-bone thrice."—Spect., No. 474. "We could not know what was wrote at twenty."—Pref. to Waller. "I have wrote, thou hast wrote, he has wrote; we have wrote, ye have wrote, they have wrote."—Ash's Gram., p. 62. "As if God had spoke his last words there to his people."—Barclay's Works, i, 462. "I had like to have came in that ship myself."—N. Y. Observer, No. 453. "Our ships and vessels being drove out of the harbour by a storm."—Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 470. "He will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have wrote, had he writ in the same language."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., i, 68. "When his doctrines grew too strong to be shook by his enemies."—Atterbury. "The immortal mind that hath forsook Her mansion."—Milton. "Grease that's sweaten from the murderer's gibbet, throw into the flame."—Shak., Macbeth. "The court also was chided for allowing such questions to be put."—Col. Stone, on Freemasonry, p. 470. "He would have spoke."— Milton, P. L., B. x, 1. 517. "Words interwove with sighs found out their way."—Id., ib., i, 621. "Those kings and potentates who have strove."—Id., Eiconoclast, xvii. "That even Silence was took."—Id., Comus, l. 557. "And envious Darkness, ere they could return, had stole them from me."—Id., Comus, 1. 195. "I have chose this perfect man."—Id., P. R., B. i, l. 165. "I will scarce think you have swam in a gondola."—Shak., As You Like It. "The fragrant brier was wove between."—Dryden, Fables. "Then finish what you have began."—Id., Poems, ii, 172. "But now the years a numerous train have ran."—Pope's Odyssey, B. xi, l. 555. "Repeats your verses wrote on glasses."—Prior. "Who by turns have rose."—Id. "Which from great authors I have took."—Id., Alma. "Ev'n there he should have fell."—Id., Solomon.

   "The sun has rose, and gone to bed,
    Just as if Partridge were not dead."—Swift.

    "And though no marriage words are spoke,
    They part not till the ring is broke."—Id., Riddles.

LESSON II.—REGULARS.

"When the word is stript of all the terminations."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of
En. L., i, 319.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the participle stript is terminated in t. But, according to Observation 2d, on the irregular verbs, stript is regular. Therefore, this t should be changed to ed; and the final p should be doubled, according to Rule 3d for Spelling: thus, "When the word is stripped of all the terminations."]

"Forgive him, Tom; his head is crackt."—Swift's Poems, p. 397. "For 'tis the sport, to have the engineer hoist with his own petar."—Hamlet, Act 3. "As great as they are, I was nurst by their mother."—Swift's Poems, p. 310. "If he should now be cry'd down since his change."—Ib., p. 306. "Dipt over head and ears—in debt."—Ib., p. 312. "We see the nation's credit crackt."—Ib., p. 312. "Because they find their pockets pickt."—Ib., p. 338. "O what a pleasure mixt with pain!"—Ib., p. 373. "And only with her Brother linkt."—Ib., p. 387. "Because he ne'er a thought allow'd, That might not be confest."—Ib., p. 361. "My love to Sheelah is more firmly fixt."—Ib., p. 369. "The observations annext to them will be intelligible."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 457. "Those eyes are always fixt on the general principles."—Ib., i, 458. "Laborious conjectures will be banisht from our commentaries."—Ib., i, 459. "Tiridates was dethroned, and Phraates was reestablisht in his stead."—Ib., i, 462. "A Roman who was attacht to Augustus."—Ib., i, 466. "Nor should I have spoken of it, unless Baxter had talkt about two such."—Ib., i, 467. "And the reformers of language have generally rusht on."—Ib., i, 649. "Three centuries and a half had then elapst since the date."—Ib., i, 249. "Of such criteria, as has been remarkt already, there is an abundance."—Ib., i, 261. "The English have surpast every other nation in their services."—Ib., i, 306. "The party addrest is next in dignity to the speaker."—Harris's Hermes, p. 66. "To which we are many times helpt."—Walker's Particles, p. 13. "But for him, I should have lookt well enough to myself."—Ib., p. 88. "Why are you vext, Lady? why do frown?"—Milton, Comus, l. 667. "Obtruding false rules prankt in reason's garb."—Ib., l. 759. "But, like David equipt in Saul's armour, it is encumbered and oppressed."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 378.

   "And when their merchants are blown up, and crackt,
    Whole towns are cast away in storms, and wreckt."
        —Butler, p. 163.

LESSON III.—MIXED.

"The lands are holden in free and common soccage." —Trumbull's Hist, i, 133.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the participle holden is not in that form which present usage authorizes. But, according to the table of irregular verbs, the four parts of the verb to hold, as now used, are hold, held, holding, held. Therefore, holden should be held; thus, "The lands are held in free and common soccage."]

"A stroke is drawed under such words."—Cobbett's E. Grammar, Edition of 1832, ¶ 154. "It is striked even, with a strickle."—Walkers Particles, p. 115. "Whilst I was wandring, without any care, beyond my bounds."—Ib., p. 83. "When one would do something, unless hindred by something present."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 311. "It is used potentially, but not so as to be rendred by these signs."—Ib., p. 320. "Now who would dote upon things hurryed down the stream thus fast?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 89. "Heaven hath timely try'd their growth."—Milton, Comus, l. 970. "O! ye mistook, ye should have snatcht his wand."—Ib., p. 815. "Of true virgin here distrest."—Ib., p. 905. "So that they have at last come to be substitute in the stead of it."—Barclay's Works, i, 339. "Though ye have lien among the pots."—Psal., lxviii, 13. "And, lo, in her mouth was an olive-leaf pluckt off."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: Gen., viii, 11. "Brutus and Cassius Are rid like madmen, through the gates of Rome."—Shak. "He shall be spitted on."—Luke, xviii, 32. "And are not the countries so overflown still situate between the tropics?"—Bentley's Sermons. "Not trickt and frounc't as she was wont, But kercheft in a comely cloud."—Milton, Il Penseroso, l. 123. "To satisfy his rigor, Satisfy'd never."—Id., P. L., B. x, l. 804. "With him there crucify'd."—Id., P. L., B. xii, l. 417. "Th' earth cumber'd, and the wing'd air darkt with plumes."—Id., Comus, l. 730. "And now their way to Earth they had descry'd."—Id., P. L., B. x, l. 325. "Not so thick swarm'd once the soil Bedropt with blood of Gorgon."—Ib., B. x, l. 527. "And in a troubled sea of passion tost."—Ib., B. x, l. 718. "The cause, alas, is quickly guest."—Swift's Poems, p. 404. "The kettle to the top was hoist"—Ib., p. 274. "In chains thy syllables are linkt."—Ib., p. 318. "Rather than thus be overtopt, Would you not wish their laurels cropt?"—Ib., p. 415. "The hyphen, or conjoiner, is a little line, drawed to connect words, or parts of words."—Cobbett's E. Gram., 1832, ¶ 150. "In the other manners of dependence, this general rule is sometimes broke."—Joh. Gram. Com., p. 334. "Some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition prefixt to them."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 66. "Whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of Valerius, would set every body a-laughing."—Walker's Dict. "Being mocked, scourged, spitted on, and crucified."—Gurney's Essays, p. 40.

   "For rhyme in Greece or Rome was never known,
    Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown."—Roscommon.

    "In my own Thames may I be drownded,
    If e'er I stoop beneath a crown'd-head."—Swift.

CHAPTER VIII.—ADVERBS.

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are now here, studying very diligently.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several words: as Now, for at this time;—Here, for in this place;—Very, for in a high degree;—Diligently, for in an industrious manner. Thus the meaning of almost any adverb, may be explained by some phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun.

OBS. 2.—There are several customary combinations of short words, which are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing; as, not at all, at length, in fine, in full, at least, at present, at once, this once, in vain, no doubt, on board. But all words that convey distinct ideas, and rightly retain their individuality, ought to be taken separately in parsing. With the liberty of supposing a few ellipses, an ingenious parser will seldom find occasion to speak of "adverbial phrases." In these instances, length, doubt, fine, and board, are unquestionably nouns; once, too, is used as a noun; full and all may be parsed either as nouns, or as adjectives whose nouns are understood; at least, is, at the least measure; at present, is, at the present time; and in vain, is, in a vain course, or manner.

OBS. 3.—A phrase is a combination of two or more separable parts of speech, the parsing of which of course implies their separation. And though the division of our language into words, and the division of its words into parts of speech, have never yet been made exactly to correspond, it is certainly desirable to bring them as near together as possible. Hence such terms as everywhere, anywhere, nowadays, forever, everso, to-day, to-morrow, by-and-by, inside-out, upside-down, if they are to be parsed simply as adverbs, ought to be compounded, and not written as phrases.

OBS. 4—Under nearly all the different classes of words, some particular instances may be quoted, in which other parts of speech seem to take the nature of adverbs, so as either to become such, or to be apparently used for them. (1.) ARTICLES: "This may appear incredible, but it is not the less true."—Dr. Murray's Hist., i, 337. "The other party was a little coy."—D. Webster. (2.) NOUNS: "And scrutiny became stone[306] blind."—Cowper. "He will come home to-morrow."—Clark. "They were travelling post when he met them."—Murray's Gram., p. 69. "And with a vengeance sent from Media post to Egypt."—Milton, P. L., B. iv, l. 170. "That I should care a groat whether he likes the work or not."—Kirkham. "It has snowed terribly all night, and is vengeance cold."—Swift. (3.) ADJECTIVES: "Drink deep, or taste not."—Pope. "A place wondrous deep."—Webster's Dict. "That fools should be so deep contemplative."—Shak. "A man may speak louder or softer in the same key; when he speaks higher or lower, he changes his key."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 116. (4.) PRONOUNS: "What am I eased?"—Job. "What have I offended thee?"—Gen., xx, 9. "He is somewhat arrogant."—Dryden. (5.) VERBS: "Smack went the whip, round went the wheels."—Cowper. "For then the farmers came jog, jog, along the miry road."—Id. "Crack! went something on deck."—Robinson Crusoe. "Then straight went the yard slap over their noddle."—Arbuthnot. (6.) PARTICIPLES: "Like medicines given scalding hot."—Dodd. "My clothes are almost dripping wet."—"In came Squire South, stark, staring mad."—Arbuthnot. "An exceeding high mountain."—Matt., iv, 8. "How sweet, how passing sweet, the hour to me!"—Ch. Observer. "When we act according to our duty."—Dr. Johnson. "A man was famous according as he had lifted up axes upon the thick trees."—Psal., lxxiv, 5. (7.) CONJUNCTIONS: "Look, as I blow this feather from my face."—Shak. "Not at all, or but very gently."—Locke. "He was but born to try the lot of man."—Pope. (8.) PREPOSITIONS: "They shall go in and out."—Bible. "From going to and fro in the earth, and walking up and down in it."—Ib. These are actually adverbs, and not prepositions, because they govern nothing. (9.) INTERJECTIONS are never used as adverbs, though the Greek grammarians refer them nearly all to this class. The using of other words for adverbs, (i. e., the adverbial use of any words that we do not actually call adverbs,) may be referred to the figure enallage:[307] as,

"Tramp, tramp, across the land they speed, Splash, splash, across the sea."—Burger.

OBS. 5.—As other parts of speech seem sometimes to take the nature of adverbs, so adverbs sometimes, either really or apparently, assume the nature of other parts of speech. (1.) Of NOUNS: as, "A committee is not needed merely to say Yes or No; that will do very little good; the yes or the no must be accompanied and supported by reasons."—Dr. M'Cartee. "Shall I tell you why? Ay, sir, and wherefore; for, they say, every why hath a wherefore."—Shak. (2.) Of ADJECTIVES: as, "Nebuchadnezzar invaded the country, and reduced it to an almost desert."—Wood's Dict., w. Moab. "The then bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty."—Clarendon. "With upward speed his agile wings he spread."—Prior. "She lights the downward heaven, and rises there."—Dryden. (3.) Of PRONOUNS: as, "He liked the ground whereon she trod."—Milton. "Wherein have you been galled by the king?"—Shak. "O how unlike the place from whence they fell!"—Par. Lost, B. i, l. 75. Here whereon is exactly equivalent in sense to on which; wherein, to in what; and whence, to which: but none of them are actually reckoned pronouns. (4.) Of VERBS: as, "If he be hungry, more than wanton, bread alone will down."—Locke. "To down proud hearts that would not willing die."—Sidney. "She never could away with me."—Shak. "Away, and glister like the god of war."—Id. "Up, get ye out of this place."—Gen., xix, 14. (5.) Of CONJUNCTIONS: as, "I, even I, am he."—Isaiah, xliii, 25. "If I will that he tarry till I come."—John, xxi, 22. "I will go and see him before I die."—Gen., xlv, 28. "Before I go whence I shall not return."—Job, x, 21. (6) Of PREPOSITIONS: as, "Superior to any that are dug out the ground."—Eames's Lect., p. 28. "Who act so counter heavenly mercy's plan."—Burns. Better perhaps, "out of" and "counter to." (7.) Of INTERJECTIONS: as, "Up, up, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!"—Scott. "Down, down, cried Mar, your lances down!"—Id. "Off! or I fly for ever from thy sight."—Smith.

OBS. 6.—In these last examples, up, and down, and off, have perhaps as much resemblance to imperative verbs, as to interjections; but they need not be referred to either of these classes, because by supplying a verb we may easily parse them as adverbs. I neither adopt the notion of Horne Tooke, that the same word cannot belong to different parts of speech, nor refer every word to that class to which it may at first sight appear to belong; for both of these methods are impracticable and absurd. The essential nature of each part of speech, and every important peculiarity of its individual terms, it is hoped, will be sufficiently explained in some part or other of this work; but, as the classification of words often depends upon their construction, some explanations that go to determine the parts of speech, must be looked for under the head of Syntax.

OBS. 7.—The proper classification, or subdivision, of adverbs, though it does not appear to have been discovered by any of our earlier grammarians, is certainly very clearly indicated by the meaning and nature of the words themselves. The four important circumstances of any event or assertion, are the when, the where, the how-much, and the how; or the time, the place, the degree, and the manner. These four are the things which we usually express by adverbs. And seldom, if ever, do we find any adverb the notion of which does not correspond to that of sometime, somewhere, somewhat, or somehow. Hence, the general classes of this sort of words ought to be formed under these four heads. The classification heretofore most commonly adopted in English grammar, has every fault which the spirit of awkwardness could possibly give it. The head of it is this: "Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison."—Murray's Gram., p. 115; Comly's, 66; Kirkham's, 86; R. C. Smith's, 34; Hall's, 26; and others.

CLASSES.

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; namely, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of manner. Besides these, it is proper to distinguish the particular class of conjunctive adverbs.

I. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long? How soon? or, How often? including these which ask.

OBS.—Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith.

2. Of time past; as, Already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago, erewhile, erst.

3. Of time to come; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, erelong, shortly.

4. Of time relative; as, When, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles.

5. Of time absolute; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly.

6. Of time repeated; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice, or three times. Above this, we use only the phrases four times, five times, six times, &c. Whether these ought to be reckoned adverbs, or not, is questionable: times, for repetitions, or instances, may be supposed a noun; but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially.

II. Adverbs of place are those which answer to the question, Where?
Whither? Whence? or, Whereabout? including these which ask.

OBS.—Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of place in which; as, Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, whereabouts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts.

2. Of place to which; as, Whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homewards, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards. Inward, homeward, upward, downward, backward, and forward, are also adverbs, as well as adjectives; but some critics, for distinction's sake, choose to use these only as adjectives.

3. Of place from which; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out, off, far, remotely.

4. Of the order of place; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. Thus, secondly means in the second place; thirdly, in the third place; &c. For order, or rank, implies place, though it may consist of relative degrees.

III. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, How much?
How little? or, to the idea of more or less.

OBS.—Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of excess or abundance; as, Much, more, most, too, very, greatly, far, besides; chiefly, principally, mainly, mostly, generally; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely.

2. Of equality or sufficiency; as, Enough, sufficiently, competently, adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly, precisely.

3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, Little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, scantly, scantily merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite.

4. Of quantity in the abstract; as, How, (meaning, in what degree,) however, howsoever, everso, something, anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence, a sou-markee, and other nouns of quantity used adverbially.

IV. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, How? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded.

OBS.—Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows:—

1. Of manner from quality; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly, and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. Ly is a contraction of like; and is the most common termination of English adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but some few of these are also used adverbially; as, daily, weekly, monthly, which denote time.

2. Of affirmation or assent; as, Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, certes, forsooth,[308] amen.

3. Of negation; as, No, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow.

4. Of doubt or uncertainty; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may-be.

5. Of mode or way; as, Thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however, howsoever, like, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, hesitatingly, trippingly, extempore, headlong, lengthwise.

V. Conjunctive adverbs are those which perform the office of conjunctions, and serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circumstance of time, place, degree, or the like. This class embraces a few words not strictly belonging to any of the others: as, (1.) The adverbs of cause; why, wherefore, therefore; but the last two of these are often called conjunctions. (2.) The pronominal compounds; herein, therein, wherein, &c.; in which the former term is a substitute, and virtually governed by the enclitic particle.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses, on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them from others; as, "And they feared when they heard that they were Romans,"—Acts, xvi, 38. Here when is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates equally to feared and to heard. "The right of coming on the shore for their purposes in general, as and when they please."—Holroyd. Here as is a conjunctive adverb of manner, and when, of time; both relating equally to coming and to please.

OBS. 2.—The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs: after, again, also, as, before, besides, consequently, else, ere, even, furthermore, hence, how, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, since, so, still, till, then, thence, therefore, too, until, when, where, wherefore, whither, and while, or whilst.

OBS. 3.—Adverbs of time, place, and manner, are generally connected with verbs or participles; those of degree are more frequently placed before adjectives or adverbs: the latter, however, sometimes denote the measure of actions or effects; as, "And I wept much"—Rev., v, 4. "And Isaac trembled very exceedingly"—Gen., xxvii, 33. "Writers who had felt less, would have said more"—Fuller.

   "Victors and vanquished, in the various field,
    Nor wholly overcome, nor wholly yield."—Dryden.

OBS. 4.—The adverbs here, there, and where, when compounded with prepositions, have the force of pronouns, or of pronominal adjectives: as, Hereby, for by this; thereby, for by that; whereby, for by which, or by what. The prepositions which may be subjoined in this manner, are only the short words, at, by, for, from, in, into, of, on, to, unto, under, upon, and with. Compounds of this kind, although they partake of the nature of pronouns with respect to the nouns going before, are still properly reckoned adverbs, because they relate as such to the verbs which follow them; as, "You take my life, when you do take the means whereby I live."—Shak. Here whereby is a conjunctive adverb, representing means, and relating to the verb live.[309] This mode of expression is now somewhat antiquated, though still frequently used by good authors, and especially by the poets.

OBS. 5—The adverbs, when, where, whither, whence, how, why, wherefore, wherein, whereof, whereby, and other like compounds of where, are sometimes used as interrogatives; but, as such, they still severally belong to the classes under which they are placed in the foregoing distribution, except that words of interrogation are not at the same time connectives. These adverbs, and the three pronouns, who, which, and what, are the only interrogative words in the language; but questions may be asked without any of them, and all have other uses than to ask questions.

OBS. 6.—The conjunctive adverbs, when, where, whither, whence, how, and why, are sometimes so employed as to partake of the nature of pronouns, being used as a sort of special relatives, which refer back to antecedent nouns of time, place, manner, or cause, according to their own respective meanings; yet being adverbs, because they relate as such, to the verbs which follow them: as, "In the day when God shall judge the secrets of men."—Rom., ii, 16. "In a time when thou mayest be found."—Psal., xxxii, 6. "I sought for some time what I at length found here, a place where all real wants might be easily supplied."—Dr. Johnson. "To that part of the mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy."—Id. "At Canterbury, whither some voice had run before."—Wotton. "Look unto the rock whence ye are hewn, and to the hole of the pit whence ye are digged."—Isaiah, li, 1. "We may remark three different sources whence it arises."—Blair's Rhet., p. 163. "I'll tell you a way how you may live your time over again."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 108. "A crude account of the method how they perceive truth."—Harris's Hermes, p. 404. "The order how the Psalter is appointed to be read."—Common Prayer. "In the same reasoning we see the cause, why no substantive is susceptible of these comparative degrees."—Hermes, p. 201. "There seems no reason why it should not work prosperously."—Society in America, p. 68. "There are strong reasons why an extension of her territory would be injurious to her."—Ib. "An other reason why it deserved to be more studied."—Blair's Rhet., p. 123. "The end why God hath ordained faith, is, that his free grace might be glorified."—Goodwin.

OBS. 7.—The direct use of adverbs for pronouns, is often, if not generally, inelegant; and, except the expression may be thereby agreeably shortened, it ought to be considered ungrammatical. The following examples, and perhaps also some of the foregoing, are susceptible of improvement: "Youth is the time, when we are young."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 120. Say rather, "Youth is that part of life which succeeds to childhood." "The boy gave a satisfactory reason why he was tardy."—Ibid. Say rather, "The boy gave a satisfactory reason for his tardiness." "The several sources from whence these pleasures are derived."—Murray's Key, p. 258. Say rather—"sources from which" "In cases where it is only said, that a question has been asked."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 117. Say, "In those cases in which." "To the false rhetoric of the age when he lived."—Harris's Hermes, p. 415. Say rather—"of the age in which he lived."

OBS. 8.—When a conjunctive adverb is equivalent to both an antecedent and a relative, the construction seems to be less objectionable, and the brevity of the expression affords an additional reason for preferring it, especially in poetry: as, "But the Son of man hath not where to lay his head."—Matt., viii, 20. "There might they see whence Po and Ister came."—Hoole's Tasso. "Tell how he formed your shining frame."—Ogilvie. "The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth."—John, iii, 8. In this construction, the adverb is sometimes preceded by a preposition; the noun being, in fact, understood: as,

"Sinks, like a sea-weed, into whence she rose."—Byron.

"Here Machiavelli's earth return'd to whence it rose."—Id.

OBS. 9.—The conjunctive adverb so, very often expresses the sense of some word or phrase going before; as, "Wheresoever the speech is corrupted, so is the mind."—Seneca's Morals, p. 267. That is, the mind is also corrupted. "I consider grandeur and sublimity, as terms synonymous, or nearly so."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29. The following sentence is grossly wrong, because the import of this adverb was not well observed by the writer: "We have now come to far the most complicated part of speech; and one which is sometimes rendered still more so, than the nature of our language requires."—Nutting's Gram., p. 38. So, in some instances, repeats the import of a preceding noun, and consequently partakes the nature of a pronoun; as,

   "We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow;
    Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so."—Pope, on Crit.

OBS. 10.—"Since is often improperly used for ago: as, 'When were you in France?—Twenty years since.' It ought to be, 'Twenty years ago.' Since may be admitted to supply the place of ago that: it being equally correct to say, 'It is twenty years since I was in France;' and, 'It is twenty years ago, that I was in France.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 337. The difference between since and ago is clearly this: the former, being either a preposition or a conjunctive adverb, cannot with strict propriety be used adjectively; the latter, being in reality an old participle, naturally comes after a noun, in the sense of an adjective; as, a year ago, a month ago, a week ago. "Go, ago, ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone, are all used indiscriminately by our old English writers as the past participle of the verb to go."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 376. "Three days agone, I fell sick."—1 Samuel, xxx, 13.

MODIFICATIONS.

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared, after the manner of adjectives: as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest;[310] long, longer, longest; fast, faster, fastest.

The following are irregularly compared: well, better, best; badly or ill, worse, worst; little less, least; much, more, most; far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest. Rath, rather, rathest, is now used only in the comparative.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Most adverbs that are formed from adjectives by the addition of ly, will admit the comparative adverbs more and most, less and least, before them:, as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely; culpably, less culpably, least culpably. This is virtually a comparison of the latter adverb, but the grammatical inflection, or degree, belongs only to the former; and the words being written separately, it is certainly most proper to parse them separately, ascribing the degree of comparison to the word which expresses it. As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it should not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which are varied by it.

OBS. 2.—In the works of Milton, and occasionally in those of some other poets of his age,[311] adverbs of two syllables, ending in ly, are not only compared regularly like adjectives of the same ending, but are used in the measure of iambic verse as if they still formed only two syllables. Examples:—

   "But God hath wiselier arm'd his vengeful ire."
        —P. Lost, B. x, l. 1022.

   "Destroyers rightlier call'd and plagues of men."
        —Ib., B. xi, l. 699.

   "And on his quest, where likeliest he might find."
        —Ib., B. ix, l. 414.

   "Now amplier known thy Saviour and thy Lord."
        —Ib., B. xii, l. 544.

   "Though thou wert firmlier fasten'd than a rock."
        —Sam. Agon., l. 1398.

   "Not rustic, as before, but seemlier clad."
        —P. Reg., B. ii, l. 299.

    ————————————-"Whereof to thee anon
    Plainlier shall be reveal'd."
        —Paradise Lost, B. xii, l. 150.

    ——————"To show what coast thy sluggish erare
    Might easiliest harbour in."
        —Shakspeare, Cymb., Act IV.

   "Shall not myself be kindlier mov'd than thou art?"
        —Id., Tempest, Act V.

   "But earthlier happy is the rose distill'd."
        —Id., M. S. N. Dream, Act I.

OBS. 3.—The usage just cited is clearly analogical, and has the obvious advantage of adding to the flexibility of the language, while it also multiplies its distinctive forms. If carried out as it might be, it would furnish to poets and orators an ampler choice of phraseology, and at the same time, obviate in a great measure the necessity of using the same words both adjectively and adverbially. The words which are now commonly used in this twofold character, are principally monosyllables; and, of adjectives, monosyllables are the class which we oftenest compare by er and est: next to which come dissyllables ending in y; as, holy, happy, lovely. But if to any monosyllable we add ly to form an adverb, we have of course a dissyllable ending in y; and if adverbs of this class may be compared regularly, after the manner of adjectives, there can be little or no occasion to use the primitive word otherwise than as an adjective. But, according to present usage, few adverbs are ever compared by inflection, except such words as may also be used adjectively. For example: cleanly, comely, deadly, early, kindly, kingly, likely, lively, princely, seemly, weakly, may all be thus compared; and, according to Johnson and Webster, they may all be used either adjectively or adverbially. Again: late, later, latest, is commonly contrasted in both senses, with early, earlier, earliest; but if lately, latelier, lateliest, were adopted in the adverbial contrast, early and late, earlier and later, earliest and latest, might be contrasted as adjectives only.

OBS. 4.—The using of adjectives for adverbs, is in general a plain violation of grammar. Example: "To is a preposition, governing the verb sell, in the infinitive mood, agreeable to Rule 18, which says, The preposition TO governs the infinitive mood."—Comly's Gram., p. 137. Here agreeable ought to be agreeably; an adverb, relating to the participle governing. Again, the using of adverbs for adjectives, is a fault as gross. Example: "Apprehending the nominative to be put absolutely."— Murray's Gram., p. 155. Here absolutely ought to be absolute; an adjective, relating to the word nominative. But, in poetry, there is not only a frequent substitution of quality for manner, in such a way that the adjective may still be parsed adjectively; but sometimes also what appears to be (whether right or wrong) a direct use of adjectives for adverbs, especially in the higher degrees of comparison: as,

"Firmer he roots him the ruder it blow." —Scott, L. of L., C. ii, st. 19.

    "True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
    As those move easiest who have learn'd to dance."
        —Pope, Ess. on Crit.

    "And also now the sluggard soundest slept."
        —Pollok, C. of T., B. vi, l. 257.

    "In them is plainest taught, and easiest learnt,
    What makes a nation happy, and keeps it so."
        —Milton, P. R., B. iv, l. 361.

OBS. 5.—No use of words can be right, that actually confounds the parts of speech; but in many instances, according to present practice, the same words may be used either adjectively or adverbially. Firmer and ruder are not adverbs, but adjectives. In the example above, they may, I think, be ranked with the instances in which quality is poetically substituted for manner, and be parsed as relating to the pronouns which follow them. A similar usage occurs in Latin, and is considered elegant. Easiest, as used above by Pope, may perhaps be parsed upon the same principle; that is, as relating to those, or to persons understood before the verb move. But soundest, plainest, and easiest, as in the latter quotations, cannot be otherwise explained than as being adverbs. Plain and sound, according to our dictionaries, are used both adjectively and adverbially; and, if their superlatives are not misapplied in these instances, it is because the words are adverbs, and regularly compared as such. Easy, though sometimes used adverbially by reputable writers, is presented by our lexicographers as an adjective only; and if the latter are right, Milton's use of easiest in the sense and construction of most easily, must be considered an error in grammar. And besides, according to his own practice, he ought to have preferred plainliest to plainest, in the adverbial sense of most plainly.

OBS. 6.—Beside the instances already mentioned, of words used both adjectively and adverbially, our dictionaries exhibit many primitive terms which are to be referred to the one class or the other, according to their construction; as, soon, late, high, low, quick, slack, hard, soft, wide, close, clear, thick, full, scant, long, short, clean, near, scarce, sure, fast; to which may as well be added, slow, loud, and deep; all susceptible of the regular form of comparison, and all regularly convertible into adverbs in ly; though soonly and longly are now obsolete, and fastly, which means firmly, is seldom used. In short, it is, probably, from an idea, that no adverbs are to be compared by er and est unless the same words may also be used adjectively, that we do not thus compare lately, highly, quickly, loudly, &c., after the example of Milton. But, however custom may sanction the adverbial construction of the foregoing simple terms, the distinctive form of the adverb is in general to be preferred, especially in prose. For example: "The more it was complained of, the louder it was praised."—Daniel Webster, in Congress, 1837. If it would seem quaint to say, "The loudlier it was praised," it would perhaps be better to say, "The more loudly it was praised;" for our critics have not acknowledged loud or louder to be an adverb. Nor have slow and deep been so called. Dr. Johnson cites the following line to illustrate the latter as an adjective:

   "Drink hellebore, my boy! drink deep, and scour thy brain. DRYDEN."
        —Joh. Dict., w. Deep.

    "Drink hellebore, my boy! drink deep, and purge thy brain."
        —Dryd. IV. Sat. of Persius.

OBS. 7.—In some instances, even in prose, it makes little or no difference to the sense, whether we use adjectives referring to the nouns, or adverbs of like import, having reference to the verbs: as, "The whole conception is conveyed clear and strong to the mind."—Blair's Rhet., p, 138. Here clear and strong are adjectives, referring to conception; but we might as well say, "The whole conception is conveyed clearly and strongly to the mind." "Against a power that exists independent of their own choice."—Webster's Essays, p. 46. Here we might as well say, "exists independently;" for the independence of the power, in whichever way it is expressed, is nothing but the manner of its existence. "This work goeth fast on and prospereth."—Ezra. "Skill comes so slow, and life so fast doth fly."—Davies. Dr. Johnson here takes fast and slow to be adjectives, but he might as well have called them adverbs, so far as their meaning or construction is concerned. For what here qualifies the things spoken of, is nothing but the manner of their motion; and this might as well be expressed by the words, rapidly, slowly, swiftly. Yet it ought to be observed, that this does not prove the equivalent words to be adverbs, and not adjectives. Our philologists have often been led into errors by the argument of equivalence.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS VIII.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Eighth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, and ADVERBS.

The definitions to be given in the Eighth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb,—and one for a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?"—R. G. Harper.

When is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long? How soon? or, How often? including these which ask.

Was is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

That is a conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected.

Rome is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, personified feminine, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A proper noun is the name of some particular individual, or people, or group. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Attracted is a regular active-transitive verb, from attract, attracted, attracting, attracted; found in the indicative mood, imperfect tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The imperfect tense is that which expresses what took place, or was occurring, in time fully past. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

Most is an a adverb of degree, compared, much, more, most, and found in the superlative. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, How much? How little? or to the idea of more or less. 3. The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it.

Strongly is an adverb of manner. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, How? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Admiration is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Mankind is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of many individuals together. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"Wisely, therefore, is it ordered, and agreeably to the system of
Providence, that we should have nature for our instructor."—Kames, El. of
Crit., i, 358.

"It is surprising, how quickly, and for the most part how correctly, we judge of character from external appearance."—Id., ib., i, 359.

"The members of a period connected by proper copulatives, glide smoothly and gently along, and are a proof of sedateness and leisure in the speaker."—Id., ib., ii, 33.

"Antithesis ought only to be occasionally studied, when it is naturally demanded by the comparison or opposition of objects."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 102.

"Did men always think clearly, and were they at the same time fully masters of the language in which they write, there would be occasion for few rules."—Ib., 102. "Rhetoric, or oratory, is the art of speaking justly, methodically, floridly, and copiously, upon any subject, in order to touch the passions, and to persuade."—Bradley's Literary Guide, p. 155.

"The more closely we follow the natural order of any subject we may be investigating, the more satisfactorily and explicitly will that subject be opened to our understanding."—Gurney's Essays, p. 160.

   "Why should we doubt of that, whereof our sense
    Finds demonstration from experience?
    Our minds are here, and there, below, above;
    Nothing that's mortal, can so swiftly move."—Denham.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"If we can discern particularly and precisely what it is, which is most directly obedience or disobedience to the will and commands of God; what is truly morally beautiful, or really and absolutely deformed; the question concerning liberty, as far as it respects ethics, or morality, will be sufficiently decided."—West, on Agency, p. xiii.

"Thus it was true, historically, individually, philosophically, and universally, that they did not like to retain God in their knowledge."—Cox, on Christianity, p. 327.

"We refer to Jeremiah Evarts and Gordon Hall. They had their imperfections, and against them they struggled discreetly, constantly, successfully, until they were fitted to ascend to their rest."—N. Y. Observer, Feb. 2d, 1833.

"Seek not proud riches; but such as thou mayst get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully and leave contentedly."—Ld. Bacon.

"There are also some particularly grievous sins, of which conscience justly accuses us; sins committed more or less presumptuously and willingly, deliberately and repeatedly."—Bickersteth, on Prayer, p. 59.

"And herein I apprehend myself now to suffer wrongfully, being slanderously reported, falsely accused, shamefully and despitefully used, and hated without a cause."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 173.

   "Of perfect knowledge, see, the dawning light
    Foretells a noon most exquisitely bright!
    Here, springs of endless joy are breaking forth!
    There, buds the promise of celestial worth!"—Young.

LESSON III—PARSING.

"A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably."—Penn's Maxims.

"That mind must be wonderfully narrow, that is wholly wrapped up in itself; but this is too visibly the character of most human minds."—Burgh's Dignity, ii, 35.

"There is not a man living, who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery; but there is only one proper and effectual mode by which it can be accomplished, and that is, by legislative authority."—Geo. Washington, 1786.

"Sloth has frequently and justly been denominated the rust of the soul. The habit is easily acquired; or, rather, it is a part of our very nature to be indolent."—Student's Manual, p. 176.

"I am aware how improper it is to talk much of my wife; never reflecting how much more improper it is to talk much of myself."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 89.

"Howbeit whereinsoever any is bold, (I speak foolishly,) I am bold also. Are they Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? so am I. Are they ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool,) I am more."—2 Cor., xi.

   "Oh, speak the wondrous man! how mild, how calm,
    How greatly humble, how divinely good,
    How firm establish'd on eternal truth."—Thomson.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING ADVERBS.

"We can much easier form the conception of a fierce combat."—Blair's
Rhet., p. 167.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the adjective easier is used as an adverb, to qualify the verb can form. But, according to Observation 4th on the Modifications of Adverbs, "The using of adjectives for adverbs, is in general a plain violation of grammar." Therefore, easier should be more easily; thus, "We can much more easily form the conception of a fierce combat."]

"When he was restored, agreeable to the treaty, he was a perfect savage."—Webster's Essays, p. 235. "How I shall acquit myself suitable to the importance of the trial."—Duncan's Cic., p. 85. "Can any thing show your holiness how unworthy you treat mankind?"—Spect., No. 497. "In what other [language,] consistent with reason and common sense, can you go about to explain it to him?"—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. viii. "Agreeable to this rule, the short vowel Sheva has two characters."—Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 46. "We shall give a remarkable fine example of this figure."—Murray's Gram., p. 347. "All of which is most abominable false."—Barclay's Works, iii, 431. "He heaped up great riches, but passed his time miserable."—Murray's Key, 8vo, ii, 202. "He is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and simple."—Blair's Rhet., p. 96. "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clear and exact, he appears dry."—Ib., p. 100. "Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, glide the softest."—Ib., p. 129. "The simplest points, such as are easiest apprehended."—Ib., p. 312. "Too historical, to be accounted a perfect regular epic poem."—Ib., p. 441. "Putting after them the oblique case, agreeable to the French construction."—Priestley's Gram., p. 108. "Where the train proceeds with an extreme slow pace."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 151. "So as scarce to give an appearance of succession."—Ib., i, 152. "That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions independent of artful pronunciation."—Ib., ii, 63. "Cornaro had become very corpulent, previous to the adoption of his temperate habits."—Hitchcock, on Dysp., p. 396. "Bread, which is a solid and tolerable hard substance."—Sandford and Merton, p. 38. "To command every body that was not dressed as fine as himself."—Ib., p, 19. "Many of them have scarce outlived their authors."—Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. ix. "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very deep."—Wilson's Heb. Gram., p. 30. "The people are miserable poor, and subsist on fish."—Hume's Hist., ii, 433. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years since, to make."—Bucke's Gram., p. 81. "There is no truth on earth so well established as the truth of the Bible."—Taylor's District School, p. 288. "I know of no work so much wanted as the one Mr. Taylor has now furnished."—DR. NOTT: ib., p. ii. "And therefore their requests are seldom and reasonable."—Taylor: ib., p. 58. "Questions are easier proposed than rightly answered."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 19. "Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from whence they are all derived."—Murray's Gram., p. 374. "If there be no special Rule which requires it to be put forwarder."—Milnes's Greek Gram., p. 234. "The Masculine and Neuter have the same Dialect in all Numbers, especially when they end the same."—Ib., p. 259.

   "And children are more busy in their play
    Than those that wisely'st pass their time away."—Butler, p. 163.

CHAPTER IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected: as, "Thou and he are happy, because you are good."—Murray.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Our connective words are of four kinds; namely, relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs,[312] conjunctions, and prepositions. These have a certain resemblance to one another, so far as they are all of them connectives; yet there are also characteristical differences by which they may in general be easily distinguished. Relative pronouns represent antecedents, and stand in those relations which we call cases; conjunctive adverbs assume the connective power in addition to their adverbial character, and consequently sustain a double relation; conjunctions, (except the introductory correspondents,) join words or sentences together, showing their relation either to each other or to something else; prepositions, though naturally subject themselves to something going before, assume the government of the terms which follow them, and in this they differ from all the rest.

OBS. 2.—Conjunctions do not express any of the real objects of the understanding, whether things, qualities, or actions, but rather the several modes of connexion or contrast under which these objects are contemplated. Hence conjunctions were said by Aristotle and his followers to be in themselves "devoid of signification;" a notion which Harris, with no great propriety, has adopted in his faulty definition[313] of this part of speech. It is the office of this class of particles, to link together words, phrases, or sentences, that would otherwise appear as loose shreds, or unconnected aphorisms; and thus, by various forms of dependence, to give to discourse such continuity as may fit it to convey a connected train of thought or reasoning. The skill or inability of a writer may as strikingly appear in his management of these little connectives, as in that of the longest and most significant words in the language.

   "The current is often evinced by the straws,
    And the course of the wind by the flight of a feather;
    So a speaker is known by his ands and his ors,
    Those stitches that fasten his patchwork together."—Robert F. Mott.

OBS. 3.—Conjunctions sometimes connect entire sentences, and sometimes particular words or phrases only. When one whole sentence is closely linked with an other, both become clauses or members of a more complex sentence; and when one word or phrase is coupled with an other, both have in general a common dependence upon some other word in the same sentence. In etymological parsing, it may be sufficient to name the conjunction as such, and repeat the definition above; but, in syntactical parsing, the learner should always specify the terms connected. In many instances, however, he may conveniently abbreviate his explanation, by parsing the conjunction as connecting "what precedes and what follows;" or, if the terms are transposed, as connecting its own clause to the second, to the third, or to some other clause in the context.

OBS. 4.—However easy it may appear, for even the young parser to name the terms which in any given instance are connected by the conjunction, and of course to know for himself what these terms are,—that is, to know what the conjunction does or does not, connect,—it is certain that a multitude of grammarians and philosophers, great and small, from Aristotle down to the latest modifier of Murray, or borrower from his text, have been constantly contradicting one an other, if not themselves, in relation to this matter. Harris avers, that "the Conjunction connects, not Words, but Sentences;" and frames his definition accordingly. See Hermes, p. 237. This doctrine is true of some of the conjunctions, but it is by no means true of them all. He adds, in a note, "Grammarians have usually considered the Conjunction as connecting rather single Parts of Speech, than whole Sentences, and that too with the addition of like with like, Tense with Tense, Number with Number, Case with Case, &c. This Sanctius justly explodes."—Ib., p. 238. If such has been the usual doctrine of the grammarians, they have erred on the one side, as much as our philosopher, and his learned authorities, on the other. For, in this instance, Harris's quotations of Latin and Greek writers, prove only that Sanctius, Scaliger, Apollonius, and Aristotle, held the same error that he himself had adopted;—the error which Latham and others now inculcate, that, "There are always two propositions where there is one Conjunction."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 557.

OBS. 5.—The common doctrine of L. Murray and others, that, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is not only badly expressed, but is pointedly at variance with their previous doctrine, that, "Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words; as in the following instances: 'Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences;' 'Wisdom or folly governs us.' Each of these forms of expression," they absurdly say, "contains two sentences."—Murray's Gram., p. 124; Smith's, 95; Fisk's, 84; Ingersoll's, 81. By "the same moods, tenses, or cases," we must needs here understand some one mood, tense, or case, in which the connected words agree; and, if the conjunction has any thing to do with this agreement, or sameness of mood, tense, or case, it must be because words only, and not sentences, are connected by it. Now, if, that, though, lest, unless, or any other conjunction that introduces the subjunctive, will almost always be found to connect different moods, or rather to subjoin one sentence to another in which there is a different mood. On the contrary, and, as, even, than, or, and nor, though they may be used to connect sentences, do, in very many instances, connect words only; as, "The king and queen are an amiable pair."—Murray. "And a being of more than human dignity stood before me."—Dr. Johnson. It cannot be plausibly pretended, that and and than, in these two examples, connect clauses or sentences. So and and or, in the examples above, connect the nouns only, and not "sentences:" else our common rules for the agreement of verbs or pronouns with words connected, are nothing but bald absurdities. It is idle to say, that the construction and meaning are not what they appear to be; and it is certainly absurd to contend, that conjunctions always connect sentences; or always, words only. One author very strangely conceives, that, "Conjunctions may be said either always to connect words only, or always to connect sentences, according to the view which may be taken of them in analyzing."—Nutting's Gram., p. 77.

OBS. 6.—"Several words belonging to other parts of speech, are occasionally used as conjunctions. Such are the following: provided, except, verbs; both, an adjective; either, neither, that, pronouns; being, seeing, participles; before, since, for, prepositions. I will do it, provided you lend some help. Here provided is a conjunction, that connects the two sentences. 'Paul said, Except these abide in the ship, ye cannot be saved.' Here except is a conjunction. Excepting is also used as a participle and conjunction. 'Being this reception of the gospel was so anciently foretold.'—Bishop Pearson. 'Seeing all the congregation are holy.'—Bible. Here being and seeing are used as conjunctions."—Alexander's Gram:, p. 50. 'The foregoing remark, though worthy of some attention, is not altogether accurate. Before, when it connects sentences, is not a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb. Provided, as cited above, resembles not the verb, but the perfect participle. Either and neither, when they are not conjunctions, are pronominal adjectives, rather than pronouns. And, to say, that, "words belonging to other parts of speech, are used as conjunctions," is a sort of solecism, which leaves the learner in doubt to what class they really belong. Being, and being that, were formerly used in the sense of because, since, or seeing that; (Lat. cum, quoniam, or quando;) but this usage is now obsolete. So there is an uncommon or obsolete use of without, in the sense of unless, or except; (Lat. nisi;) as, "He cannot rise without he be helped." Walker's Particles, p. 425. "Non potest nisi adjutus exsurgere."—Seneca.

CLASSES.

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copulative and disjunctive; and a few of each class are particularly distinguished from the rest, as being corresponsive.

I. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition: as, "He and I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall readily grant it."

II. A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that denotes opposition of meaning: as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live."—St. John's Gospel. "Be not faithless, but believing."—Id.

III. The corresponsive conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other: as, "John came neither eating nor drinking."—Matt., xi, 18. "But if I cast out devils by the Spirit of God, then the kingdom of God is come unto you."—Ib., xii, 28.

OBS.—Not all terms which stand in the relation of correspondents, or corresponsives, are therefore to be reckoned conjunctions; nor are both words in each pair always of the same part of speech: some are adverbs; one or two are adjectives; and sometimes a conjunction answers to a preceding adverb. But, if a word is seen to be the mere precursor, index, introductory sign, or counterpart, of a conjunction, and has no relation or import which should fix it in any other of the ten classes called parts of speech, it is, clearly, a conjunction,—a corresponding or corresponsive conjunction. It is a word used preparatively, "to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected."

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

1. The Copulatives; And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so.

2. The Disjunctives; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas.

3. The Corresponsives; Both—and; as—as; as—so; if—then; either—or; neither—nor; whether—or; though, or although—yet.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—By some writers, the words, also, since, too, then, therefore, and wherefore, are placed among the copulative conjunctions; and as, so, still, however, and albeit, among the disjunctive; but Johnson and Webster have marked most of these terms as adverbs only. It is perhaps of little moment, by which name they are called; for, in some instances, conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs do not differ very essentially. As, so, even, then, yet, and but, seem to belong sometimes to the one part of speech, and sometimes to the other. I call them adverbs when they chiefly express time, manner, or degree; and conjunctions when they appear to be mere connectives. As, yet, and but, are generally conjunctions; but so, even, and then, are almost always adverbs. Seeing and provided, when used as connectives, are more properly conjunctions than any thing else; though Johnson ranks them with the adverbs, and Webster, by supposing many awkward ellipses, keeps them with the participles. Examples: "For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day."—Acts, ii, 15. "The senate shall have power to adjourn themselves, provided such adjournment shall not exceed two days at a time."—Constitution of New Hampshire.

OBS. 2.—Since, when it governs a noun after it, is a preposition: as, "Hast thou commanded the morning since thy days?"—Job. Albeit is equivalent in sense to although, and is properly a conjunction; but this old compound is now nearly or quite obsolete. As is sometimes a relative pronoun, sometimes a conjunctive adverb, and sometimes a copulative conjunction. Example of the last: "We present ourselves as petitioners." If as is ever disjunctive, it is not so here; nor can we parse it as an adverb, because it comes between two words that are essentially in apposition. The equivalent Latin term quasi is called an adverb, but, in such a case, not very properly: as, "Et colles quasi pulverem pones;"—"And thou shalt make the hills as chaff."—Isaiah, xli, 15. So even, which in English is frequently a sign of emphatic repetition, seems sometimes to be rather a conjunction than an adverb: as, "I, even I, am the Lord."—Isaiah, xliii, 11.

OBS. 3.—Save and saving, when they denote exception, are not adverbs, as Johnson denominates them, or a verb and a participle, as Webster supposes them to be, or prepositions, as Covell esteems them, but disjunctive conjunctions; and, as such, they take the same case after as before them; as, "All the conspirators, save only he, did that they did, in envy of great Cæsar."—Shak. "All this world's glory seemeth vain, and all their shows but shadows, saving she."—Spenser. "Israel burned none of them, save Hazor only."—Joshua. xi, 13. "And none of them was cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian."—Luke, iv, 27. Save is not here a transitive verb, for Hazor was not saved in any sense, but utterly destroyed; nor is Naaman here spoken of as being saved by an other leper, but as being cleansed when others were not. These two conjunctions are now little used; and therefore the propriety of setting the nominative after them and treating them as conjunctions, is the more apt to be doubted. The Rev. Matt. Harrison, after citing five examples, four of which have the nominative with save, adds, without naming the part of speech, or assigning any reason, this decision, which I think erroneous: "In all these passages, save requires after it the objective case." His five examples are these: "All, save I, were at rest, and enjoyment."— Frankenstein. "There was no stranger with us, in the house, save we two."—1 Kings, iii, 18.

   "And nothing wanting is, save she, alas!"
        —DRUMMOND of Hawthornden.

    "When all slept sound, save she, who bore them both."
        —ROGERS, Italy, p. 108.

    "And all were gone, save him, who now kept guard."
        —Ibid., p. 185.

OBS. 4.—The conjunction if is sometimes used in the Bible to express, not a supposition of what follows it, but an emphatic negation: as, "I have sworn in my wrath, if they shall enter into my rest."—Heb., iv, 3. That is, that they shall not enter. The same peculiarity is found in the Greek text, and also in the Latin, and other versions. Or, in the obsolete phrase, "or ever," is not properly a conjunction, but a conjunctive adverb of time, meaning before. It is supposed to be a corruption of ere: as, "I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was."—Prov., viii, 23. "And we, or ever he come near, are ready to kill him."—Acts, xxiii, 15. This term derives no support from the original text.

OBS. 5.—There are some peculiar phrases, or combinations of words, which have the force of conjunctions, and which it is not very easy to analyze satisfactorily in parsing: as, "And for all there were so many, yet was not the net broken."—John, xxi, 11. Here for all is equivalent to although, or notwithstanding; either of which words would have been more elegant. Nevertheless is composed of three words, and is usually reckoned a conjunctive adverb; but it might as well be called a disjunctive conjunction, for it is obviously equivalent to yet, but, or notwithstanding; as, "I am crucified with Christ: nevertheless I live; yet not I, but Christ liveth in me."—Gal., ii, 20. Here, for nevertheless and but, we have in the Greek the same particle [Greek: de]. "Each man's mind has some peculiarity, as well as his face."—Locke. "Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences."—Murray's Gram., p. 124. Here the first as corresponds to the second, but well not being used in the literal sense of an adverb, some judicious grammarians take the whole phrase as a conjunction. It is, however, susceptible of division: as, "It is adorned with admirable pieces of sculpture, as well modern as ancient."—Addison.

OBS. 6.—So the phrases, for as much as, in as much as, in so much that, if taken collectively, have the nature of conjunctions; yet they contain within themselves correspondent terms and several different parts of speech. The words are sometimes printed separately, and sometimes partly together. Of late years, forasmuch, inasmuch, insomuch, have been usually compounded, and called adverbs. They might as well, perhaps, be called conjunctions, as they were by some of our old grammarians; for two conjunctions sometimes come together: as, "Answering their questions, as if[314] it were a matter that needed it."—Locke. "These should be at first gently treated, as though we expected an imposthumation,"—Sharp. "But there are many things which we must acknowledge to be true, notwithstanding that we cannot comprehend them."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 211. "There is no difference, except that some are heavier than others."—"We may be playful, and yet innocent; grave, and yet corrupt."—Murray's Key, p. 166.

OBS. 7.—Conjunctions have no grammatical modifications, and are consequently incapable of any formal agreement or disagreement with other words; yet their import as connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly. Example of error: "Prepositions are generally set before nouns and pronouns."—Wilbur's Gram., p. 20. Here and should be or; because, although a preposition usually governs a noun or a pronoun, it seldom governs both at once. And besides, the assertion above seems very naturally to mean, that nouns and pronouns are generally preceded by prepositions—as gross an error as dullness could invent! L. Murray also says of prepositions: "They are, for the most part, put before nouns and pronouns."—Gram., p. 117. So Felton: "They generally stand before nouns and pronouns."—Analytic and Prac. Gram., p. 61. The blunder however came originally from Lowth, and out of the following admirable enigma: "Prepositions, standing by themselves in construction, are put before nouns and pronouns; and sometimes after verbs; but in this sort of composition they are chiefly prefixed to verbs: as, to outgo, to overcome."—Lowth's Gram., p. 66.

OBS. 8.—The opposition suggested by the disjunctive particle or, is sometimes merely nominal, or verbal: as, "That object is a triangle, or figure contained under three right lines."—Harris. "So if we say, that figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball."—Id., Hermes, p. 258. In these cases, the disjunction consists in nothing but an alternative of words; for the terms connected describe or name the same thing. For this sense of or, the Latins had a peculiar particle, sive, which they called Subdisjunctiva, a Subdisjunctive: as, "Alexander sive Paris; Mars sive Mavors."—Harris's Hermes, p. 258. In English, the conjunction or is very frequently equivocal: as, "They were both more ancient than Zoroaster or Zerdusht."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 250; Murray's Gram., p. 297. Here, if the reader does not happen to know that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same person, he will be very likely to mistake the sense. To avoid this ambiguity, we substitute, (in judicial proceedings,) the Latin adverb alias, otherwise; using it as a conjunction subdisjunctive, in lieu of or, or the Latin sive: as, "Alexander, alias Ellick."—"Simson, alias Smith, alias Baker."—Johnson's Dict.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS IX.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Ninth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, and CONJUNCTIONS.

The definitions to be given in the Ninth Praxis, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction,—and one for a preposition, or an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it."—Maxims.

If is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition.

Thou is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Hast done is an irregular active-transitive verb, from do, did, doing, done; found in the indicative mood, perfect tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

A is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.

Good is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared irregularly, good, better, best. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.

Deed is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle or preposition.

Boast is a regular active-intransitive verb, from boast, boasted, boasting, boasted; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

Not is an adverb or manner, expressing negation. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, How? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded. Of is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

It is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"In all gratifications, disgust ever lies nearest to the highest pleasures; and therefore let us not marvel, if this is peculiarly the case in eloquence. By glancing at either poets or orators, we may easily satisfy ourselves, that neither a poem nor an oration which aims continually at what is fine, showy, and sparkling, can please us long. Wherefore, though we may wish for the frequent praise of having expressed ourselves well and properly, we should not covet repeated applause for being bright and splendid."—CICERO, de Oratore.

"The foundation of eloquence, as well as of every other high attainment, is practical wisdom. For it happens in oratory, as in life, that nothing is more difficult, than to discern what is proper and becoming. Through lack of such discernment, gross faults are very often committed. For neither to all ranks, fortunes, and ages, nor to every time, place, and auditory, can the same style either of language or of sentiment be adapted. In every part of a discourse, as in every part of life, we must consider what is suitable and decent; and this must be determined with reference both to the matter in question, and to the personal character of those who speak and those who hear."—CICERO, Orator ad Brutum.

   "So spake th' Omnipotent, and with his words
    All seem'd well pleas'd; all seem'd, but were not all."—Milton.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"A square, though not more regular than a hexagon or an octagon, is more beautiful than either: for what reason, but that a square is more simple, and the attention is less divided?"—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 175.

"We see the material universe in motion; but matter is inert; and, so far as we know, nothing can move it but mind: therefore God is a spirit. We do not mean that his nature is the same as that of our soul; for it is infinitely more excellent. But we mean, that he possesses intelligence and active power in supreme perfection; and, as these qualities do not belong to matter, which is neither active nor intelligent, we must refer them to that which is not matter, but mind."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 210.

"Men are generally permitted to publish books, and contradict others, and even themselves, as they please, with as little danger of being confuted, as of being understood."—Boyle.

"Common reports, if ridiculous rather than dangerous, are best refuted by neglect."—Kames's Thinking, p. 76. "No man is so foolish, but that he may give good counsel at a time; no man so wise, but he may err, if he take no counsel but his own."—Ib., p. 97.

   "Young heads are giddy, and young hearts are warm,
    And make mistakes for manhood to reform."—Cowper.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"The Nouns denote substances, and those either natural, artificial, or abstract. They moreover denote things either general, or special, or particular. The Pronouns, their substitutes, are either prepositive, or subjunctive."—Harris's Hermes, p. 85.

"In a thought, generally speaking, there is at least one capital object considered as acting or as suffering. This object is expressed by a substantive noun: its action is expressed by an active verb; and the thing affected by the action is expressed by an other substantive noun: its suffering, or passive state, is expressed by a passive verb; and the thing that acts upon it, by a substantive noun. Beside these, which are the capital parts of a sentence, or period, there are generally underparts; each of the substantives, as well as the verb, may be qualified: time, place, purpose, motive, means, instrument, and a thousand other circumstances, may be necessary to complete the thought."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 34.

   "Yet those whom pride and dullness join to blind,
    To narrow cares and narrow space confined,
    Though with big titles each his fellow greets,
    Are but to wits, as scavengers to streets."—Mallet.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING CONJUNCTIONS.

"A Verb is so called from the Latin verbum, or word."—Bucke's
Classical Gram., p. 56.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the conjunction or, connecting verbum and word, supposes the latter to be Latin. But, according to Observation 7th, on the Classes of Conjunctions, "The import of connectives, copulative or disjunctive, must be carefully observed, lest we write or speak them improperly." In this instance, or should be changed to a; thus, "A Verb is so called from the Latin verbum, a word" that is, "which means, a word."]

"References are often marked by letters and figures."—Gould's Adam's Gram., p. 283. (1.) "A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sentences together."—Lennie's E. Gram., p. 51; Bullions's, 70; Brace's, 57. (2.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences together."—Smith's New Gram., p. 37. (3.) "A conjunction is used to connect words and sentences."—Maunders Gram., p. 1. (4.) "Conjunctions are words used to join words and sentences."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 3. (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences."— M'Culloch's Gram., p. 36; Hart's, 92; Day's, 10. (6.) "A Conjunction joins words and sentences together."—Mackintosh's Gram., p. 115; Hiley's, 10 and 53. (7.) "The Conjunction joins words and sentences together."—L. Murray's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 28. (8.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences to each other."—Wright's Gram., p. 35. (9.) "Conjunctions connect words and sentences."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 80; Wells's, 1st Ed., 159 and 168. (10.) "The conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 49. (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words and sentences together."— Fowler's E. Gram., §329. (12.) "Connectives are words which unite words and sentences in construction."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 123; Improved Gram., 81. "English Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the teachers know but little or nothing about it."—Taylor's District School, p. 48. "Least, instead of preventing, you draw on Diseases."—Locke, on Ed., p. 40. "The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."—Murray's Gram., p. 33; Ingersoll's, 33; Lennie's, 6; Bullions's, 8; Fisk's, 53, and others. "When nouns naturally neuter are converted into masculine and feminine."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 38. "This form of the perfect tense represents an action completely past, and often at no great distance, but not specified."—Ib., p. 74. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c."—Ib., p. 123. "The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different degrees."—Ib., p. 123. "Whether we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate their observations and discoveries."—Ib., p. 138. "When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun."—Ib., p. 152: R. G. Smith, Alger, Gomly, Merchant, Picket, et al. "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number."—Murray's Gram., p. 154. "Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pronouns."—Ib., p. 179. "And the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times."—Ib., p. 72. "If this rule should not appear to apply to every example, which has been produced, nor to others which might be adduced."—Ib., p. 216. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention."—Ib., p. 248; Hart's Gram., 175. "An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence."—Murray's Gram., p. 267. "The word was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, the subject may still be a secret."—Ib., p. 213. "A word it was in the mouth of every one, but for all that, as to its precise and definite idea, this may still be a secret."—Harris's Three Treatises, p. 5. "It cannot be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of every other country in Europe."—Smollett's Voltaire, ix, 306. "So gradually as to allow its being engrafted on a subtonic."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 255. "Where the Chelsea or Maiden bridges now are."—Judge Parker. "Adverbs are words joined to verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs."—Smith's Productive Gram., p. 92. "I could not have told you, who the hermit was, nor on what mountain he lived."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 32. "Am, or be (for they are the same) naturally, or in themselves signify being."—Brightland's Gram., p. 113. "Words are distinct sounds, by which we express our thoughts and ideas."—Infant School Gram., p. 13. "His fears will detect him, but he shall not escape."—Comly's Gram., p. 64. "Whose is equally applicable to persons or things."—WEBSTER in Sanborn's Gram., p. 95. "One negative destroys another, or is equivalent to an affirmative."— Bullions, Eng. Gram., p. 118.

   "No sooner does he peep into
    The world, but he has done his do."—Hudibras.

CHAPTER X.—PREPOSITIONS.

A Preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun: as, "The paper lies before me on the desk."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The relations of things to things in nature, or of words to words in discourse, are infinite in number, if not also in variety. But just classification may make even infinites the subjects of sure science. Every relation of course implies more objects, and more terms, than one; for any one thing, considered merely in itself, is taken independently, abstractly, irrelatively, as if it had no relation or dependence. In all correct language, the grammatical relation of the words corresponds exactly to the relation of the things or ideas expressed; for the relation of words, is their dependence, or connexion, according to the sense. This relation is oftentimes immediate, as of one word to an other, without the intervention of a preposition; but it is seldom, if ever, reciprocally equal; because dependence implies subordination; and mere adjunction is a sort of inferiority.

OBS. 2.—To a preposition, the prior or antecedent term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb; and the subsequent or governed term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or a participle. In some instances, also, as in the phrases, in vain, on high, at once, till now, for ever, by how much, until then, from thence, from above, we find adjectives used elliptically, and adverbs substantively, after the preposition. But, in phrases of an adverbial character, what is elsewhere a preposition often becomes an adverb. Now, if prepositions are concerned in expressing the various relations of so many of the different parts of speech, multiplied, as these relations must be, by that endless variety of combinations which may be given to the terms; and if the sense of the writer or speaker is necessarily mistaken, as often as any of these relations are misunderstood, or their terms misconceived; how shall we estimate the importance of a right explanation, and a right use, of this part of speech?

OBS. 3.—The grammarian whom Lowth compliments, as excelling all others, in "acuteness of investigation, perspicuity of explication, and elegance of method;" and as surpassing all but Aristotle, in the beauty and perfectness of his philological analysis; commences his chapter on conjunctions in the following manner: "Connectives are the subject of what follows; which, according as they connect either Sentences or Words, are called by the different Names of Conjunctions OR Prepositions. Of these Names, that of the Preposition is taken from a mere accident, as it commonly stands in connection before the Part, which it connects. The name of the Conjunction, as is evident, has reference to its essential character. Of these two we shall consider the Conjunction first, because it connects, not Words, but Sentences."—Harris's Hermes, p. 237.

OBS. 4.—In point of order, it is not amiss to treat conjunctions before prepositions; though this is not the method of Lowth, or of Murray. But, to any one who is well acquainted with these two parts of speech, the foregoing passage cannot but appear, in three sentences out of the four, both defective in style and erroneous in doctrine. It is true, that conjunctions generally connect sentences, and that prepositions as generally express relations between particular words: but it is true also, that conjunctions often connect words only; and that prepositions, by governing antecedents, relatives, or even personal pronouns, may serve to subjoin sentences to sentences, as well as to determine the relation and construction of the particular words which they govern. Example: "The path seems now plain and even, but there are asperities and pitfalls, over which Religion only can conduct you."—Dr. Johnson. Here are three simple sentences, which are made members of one compound sentence, by means of but and over which; while two of these members, clauses, or subdivisions, contain particular words connected by and.

OBS. 5.—In one respect, the preposition is the simplest of all the parts of speech: in our common schemes of grammar, it has neither classes nor modifications. Every connective word that governs an object after it, is called a preposition, because it does so; and in etymological parsing, to name the preposition as such, and define the name, is, perhaps, all that is necessary. But in syntactical parsing, in which we are to omit the definitions, and state the construction, we ought to explain what terms the preposition connects, and to give a rule adapted to this office of the particle. It is a palpable defect in nearly all our grammars, that their syntax contains NO SUCH RULE. "Prepositions govern the objective case," is a rule for the objective case, and not for the syntax of prepositions. "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them," is the principle for the latter; a principle which we cannot neglect, without a shameful lameness in our interpretation;—that is, when we pretend to parse syntactically.

OBS. 6.—Prepositions and their objects very often precede the words on which they depend, and sometimes at a great distance. Of this we have an example, at the opening of Milton's Paradise Lost; where "Of," the first word, depends upon "Sing," in the sixth line below; for the meaning is—"Sing of man's first disobedience," &c. To find the terms of the relation, is to find the meaning of the passage; a very useful exercise, provided the words have a meaning which is worth knowing. The following text has for centuries afforded ground of dispute, because it is doubtful in the original, as well as in many of the versions, whether the preposition in (i. e., "in the regeneration") refers back to have followed, or forward to the last verb shall sit: "Verily I say unto you that ye who have followed me, in the regeneration, when the Son of man shall sit in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel."—Matt., xix, 28. The second in is manifestly wrong: the Greek word is [Greek: epi], on or upon; i. e., "upon the throne of his glory."

OBS. 7.—The prepositions have, from their own nature, or from custom, such an adaptation to particular terms and relations, that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety. Example of error: "Proper seasons should be allotted for retirement."—Murray's Key, p. 173. We do not say "allotted for," but "allotted to:" hence for is either wrong in itself or misplaced. Such errors always vex an intelligent reader. He sees the terms mismatched, the intended connection doubtful, the sense obscured, and wishes the author could have valued his own meaning enough to have made it intelligible;—that is, (to speak technically,) enough to have made it a certain clew to his syntax. We can neither parse nor correct what we do not understand. Did the writer mean, "Proper seasons should be allotted to retirement?"—or, "Proper seasons for retirement should be allotted?"—or, "Seasons proper for retirement should be alloted?" [sic—KTH] Every expression is incorrigibly bad, the meaning of which cannot be known. Expression? Nay, expression it is not, but only a mock utterance or an abortive attempt at expression.

OBS. 8.—Harris observes, in substance, though in other words, that almost all the prepositions were originally formed to denote relations of place; that this class of relations is primary, being that which natural bodies maintain at all times one to an other; that in the continuity of place these bodies form the universe, or visible whole; that we have some prepositions to denote the contiguous relation of bodies, and others for the detached relation; and that both have, by degrees, been extended from local relations, to the relations of subjects incorporeal. He appears also to assume, that, in such examples as the following,—"Caius walketh with a staff; "—"The statue stood upon a pedestal;"—"The river ran over a sand;"—"He is going to Turkey;"—"The sun is risen above the hills;"—"These figs came from Turkey;"—the antecedent term of the relation is not the verb, but the noun or pronoun before it. See Hermes, pp. 266 and 267. Now the true antecedent is, unquestionably, that word which, in the order of the sense, the preposition should immediately follow: and a verb, a participle, or an adjective, may sustain this relation, just as well as a substantive. "The man spoke of colour," does not mean, "The man of colour spoke;" nor does, "The member from Delaware replied," mean, "The member replied from Delaware"

OBS. 9.—To make this matter more clear, it may be proper to observe further, that what I call the order of the sense, is not always that order of the words which is fittest to express the sense of a whole period; and that the true antecedent is that word to which the preposition, and its object would naturally be subjoined, were there nothing to interfere with such an arrangement. In practice it often happens, that the preposition and its object cannot be placed immediately after the word on which they depend, and which they would naturally follow. For example: "She hates the means by which she lives." That is, "She hates the means which she lives by." Here we cannot say, "She hates the means she lives by which;" and yet, in regard to the preposition by, this is really the order of the sense. Again: "Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar among wheat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart from him."—Prov., xxvii, 23. Here is no transposition to affect our understanding of the prepositions, yet there is a liability to error, because the words which immediately precede some of them, are not their true antecedents: the text does not really speak of "a mortar among wheat" or of "wheat with a pestle." To what then are the mortar, the wheat, and the pestle, to be mentally subjoined? If all of them, to any one thing, it must be to the action suggested by the verb bray, and not to its object fool; for the text does not speak of "a fool with a pestle," though it does seem to speak of "a fool in a mortar, and among wheat." Indeed, in this instance, as in many others, the verb and its object are so closely associated that it makes but little difference in regard to the sense, whether you take both of them together, or either of them separately, as the antecedent to the preposition. But, as the instrument of an action is with the agent rather than with the object, if you will have the substantives alone for antecedents, the natural order of the sense must be supposed to be this: "Though thou with a pestle shouldest bray a, fool in a mortar [and] among wheat, yet will not his foolishness from him depart." This gives to each of the prepositions an antecedent different from that which I should assign. Sanborn observes, "There seem to be two kinds of relation expressed by prepositions,—an existing and a connecting relation."—Analyt. Gram., p. 225. The latter, he adds, "is the most important."—Ib., p. 226. But it is the former that admits nothing but nouns for antecedents. Others besides Harris may have adopted this notion, but I have never been one of the number, though a certain author scruples not to charge the error upon me. See O. B Peirce's Gram., p. 165.

OBS. 10.—It is a very common error among grammarians, and the source of innumerable discrepancies in doctrine, as well as one of the chief means of maintaining their interminable disputes, that they suppose ellipses at their own pleasure, and supply in every given instance just what words their fancies may suggest. In this work, I adopt for myself, and also recommend to others, the contrary course of avoiding on all occasions the supposition of any needless ellipses. Not only may the same preposition govern more than one object, but there may also be more than one antecedent word, bearing a joint relation to that which is governed by the preposition. (1.) Examples of joint objects: "There is an inseparable connection BETWEEN piety and virtue."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 171. "In the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture OF wisdom and folly was very conspicuous."—Ib., p. 178. "True happiness is an enemy TO pomp and noise"—Ib., p. 171. (2.) Examples of joint antecedents: "In unity consist the welfare and security OF every society."—Ib., p. 182. "It is our duty to be just and kind TO our fellow—creatures, and to be pious and faithful TO Him that made us."—Ib., p. 181. If the author did not mean to speak of being pious to God as well as faithful to Him, he has written incorrectly: a comma after pious, would alter both the sense and the construction. So the text, "For I am meek, and lowly in heart," is commonly perverted in our Bibles, for want of a comma after meek. The Saviour did not say, he was meek in heart: the Greek may be very literally rendered thus: "For gentle am I, and humble in heart."

OBS. 11.—Many writers seem to suppose, that no preposition can govern more than one object. Thus L. Murray, and his followers: "The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, is seen in the following instances: 'He went into the abbeys, halls, and public buildings;' that is, 'He went into the abbeys, he went into the halls, and he went into the public buildings.'—'He also went through all the streets, and lanes of the city;' that is, 'Through all the streets, and through all the lanes,' &c."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 219. See the same interpretations in Ingersoll's Gram., p. 155; Merchant's, 100; Picket's, 211; Alger's, 73; Fish's, 147; Guy's, 91; Adams's, 82; R. C. Smith's, 183; Hamlin's, 105; Putnam's, 139; Weld's, 292. Now it is plain, that in neither of these examples is there any such ellipsis at all. Of the three prepositions, the first governs three nouns; the second, two; and the third, one only. But the last, (which is of,) has two antecedents, streets and lanes, the comma after streets being wrong; for the author does not speak of all the streets in the world, but of all the streets and lanes of a particular city. Dr. Ash has the same example without the comma, and supposes it only an ellipsis of the preposition through, and even that supposition is absurd. He also furnished the former example, to show an ellipsis, not of the verb went, but only of the preposition into; and in this too he was utterly wrong. See Ash's Gram., p. 100. Bicknell also, whose grammar appeared five years before Murray's, confessedly copied the same examples from Ash; and repeated, not the verb and its nominative, but only the prepositions through and into, agreeably to Ash's erroneous notion. See his Grammatical Wreath, Part i, p. 124. Again the principles of Murray's supposed ellipses, are as inconsistent with each other, as they are severally absurd. Had the author explained the second example according to his notion of the first, he should have made it to mean, 'He also went through all the streets of the city, and he also went through all the lanes of the city.' What a pretty idea is this for a principle of grammar! And what a multitude of admirers are pretending to carry it out in parsing! One of the latest writers on grammar says, that, "Between him and me" signifies, "Between him, and between me!"—Wright's Philosophical Gram., p. 206. And an other absurdly resolves a simple sentence into a compound one, thus: "'There was a difficulty between John, and his brother.' That is, there was a difficulty between John, and there was a difficulty between his brother."—James Brown's English Syntax, p. 127; and again, p. 130.

OBS. 12.—Two prepositions are not unfrequently connected by a conjunction, and that for different purposes, thus: (1.) To express two different relations at once; as, "The picture of my travels in and around Michigan."—Society in America, i, 231. (2.) To suggest an alternative in the relation affirmed; as, "The action will be fully accomplished at or before the time."—Murray's Gram., i, 72. Again: "The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time."—Ib.; and Felton's Gram., p. 23. With and without being direct opposites, this alternative is a thing of course, and the phrase is an idle truism. (3.) To express two relations so as to affirm the one and deny the other; as, "Captain, yourself are the fittest to live and reign not over, but next and immediately under the people."—Dryden. Here, perhaps, "the people" may be understood after over. (4.) To suggest a mere alternative of words; as, "NEGATIVELY, adv. With or by denial."—Webster's Dict. (5.) To add a similar word, for aid or force; as, "Hence adverbs of time were necessary, over and above the tenses."—See Murray's Gram., p. 116. "To take effect from and after the first day of May."—Newspaper.

OBS. 13.—In some instances, two prepositions come directly together, so as jointly to express a sort of compound relation between what precedes the one and what follows the other: as, "And they shall sever the wicked from among the just."—Matt., xiii, 49. "Moses brought out all the rods from before the Lord."—Numb., xvii, 9. "Come out from among them."—2 Cor., vi, 17. "From Judea, and from beyond Jordan."—Matt. iv, 25. "Nor a lawgiver from between his feet."—Gen., xlix, 10. Thus the preposition from, being itself adapted to the ideas of motion and separation, easily coincides with any preposition of place, to express this sort of relation; the terms however have a limited application, being used only between a verb and a noun, because the relation itself is between motion and the place of its beginning: as, "The sand slided from beneath my feet."—Dr. Johnson. In this manner, we may form complex prepositions beginning with from, to the number of about thirty; as, from amidst, from around, from before, from behind, &c. Besides these, there are several others, of a more questionable character, which are sometimes referred to the same class; as, according to, as to, as for, because of, instead of, off of, out of, over against, and round about. Most or all of these are sometimes resolved in a different way, upon the assumption that the former word is an adverb; yet we occasionally find some of them compounded by the hyphen: as, "Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius and Petreius, who lay over-against him, decamp suddenly."—Rowe's Lucan, Argument to B. iv. But the common fashion is, to write them separately; as, "One thing is set over against an other."—Bible.

OBS. 14.—It is not easy to fix a principle by which prepositions may in all cases be distinguished from adverbs. The latter, we say, do not govern the objective case; and if we add, that the former do severally require some object after them, it is clear that any word which precedes a preposition, must needs be something else than a preposition. But this destroys all the doctrine of the preceding paragraph, and admits of no such thing as a complex preposition; whereas that doctrine is acknowledged, to some extent or other, by every one of our grammarians, not excepting even those whose counter-assertions leave no room for it. Under these circumstances, I see no better way, than to refer the student to the definitions of these parts of speech, to exhibit examples in all needful variety, and then let him judge for himself what disposition ought to be made of those words which different grammarians parse differently.

OBS. 15.—If our prepositions were to be divided into classes, the most useful distinction would be, to divide them into Single and Double. The distinction which some writers make, who divide them into "Separable and Inseparable," is of no use at all in parsing, because the latter are mere syllables; and the idea of S. R. Hall, who divides them into "Possessive and Relative," is positively absurd; for he can show us only one of the former kind, and that one, (the word of,) is not always such. A Double Preposition, if such a thing is admissible, is one that consists of two words which in syntactical parsing must be taken together, because they jointly express the relation between two other terms; as, "The waters were dried up from off the earth."—Gen., viii, 13. "The clergy kept this charge from off us."—Leslie, on Tithes, p. 221. "Confidence in an unfaithful man in time of trouble, is like a broken tooth, and a foot out of joint."—Prov., xxv, 19. "The beam out of the timber shall answer it."—Hab., ii, 11. Off and out are most commonly adverbs, but neither of them can be called an adverb here.

OBS. 16.—Again, if according to or as to is a preposition, then is according or as a preposition also, although it does not of itself govern the objective case. As, thus used, is called a conjunction by some, an adverb by others. Dr. Webster considers according to be always a participle, and expressly says, "It is never a preposition."—Octavo Dict. The following is an instance in which, if it is not a preposition, it is a participle: "This is a construction not according to the rules of grammar."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 22. But according to and contrary to are expressed in Latin and Greek by single prepositions; and if to alone is the preposition in English, then both according and contrary must, in many instances, be adverbs. Example: "For dost thou sit as judging me according to the law, and contrary to law command me to be smitten?" (See the Greek of Acts, xxiii, 3.) Contrary, though literally an adjective, is often made either an adverb, or a part of a complex preposition, unless the grammarians are generally in error respecting it: as, "Ha dares not act contrary to his instructions."— Murray's Key, p. 179.

OBS. 17.—J. W. Wright, with some appearance of analogy on his side, but none of usage, everywhere adds ly to the questionable word according; as, "We are usually estimated accordingly to our company."— Philosophical Gram., p. 127. "Accordingly to the forms in which they are employed."—Ib., p. 137. "Accordingly to the above principles, the adjective ACCORDING (or agreeable) is frequently, but improperly, substituted for the adverb ACCORDINGLY (or agreeably.)"—Ib., p. 145. The word contrary he does not notice; but, on the same principle, he would doubtless say, "He dares not act contrarily to his instructions." We say indeed, "He acted agreeably to his instructions;"—and not, "He acted agreeable to his instructions." It must also be admitted, that the adverbs accordingly and contrarily are both of them good English words. If these were adopted, where the character of according and contrary is disputable, there would indeed be no longer any occasion to call these latter either adverbs or prepositions. But the fact is, that no good writers have yet preferred them, in such phrases; and the adverbial ending ly gives an additional syllable to a word that seems already quite too long.

OBS. 18.—Instead is reckoned an adverb by some, a preposition by others; and a few write instead-of with a needless hyphen. The best way of settling the grammatical question respecting this term, is, to write the noun stead as a separate word, governed by in. Bating the respect that is due to anomalous usage, there would be more propriety in compounding in quest of, in lieu of, and many similar phrases. For stead is not always followed by of, nor always preceded by in, nor always made part of a compound. We say, in our stead, in your stead, in their stead, &c.; but lieu, which has the same meaning as stead, is much more limited in construction. Examples: "In the stead of sinners, He, a divine and human person, suffered."—Barnes's Notes. "Christ suffered in the place and stead of sinners."—Ib. "For, in its primary sense, is pro, loco alterius, in the stead or place of another."—Lowth's Gram., p. 65.

   "If it may stand him more in stead to lie."
        —Milt., P. L., B. i, l. 473.

    "But here thy sword can do thee little stead."
        —Id., Comus, l. 611.

OBS. 19.—From forth and from out are two poetical phrases, apparently synonymous, in which there is a fanciful transposition of the terms, and perhaps a change of forth and out from adverbs to prepositions. Each phrase is equivalent in meaning to out of or out from. Forth, under other circumstances, is never a preposition; though out, perhaps, may be. We speak as familiarly of going out doors, as of going up stairs, or down cellar. Hence from out may be parsed as a complex preposition, though the other phrase should seem to be a mere example of hyperbaton:

"I saw from out the wave her structures rise."—Byron.

"Peeping from forth their alleys green."—Collins.

OBS. 20.—"Out of and as to," says one grammarian, "are properly prepositions, although they are double words. They may be called compound prepositions."—Cooper's Gram., p. 103. I have called the complex prepositions double rather than compound, because several of the single prepositions are compound words; as, into, notwithstanding, overthwart, throughout, upon, within, without. And even some of these may follow the preposition from; as, "If he shall have removed from within the limits of this state." But in and to, up and on, with and in, are not always compounded when they come together, because the sense may positively demand that the former be taken as an adverb, and the latter only as a preposition: as, "I will come in to him, and will sup with him."—Rev., iii, 20. "A statue of Venus was set up on Mount Calvary."—M'Ilvaine's Lectures, p. 332. "The troubles which we meet with in the world."—Blair. And even two prepositions may be brought together without union or coalescence; because the object of the first one may be expressed or understood before it: as, "The man whom you spoke within the street;"—"The treatment you complain of on this occasion;"—"The house that you live in in the summer;"—"Such a dress as she had on in the evening."

OBS. 21.—Some grammarians assume, that, "Two prepositions in immediate succession require a noun to be understood between them; as, 'Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes, From betwixt two aged oaks.'—'The mingling notes came softened from below.'"—Nutting's Gram., p. 105. This author would probably understand here—"From the space betwixt two aged oaks;"—"came softened from the region below us." But he did not consider all the examples that are included in his proposition; nor did he rightly regard even those which he cites. The doctrine will be found a very awkward one in practice; and an other objection to it is, that most of the ellipses which it supposes, are entirely imaginary. If there were truth in his assumption, the compounding of prepositions would be positively precluded. The terms over-against and round-about are sometimes written with the hyphen, and perhaps it would be well if all the complex prepositions were regularly compounded; but, as I before suggested, such is not the present fashion of writing them, and the general usage is not to be controlled by what any individual may think.

OBS. 22.—Instances may, doubtless, occur, in which the object of a preposition is suppressed by ellipsis, when an other preposition follows, so as to bring together two that do not denote a compound relation, and do not, in any wise, form one complex preposition. Of such suppression, the following is an example; and, I think, a double one: "They take pronouns after instead of before them."—Fowler, E. Gram., §521. This may be interpreted to mean, and probably does mean—"They take pronouns after them in stead of taking them before them."

OBS. 23.—In some instances, the words in, on, of, for, to, with, and others commonly reckoned prepositions, are used after infinitives or participles, in a sort of adverbial construction, because they do not govern any objective; yet not exactly in the usual sense of adverbs, because they evidently express the relation between the verb or participle and a nominative or objective going before. Examples: "Houses are built to live in, and not to look on; therefore let use be preferred before uniformity, except where both may be had."—Ld. Kames. "These are not mysteries for ordinary readers to be let into."—ADDISON: Joh. Dict., w. Let. "Heaven is worth dying for, though earth is not worth living for."—R. Hall. "What! have ye not houses to eat and to drink in?"—1 Cor., xi, 22. This is a very peculiar idiom of our language; and if we say, "Have ye not houses in which to eat and to drink?" we form an other which is not much less so. Greek: "[Greek: Mæ gar oikias ouk echete eis to esthiein kai pinein];" Latin: "Num enim domos non habetis ad manducandum et bibendum?"—Leusden. "N'avez vous pas des maisons pour manger et pour boire?"—French Bible.[315]

OBS. 24.—In OBS. 10th, of Chapter Fourth, on Adjectives, it was shown that words of place, (such as, above, below, beneath, under, and the like,) are sometimes set before nouns in the character of adjectives, and not of prepositions: as, "In the above list,"—"From the above list."—Bullions', E. Gram., p. 70. To the class of adjectives also, rather than to that of adverbs, may some such words be referred, when, without governing the objective case, they are put after nouns to signify place: as, "The way of life is above to the wise, that he may depart from hell beneath."—Prov., xv, 24. "Of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath."—Exod., xx, 4.

   "Say first, of God above or man below,
    What can we reason but from what we know?"—Pope.

LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

The following are the principal prepositions, arranged alphabetically: Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, athwart;—Bating, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by;—Concerning;—Down, during;—Ere, except, excepting;—For, from;—In, into;—Mid or midst;—Notwithstanding;—Of, off,[316] on, out, over, overthwart;—Past, pending;—Regarding, respecting, round;—Since;—Through, throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards;—Under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon;—With, within, without.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Grammarians differ considerably in their tables of the English prepositions. Nor are they all of one opinion, concerning either the characteristics of this part of speech, or the particular instances in which the acknowledged properties of a preposition are to be found. Some teach that, "Every preposition requires an objective case after it."—Lennie, p. 50; Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 69. In opposition to this, I suppose that the preposition to may take an infinitive verb after it; that about also may be a preposition, in the phrase, "about to write;" that about, above, after, against, by, for, from, in, of, and some other prepositions, may govern participles, as such; (i. e. without making them nouns, or cases;) and, lastly, that after a preposition an adverb is sometimes construed substantively, and yet is indeclinable; as, for once, from afar, from above, at unawares.

OBS. 2.—The writers just quoted, proceed to say: "When a preposition does not govern an objective case, it becomes an adverb; as, 'He rides about.' But in such phrases as, cast up, hold out, fall on, the words up, out, and on, must be considered as a part of the verb, rather than as prepositions or adverbs."—Lennie's Prin. of E. Gram., p. 50; Bullions's, p. 59; his Analyt. and P. Gram., p. 109. Both these sentences are erroneous: the one, more particularly so, in expression; the other, in doctrine. As the preposition is chiefly distinguished by its regimen, it is absurd to speak of it as governing nothing; yet it does not always govern the objective case, for participles and infinitives have no cases. About, up, out, and on, as here cited, are all of them adverbs; and so are all other particles that thus qualify verbs, without governing any thing. L. Murray grossly errs when ha assumes that, "The distinct component parts of such phrases as, to cast up, to fall on, to bear oat, to give over, &c., are no guide to the sense of the whole." Surely, "to cast up" is to cast somehow, though the meaning of the phrase may be "to compute." By this author, and some others, all such adverbs are absurdly called prepositions, and are also as absurdly declared to be parts of the preceding verbs! See Murray's Gram., p. 117; W. Allen's, 179; Kirkham's, 95; R. G. Smith's, 93; Fisk's, 86; Butler's, 63; Wells's, 146.

OBS. 3—In comparing the different English grammars now in use, we often find the primary distinction of the parts of speech, and every thing that depends upon it, greatly perplexed by the fancied ellipses, and forced constructions, to which their authors resort. Thus Kirkham: "Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nouns are understood. 'He rides about;' that is, about the town, country, or something else. 'She was near [the act or misfortune of] falling;' 'But do not after [that time or event] lay the blame on me.' 'He came down [the ascent] from the hill;' 'They lifted him up [the ascent] out of the pit.' 'The angels above;'—above us—'Above these lower heavens, to us invisible, or dimly seen.'"—Gram., p. 89. The errors of this passage are almost as numerous as the words; and those to which the doctrine leads are absolutely innumerable. That up and down, with verbs of motion, imply ascent and descent, as wisely and foolishly imply wisdom and folly, is not to be denied; but the grammatical bathos of coming "down [the ascent] from the hill" of science, should startle those whose faces are directed upward! Downward ascent is a movement worthy only of Kirkham, and his Irish rival, Joseph W. Wright. The brackets here used are Kirkham's, not mine.

OBS. 4.—"Some of the prepositions," says L. Murray, "have the appearance and effect of conjunctions: as, 'After their prisons were thrown open,' &c. 'Before I die;' 'They made haste to be prepared against their friends arrived:' but if the noun time, which is understood, be added, they will lose their conjunctive form: as, 'After [the time when] their prisons,' &c."—Octavo Gram., p. 119. Here, after, before, and against, are neither conjunctions nor prepositions, but conjunctive adverbs of time, referring to the verbs which follow them, and also, when the sentences are completed, to others antecedent. The awkward addition of "the time when," is a sheer perversion. If after, before, and the like, can ever be adverbs, they are so here, and not conjunctions, or prepositions.

OBS. 5.—But the great Compiler proceeds: "The prepositions, after, before, above, beneath, and several others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered: as, 'They had their reward soon after;' 'He died not long before;' 'He dwells above;' but if the nouns time and place be added, they will lose their adverbial form: as, 'He died not long before that time,' &c."—Ib. Now, I say, when any of the foregoing words "appear to be adverbs," they are adverbs, and, if adverbs, then not prepositions. But to consider prepositions to be adverbs, as Murray here does, or seems to do; and to suppose "the NOUNS time AND place" to be understood in the several examples here cited, as he also does, or seems to do; are singly such absurdities as no grammarian should fail to detect, and together such a knot of blunders, as ought to be wondered at, even in the Compiler's humblest copyist. In the following text, there is neither preposition nor ellipsis:

   "Above, below, without, within, around,
    Confus'd, unnumber'd multitudes are found."—Pope, on Fame.

OBS. 6.—It comports with the name and design of this work, which is a broad synopsis of grammatical criticism, to notice here one other absurdity; namely, the doctrine of "sentential nouns." There is something of this in several late grammars: as, "The prepositions, after, before, ere, since, till, and until, frequently govern sentential nouns; and after, before, since, notwithstanding, and some others, frequently govern a noun or pronoun understood. A preposition governing a sentential noun, is, by Murray and others, considered a conjunction; and a preposition governing a noun understood, an adverb."—J. L. PARKHURST: in Sanborn's Gram., p. 123. "Example: 'He will, before he dies, sway the sceptre.' He dies is a sentential noun, third person, singular number; and is governed by before; before he dies, being equivalent in meaning to before his death."—Sanborn, Gram., p. 176. "'After they had waited a long time, they departed.' After waiting."—Ib. This last solution supposes the phrase, "waiting a long time," or at least the participle waiting, to be a noun; for, upon the author's principle of equivalence, "they had waited," will otherwise be a "sentential" participle—a thing however as good and as classical as the other!

OBS. 7.—If a preposition can ever be justly said to take a sentence for its object, it is chiefly in certain ancient expressions, like the following: "For in that he died, he died unto sin once; but in that he liveth, he liveth unto God."—Rom., vi, 10. "My Spirit shall not always strive with man, for that he also is flesh."—Gen., vi, 3. "For, after that, in the wisdom of God, the world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the foolishness of preaching to save them that believe."—1 Cor., i, 21. Here, in, for, and after, are all followed by the word that; which Tooke, Webster, Frazee, and some others, will have to be "a substitute," or "pronoun," representing the sentence which follows it, and governed by the preposition. But that, in this sense, is usually, and perhaps more properly, reckoned a conjunction. And if we take it so, in, for, and after, (unless the latter be an adverb,) must either be reckoned conjunctions also, or be supposed to govern sentences. The expressions however are little used; because "in that" is nearly equivalent to as; "for that" can be better expressed by because; and "after that," which is equivalent to [Greek: epeide], postquam, may well be rendered by the term, seeing that, or since. "Before that Philip called thee," is a similar example; but "that" is here needless, and "before" may be parsed as a conjunctive adverb of time. I have one example more: "But, besides that he attempted it formerly with no success, it is certain the Venetians keep too watchful an eye," &c.—Addison. This is good English, but the word "besides" if it be not a conjunction, may as well be called an adverb, as a preposition.

OBS. 8.—There are but few words in the list of prepositions, that are not sometimes used as being of some other part of speech. Thus bating, excepting, concerning, touching, respecting, during, pending, and a part of the compound notwithstanding, are literally participles; and some writers, in opposition to general custom, refer them always to their original class. Unlike most other prepositions, they do not refer to place, but rather to action, state, or duration; for, even as prepositions, they are still allied to participles. Yet to suppose them always participles, as would Dr. Webster and some others, is impracticable. Examples: "They speak concerning virtue."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 69. Here concerning cannot be a participle, because its antecedent term is a verb, and the meaning is, "they speak of virtue." "They are bound during life." that is, durante vitâ, life continuing, or, as long as life lasts. So, "Notwithstanding this," i.e., "hoc non obstante," this not hindering. Here the nature of the construction seems to depend on the order of the words. "Since he had succeeded, notwithstanding them, peaceably to the throne."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 31. "This is a correct English idiom, Dr. Lowth's criticism, to the contrary notwithstanding."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 85. In the phrase, "notwithstanding them," the former word is clearly a preposition governing the latter; but Dr. Webster doubtless supposed the word "criticism" to be in the nominative case, put absolute with the participle: and so it would have been, had he written not withstanding as two words, like "non obstante;" but the compound word notwithstanding is not a participle, because there is no verb to notwithstand. But notwithstanding, when placed before a nominative, or before the conjunction that, is a conjunction, and, as such, must be rendered in Latin by tamen, yet, quamvis, although, or nihilominus, nevertheless.

OBS. 9.—For, when it signifies because, is a conjunction: as, "Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth."—Prov., xxvii, 1. For has this meaning, and, according to Dr. Johnson, is a conjunction, when it precedes that; as, "Yet for that the worst men are most ready to remove, I would wish them chosen by discretion of wise men."—Spenser. The phrase, as I have before suggested, is almost obsolete; but Murray, in one place, adopts it from Dr. Beattie: "For that those parts of the verb are not properly called tenses."—Octavo Gram., p. 75. How he would have parsed it, does not appear. But both words are connectives. And, from the analogy of those terms which serve as links to other terms, I should incline to take for that, in that, after that, and besides that, (in which a known conjunction is put last,) as complex conjunctions; and also, to take as for, as to, and because of, (in which a known preposition is put last,) as complex prepositions. But there are other regular and equivalent expressions that ought in general to be preferred to any or all of these.

OBS. 10.—Several words besides those contained in the list above, are (or have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions: as, A, (chiefly used before participles,) abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, alongside, anear, aneath, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, atween, atwixt, besouth, bywest, cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, maugre, minus, onto, opposite, outside, per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, withal, withinside.

OBS. 11.—Dr. Lowth says, "The particle a before participles, in the phrases a coming, a going, a walking, a shooting, &c. and before nouns, as a-bed, a-board, a-shore, a-foot, &c. seems to be a true and genuine preposition, a little disguised by familiar use and quick pronunciation. Dr. Wallis supposes it to be the preposition at. I rather think it is the preposition on."—Lowth's Gram., p. 65; Churchill's, 268. There is no need of supposing it to be either. It is not from on; for in Saxon it sometimes accompanied on: as in the phrase, "on á weoruld;" that is, "on to ages;" or, as Wickliffe rendered it, "into worldis;" or, as our version has it, "for ever." See Luke, i, 55. This preposition was in use long before either a or an, as an article, appeared in its present form in the language; and, for ought I can discover, it may be as old as either on or at. An, too, is found to have had at times the sense and construction of in or on; and this usage is, beyond doubt, older than that which makes it an article. On, however, was an exceedingly common preposition in Saxon, being used almost always where we now put on, in, into, upon, or among, and sometimes, for with or by; so, sometimes, where a was afterwards used: thus, "What in the Saxon Gospel of John, is, 'Ic wylle gan on fixoth,' is, in the English version, 'I go a fishing.' Chap, xxi, ver. 3." See Lowth's Gram., p. 65; Churchill's, 269. And a is now sometimes equivalent to on; as, "He would have a learned University make Barbarisms a purpose."—Bentley, Diss. on Phalaris, p. 223. That is,—"on purpose." How absurdly then do some grammarians interpret the foregoing text!—"I go on a fishing."—Alden's Gram., p. 117. "I go on a fishing voyage or business."—Murray's Gram., p. 221; Merchant's, 101. "It may not be improper," says Churchill in another place, "to observe here, that the preposition on, is too frequently pronounced as if it were the vowel a, in ordinary conversation; and this corruption is [has] become so prevalent, that I have even met with 'laid it a oneside' in a periodical publication. It should have been 'on one side,' if the expression were meant to be particular; 'aside,' if general."—New Gram., p. 345. By these writers, a is also supposed to be sometimes a corruption of of: as, "Much in the same manner, Thomas of Becket, by very frequent and familiar use, became Thomas à Becket; and one of the clock, or perhaps on the clock, is written one o'clock, but pronounced one a clock. The phrases with a before a participle are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse. They are established by long usage, and good authority; and there seems to be no reason, why they should be utterly rejected."—Lowth's Gram., p. 66. "Much in the same manner, John of Nokes, and John of Styles, become John a Nokes, and John a Styles: and one of the clock, or rather on the clock, is written one o'clock, but pronounced one a clock. The phrases with a before participles, are out of use in the solemn style; but still prevail in familiar discourse."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 269.

OBS. 12.—The following are examples of the less usual prepositions, a, and others that begin with a: "And he set—three thousand and six hundred overseers to set the people a work."—2 Chron., ii, 18. "Who goeth a warfare any time at his own charges?"—1 Cor., ix, 7. "And the mixed multitude that was among them fell a lusting."—Num., xi, 4.

   "And sweet Billy Dimond, a patting his hair up."
        —Feast of the Poets, p. 17.

    "The god fell a laughing to see his mistake."
        —Ib., p. 18.

    "You'd have thought 'twas the bishops or judges a coming."
        —Ib., p. 22.

"A place on the lower deck, abaft the mainmast."—Gregory's Dict. "A moment gazed adown the dale."—Scott, L. L., p. 10. "Adown Strath-Gartney's valley broad."—Ib., p. 84. "For afore the harvest, when the bud is perfect," &c.—Isaiah, xviii, 5. "Where the great luminary aloof the vulgar constellations thick,"—See Milton's Paradise Lost, B. iii, l. 576. "The great luminary aloft the vulgar constellations thick."—Johnson's Dict., w. Aloft. "Captain Falconer having previously gone alongside, the Constitution."—Newspaper. "Seventeen ships sailed for New England, and aboard these above fifteen hundred persons."—Robertson's Amer., ii, 429. "There is a willow grows askant the brook:" Or, as in some editions: "There is a willow grows aslant the brook."—SHAK., Hamlet, Act iv, 7. "Aslant the dew-bright earth."—Thomson. "Swift as meteors glide aslope a summer eve."—Fenton. "Aneath the heavy rain."—James Hogg, "With his magic spectacles astride his nose."—Merchant's Criticisms.

"Atween his downy wings be furnished, there." —Wordsworth's Poems, p. 147.

    "And there a season atween June and May."
        —Castle of Indolence, C. i, st. 2.

OBS. 13.—The following are examples of rather unusual prepositions beginning with b, c, or d; "Or where wild-meeting oceans boil besouth Magellan."—Burns. "Whereupon grew that by-word, used by the Irish, that they dwelt by-west the law, which dwelt beyond the river of the Barrow."—DAVIES: in Joh. Dict. Here Johnson calls by-west a noun substantive, and Webster, as improperly, marks it for an adverb. No hyphen is needed in byword or bywest. The first syllable of the latter is pronounced be, and ought to be written so, if "besouth" is right.

   "From Cephalonia cross the surgy main
    Philætius late arrived, a faithful swain."
        —Pope, Odys., B. xx, l. 234.

    "And cross their limits cut a sloping way,
    Which the twelve signs in beauteous order sway."
        —Dryden's Virgil.

"A fox was taking a walk one night cross a village."—L'Estrange. "The enemy had cut down great trees cross the ways."—Knolles. "DEHORS, prep. [Fr.] Without: as, 'dehors the land.' Blackstone."—Worcester's Dict., 8vo. "You have believed, despite too our physical conformation."—Bulwer.

   "And Roderick shall his welcome make,
    Despite old spleen, for Douglas' sake."
        —Scott, L. L., C. ii, st. 26.

OBS. 14.—The following quotations illustrate further the list of unusual prepositions: "And she would be often weeping inside the room while George was amusing himself without."—Anna Ross, p. 81. "Several nuts grow closely together, inside this prickly covering."—Jacob Abbot. "An other boy asked why the peachstone was not outside the peach."—Id. "As if listening to the sounds withinside it."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 214. "Sir Knight, you well might mark the mound, Left hand the town."—Scott's Marmion. "Thus Butler, maugre his wicked intention, sent them home again."—Sewel's Hist., p. 256. "And, maugre all that can be said in its favour."—Stone, on Freemasonry, p. 121. "And, maugre the authority of Sterne, I even doubt its benevolence."—West's Letters, p. 29.

   "I through the ample air in triumph high
    Shall lead Hell captive maugre Hell."
        —Milton's P. L., B. iii, l. 255.

"When Mr. Seaman arose in the morning, he found himself minus his coat, vest, pocket-handkerchief, and tobacco-box."—Newspaper. "Throw some coals onto the fire."—FORBY: Worcester's Dict., w. Onto. "Flour, at $4 per barrel."—Preston's Book-Keeping. "Which amount, per invoice, to $4000."—Ib. "To Smiths is the substantive Smiths, plus the preposition to."—Fowler's E. Gram., §33. "The Mayor of Lynn versus Turner."—Cowper's Reports, p. 86. "Slaves were imported from Africa, via Cuba."—Society in America, i, 327. "Pending the discussion of this subject, a memorial was presented."—Gov. Everett.

   "Darts his experienced eye and soon traverse
    The whole battalion views their order due."—Milton.

    "Because, when thorough deserts vast
    And regions desolate they past."—Hudibras.

OBS. 15.—Minus, less, plus, more, per, by, versus, towards, or against, and viâ, by the way of, are Latin words; and it is not very consistent with the purity of our tongue, to use them as above. Sans, without, is French, and not now heard with us. Afore for before, atween for between, traverse for across, thorough for through, and withal for with, are obsolete. Withal was never placed before its object, but was once very common at the end of a sentence. I think it not properly a preposition, but rather an adverb. It occurs in Shakspeare, and so does sans; as,

   "I did laugh, sans intermission, an hour by his dial."
        —As You Like It.

    "I pr'ythee, whom doth he trot withal?"
        —Ib.

    "Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans every thing."
        —Ib.

OBS. 16.—Of the propriety and the nature of such expressions as the following, the reader may now judge for himself: "In consideration of what passes sometimes within-side of those vehicles."—Spectator, No. 533. "Watch over yourself, and let nothing throw you off from your guard."—District School, p. 54. "The windows broken, the door off from the hinges, the roof open and leaky."—Ib., p. 71. "He was always a shrewd observer of men, in and out of power."—Knapp's Life of Burr, p. viii. "Who had never been broken in to the experience of sea voyages."—Timothy Flint. "And there came a fire out from before the Lord."—Leviticus, ix, 24. "Because eight readers out of ten, it is believed, forget it."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 32. "Fifty days after the Passover, and their coming out of Egypt."—Watts's Script. Hist., p. 57. "As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people."—Psal., cxxv, 2. "Literally, 'I proceeded forth from out of God and am come.'"—Gurney's Essays, p. 161. "But he that came down from (or from out of) heaven."—Ibid.

   "Here none the last funereal rights receive;
    To be cast forth the camp, is all their friends can give."
        —Rowe's Lucan, vi, 166.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS X.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Tenth Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the ARTICLES, NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, PRONOUNS, VERBS, PARTICIPLES, ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, and PREPOSITIONS.

The definitions to be given in the Tenth Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and one for an interjection. Thus:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil."—Maxims.

Never is an adverb of time. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long? How soon? or, How often? including these which ask.

Adventure is a regular active-intransitive verb, from adventure, adventured, adventuring, adventured; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, singular (or it may be plural) number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action that has no person or thing for its object. 4. The imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

On is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Too is an adverb of degree. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of decree are those which answer to the question, How much? How little? or to the idea of more or less.

Near is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared, near, nearer, 2.[sic—KTH] nearest or next. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.

An is the indefinite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one.

Approach is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

To is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

What is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun. 2. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or stats of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Is is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being. 4. The indicative mood is that form of a verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The present tense is that which expresses what now exists, or is taking place. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The singular number is that which denotes but one.

Evil is a common adjective, of the positive degree; compared irregularly, bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst. 1. An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 2. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation. 3. The positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"My Lord, I do here, in the name of all the learned and polite persons of the nation, complain to your Lordship, as first minister, that our language is imperfect; that its daily improvements are by no means in proportion to its daily corruptions; that the pretenders to polish and refine it, have chiefly multiplied abuses and absurdities; and that, in many instances, it offends against every part of grammar."—Dean Swift, to the Earl of Oxford.

"Swift must be allowed to have been a good judge of this matter; to which he was himself very attentive, both in his own writings, and in his remarks upon those of his friends: He is one of the most correct, and perhaps [he is] the best, of our prose writers. Indeed the justness of this complaint, as far as I can find, hath never yet been questioned; and yet no effectual method hath hitherto been taken to redress the grievance which was the object of it."—Lowth's Gram., p. iv.

"The only proper use to be made of the blemishes which occur in the writings of such authors, [as Addison and Swift—authors whose 'faults are overbalanced by high beauties'—] is, to point out to those who apply themselves to the study of composition, some of the rules which they ought to observe for avoiding such errors; and to render them sensible of the necessity of strict attention to language and style."—Blair's Rhet., p. 233.

   "Thee, therefore, and with thee myself I weep,
    For thee and me I mourn in anguish deep."—Pope's Homer.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"The southern corner of Europe, comprehended between the thirty-sixth and fortieth degrees of latitude, bordering on Epirus and Macedonia towards the north, and on other sides surrounded by the sea, was inhabited, above eighteen centuries before the Christian era, by many small tribes of hunters and shepherds, among whom the Pelasgi and Hellenes were the most numerous and powerful."—Gillies, Gr., p. 12.

"In a vigorous exertion of memory, ideal presence is exceedingly distinct: thus, when a man, entirely occupied with some event that made a deep impression, forgets himself, he perceives every thing as passing before him, and has a consciousness of presence, similar to that of a spectator."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 88.

"Each planet revolves about its own axis in a given time; and each moves round the sun, in an orbit nearly circular, and in a time proportioned to its distance. Their velocities, directed by an established law, are perpetually changing by regular accelerations and retardations."—Ib., i, 271.

"You may as well go about to turn the sun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock's feather."—Shak.

"Ch. Justice. I sent for you, when there were matters against you for your life, to come speak with me. Falstaff. As I was then advised by my learned counsel in the laws of this land-service, I did not come."—Id., 2. Hen. IV, Act i, Sc. 2.

"It is surprising to see the images of the mind stamped upon the aspect; to see the cheeks take the die of the passions and appear in all the colors of thought."—Collier.

    —————"Even from out thy slime
    The monsters of the deep are made."—Byron.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"With a mind weary of conjecture, fatigued by doubt, sick of disputation, eager for knowledge, anxious for certainty, and unable to attain it by the best use of my reason in matters of the utmost importance, I have long ago turned my thoughts to an impartial examination of the proofs on which revealed religion is grounded, and I am convinced of its truth."—Bp. Watson's Apology, p. 69.

"The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be."—Gen., xlix, 10.

"Again, ye have heard that it hath been said by them of old time, thou shalt not forswear thyself, but shalt perform unto the Lord thine oaths. But I say unto you, Swear not at all: neither by heaven; for it is God's throne: nor by the earth; for it is his footstool: neither by Jerusalem; for it is the city of the great King. Neither shalt thou swear by thy head; because thou canst not make one hair white or black."—Matt., v, 33—36.

"Refined manners, and polite behaviour, must not be deemed altogether artificial: men who, inured to the sweets of society, cultivate humanity, find an elegant pleasure in preferring others, and making them happy, of which the proud, the selfish, scarcely have a conception."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 105.

   "Bacchus, that first from out the purple grape
    Crush'd the sweet poison of misused wine."—Milton.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING PREPOSITIONS.

"Nouns are often formed by participles."—L. Murray's Index, Octavo
Gram., ii, 290.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the relation here intended, between are formed and participles, is not well signified by the preposition by. But, according to Observation 7th, on this part of speech, "The prepositions have, from their own nature, or from custom, such an adaptation to particular terms and relations, that they can seldom be used one for an other without manifest impropriety." This relation would be better expressed by from; thus, "Nouns are often formed from participles."]

"What tenses are formed on the perfect participle?"—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 104. "Which tense is formed on the present?"—Ibid. "When a noun or pronoun is placed before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence," &c.—Ib., p. 150; Murray, 145; and others. "If the addition consists in two or more words."—Murray's Gram., p. 176; Ingersoll's, 177. "The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the rest of the sentence."—Mur., p. 184; Ing., 244; and others. "For the great satisfaction of the reader, we shall present him with a variety of false constructions."—Murray's Gram., p. 189. "For your satisfaction, I shall present you with a variety of false constructions."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 258. "I shall here present you with a scale of derivation."—Bucke's Gram., p. 81. "These two manners of representation in respect of number."—Lowth's Gram., p. 15; Churchill's, 57; "There are certain adjectives, which seem to be derived without any variation from verbs."—Lowth's Gram., p. 89. "Or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof of others."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 253. "For being more studious than any other pupil of the school."—Ib., p. 226. "From misunderstanding the directions, we lost our way."—Ib., p. 201. "These people reduced the greater part of the island to their own power."—Ib., p. 261.[317] "The principal accent distinguishes one syllable in a word from the rest."—Murray's Gram., p. 236. "Just numbers are in unison to the human mind."—Ib., p. 298. "We must accept of sound instead of sense."—Ib., p. 298. "Also, instead for consultation, he uses consult."—Priestley's Gram., p. 143. "This ablative seems to be governed of a preposition understood."—Walker's Particles, p. 268. "That my father may not hear on't by some means or other."—Ib., p. 257. "And besides, my wife would hear on't by some means."—Ib., p. 81. "For insisting in a requisition is so odious to them."—Robertson's Amer., i, 206. "Based in the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality."—Scholar's Manual. "Very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the spelling book."—Murray's Gram., p. 21. "They do not cut it off: except in a few words; as, due, duly, &c."—Ib., p. 24. "Whether passing in such time, or then finished."—Lowth's Gram., p. 31. "It hath disgusted hundreds of that confession."—Barclay's Works, iii, 269. "But they have egregiously fallen in that inconveniency."—Ib., iii, 73. "For is not this to set nature a work?"—Ib., i, 270. "And surely that which should set all its springs a-work, is God."—ATTERBURY: in Blair's Rhet., p. 298. "He could not end his treatise without a panegyric of modern learning."—TEMPLE: ib., p. 110. "These are entirely independent on the modulation of the voice."—Walker's Elocution, p. 308. "It is dear of a penny. It is cheap of twenty pounds."—Walker's Particles, p. 274. "It will be despatched, in most occasions, without resting."—Locke. "'0, the pain the bliss in dying.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 129. "When [he is] presented with the objects or the facts."—Smith's Productive Gram., p. 5. "I will now present you with a synopsis."—Ib., p. 25. "The conjunction disjunctive connects sentences, by expressing opposition of meaning in various degrees."—Ib., p. 38. "I shall now present you with a few lines."—Bucke's Classical Gram, p. 13. "Common names of Substantives are those, which stand for things generally."—Ib., p. 31. "Adjectives in the English language admit no variety in gender, number, or case whatever, except that of the degrees of comparison."—Ib., p. 48. "Participles are adjectives formed of verbs."—Ib., p. 63. "I do love to walk out of a fine summer's evening."—Ib., p. 97. "An Ellipsis, when applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of one or more words in a sentence."—Merchant's Gram., p. 99. "The prefix to is generally placed before verbs in the infinitive mood, but before the following verbs it is properly omitted; (viz.) bid, make, see, dare, need, hear, feel, and let; as, He bid me do it; He made me learn; &c."—Ib., Stereotype Edition, p. 91; Old Edition, 85. "The infinitive sometimes follows than, after a comparison; as, I wish nothing more, than to know his fate."—Ib., p. 92. See Murray's Gram., 8vo, i, 184. "Or by prefixing the adverbs more or less, in the comparative, and most or least, in the superlative."—Merchant's Gram., p. 36. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun."—Ib., p. 17; Comly, 15. "In monosyllables the Comparative is regularly formed by adding r or er."—Perley's Gram., p. 21. "He has particularly named these, in distinction to others."—Harris's Hermes, p. vi. "To revive the decaying taste of antient Literature."—Ib., p. xv. "He found the greatest difficulty of writing."—HUME: in Priestley's Gram., p. 159.

   "And the tear that is wip'd with a little address
    May be followed perhaps with a smile."
        Webster's American Spelling-Book, p. 78;
          and Murray's E. Reader, p. 212.

CHAPTER XI—INTERJECTIONS.

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. Unimpassioned writings reject this part of speech altogether. As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to express thought, they seldom have any definable signification. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of them. Some significant words, perhaps more properly belonging to other classes, are sometimes ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected manner; as, strange! prodigious! indeed! Wells says, "Other parts of speech, used by way of exclamation, are properly regarded as interjections; as, hark! surprising! mercy!"—School Gram., 1846, p. 110. This is an evident absurdity; because it directly confounds the classes which it speaks of as being different. Nor is it right to say, "Other parts of speech are frequently used to perform the office of interjections."—Wells, 1850, p. 120.

OBS. 2.—The word interjection comes to us from the Latin name interjectio, the root of which is the verb interjicio, to throw between, to interject. Interjections are so called because they are usually thrown in between the parts of discourse, without any syntactical connexion with other words. Dr. Lowth, in his haste, happened to describe them as a kind of natural sounds "thrown in between the parts of a sentence;" and this strange blunder has been copied into almost every definition that has been given of the Interjection since. See Murray's Grammar and others. Webster's Dictionary defines it as, "A word thrown in between words connected in construction;" but of all the parts of speech none are less frequently found in this situation.

OBS. 3.—The following is a fair sample of "Smith's New Grammar,"—i.e., of "English Grammar on the Productive System,"—a new effort of quackery to scarf up with cobwebs the eyes of common sense: "Q. When I exclaim, 'Oh! I have ruined my friend,' 'Alas! I fear for life,' which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to express passion or feeling? Ans. Oh! Alas! Q. What does interjection mean? Ans. Thrown between. Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh! alas! &c.? Ans. INTERJECTIONS. Q. What, then, are interjections? Ans. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker. Q. How may an interjection generally be known? Ans. By its taking an exclamation point after it: [as,] 'Oh! I have alienated my friend.'"—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 39. Of the interjection, this author gives, in his examples for parsing, fifteen other instances; but nothing can be more obvious, than that not more than one of the whole fifteen stands either "between sentences" or between the parts of any sentence! (See New Gram., pp. 40 and 96.) Can he be a competent grammarian, who does not know the meaning of between; or who, knowing it, misapplies so very plain a word?

OBS. 4.—The Interjection, which is idly claimed by sundry writers to have been the first of words at the origin of language, is now very constantly set down, among the parts of speech, as the last of the series. But, for the name of this the last of the ten sorts of words, some of our grammarians have adopted the term exclamation. Of the old and usual term interjection, a recent writer justly says, "This name is preferable to that of exclamation, for some exclamations are not interjections, and some interjections are not exclamations."—GIBBS: Fowler's E. Gram., §333.

LIST OF THE INTERJECTIONS.

The following are the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions which they are generally intended to indicate:—1. Of joy; eigh! hey! io!—2. Of sorrow; oh! ah! hoo! alas! alack! lackaday! welladay! or welaway!—3. Of wonder; heigh! ha! strange! indeed!—4. Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address; (often with a noun or pronoun in the nominative absolute;) O!—5. Of praise; well-done! good! bravo!—6. Of surprise with disapproval; whew! hoity-toity! hoida! zounds! what!—7. Of pain or fear; oh! ooh! ah! eh! O dear!—8. Of contempt; fudge! pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph!—9. Of aversion; foh! faugh! fie! fy! foy![318]—10. Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt!—11. Of calling aloud; ho! soho! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy!—12. Of exultation; ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah!—13. Of laughter; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee.—14. Of salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail!—15. Of calling to attention; ho! lo! la! law![319] look! see! behold! hark!—16. Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum!—17. Of dread or horror; oh! ha! hah! what!—18. Of languor or weariness; heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum!—19. Of stopping; hold! soft! avast! whoh!—20. Of parting; farewell! adieu! good-by! good-day!—21. Of knowing or detecting; oho! ahah! ay-ay!—22. Of interrogating; eh? ha? hey?[320]

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—With the interjections, may perhaps be reckoned hau and gee, the imperative words of teamsters driving cattle; and other similar sounds, useful under certain circumstances, but seldom found in books. Besides these, and all the foregoing, there are several others, too often heard, which are unworthy to be considered parts of a cultivated language. The frequent use of interjections savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. Philosophical writing and dispassionate discourse exclude them altogether. Yet are there several words of this kind, which in earnest utterance, animated poetry, or impassioned declamation, are not only natural, but exceedingly expressive: as, "Lift up thy voice, O daughter of Gallim; cause it to be heard unto Laish, O poor Anathoth."—Isaiah, x, 30. "Alas, alas, that great city Babylon, that mighty city! for in one hour is thy judgement come."—Rev., xviii, 10.

   "Ah me! forbear, returns the queen, forbear;
    Oh! talk not, talk not of vain beauty's care."
        —Odyssey, B. xviii, l. 310.

OBS. 2.—Interjections, being in general little else than mere natural voices or cries, must of course be adapted to the sentiments which are uttered with them, and never carelessly confounded one with an other when we express them on paper. The adverb ay is sometimes improperly written for the interjection ah; as, ay me! for ah me! and still oftener we find oh, an interjection of sorrow, pain, or surprise,[321] written in stead of O, the proper sign of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address: as,

"Oh Happiness! our being's end and aim!" —Pope, Ess. Ep. iv, l. 1.

    "And peace, oh Virtue! peace is all thy own."
        —Id., ib., Ep. iv, l. 82.

    "Oh stay, O pride of Greece! Ulysses, stay!
    O cease thy course, and listen to our lay!"
        —Odys., B. xii, 1 222.

OBS. 3.—The chief characteristics of the interjection are independence, exclamation, and the want of any definable signification. Yet not all the words or signs which we refer to this class, will be found to coincide in all these marks of an interjection. Indeed the last, (the want of a rational meaning,) would seem to exclude them from the language; for words must needs be significant of something. Hence many grammarians deny that mere sounds of the voice have any more claim to be reckoned among the parts of speech, than the neighing of a horse, or the lowing of a cow. There is some reason in this; but in fact the reference which these sounds have to the feelings of those who utter them, is to some extent instinctively understood; and does constitute a sort of significance, though we cannot really define it. And, as their use in language, or in connexion with language, makes it necessary to assign them a place in grammar, it is certainly more proper to treat them as above, than to follow the plan of the Greek grammarians, most of whom throw all the interjections into the class of adverbs.

OBS. 4.—Significant words uttered independently, after the manner of interjections, ought in general, perhaps, to be referred to their original classes; for all such expressions may be supposed elliptical: as, "Order! gentlemen, order!" i.e., "Come to order,"—or, "Keep order." "Silence!" i.e., "Preserve silence." "Out! out!" i.e., "Get out,"—or, "Clear out!" (See Obs. 5th and 6th, upon Adverbs.)

   "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!
    Were the last words of Marmion."—Scott.

OBS. 5.—In some instances, interjections seem to be taken substantively and made nouns; as,

"I may sit in a corner, and cry hey-ho for a husband."—Shak.

So, according to James White, in his Essay on the Verb, is the word fie, in the following example:

"If you deny me, fie upon your law."—SHAK.: White's Verb, p. 163.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS XI.—ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Eleventh Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and ALL _their classes and modifications.

The definitions to be given in the Eleventh Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and two for an interjection. Thus_:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!"—Brown's Inst., p. 92.

O is an interjection, indicating earnestness. 1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 2. The interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is O.

Sooner is an adverb of time, of the comparative degree; compared, soon, sooner, soonest. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long? How soon? or, How often? including these which ask. 3. The comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it.

Shall is an auxiliary to fall. 1. An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion.

The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.

Earth is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

And is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition.

Stars is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.

Fall, or Shall fall, is an irregular active-intransitive verb, from fall, fell, falling, fallen; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and plural number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The plural number is that which denotes more than one.

Into is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.

Chaos is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.

LESSON I.—PARSING.

"Ah! St. Anthony preserve me!—Ah—ah—eh—eh!—Why—why—after all, your hand is not so co-o-o-old, neither. Of the two, it is rather warmer than my own. Can it be, though, that you are not dead?" "Not I."—MOLIERE: in Burgh's Speaker, p. 232.

"I'll make you change your cuckoo note, you old philosophical humdrum, you—[Beats him]—I will—[Beats him]. I'll make you say somewhat else than, 'All things are doubtful; all things are uncertain;'—[Beats him]—I will, you old fusty pedant." "Ah!—oh!—ehl—What, beat a philosopher!—Ah!—oh!—eh!"—MOLIERE: ib., p. 247.

"What! will these hands never be clean?—No more of that, my lord; no more of that. You mar all with this starting." * * * "Here is the smell of blood still.—All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh! oh! oh!"—Shak., Macbeth, Act V, Sc. 1.

   "Ha! at the gates what grisly forms appear!
    What dismal shrieks of laughter wound the ear!"—Merry.

LESSON II.—PARSING.

"Yet this may be the situation of some now known to us.—O frightful thought! O horrible image! Forbid it, O Father of mercy! If it be possible, let no creature of thine ever be the object of that wrath, against which the strength of thy whole creation united, would stand but as the moth against the thunderbolt!"—Burgh's Speaker, p. 289.

"If it be so, our God, whom we serve, is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace; and he will deliver us out of thine hand, O king. But if not, be it known unto thee, O king, that we will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up."—Daniel, iii, 17 and 18.

"Grant me patience, just Heaven!—Of all the cants which are canted in this canting world—though the cant of hypocrites may be the worst—the cant of criticism is the most tormenting!"—Sterne.

   "Ah, no! Achilles meets a shameful fate,
    Oh! how unworthy of the brave and great."—Pope.

LESSON III.—PARSING.

"O let not thy heart despise me! thou whom experience has not taught that it is misery to lose that which it is not happiness to possess."—Dr. Johnson.

"Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, Slavery! still thou art a bitter draught; and though thousands in all ages have been made to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account."—Sterne.

"Put it out of the power of truth to give you an ill character; and if any body reports you not to be an honest or a good man, let your practice give him the lie. This is all very feasible."—Antoninus.

"Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains! that we should, with joy, pleasance, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts!"—Shakspeare.

   "All these afar off stood, crying, Alas!
    Alas! and wept, and gnashed their teeth, and groaned;
    And with the owl, that on her ruins sat,
    Made dolorous concert in the ear of Night."—Pollok.

    "Snatch'd in thy prime! alas, the stroke were mild,
    Had my frail form obey'd the fate's decree!
    Blest were my lot, O Cynthio! O my child!
    Had Heaven so pleas'd, and I had died for thee!"—Shenstone.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

ERRORS RESPECTING INTERJECTIONS.

"Of chance or change, oh let not man complain."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 85.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the interjection oh, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise, is here used to indicate mere earnestness. But, according to the list of interjections, or OBS. 2d under it, the interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is O, and not oh. Therefore, oh should here be O; thus, "Of chance or change, O let not man complain."—Beattie's Minstrel, B. ii, l. 1.]

"O thou persecutor! Oh ye hypocrites."—Merchant's Gram., p. 99; et al. "Oh! thou, who touchedst Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire."—Ib., (Key,) p. 197. "Oh! happy we, surrounded by so many blessings."—Ib., (Exercises,) p. 138. "Oh! thou, who art so unmindful of thy duty."—Ib., (Key,) p. 196. "If I am wrong, oh teach my heart To find that better way."—Pope's Works. "Heus! evocate hue Davum. Ter. Hoe! call Davus out hither."—Walker's Particles, p. 155. "It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate!) which was borrowed from the religion of paganism."—Murray's Gram., p. 281. "Oh that Ishmael might live before thee!"—ALGER'S BIBLE: Gen., xvii, 18. "And he said unto him, Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Gen., xviii, 30. "And he said, Oh let not the Lord be angry."—ID., and SCOTT'S: ib., ver. 32. "Oh, my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: Gen., xliv, 18. "Oh, Virtue! how amiable thou art! I fear, alas! for my life."—Fisk's Gram., p. 89. "Ay me, they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain."—Milton's P. L., B. iv, l. 86. "Oh! that I had digged myself a cave."—FLETCHER: in Bucke's Gram., p. 78. "O, my good lord! thy comfort comes too late."—SHAK.: ib., p. 78. "The vocative takes no article; it is distinguished thus: O Pedro, Oh Peter! O Dios, Oh God!"—Bucke's Gram., p. 43. "Oh, o! But, the relative is always the same."—Cobbett's Eng. Gram., 1st Ed., p. 127. "Oh, oh! But, the relative is always the same."—Id., Edition of 1832, p. 116. "Ah hail, ye happy men!"—Jaudon's Gram., p. 116. "Oh that I had wings like a dove!"—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: Ps., lv, 6. "Oh Glorious hope! O Blessed abode!"—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 183. "Alas, Friends, how joyous is your presence."—Rev. T. Smith's Gram., p. 87. "Oh, blissful days! Ah me! how soon ye pass!"—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part I, p. 16; Part III, p. 29.

   "Oh golden days! oh bright unvalued hours!
    What bliss (did ye but know that bliss) were yours!"—Barbauld.

    "Ay me! what perils do eviron
    The man that meddles with cold iron."—Hudibras.

CHAPTER XII.—QUESTIONS.

ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.

PART SECOND, ETYMOLOGY.

[Fist] [The following questions refer almost wholly to the main text of the Etymology of this work, and are such as every student should be able to answer with readiness and accuracy, before he proceeds to any subsequent part of the study or the exercises of English grammar.]

LESSON I.—PARTS OF SPEECH.

1. Of what does Etymology treat? 2. What is meant by the term, "Parts of Speech?" 3. What are Classes, under the parts of speech? 4. What are Modifications? 5. How many and what are the parts of speech? 6. What is an article? 7. What is a noun? 8. What is an adjective? 9. What is a pronoun? 10. What is a verb? 11. What is a participle? 12. What is an adverb? 13. What is a conjunction? 14. What is a preposition? 15. What is an interjection?

LESSON II.—PARSING.

1. What is Parsing? and what relation does it bear to grammar? 2. What is a Praxis? and what is said of the word? 3. What is required of the pupil in the FIRST PRAXIS? 4. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 5. How is the following example parsed? "The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him."

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the First Chapter, or the First Praxis.]

LESSON III.—ARTICLES.

1. What is an ARTICLE? 2. Are an and a different articles, or the same? 3. When ought an to be used, and what are the examples? 4. When should a be used, and what are the examples? 5. What form of the article do the sounds of w and y require? 6. Can you repeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter? 7. Will you name the ten parts of speech, with an or a before each name? 8. When does a common noun not admit an article? 9. How is the sense of nouns commonly made indefinitely partitive? 10. Does the mere being of a thing demand the use of articles? 11. Can articles ever be used when we mean to speak of a whole species? 12. But how does an or a commonly limit the sense? 13. And how does the commonly limit the sense? 14. Which number does the limit, the singular or the plural? 15. When is the required before adjectives? 16. Why is an or a not applicable to plurals? 17. What is said of an or a before an adjective of number? 18. When, or how often, should articles be inserted? 19. What is said of needless articles? 20. What is the effect of putting one article for the other, and how shall we know which to choose? 21. How are the two articles distinguished in grammar? 22. Which is the definite article, and what does it denote? 23. Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote? 24. What modifications have the articles?

LESSON IV.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the SECOND PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road."

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Second Chapter, or the Second Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the five lessons of bad English, with which the Second Chapter concludes.]

LESSON V.—NOUNS.

1. What is a NOUN, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what general classes are nouns divided? 3. What is a proper noun? 4. What is a common noun? 5. What particular classes are included among common nouns? 6. What is a collective noun? 7. What is an abstract noun? 8. What is a verbal or participial noun? 9. What modifications have nouns? 10. What are Persons, in grammar? 11. How many persons are there, and what are they called? 12. What is the first person? 13. What is the second person? 14. What is the third person? 15. What are Numbers, in grammar? 16. How many numbers are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the singular number? 18. What is the plural number? 19. How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed? 20. How is the regular plural formed without increase of syllables? 21. How is the regular plural formed when the word gains a syllable? LESSON VI—NOUNS.

1. What are Genders, in grammar? 2. How many genders are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the masculine gender? 4. What is the feminine gender? 5. What is the neuter gender? 6. What nouns, then, are masculine? what, feminine? and what, neuter? 7. What inflection of English nouns regularly changes their gender? 8. On what are the different genders founded, and to what parts of speech do they belong? 9. When the noun is such as may be applied to either sex, how is the gender usually determined? 10. What principle of universal grammar determines the gender when both sexes are taken together? 11. What is said of the gender of nouns of multitude? 12. Under what circumstances is it common to disregard the distinction of sex? 13. In how many ways are the sexes distinguished in grammar? 14. When the gender is figurative, how is it indicated? 15. What are Cases, in grammar? 16. How many cases are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the nominative case? 18. What is the subject of a verb? 19. What is the possessive case? 20. How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 21. What is the objective case? 22. What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition? 23. What two cases of nouns are alike in form, and how are they distinguished? 24. What is the declension of a noun? 25. How do you decline the nouns, friend, man, fox, and fly?

LESSON VII—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the THIRD PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example to be parsed? "The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praise-worthy than Scott's."

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Third Chapter, or the Third Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Third Chapter concludes.]

LESSON VIII.—ADJECTIVES.

1. What is an ADJECTIVE, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what classes may adjectives be divided? 3. What is a common adjective? 4. What is a proper adjective? 5. What is a numeral adjective? 6. What is a pronominal adjective? 7. What is a participial adjective? 8. What is a compound adjective? 9. What modifications have adjectives? 10. What is comparison, in grammar? 11. How many and what are the degrees of comparison? 12. What is the positive degree? 13. What is the comparative degree? 14. What is the superlative degree? 15. What adjectives cannot be compared? 16. What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 17. How are adjectives regularly compared? 18. What principles of spelling must be observed in the comparing of adjectives? 19. To what adjectives is the regular method of comparison, by er and est, applicable? 20. Is there any other method of expressing the degrees of comparison? 21. How are the degrees of diminution, or inferiority, expressed? 22. Has the regular method of comparison any degrees of this kind? 23. Do we ever compare by adverbs those adjectives which can be compared by er and est? 24. How do you compare good? bad, evil, or ill? little? much? many? 25. How do you compare far? near? fore? hind? in? out? up? low? late? 26. What words want the positive? 27. What words want the comparative?

LESSON IX.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the FOURTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond: teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly."

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Fourth Chapter, or the Fourth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lesons of bad English, with which the Fourth Chapter concludes.]

LESSON X.—PRONOUNS.

1. What is a PRONOUN, and what is the example given? 2. How many pronouns are there? 3. How are pronouns divided? 4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. How many and what are the simple personal pronouns? 6. How many and what are the compound personal pronouns? 7. What is a relative pronoun? 8. Which are the relative pronouns? 9. What peculiarity has the relative what? 10. What is an interrogative pronoun? 11. Which are the interrogative pronouns? 12. Do who, which, and what, all ask the same question? 13. What modifications have pronouns? 14. Why are not these things defined under the head of pronouns? 15. What is the declension of a pronoun? 16. How do you decline the pronoun I? Thou? He? She? It? 17. What is said of the compound personal pronouns? 18. How do you decline the pronoun Myself? Thyself? Himself? Herself? Itself? 19. Are the interrogative pronouns declined like the simple relatives? 20. How do you decline Who? Which? What? That? As? 21. Have the compound relative pronouns any declension? 22. How do you decline Whoever? Whosoever? Whichever? Whichsoever? Whatever? Whatsoever?

LESSON XI.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the FIFTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?"

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Fifth Chapter, or the Fifth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Fifth Chapter concludes.]

LESSON XII.—VERBS.

1. What is a VERB, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are verbs called by that name? 3. Respecting an English verb, what things are to be sought in the first place? 4. What is the Present? 5. What is the Preterit? 6. What is the Imperfect Participle? 7. What is the Perfect Participle? 8. How are verbs divided, with respect to their form? 9. What is a regular verb? 10. What is an irregular verb? 11. What is a redundant verb? 12. What is a defective verb? 13. How are verbs divided, with respect to their signification? 14. What is an active-transitive verb? 15. What is an active-intransitive verb? 16. What is a passive verb? 17. What is a neuter verb? 18. What modifications have verbs? 19. What are Moods, in grammar? 20. How many moods are there, and what are they called? 21. What is the infinitive mood? 22. What is the indicative mood? 23. What is the potential mood? 24. What is the subjunctive mood? 25. What is the imperative mood?

LESSON XIII.—VERBS.

1. What are Tenses, in grammar? 2. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the present tense? 4. What is the imperfect tense? 5. What is the perfect tense? 6. What is the pluperfect tense? 7. What is the first-future tense? 8. What is the second-future tense? 9. What are the Person and Number of a verb? 10. How many persons and numbers belong to verbs? 11. Why are not these things defined under the head of verbs? 12. How are the second and third persons singular distinctively formed? 13. How are the person and number of a verb ascertained, where no peculiar ending is employed to mark them? 14. What is the conjugation of a verb? 15. What are the PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of a verb? 16. What is a verb called which wants some of these parts? 17. What is an auxiliary, in grammar? 18. What verbs are used as auxiliaries? 19. What are the inflections of the verb do, in its simple tenses? 20. What are the inflections of the verb be, in its simple tenses? 21. What are the inflections of the verb have, in its simple tenses? 22. What are the inflections and uses of shall and will? 23. What are the inflections and uses of may? 24. What are the inflections and uses of can? 25. What are the uses of must, which is uninflected? 26. To what style is the inflecting of shall, will, may, can, should, would, might, and could, now restricted?

LESSON XIV.—VERBS.

1. What is the simplest form of an English conjugation? 2. What is the first example of conjugation? 3. What are the principal parts of the verb LOVE? 4. How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood?—the indicative?—the potential?—the subjunctive?—the imperative? 9. What is the verb LOVE in the Infinitive, present?—perfect?— Indicative, present?—imperfect?—perfect?—pluperfect?—first-future?— second-future?—Potential, present?—imperfect?—perfect?—pluperfect?— Subjunctive, present?—imperfect?—Imperative, present? 24. What are its participles?

LESSON XV.—VERBS.

1. What is the synopsis of the verb LOVE, in the first person singular?—second person singular, solemn style?—third person singular?—first person plural?—second person plural?—third person plural? 7. If the second person singular of this verb be used familiarly, how should it be formed?

LESSON XVI.—VERBS.

1. What is the second example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb SEE conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb see, with the pronoun I? thou? he? we? you? they?

LESSON XVII.—VERBS.

1. What is the third example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb BE conjugated? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the man? the men?

LESSON XVIII.—VERBS.

1. What is the compound form of conjugating active or neuter verbs? 2. What peculiar meaning does this form convey? 3. What is the fourth example of conjugation? 4. What are the principal parts of the simple verb READ? 5. How is the verb READ conjugated in the compound form? 6. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE READING, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the boy? the boys?

LESSON XIX.—VERBS.

1. How are passive verbs formed? 2. What is the fifth example of conjugation? 3. How is the passive verb BE LOVED conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE LOVED, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children?

LESSON XX.—VERBS.

1. How is a verb conjugated negatively? 2. How is the form of negation exemplified by the verb love in the first person singular? 3. What is the form of negation for the solemn style, second person singular? 4. What is the form for the familiar style? 5. What is the negative form of the verb love with the pronoun he? 6. How is the verb conjugated interrogatively? 7. What is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun I? 8. What is the form of question in the solemn style, with this verb in the second person singular? 9. How are such questions asked in the familiar style? 10. What is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun he? 11. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively? 12. How is the negative question exemplified in the first person plural? 13. How is the negative question exemplified in the second person plural? 14. How is the like synopsis formed in the third person plural?

LESSON XXI.—VERBS.

1. What is an irregular verb? 2. How many simple irregular verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Arise, be, bear, beat, begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, bind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, buy, cast, chide, choose, cleave, cling, come, cost, cut, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, get, give, go, grow, have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, know, lead, leave, lend, let, lie, lose, make, meet, outdo, put, read, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, say, see, seek, sell, send, set, shed, shoe, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink, sit, slay, sling, slink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, stand, steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, swear, swim, swing, take, teach, tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, wear, win, write?

LESSON XXII.—VERBS.

1. What is a redundant verb? 2. How many redundant verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Abide, awake, belay, bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, blend, bless, blow, build, burn, burst, catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse, dare, deal, dig, dive, dream, dress, dwell, freeze, geld, gild, gird, grave, grind, hang, heave, hew, kneel, knit, lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light, mean, mow, mulet, pass, pay, pen, plead, prove, quit, rap, reave, rive, roast, saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, shear, shine, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell, thrive, throw, wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, wring? 4. What is a defective verb? 5. What verbs are defective?

LESSON XXIII.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the SIXTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness; because, properly speaking, that is not our own which is imposed upon us."

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Sixth Chapter, or the Sixth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Sixth Chapter concludes.]

LESSON XXIV.—PARTICIPLES.

1. What is a PARTICIPLE, and how is it generally formed? 2. How many kinds of participles are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the imperfect participle? 4. What is the perfect participle? 5. What is the preperfect participle? 6. How is the first or imperfect participle formed? 7. How is the second or perfect participle formed? 8. How is the third or preperfect participle formed? 9. What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest form of conjugation: Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive?

LESSON XXV.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the SEVENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed: "Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it."

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Seventh Chapter, or the Seventh Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Seventh Chapter concludes.]

LESSON XXVI.—ADVERBS.

1. What is an ADVERB, and what is the example given? 2. To what general classes may adverbs be reduced? 3. What are adverbs of time? 4. What are adverbs of place? 5. What are adverbs of degree? 6. What are adverbs of manner? 1. What are conjunctive adverbs? 8. Are all the conjunctive adverbs included in the first four classes? 9. How may the adverbs of time be subdivided? 10. How may the adverbs of place be subdivided? 11. How may the adverbs of degree be subdivided? 12. How may the adverbs of manner be subdivided? 13. What modifications have adverbs? 14. How do we compare well, badly or ill, little, much, far, and forth? 15. Of what degree is the adverb rather? 16. What is said of the comparison of adverbs by more and most, less and least?

LESSON XXVII.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the EIGHTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?"

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eighth Chapter, or the Eighth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Eighth Chapter concludes.]

LESSON XXVIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

1. What is a CONJUNCTION, and what is the example given? 2. Have we any connective words besides the conjunctions? 3. How do relative pronouns differ from other connectives? 4. How do conjunctive adverbs differ from other connectives? 5. How do conjunctions differ from other connectives? 6. How do prepositions differ from other connectives? 7. How are the conjunctions divided? 8. What is a copulative conjunction? 9. What is a disjunctive conjunction? 10. What are corresponsive conjunctions? 11. Which are the copulative conjunctions? 12. Which are the disjunctive conjunctions? 13. Which are the corresponsive conjunctions?

LESSON XXIX.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the NINTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it."

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Ninth Chapter, or the Ninth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Ninth Chapter concludes.]

LESSON XXX.—PREPOSITIONS.

1. What is a PREPOSITION, and what is the example given? 2. Are the prepositions divided into classes? 3. Have prepositions any grammatical modifications? 4. How are the prepositions arranged in the list? 5. What are the prepositions beginning with a?—with b?—with c?—with d?—with e?—with f?—with i?—with m?—with n?—with o?—with p?—with r?—with s?—with t?—with u?—with w? 21. Does this list contain all the words that are ever used in English as prepositions?

LESSON XXXI.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the TENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil?"

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Tenth Chapter, or the Tenth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Tenth Chapter concludes.]

LESSON XXXII.—INTERJECTIONS.

1. What is an INTERJECTION, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are interjections so called? 3. How are the interjections arranged in the list? 4. What are the interjections of joy?—of praise?—of sorrow?—of wonder?—of wishing or earnestness?—of pain or fear?—of contempt?—of aversion?—of calling aloud?—of exultation?—of laughter?—of salutation?—of calling to attention?—of calling to silence?—of surprise or horror?—of languor?—of stopping?—of parting?—of knowing or detecting?—of interrogating?

LESSON XXXIII.—PARSING.

1. What is required of the pupil in the ELEVENTH PRAXIS? How many definitions are here given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!"

[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eleventh Chapter, or the Eleventh Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Eleventh Chapter concludes.]

CHAPTER XIII.—FOR WRITING.

EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY.

[When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and their classes and modifications, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsing and correcting, he should write out the following exercises; for speech and writing afford us different modes of testing the proficiency of students, and exercises in both are necessary to a complete course of English Grammar.]

EXERCISE I.—ARTICLES.

1. Prefix the definite article to each of the following nouns: path, paths; loss, losses; name, names; page, pages; want, wants; doubt, doubts; votary, votaries.

2. Prefix the indefinite article to each of the following nouns: age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, herald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour.

3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases: George Second—fair appearance—part first—reasons most obvious—good man—wide circle—man of honour—man of world—old books—common people—same person—smaller piece—rich and poor—first and last—all time—great excess—nine muses—how rich reward—so small number—all ancient writers—in nature of things—much better course.

4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases: new name—very quick motion—other sheep—such power—what instance—great weight—such worthy cause—to great difference—high honour—humble station—universal law—what strange event—so deep interest—as firm hope—so great wit—humorous story—such person—few dollars—little reflection.

EXERCISE II.—NOUNS.

1. Write the plurals of the following nouns: town, country, case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in-law, pailful, man-servant, fellow-citizen.

2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns: earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, arbiter, tutor, songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, landgrave.

3. Write the possessive case singular, of the following nouns: table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf, sheep, wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial, precipice, countess, lordship.

4. Write the possessive case plural, of the following nouns: priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, woman, servant, writer, grandmother.

5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of the following nouns: body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nuncio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff, hero, thief, wretch.

EXERCISE III.—ADJECTIVES.

1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, without repeating any word: good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy, disastrous, terrible, necessary. Thus—good manners, &c.

2. Place a suitable adjective before each of the following nouns, without repeating any word: man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, actions. Thus—wise man, &c.

3. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared by inflection, or change of form: black, bright, short, white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, little, much, many, far, true, just, vast.

4. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the adverbs of increase: delightful, comfortable, agreeable, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, poignant, excellent, sincere, honest, correct.

5. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the comparative adverbs of inferiority or diminution: objectionable, formidable, forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent, imprudent, imperfect, pleasant, unpleasant.

EXERCISE IV.—PRONOUNS.

1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.

2. Write the objective singular of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.

3. Write the following words in their customary and proper forms: he's, her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, myself, hisself, theirselves.

4. Write together in declension the following pronouns, according to the agreement of each two: I myself, thou thyself, he himself, she herself it itself.

5. Rewrite the following sentences, and make them good English: "Nor is the criminal binding any thing: but was, his self, being bound."—Wrights Gram., p. 193. "The writer surely did not mean, that the work was preparing its self."—Ib. "May, or can, in its self, denotes possibility."—Ib., p. 216. "Consequently those in connection with the remaining pronouns respectively, should be written,—he, his self;—she, her self;—ye or you, your selves; they, their selves."—Ib., p. 154. "Lest their beacons be lost to the view, and their selves wrecked on the shoals of destruction."—Ib., p. 155. "In the regal style, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, ourself."—Churchill's Gram., p. 78. "Each has it's peculiar advantages."—Ib., p. 283. "Who his ownself bare our sins in his own body on the tree."—The Friend, iv, 302. "It is difficult to look inwardly on oneself."—Journal of N. Y. Lit. Convention. p. 287.

EXERCISE V.—VERBS.

1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following verbs: slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza, pretend, deliver, arrest.

2. Write the following preterits, each in its appropriate form: exprest, stript, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, linkt, propt, fixt, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, snapt, skipt, kist, discust, tackt.

3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, second person singular: move, strive, please, reach, confess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue, defend, surpass, conquer, deliver, enlighten, protect, polish.

4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, third person singular: leave, seem, search, impeach, fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, beset, release, be, bias, compel, degrade, efface, garnish, handle, induce.

5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, present tense, in the three persons singular: serve, shun, turn, learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, pretend, expose, alarm, deprive, transgress.

EXERCISE VI.—VERBS.

1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb amuse, conjugated affirmatively.

2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the neuter verb sit, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style.

3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active verb speak, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form.

4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive verb be reduced, conjugated affirmatively.

5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active verb lose, conjugated negatively.

6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter verb stand, conjugated interrogatively.

7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb derive, conjugated interrogatively and negatively.

EXERCISE VII.—PARTICIPLES.

1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following verbs: belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember.

2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs: turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist.

3. Write the preperfect participles of the following verbs: depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, sit, lay, mix, speak, sleep, allot.

4. Write the following participles each in its appropriate form: dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt.

5. Write the regular participles which are now generally preferred to the following irregular ones: blent, blest, clad, curst, diven, drest, graven, hoven, hewn, knelt, leant, leapt, learnt, lit, mown, mulct, past, pent, quit, riven, roast, sawn, sodden, shaven, shorn, sown, striven, strown, sweat, swollen, thriven, waxen.

6. Write the irregular participles which are commonly preferred to the following regular ones: abided, bended, builded, bursted, catched, creeped, dealed, digged, dwelled, freezed, grinded, knitted, layed, meaned, payed, reaved, slided, speeded, splitted, stringed, sweeped, throwed, weaved, weeped, winded.

EXERCISE VIII.—ADVERBS, &c.

1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, long, fast, near, early, well, badly or ill, little, much, far, forth.

2. Place the comparative adverbs of increase before each of the following adverbs: purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, completely, fortunately, profitably, easily.

3. Place the comparative adverbs of diminution before each of the following adverbs: secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, powerfully, solemnly.

4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following dashes: Love—fidelity are inseparable. Be shy of parties—factions. Do well—boast not. Improve time—it flies. There would be few paupers—no time were lost. Be not proud—thou art human. I saw—it was necessary. Wisdom is better—wealth. Neither he—I can do it. Wisdom—folly governs us. Take care—thou fall. Though I should boast—am I nothing.

5. Insert suitable prepositions in place of the following dashes: Plead—the dumb. Qualify thyself—action—study. Think often—the worth—time. Live—peace—all men. Keep—compass. Jest not—serious subjects. Take no part—slander. Guilt starts—its own shadow. Grudge not—giving. Go not—sleep—malice. Debate not—temptation. Depend not—the stores—others. Contend not—trifles. Many fall—grasping—things—their reach. Be deaf—detraction.

6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjections to the emotions expressed by the other words: Aha! aha! I am undone. Hey! io! I am tired. Ho! be still. Avaunt! this way. Ah! what nonsense. Heigh-ho! I am delighted. Hist! it is contemptible. Oh! for that sympathetic glow! Ah! what withering phantoms glare!

PART III.

SYNTAX.

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. The relation of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense.

The agreement of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form.

The government of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification.

The arrangement of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence.

CHAPTER I.—SENTENCES.

A Sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb; as, "Reward sweetens labour."

The principal parts of a sentence are usually three; namely, the SUBJECT, or nominative,—the attribute, or finite VERB,—and the case put after, or the OBJECT[322] governed by the verb: as, "Crimes deserve punishment."

The other or subordinate parts depend upon these, either as primary or as secondary adjuncts; as, "High crimes justly deserve very severe punishments."

Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, simple and compound.[323]

A simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one single assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation; as, "David and Jonathan loved each other."—"If thine enemy hunger."—"Do violence to no man."—"Am I not an apostle?"—1 Cor., ix, 1. "What immortal glory shall I have acquired!"—HOOKE: Mur. Seq., p. 71.

A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected; as, "Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon, whose surname is Peter; who shall tell thee words, whereby thou and all thy house shall be saved."—Acts, xi, 13. "The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the energy, of his literary talents."—HAYLEY: Mur. Seq., p. 250.

A clause, or member, is a subdivision of a compound sentence; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as, "If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink."—Prov., xxv, 21.[324]

A phrase is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition; as, "By the means appointed."—"To be plain with you."—"Having loved his own."

Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, (and only such,) must be supplied in parsing.

The leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following twenty-four rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech.

THE RULES OF SYNTAX.

RULE I.—ARTICLES.

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit.

RULE II.—NOMINATIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.

RULE III.—APPOSITION. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case.

RULE IV.—POSSESSIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed.

RULE V.—OBJECTIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.

RULE VI.—SAME CASES.

A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing.

RULE VII.—OBJECTIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case.

RULE VIII.—NOM. ABSOLUTE.

A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word.

RULE IX.—ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns.

RULE X.—PRONOUNS.

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender.

RULE XI—PRONOUNS.

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number.

RULE XII.—PRONOUNS.

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.

RULE XIII.—PRONOUNS.

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.

RULE XIV.—FINITE VERBS.

Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number.

RULE XV.—FINITE VERBS.

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number.

RULE XVI.—FINITE VERBS.

When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.

RULE XVII.—FINITE VERBS.

When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.

RULE XVIII.—INFINITIVES.

The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb.

RULE XIX.—INFINITIVES.

The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition TO.

RULE XX.—PARTICIPLES.

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions.

RULE XXI.—ADVERBS.

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs.

RULE XXII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences.

RULE XXIII.—PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them.

RULE XXIV.—INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words.

GENERAL OR CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SYNTAX.

OBS. 1.—An explanation of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences, constitutes that part of grammar which we call Syntax. But many grammarians, representing this branch of their subject as consisting of two parts only, "concord and government" say little or nothing of the relation and arrangement of words, except as these are involved in the others. The four things are essentially different in their nature, as may be seen by the definitions given above, yet not so distinct in practice that they can well be made the basis of any perfect division of the rules of syntax. I have therefore, on this occasion, preferred the order of the parts of speech; each of which will form a chapter in the Syntax of this work, as each forms a chapter in the Etymology.

OBS. 2.—Agreement and concord are one and the same thing. Relation and agreement, though different, may yet coincide, and be taken together. The latter is moreover naturally allied to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exceptions, incapable of any agreement; of these the relation and use must be explained in parsing; and all requisite agreement between any of the rest, is confined to words that relate to each other. For one word may relate to an other and not agree with it; but there is never any necessary agreement between words that have not a relation one to the other, or a connexion according to the sense. Any similarity happening between unconnected words, is no syntactical concord, though it may rank the terms in the same class etymologically.

OBS. 3.—From these observations it may be seen, that the most important and most comprehensive principle of English syntax, is the simple Relation of words, according to the sense. To this head alone, ought to be referred all the rules of construction by which our articles, our nominatives, our adjectives, our participles, our adverbs, our conjunctions, our prepositions, and our interjections, are to be parsed. To the ordinary syntactical use of any of these, no rules of concord, government, or position, can at all apply. Yet so defective and erroneous are the schemes of syntax which are commonly found in our English grammars, that no rules of simple relation, none by which any of the above-named parts of speech can be consistently parsed, are in general to be found in them. If there are any exceptions to this censure, they are very few, and in treatises still marked with glaring defects in regard to the syntax of some of these parts of speech.

OBS. 4.—Grammarians, of course, do not utter falsehoods intentionally; but it is lamentable to see how often they pervert doctrine by untruths uttered ignorantly. It is the design of this pandect, to make every one who reads it, an intelligent judge of the perversions, as well as of the true doctrines, of English grammar. The following citations will show him the scope and parts which have commonly been assigned to our syntax: "The construction of sentences depends principally upon the concord or agreement, and the regimen or government, of words."—Lowth's Gram., p. 68; Churchill's, 120. "Words in sentences have a twofold relation to one another; namely, that of Concord or Agreement; and that of Government or Influence."—Dr. Adam's Latin and English Grammar, p. 151. "The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence."—E. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book, p. 15. "Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Government."—Murray's Gram., p. 142; Ingersoll's, 170; Alger's, 51; R. C. Smith's, 119; and many others. "Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and Government."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 175; Wright's, 124. "The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three heads, Concord, Government, and Position."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 87. "Position means the place which a word occupies in a sentence."—Ib. "These rules may be mostly ranked under the two heads of agreement and government; the remainder may be termed miscellaneous."—Nutting's Gram., p. 92. "Syntax treats of the agreement, government and proper arrangement of words in a sentence."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 43. This last-named author, in touching the text of my books, has often corrupted it, as he does here; but my definitions of the tenses he copied without marring them much. The borrowing occurred as early as 1828, and I add this notice now, lest any should suppose me the plagiarist.

OBS. 5.—Most of our English grammars have more rules of syntax than are needed, and yet are very deficient in such as are needed. To say, as some do, that articles, adjectives, and participles, agree with nouns, is to teach Greek or Latin syntax, and not English. To throw, as Nutting does, the whole syntax of adverbs into a remark on such a rule of agreement, is to choose disorder for its own sake. To say, with Frost, Hall, Smith, Perley, Kirkham, Sanborn, Rand, and others, "The nominative case governs the verb in number and person," and again, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person," is to confound the meaning of government and agreement, to say the same thing in different words, and to leave the subject of a verb still without a rule: for rules of government are applicable only to the words governed, and nothing ever agrees with that which governs it.[325] To say, with Murray and others, "Participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived," is to say nothing by which either verbs or participles may be parsed, or any of their errors corrected: those many grammarians, therefore, who make this their only rule for participles, leave them all without any syntax. To say, with Murray, Alger, and others, "Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, &c., require an appropriate situation in the sentence," is to squander words at random, and leave the important question unanswered, "To what do adverbs relate?" To say again, with the same gentlemen, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns," is to put an ungrammatical, obscure, and useless assertion, in the place of an important rule. To say merely, "Prepositions govern the objective case," is to rest all the syntax of prepositions on a rule that never applies to them, but which is meant only for one of the constructions of the objective case. To say, as many do, "Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them, and the nominative case of the second," is to tell what is utterly false as the words stand, and by no means true in the sense which the authors intend. Finally, to suppose, with Murray, that, "the Interjection does not require a distinct, appropriate rule," is in admirable keeping with all the foregoing quotations, and especially with his notion of what it does require; namely, "the objective case of the first person:" but who dares deny that the following exclamation is good English?

"O wretched we! why were we hurried down This lubric and adulterate age!"—Dryden.

OBS. 6.—The truth of any doctrine in science, can be nothing else than its conformity to facts, or to the nature of things; and chiefly by what he knows of the things themselves, must any one judge of what others say concerning them. Erroneous or inadequate views, confused or inconsistent statements, are the peculiar property of those who advance them; they have, in reality, no relationship to science itself, because they originate in ignorance; but all science is knowledge—it is knowledge methodized. What general rules are requisite for the syntactical parsing of the several parts of speech in English, may be seen at once by any one who will consider for a moment the usual construction of each. The correction of false syntax, in its various forms, will require more—yes, five times as many; but such of these as answer only the latter purpose, are, I think, better reserved for notes under the principal rules. The doctrines which I conceive most worthy to form the leading canons of our syntax, are those which are expressed in the twenty-four rules above. If other authors prefer more, or fewer, or different principles for their chief rules, I must suppose, it is because they have studied the subject less. Biased, as we may be, both by our knowledge and by our ignorance, it is easy for men to differ respecting matters of expediency; but that clearness, order, and consistency, are both expedient, and requisite, in didactic compositions, is what none can doubt.

OBS. 7.—Those English grammarians who tell us, as above, that syntax is divided into parts, or included under a certain number of heads, have almost universally contradicted themselves by treating the subject without any regard to such a division; and, at the same time, not a few have somehow been led into the gross error of supposing broad principles of concord or government where no such things exist. For example, they have invented general RULES like these: "The adjective agrees with its noun in number, case, and gender."—Bingham's English Gram., p. 40. "Interjections govern the nominative case, and sometimes the objective: as, 'O thou! alas me!'"—Ib., p. 43. "Adjectives agree with their nouns in number."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 22. "Participles agree with their nouns in number."—Ib., p. 23. "Every adjective agrees in number with some substantive expressed or understood."— Hiley's Gram., Rule 8th, p. 77. "The article THE agrees with nouns in either number: as, The wood, the woods."—Bucke's Classical Grammar of the English Language, p. 84. "O! oh! ah! require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first person after them: as 'Ah me!' But when the second person is used, it requires a nominative case: as, 'O thou!'"—Ib., p. 87. "Two or more Nominatives in the singular number, connected by the Conjunction or, nor, EITHER, NEITHER, govern a singular Verb. But Pronouns singular, of different persons, joined by or, EITHER, nor, NEITHER, govern a plural Verb."—Ib., p. 94. "One Nominative frequently governs many Verbs."—Ib., p. 95. "Participles are sometimes governed by the article."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 192. "An adverb, an adjective, or a participle, may involve in itself the force of a preposition, and govern the objective case."—Nutting's Gram., p. 99. "The nominative case governs the verb." [326]—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 32; Kirkham's, 176; and others. "The nominative case comes before the verb."—Bingham's Gram., p. 38; Wilbur and Livingston's, 23. "The Verb TO BE, always governs a Nominative, unless it be of the Infinitive Mood."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 94. "A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 187. Or, (as a substitute for the foregoing rule,) say, according to this author: "A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor."—Ib., p. 188. Now what does he know of English grammar, who supposes any of these rules to be worthy of the place which they hold, or have held, in the halls of instruction?

OBS. 8.—It is a very common fault with the compilers of English grammars, to join together in the same rule the syntax of different parts of speech, uniting laws that must ever be applied separately in parsing. For example: "RULE XI. Articles and adjectives relate to nouns expressed or understood; and the adjectives this, that, one, two, must agree in number with the nouns to which they relate."—Comly's Gram., p. 87. Now, in parsing an article, why should the learner have to tell all this story about adjectives? Such a mode of expressing the rule, is certainly in bad taste; and, after all, the syntax of adjectives is not here comprised, for they often relate to pronouns. "RULE III. Every adjective and participle belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 44. Here a compiler who in his etymology supposes participles to be verbs, allows them no other construction than that of adjectives. His rule implicitly denies that they can either be parts of their verbs in the formation of tenses, or be governed by prepositions in the character of gerunds. To suppose that a noun may govern the objective case, is both absurd in itself, and contrary to all authority; yet, among his forty-nine rules, this author has the following: "RULE XXV. A participial noun is sometimes governed by a preposition, and may govern an objective case; as, 'George is too fond of wasting time in trifles.'"—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 47. Here again is the fault of which I am speaking, two rules in one; and this fault is combined with an other still worse. Wasting is a participle, governed by of; and time is a noun, governed by wasting. The latter is a declinable word, and found in the objective case; the former is indeclinable, and found in no case. It is an error to suppose that cases are the only things which are susceptible of being governed; nor is the brief rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case," so very clear a maxim as never to be misapprehended. If the learner infer from it, that all prepositions must necessarily govern the objective case, or that the objective case is always governed by a preposition, he will be led into a great mistake.

OBS. 9.—This error of crowding things together, is still more conspicuous in the following examples: "RULE IV. Every article, adjective, and participle, must qualify some noun, or pronoun, either expressed or understood."—Nutting's Gram., p. 94. "RULE IX. The objective case is governed by a transitive verb or a preposition, usually coming before it."—Ib., p. 98. Here an author who separates participles from verbs, has attempted first to compress the entire syntax of three different parts of speech into one short rule; and, secondly, to embrace all the forms of dependence, incident to objective nouns and pronouns, in an other as short. This brevity is a poor exchange for the order and distribution which it prevents—especially as none of its objects are here reached. Articles do not relate to pronouns, unless the obsolete phrase the which is to be revived;[327] participles have other constructions than those which adjectives admit; there are exceptions to the rules which tie articles to nouns, and adjectives to nouns or pronouns; and the objective case may not only be governed by a participle, but may be put in apposition with an other objective. The objective case in English usually stands for the Latin genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative; hence any rule that shall embrace the whole construction of this one case, will be the sole counterpart to four fifths of all the rules in any code of Latin syntax. For I imagine the construction of these four oblique cases, will be found to occupy at least that proportion of the syntactical rules and notes in any Latin grammar that can be found. Such rules, however, are often placed under false or equivocal titles;[328] as if they contained the construction of the governing words, rather than that of the governed. And this latter error, again, has been transferred to most of our English grammars, to the exclusion of any rule for the proper construction of participles, of adverbs, of conjunctions, of prepositions, or of interjections. See the syntax of Murray and his copyists, whose treatment of these parts of speech is noticed in the fifth observation above.

OBS. 10.—It is doubtless most convenient, that, in all rules for the construction of cases, nouns and pronouns be taken together; because the very same doctrines apply equally well to both, and a case is as distinct a thing in the mind, as a part of speech. This method, therefore, I have myself pursued; and it has indeed the authority of all grammarians—not excepting those who violate its principles by adopting two special rules for the relative pronoun, which are not needed. These special rules, which I shall notice again hereafter, may be seen in Murray's Rule 6th, which is double, and contains them both. The most complex rule that I have admitted, is that which embraces the government of objectives by verbs and participles. The regimen by verbs, and the regimen by participles, may not improperly be reckoned distinct principles; but the near alliance of participles to their verbs, seems to be a sufficient reason for preferring one rule to two, in this instance.

OBS. 11.—An other common fault in the treatment of this part of grammar, is the practice of making many of the rules double, or even triple, in their form. Of L. Murray's twenty-two rules, for instance, there are six which severally consist of two distinct paragraphs; and one is composed of three such parts, with examples under each. Five others, though simple in their form, are complex in their doctrine, and liable to the objections which have been urged above against this characteristic. These twelve, therefore, I either reject entirely from my catalogue, or divide and simplify to fit them for their purpose. In short, by comparing the twenty-two rules which were adopted by this popular grammarian, with the twenty-four which are given in this work, the reader may see, that twelve of the former have pleased me too little to have any place at all among the latter, and that none of the remaining ten have been thought worthy to be copied without considerable alteration. Nor are the rules which I adopt, more nearly coincident with those of any other writer. I do not proffer to the schools the second-hand instructions of a mere compiler. In his twenty-two rules, independently of their examples, Hurray has used six hundred and seventeen words, thus giving an average of twenty-eight to each rule; whereas in the twenty-four rules which are presented above, the words are but four hundred and thirty-six, making the average less than nineteen. And yet I have not only divided some of his propositions and extended others, but, by rejecting what was useless or erroneous, and filling up the deficiencies which mark his code, I have delivered twice the amount of doctrine in two thirds of the space, and furnished eleven important rules which are not contained in his grammar. Thus much, in this place, to those who so frequently ask, "Wherein does your book differ from Murray's?"

OBS. 12.—Of all the systems of syntax, or of grammar, which it has been my fortune to examine, a book which was first published by Robinson and Franklin of New York in 1839, a fair-looking duodecimo volume of 384 pages, under the brief but rather ostentatious title, "THE GRAMMAR of the English Language" is, I think, the most faulty,—the most remarkable for the magnitude, multitude, and variety, of its strange errors, inconsistencies, and defects. This singular performance is the work of Oliver B. Peirce, an itinerant lecturer on grammar, who dates his preface at "Rome, N. Y., December 29th, 1838." Its leading characteristic is boastful innovation; it being fall of acknowledged "contempt for the works of other writers."—P. 379. It lays "claim to singularity" as a merit, and boasts of a new thing under the sun—"in a theory RADICALLY NEW, a Grammar of the English Language; something which I believe," says the author, "has NEVER BEFORE BEEN FOUND."—P. 9. The old scholastic notion, that because Custom is the arbitress of speech, novelty is excluded from grammar, this hopeful reformer thoroughly condemns; "repudiating this sentiment to the full extent of it," (ib.) and "writing his theory as though he had never seen a book, entitled an English Grammar."—Ib. And, for all the ends of good learning, it would have been as well or better, if he never had. His passion for novelty has led him not only to abandon or misapply, in an unprecedented degree, the usual terms of the art, but to disregard in many instances its most unquestionable principles, universal as well as particular. His parts of speech are the following ten: "Names, Substitutes, Asserters, Adnames, Modifiers, Relatives, Connectives, Interrogatives, Repliers, and Exclamations."—The Gram., p. 20. His names are nouns; his substitutes are pronouns, and any adjectives whose nouns are not expressed; his asserters are verbs and participles, though the latter assert nothing; his adnames are articles, adjectives whose nouns or pronouns are expressed, and adverbs that relate to adjectives; his modifiers are such adverbs as "modify the sense or sound of a whole sentence;" his relatives are prepositions, some of which govern no object; his connectives are conjunctions, with certain adverbs and phrases; his interrogatives and repliers are new parts of speech, very lamely explained; his exclamations are interjections, and "phrases used independently; as, O hapless choice!"—The Gram., p. 22. In parsing, he finds a world of "accommodatives;" as, "John is more than five years older than William."—Ib. p. 202. Here he calls the whole phrase "more than five years" "a secondary adname" i. e., adjective. But, in the phrase, "more than five years afterwards," he would call the same words "a secondary modifier;" i. e., adverb.—Ib., p. 203. And, in the phrase, "more than five years before the war," he would call them "a secondary relative;" i. e., preposition.—Ib., p. 204. And so of other phrases innumerable. His cases are five, two of which are new, "the Independent" and "the Twofold case." His "independent case" is sometimes the nominative in form, as "thou" and "she;" (p. 62;) sometimes the objective, as, "me" and "him;" (p. 62 and p. 199;) sometimes erroneously supposed to be the subject of a finite verb; while his nominative is sometimes as erroneously said to have no verb. His code of syntax has two sorts of rules, Analytical and Synthetical. The former are professedly seventeen in number; but, many of them consisting of two, three, or four distinct parts, their real number is more properly thirty-four. The latter are reckoned forty-five; but if we count their separate parts, they are fifty-six: and these with the others make ninety. I shall not particularize their faults. All of them are whimsically conceived and badly written. In short, had the author artfully designed to turn English grammar into a subject of contempt and ridicule, by as ugly a caricature of it as he could possibly invent, he could never have hit the mark more exactly than he has done in this "new theory"—this rash production, on which he so sincerely prides himself. Alone as he is, in well-nigh all his opinions, behold how prettily he talks of "COMMON SENSE, the only sure foundation of any theory!" and says, "On this imperishable foundation—this rock of eternal endurance—I rear my superstructure, the edifice of scientific truth, the temple of Grammatical consistency!"—Peirce's Preface, p. 7.

OBS. 13.—For the teaching of different languages, it has been thought very desirable to have "a Series of grammars, Greek, Latin, English, &c., all, so far as general principles are concerned, upon the same plan, and as nearly in the same words as the genius of the languages would permit."—See Bullions's Principles of E. Gram., 2d Ed., pp. iv and vi. This scheme necessarily demands a minute comparison not only of the several languages themselves, but also of the various grammars in which their principles, whether general or particular, are developed. For by no other means can it be ascertained to what extent uniformity of this kind will be either profitable to the learner, or consistent with truth. Some books have been published, which, it is pretended, are thus accommodated to one an other, and to the languages of which they treat. But, in view of the fact, that the Latin or the Greek grammars now extant, (to say nothing of the French, Spanish, and others,) are almost as various and as faulty as the English, I am apprehensive that this is a desideratum not soon to be realized,—a design more plausible in the prospectus, than feasible in the attempt. At any rate, the grammars of different languages must needs differ as much as do the languages themselves, otherwise some of their principles will of course be false; and we have already seen that the nonobservance of this has been a fruitful source of error in respect to English syntax. The achievement, however, is not altogether impossible, if a man of competent learning will devote to it a sufficient degree of labour. But the mere revising or altering of some one grammar in each language, can scarcely amount to any thing more than a pretence of improvement. Waiving the pettiness of compiling upon the basis of an other man's compilation, the foundation of a good grammar for any language, must be both deeper and broader than all the works which Professor Bullions has selected to build upon: for the Greek, than Dr. Moor's "Elementa Linguæ, Græcæ;" for the Latin, than Dr. Adam's "Rudiments of Latin and English Grammar;" for the English, than Murray's "English Grammar," or Lennie's "Principles of English Grammar;" which last work, in fact, the learned gentleman preferred, though he pretends to have mended the code of Murray. But, certainly, Lennie never supposed himself a copyist of Murray; nor was he to much extent an imitator of him, either in method or in style.

OBS. 14.—We have, then, in this new American form of "The Principles of English Grammar," Lennie's very compact little book, altered, enlarged, and bearing on its title-page (which is otherwise in the very words of Lennie) an other author's name, and, in its early editions, the false and self-accusing inscription, "(ON THE PLAN OF MURRAY'S GRAMMAR.)" And this work, claiming to have been approved "by the most competent judges," now challenges the praise not only of being "better adapted to the use of academies and schools than any yet published" but of so presenting "the rules and principles of general grammar, as that they may apply to, and be in perfect harmony with, the grammars of the dead languages"— Recommendations, p. iv. These are admirable professions for a critical author to publish; especially, as every rule or principle of General Grammar, condemning as it must whoever violates it, cannot but "be in perfect harmony with" every thing that is true. In this model for all grammars, Latin, Greek, &c., the doctrines of punctuation, of abbreviations, and of capital letters, and also sections on the rhetorical divisions of a discourse, the different kinds of composition, the different kinds of prose composition, and the different kinds of poetry, are made parts of the Syntax; while his hints for correct and elegant writing, and his section on the composition of letters and themes, which other writers suppose to belong rather to syntax, are here subjoined as parts of Prosody. In the exercises for parsing appended to his Etymology, the Doctor furnishes twenty-five Rules of Syntax, which, he says, "are not intended to be committed to memory, but to be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them."—E. Gram., p. 75. Then, for his syntax proper, he copies from Lennie, with some alterations, thirty-four other rules, nine of which are double, and all are jumbled together by both authors, without any regard to the distinction of concord and government, so common in the grammars of the dead languages, and even, so far as I can discover, without any principle of arrangement whatever. They profess indeed to have placed those rules first, which are eaisest [sic—KTH] to learn, and oftenest to be applied; but the syntax of articles, which even on this principle should have formed the first of the series, is placed by Lennie as the thirty-fourth rule, and by his amender as the thirty-second. To all this complexity the latter adds twenty-two Special Rules, with an abundance of "Notes" "Observations" and "Remarks" distinguished by these titles, on some principle which no one but the author can understand. Lastly, his method of syntactical parsing is not only mixed up with etymological questions and answers, but his directions for it, with their exemplification, are perplexingly at variance with his own specimen of the performance. See his book, pages 131 and 133. So much for this grand scheme.

OBS. 15.—Strictures like the foregoing, did they not involve the defence of grammar itself, so as to bear upon interests more important than the success or failure of an elementary book, might well be withheld through motives of charity, economy, and peace. There is many a grammar now extant, concerning which a truly critical reader may know more at first sight, than ever did he that made it. What such a reader will be inclined to rate beneath criticism, an other perhaps will confidently pronounce above it. If my remarks are just, let the one approve them for the other's sake. For what becomes of the teaching of grammar, when that which is received as the most excellent method, must be exempted from censure by reason of its utter worthlessness? And what becomes of Universal Syntax, when the imperfect systems of the Latin and Greek grammars, in stead of being amended, are modelled to the grossest faults of what is worthless in our own?[329]

OBS. 16.—What arrangement of Latin or Greek syntax may be best in itself, I am not now concerned to show. Lily did not divide his, as others have divided the subject since; but first stated briefly his three concords, and then proceeded to what he called the construction of the several parts of speech, taking them in their order. The three concords of Lily are the following: (1.) Of the Nominative and Verb; to which the accusative before an infinitive, and the collective noun with a plural verb, are reckoned exceptions; while the agreement of a verb or pronoun with two or more nouns, is referred to the figure syllepsis. (2.) Of the Substantive and Adjective; under which the agreement of participles, and of some pronouns, is placed in the form of a note. (3.) Of the Relative and Antecedent; after which the two special rules for the cases of relatives are given as underparts. Dr. Adam divided his syntax into two parts; of Simple Sentences, and of Compound Sentences. His three concords are the following: (1.) Of one Substantive with an Other; which construction is placed by Lily and many others among the figures of syntax, and is called apposition. (2.) Of an Adjective with a Substantive; under which principle, we are told to take adjective pronouns and participles. (3.) Of a Verb with a Nominative; under which, the collective noun with a verb of either number, is noticed in an observation. The construction of relatives, of conjunctions, of comparatives, and of words put absolute, this author reserves for the second part of his syntax; and the agreement of plural verbs or pronouns with joint nominatives or antecedents, which Ruddiman places in an observation on his four concords, is here absurdly reckoned a part of the construction of conjunctions. Various divisions and subdivisions of the Latin syntax, with special dispositions of some particular principles of it, may be seen in the elaborate grammars of Despauter, Prat, Ruddiman, Grant, and other writers. And here it may be proper to observe, that, the mixing of syntax with etymology, after the manner of Ingersoll, Kirkham, R. W. Green, R. C. Smith, Sanborn, Felton, Hazen, Parkhurst, Parker and Fox, Weld, and others, is a modern innovation, pernicious to both; either topic being sufficiently comprehensive, and sufficiently difficult, when they are treated separately; and each having, in some instances, employed the pens of able writers almost to the exclusion of the other.

OBS. 17.—The syntax of any language must needs conform to the peculiarities of its etymology, and also be consistent with itself; for all will expect better things of a scholar, than to lay down positions in one part of his grammar, that are irreconcilable with what he has stated in an other. The English language, having few inflections, has also few concords or agreements, and still fewer governments. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in many other languages agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case, have usually, in English, no modifications in which they can agree with their nouns. Yet Lowth says, "The adjective in English, having no variation of gender and number, cannot but agree with the substantive in these respects."—Short Introd. to Gram., p. 86. What then is the agreement of words? Can it be anything else than their similarity in some common property or modification? And is it not obvious, that no two things in nature can at all agree, or be alike, except in some quality or accident which belongs to each of them? Yet how often have Murray and others, as well as Lowth, forgotten this! To give one instance out of many: "Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it."—Murray, J. Peirce, Flint, Lyon, Bacon, Russell, Fisk, Maltby, Alger, Miller, Merchant, Kirkham, and other careless copyists. Yet, according to these same gentlemen, "Gender is the distinction of nouns, with regard to sex;" and, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender." Now, not one of these three careless assertions can possibly be reconciled with either of the others!

OBS. 18.—Government has respect only to nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, and prepositions; the other five parts of speech neither govern nor are governed. The governing words may be either nouns, or verbs, or participles, or prepositions; the words governed are either nouns, or pronouns, or verbs, or participles. In parsing, the learner must remember that the rules of government are not to be applied to the governing words, but to those which are governed; and which, for the sake of brevity, are often technically named after the particular form or modification assumed; as, possessives, objectives, infinitives, gerundives. These are the only things in English, that can properly be said to be subject to government; and these are always so, in their own names; unless we except such infinitives as stand in the place of nominatives. Gerundives are participles governed by prepositions; but, there being little or no occasion to distinguish these from other participles, we seldom use this name. The Latin Gerund differs from a participle, and the English Gerundive differs from a participial noun. The participial noun may be the subject or the object of a verb, or may govern the possessive case before it, like any other noun; but the true English gerundive, being essentially a participle, and governing an object after it, like any other participle, is itself governed only by a preposition. At least, this is its usual and allowed construction, and no other is acknowledged to be indisputably right.

OBS. 19.—The simple Relations of words in English, (or those several uses of the parts of speech which we may refer to this head,) are the following nine: (1.) Of Articles to nouns, by Rule 1st; (2.) Of Nominatives to verbs, by Rule 2d; (3.) Of Nominatives absolute or independent, by Rule 8th; (4.) Of Adjectives to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 9th; (5.) Of Participles to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 20th; (6.) Of Adverbs to verbs, participles, &c., by Rule 21st; (7.) Of Conjunctions as connecting words, phrases, or sentences, by Rule 22nd; (8.) Of Prepositions as showing the relations of things, by Rule 23d; (9.) Of Interjections as being used independently, by Rule 24th.

OBS. 20.—The syntactical Agreements in English, though actually much fewer than those which occur in Latin, Greek, or French, may easily be so reckoned as to amount to double, or even triple, the number usually spoken of by the old grammarians. The twenty-four rules above, embrace the following ten heads, which may not improperly be taken for so many distinct concords: (1.) Of a Noun or Pronoun in direct apposition with another, by Rule 3d; (2.) Of a Noun or Pronoun after a verb or participle not transitive, by Rule 6th; (3.) Of a Pronoun with its antecedent, by Rule 10th; (4.) Of a Pronoun with a collective noun, by Rule 11th; (5.) Of a Pronoun with joint antecedents, by Rule 12th; (6.) Of a Pronoun with disjunct antecedents, by Rule 13th; (7.) Of a Verb with its nominative, by Rule 14th; (8.) Of a Verb with a collective noun, by Rule 15th; (9.) Of a Verb with joint nominatives, by Rule 16th; (10.) Of a Verb with disjunct nominatives, by Rule 17th. To these may be added two other special concords, less common and less important, which will be explained in notes under the rules: (11.) Of one Verb with an other, in mood, tense, and form, when two are connected so as to agree with the same nominative; (12.) Of Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, with their nouns, in number.

OBS. 21.—Again, by a different mode of reckoning them, the concords or the general principles of agreement, in our language, may be made to be only three or four; and some of these much less general, than they are in other languages: (1.) Words in apposition agree in case, according to Rule 3d; of which principle, Rule 6th may be considered a modification. (2.) Pronouns agree, with their nouns, in person, number, and gender, according to Rule 10th; of which principle, Rules 11th, 12th, and 13th, may be reckoned modifications. (3.) Verbs agree with their nominatives, in person and number, according to Rule 14th; of which principle Rules 15th, 16th, and 17th, and the occasional agreement of one verb with an other, may be esteemed mere modifications. (4.) Some adjectives agree with their nouns in number. These make up the twelve concords above enumerated.

OBS. 22.—The rules of Government in the best Latin grammars are about sixty; and these are usually distributed (though not very properly) under three heads; "1. Of Nouns. 2. Of Verbs. 3. Of Words indeclinable."— Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 170. "Regimen est triplex: 1. Nominum. 2. Verborum. 3. Vocum indeclinabilium."—Ruddiman's Gram., p. 138. This division of the subject brings all the titles of the rules wrong. For example, if the rule be, "Active verbs govern the accusative case," this is not properly "the government of verbs" but rather the government of the accusative by verbs. At least, such titles are equivocal, and likely to mislead the learner. The governments in English are only seven, and these are expressed, perhaps with sufficient distinctness, in six of the foregoing rules: (1.) Of Possessives by nouns, in Rule 4th; (2.) Of Objectives by verbs, in Rule 5th; (3.) Of Objectives by participles, in Rule 5th; (4.) Of Objectives by prepositions, in Rule 7th; (5.) Of Infinitives by the preposition to, in Rule 18th; (6.) Of Infinitives by the verbs bid, dare, &c., in Rule 19th; (7.) Of Participles by prepositions, in Rule 20th.

OBS. 23.—The Arrangement of words, (which will be sufficiently treated of in the observations hereafter to be made on the several rules of construction,) is an important part of syntax, in which not only the beauty but the propriety of language is intimately concerned, and to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition. But it is to be remembered, that the mere collocation of words in a sentence never affects the method of parsing them: on the contrary, the same words, however placed, are always to be parsed in precisely the same way, so long as they express precisely the same meaning. In order to show that we have parsed any part of an inverted or difficult sentence rightly, we are at liberty to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will make the construction more obvious, provided we retain both the sense and all the words unaltered; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the text under pretence of resolving it, and to make a mockery of parsing. Grammar rightly learned, enables one to understand both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written; and he who reads what he does not understand, reads to little purpose. With great indignity to the muses, several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught, that, "In parsing poetry, in order to come at the meaning of the author, the learner will find it necessary to transpose his language."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 166. See also the books of Merchant, Wilcox, O. B. Peirce, Hull, Smith, Felton, and others, to the same effect. To what purpose can he transpose the words of a sentence, who does not first see what they mean, and how to explain or parse them as they stand?

OBS. 24.—Errors innumerable have been introduced into the common modes of parsing, through a false notion of what constitutes a simple sentence. Lowth, Adam, Murray, Gould, Smith, Ingersoll, Comly, Lennie, Hiley, Bullions, Wells, and many others, say, "A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite verb: as, 'Life is short.'"—L. Murray's Gram., p. 141. In accordance with this assertion, some assume, that, "Every nominative has its own verb expressed or understood;" and that, "Every verb (except in the infinitive mood and participle) has its own nominative expressed or understood."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 87. The adopters of these dogmas, of course think it right to supply a nominative whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every finite verb, and a verb whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every nominative. This mode of interpretation not only precludes the agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives, so as to render nugatory two of the most important rules of these very gentlemen's syntax; but, what is worse, it perverts many a plain, simple, and perfect sentence, to a form which its author did not choose, and a meaning which he never intended. Suppose, for example, the text to be, "A good constitution and good laws make good subjects."—Webster's Essays, p. 152. Does not the verb make agree with constitution and laws, taken conjointly? and is it not a perversion of the sentence to interpret it otherwise? Away then with all this needless subaudition! But while we thus deny that there can be a true ellipsis of what is not necessary to the construction, it is not to be denied that there are true ellipses, and in some men's style very many. The assumption of O. B. Peirce, that no correct sentence is elliptical, and his impracticable project of a grammar founded on this principle, are among the grossest of possible absurdities.

OBS. 25.—Dr. Wilson says, "There may be several subjects to the same verb, several verbs to the same subject, or several objects to the same verb, and the sentence be simple. But when the sentence remains simple, the same verb must be differently affected by its several adjuncts, or the sense liable to be altered by a separation. If the verb or the subject be affected in the same manner, or the sentence is resolvable into more, it is compounded. Thus, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, mixed in due proportion, produce white,' is a simple sentence, for the subject is indivisible. But, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, are refrangible rays of light,' is a compound sentence, and may be separated into seven."—Essay on Gram., p. 186. The propriety of the distinction here made, is at least questionable; and I incline to consider the second example a simple sentence, as well as the first; because what the writer calls a separation into seven, involves a change of are to is, and of rays to ray, as well as a sevenfold repetition of this altered predicate, "is a refrangible ray of light." But the parser, in interpreting the words of others, and expounding the construction of what is written, has no right to alter anything in this manner. Nor do I admit that he has a right to insert or repeat anything needlessly; for the nature of a sentence, or the syntax of some of its words, may often be altered without change of the sense, or of any word for an other: as, "'A wall seven feet high;' that is, 'A wall which is seven feet high.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 109. "'He spoke and acted prudently;' that is, 'He spoke prudently, and he acted prudently.'"—Ibid. '"He spoke and acted wisely;' that is, 'He spoke wisely, and he acted wisely.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 219; Alger's, 70: R. C. Smith's, 183; Weld's, 192; and others. By this notion of ellipsis, the connexion or joint relation of words is destroyed.

OBS. 26.—Dr. Adam, who thought the division of sentences into simple and compound, of sufficient importance to be made the basis of a general division of syntax into two parts, has defined a simple sentence to be, "that which has but one nominative, and one finite verb;" and a compound sentence, "that which has more than one nominative, or one finite verb." And of the latter he gives the following erroneous and self-contradictory account: "A compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences or phrases, and is commonly called a Period. The parts of which a compound sentence consists, are called Members or Clauses. In every compound sentence there are either several subjects and one attribute, or several attributes and one subject, or both several subjects and several attributes; that is, there are either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative, or both. Every verb marks a judgment or attribute, and every attribute must have a subject. There must, therefore, be in every sentence or period, as many propositions as there are verbs of a finite mode. Sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions; as, Happy is the man who loveth religion, and practiseth virtue."—Adam's Gram., p. 202; Gould's, 199; and others.

OBS. 27.—Now if every compound sentence consists of such parts, members, or clauses, as are in themselves sentences, either simple or compound, either elliptical or complete; it is plain, in the first place, that the term "phrases" is misapplied above, because a phrase is properly only a part of some simple sentence. And if "a simple sentence is that which has but one nominative and one finite verb," and "a compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences," it follows, since "all sentences are either simple or compound," that, in no sentence, can there be "either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative." What, therefore, this author regarded as the characteristic of all compound sentences, is, according to his own previous positions, utterly impossible to any sentence. Nor is it less repugnant to his subsequent doctrine, that, "Sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions;" for, according to his notion, "A conjunction is an indeclinable word, which serves to join sentences together."—Adam's Gram., p. 149. It is assumed, that, "In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative expressed or understood."—Ib., p. 151. Now if there happen to be two nominatives to one verb, as when it was said, "Even the winds and the sea obey him;" this cannot be anything more than a simple sentence; because one single verb is a thing indivisible, and how can we suppose it to form the most essential part of two different sentences at once?

OBS. 28.—The distinction, or real difference, between those simple sentences in which two or more nominatives or verbs are taken conjointly, and those compound sentences in which there is an ellipsis of some of the nominatives or verbs, is not always easy to be known or fixed; because in many instances, a supposed ellipsis, without at all affecting the sense, may obviously change the construction, and consequently the nature of the sentence. For example: "And they all forsook him, and [they all] fled."—Mark, xiv, 50. Some will say, that the words in brackets are here understood. I may deny it, because they are needless; and nothing needless can form a true ellipsis. To the supplying of useless words, if we admit the principle, there may be no end; and the notion that conjunctions join sentences only, opens a wide door for it. For example: "And that man was perfect and upright, and one that feared God, and eschewed evil."—Job, i, 1. No additional words will make this clause any plainer, and none are really necessary to the construction; yet some grammarians will parse it with the following impletions, or more: "And that man was a perfect man, and he was an upright man, and he was one man that feared God, and that eschewed evil things." It is easy to see how this liberty of interpretation, or of interpolation, will change simple sentences to compound sentences, as well as alter the nature and relation of many particular words; and at the same time, it takes away totally those peculiarities of construction by which Dr. Adam and others would recognize a sentence as being compound. What then? are there not two kinds of sentences? Yes, truly; but these authors are wrong in their notions and definitions of both. Joint nominatives or joint verbs may occur in either; but they belong primarily to some simple sentences, and only for that reason are found in any that are compound. A sentence, too, may possibly be made compound, when a simple one would express the whole meaning as well or better; as, "And [David] smote the Philistines from Geba until thou come to Gazer."—2 Sam., v, 25. Here, if we omit the words in Italics, the sentence will become simple, not elliptical.

THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES.

To analyze a sentence, is, to resolve it into some species of constituent parts, but most properly into words, its first significant elements, and to point out their several relations and powers in the given connexion.

The component parts of a sentence are members, clauses, phrases, or words. Some sentences, which are short and simple, can only be divided into their words; others, which are long and complex, may be resolved into parts again and again divisible.

Of analysis applicable to sentences, there are several different methods; and, so far as their difference may compatibly aid the application of different principles of the science of grammar, there may be an advantage in the occasional use of each.

FIRST METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

Sentences not simple may be reduced to their constituent members, clauses, or simple sentences; and the means by which these are united, may be shown. Thus:—

EXAMPLE ANALYZED.

"Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible—even he, who, instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism—even he, who would despoil creation of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him."—DR. CHALMERS, Discourses on Revelation and Astronomy, p. 231.

ANALYSIS.—This is a compound sentence, consisting of three complex members, which are separated by the two dashes. The three members are united in one sentence, by a suspension of the sense at each dash, and by two virtual repetitions of the subject, "Atheist" through the pronoun "he," put in the same case, and representing this noun. The sense mainly intended is not brought out till the period ends. Each of the three members is complex, because each has not only a relative clause, commencing with "who," but also an antecedent word which makes sense with "cannot look," &c. The first of these relative clauses involves also a subordinate, supplementary clause,—"the universe is self-existent and indestructible"—introduced after the verb "tells" by the conjunction "that." The last phrase, "without the solemn impression," &c., which is subjoined by "without" to "cannot look," embraces likewise a subordinate, relative clause,—"that fixes and overpowers him,"—which has two verbs; the whole, antecedent and all, being but an adjunct of an adjunct, yet an essential element of the sentence.

SECOND METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

Simple sentences, or the simple members of compound sentences, may be resolved into their PRINCIPAL and their SUBORDINATE PARTS; the subject, the verb, and the case put after or governed by the verb, being first pointed out as THE PRINCIPAL PARTS; and the other words being then detailed as ADJUNCTS to these, according to THE SENSE, or as adjuncts to adjuncts. Thus:—

EXAMPLE ANALYZED.

"Fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course."—DR. JOHNSON, Rasselas, p. 23.

ANALYSIS.—The first period here is a simple sentence. Its principal parts are—Fear, quickens, flight; Fear being the subject, quickens the verb, and flight the object. Fear has no adjunct; naturally is an adjunct of quickens; the and of guilt are adjuncts of flight. The second period is composed of several clauses, or simple members, united. The first of these is also a simple sentence, having, three principal parts—Rasselas, could catch, and fugitive; the subject, the verb, and its object, in their order. Not is added to could catch, reversing the meaning; the is an adjunct to fugitive; with joins its phrase to could not catch; but his and utmost are adjuncts of efforts. The word but connects the two chief members as parts of one sentence. "Resolving to weary" is an adjunct to the pronoun he, which stands before pressed. "By perseverance," is an adjunct to weary. Him is governed by weary, and is the antecedent to whom. "Whom he could not surpass in speed," is a relative clause, or subordinate simple member, having three principal parts—he, could surpass, and whom. Not and in speed are adjuncts to the verb could surpass. "He pressed on" is an other simple member, or sentence, and the chief clause here used, the others being subjoined to this. Its principal parts are two, he and pressed; the latter taking the particle on as an adjunct, and being intransitive. The words dependent on the nominative he, (to wit, resolving, &c.,) have already been mentioned. Till is a conjunctive adverb of time, connecting the concluding clause to pressed on. "The foot of the mountain stopped his course," is a subordinate clause and simple member, whose principal parts are—the subject foot, the verb stopped, and the object course. The adjuncts of foot are the and of the mountain; the verb in this sentence has no adjunct but course, which is better reckoned a principal word; lastly, his is an adjunct to course, and governed by it.

THIRD METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

Sentences may be partially analyzed by a resolution into their SUBJECTS and their PREDICATES, a method which some late grammarians have borrowed from the logicians; the grammatical subject with its adjuncts, being taken for the logical subject; and the finite verb, which some call the grammatical predicate[330] being, with its subsequent case and the adjuncts of both, denominated the predicate, or the logical predicate. Thus:—

EXAMPLE ANALYZED.

"Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity."—DR. JOHNSON, Rambler.

ANALYSIS.—Here the first period is a compound sentence, containing two clauses,—which are connected by that. In the first clause, emptiness is the grammatical subject, and "the emptiness of human enjoyment" is the logical. Is some would call the grammatical predicate, and "Such is," or is such, the logical; but the latter consists, as the majority teach, of "the copula" is, and "the attribute," or "predicate," such. In the second clause, (which explains the import of "Such,") the subject is we; which is unmodified, and in which therefore the logical form and the grammatical coincide and are the same. Are may here be called the grammatical predicate; and "are always impatient of the present," the logical. The second period, too, is a compound sentence, having two clauses, which are connected by and. Attainment is the subject of the former; and, "is followed by neglect" is the predicate. In the latter, possession alone is the subject; and, "[is followed] by disgust," is the predicate; the verb is followed being understood at the comma. The third period, likewise, is a compound, having three parts, with the two connectives than and which. Here we have moments for the first grammatical subject, and Few moments for the logical; then, are for the grammatical predicate, and are more pleasing for the logical: or, if we choose to say so, for "the copula and the attribute." "Than those," is an elliptical member, meaning, "than are those moments," or, "than those moments are pleasing;" both subject and predicate are wholly suppressed, except that those is reckoned a part of the logical subject. In which is an adjunct of is concerting, and serves well to connect the members, because which represents those, i.e. those moments. Mind, or the mind, is the next subject of affirmation; and is concerting, or, "is concerting measures for a new undertaking," is the predicate or matter affirmed. Lastly, the fourth period, like the rest, is compound. The phrases commencing with From and to, describe a period of time, and are adjuncts of the verb is. The former contains a subordinate relative clause, of which that (representing hint) is the subject, and wakens, or wakens the fancy, the predicate. Of the principal clause, the word all, taken as a noun, is the subject, whether grammatical or logical; and "the copula," or "grammatical predicate," is, becomes, with its adjuncts and the nominatives following, the logical predicate.

FOURTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

All syntax is founded on the RELATION of words one to an other, and the CONNEXION of clauses and phrases, according to THE SENSE. Hence sentences may be, in some sort, analyzed, and perhaps profitably, by the tracing of such relation or connexion, from link to link, through a series of words, beginning and ending with such as are somewhat remote from each other, yet within the period. Thus:—

EXAMPLES ANALYZED.

1. "Swift would say, 'The thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet;' Johnson, 'The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.'"—MATT. HARRISON, on the English Language, p. 102. ANALYSIS.—What is the general sense of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion between the words Swift and putrefaction? The period is designed to show, that Swift preferred words of Saxon origin; and Johnson, of Latin. It has in contrast two coördinate members, tacitly connected: the verb would say being understood after Johnson, and perhaps also the particle but, after the semicolon. Swift is the subject of would say; and would say introduces the clause after it, as what would be said. The relates to thing; thing is the subject of has; has, which is qualified by not, governs life; life is qualified by the adjective enough, and by the phrase, in it; enough is the prior term of to; to governs keep; keep governs it, which stands for the thing; and it, in lieu of the thing, is qualified by sweet. The chief members are connected either by standing in contrast as members, or by but, understood before Johnson. Johnson is the subject of would say, understood: and this would say, again introduces a clause, as what would be said. The relates to creature; creature is the subject of possesses; possesses, which is qualified by not, governs vitality; vitality is qualified by sufficient; sufficient is the prior term of to; to governs preserve; preserve governs it, and is the prior term of from; and from governs putrefaction.

2. "There is one Being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away."—GREENWOOD; Wells's School Gram., p. 192.[331]

ANALYSIS.—What is the general structure of this passage? and what, the chain of connexion "between the words away and is?" The period is a complex sentence, having four clauses, all connected together by relatives; the second, by whom, to the first and chief clause, "There is one Being;" the third and the fourth, to the second, by which and which; but the last two, having the same antecedent, security, and being coördinate, are also connected one to the other by and. As to "the chain of connexion," Away relates to can take; can take agrees with its nominative nothing, and governs which; which represents security; security is governed by finding; finding is governed by of; of refers back to conviction; conviction is governed by with; with refers back to can look; can look agrees with we, and is, in sense, the antecedent of to; to governs whom; whom represents Being; and Being is the subject of is.

FIFTH METHOD OF ANALYSIS.

The best and most thorough method of analysis is that of COMPLETE SYNTACTICAL PARSING; a method which, for the sake of order and brevity, should ever be kept free from all mixture of etymological definitions or reasons, but which may be preceded or followed by any of the foregoing schemes of resolution, if the teacher choose to require any such preliminary or subsidiary exposition. This method is fully illustrated in the Twelfth Praxis below.

OBSERVATIONS ON METHODS OF ANALYSIS.

OBS. 1.—The almost infinite variety in the forms of sentences, will sometimes throw difficulty in the way of the analyzer, be his scheme or his skill what it may. The last four or five observations of the preceding series have shown, that the distinction of sentences as simple or compound, which constitutes the chief point of the First Method of Analysis above, is not always plain, even to the learned. The definitions and examples which I have given, will make it generally so; and, where it is otherwise, the question or puzzle, it is presumed, cannot often be of much practical importance. If the difference be not obvious, it can hardly be a momentous error, to mistake a phrase for an elliptical clause, or to call such a clause a phrase.

OBS. 2.—The Second Method above is, I think, easier of application than any of the rest; and, if other analysis than the regular method of parsing seem desirable, this will probably be found as useful as any. There is, in many of our popular grammars, some recognition of the principles of this analysis—some mention of "the principal parts of a sentence," in accordance with what are so called above,—and also, in a few, some succinct account of the parts called "adjuncts;" but there seems to have been no prevalent practice of applying these principles, in any stated or well-digested manner. Lowth, Murray, Alger, W. Allen, Hart, Hiley, Ingersoll, Wells, and others, tell of these "PRINCIPAL PARTS;"—Lowth calling them, "the agent, the attribute, and the object;" (Gram., p. 72;)—Murray, and his copyists, Alger, Ingersoll, and others, calling them, "the subject, the attribute, and the object;"—Hiley and Hart calling them, "the subject or nominative, the attribute or verb, and the object;"—Allen calling them, "the nominative, the verb, and (if the verb is active,) the accusative governed by the verb;" and also saying, "The nominative is sometimes called the subject; the verb, the attribute; and the accusative, the object;"—Wells calling them, "the subject or nominative, the verb, and the object;" and also recognizing the "adjuncts," as a species which "embraces all the words of a simple sentence [,] except the principal parts;"—yet not more than two of them all appearing to have taken any thought, and they but little, about the formal application of their common doctrine. In Allen's English Grammar, which is one of the best, and likewise in Wells's, which is equally prized, this reduction of all connected words, or parts of speech, into "the principal parts" and "the adjuncts," is fully recognized; the adjuncts, too, are discriminated by Allen, as "either primary or secondary," nor are their more particular species or relations overlooked; but I find no method prescribed for the analysis intended, except what Wells adopted in his early editions but has since changed to an other or abandoned, and no other allusion to it by, Allen, than this Note, which, with some appearance of intrusion, is appended to his "Method of Parsing the Infinitive Mood:"—"The pupil may now begin to analyse [analyze] the sentences, by distinguishing the principal words and their adjuncts."—W. Allen's E. Gram., p. 258.

OBS. 3.—These authors in general, and many more, tell us, with some variation of words, that the agent, subject, or nominative, is that of which something is said, affirmed, or denied; that the attribute, verb, or predicate, is that which is said, affirmed, or denied, of the subject; and that the object, accusative, or case sequent, is that which is introduced by the finite verb, or affected by the action affirmed. Lowth says, "In English the nominative case, denoting the agent, usually goes before the verb, or attribution; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active."—Short Introd., p. 72. Murray copies, but not literally, thus: "The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb [,] or attribute; and the word or phrase, denoting the object, follows the verb: as, 'A wise man governs his passions.' Here, a wise man is the subject; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed; and his passions, the object."—Murray's Octavo, p. 142; Duodecimo, 116. To include thus the adjuncts with their principals, as the logicians do, is here manifestly improper; because it unites what the grammatical analyzer is chiefly concerned to separate, and tends to defeat the main purpose for which "THE PRINCIPAL PARTS" are so named and distinguished.

OBS. 4.—The Third Method of Analysis, described above, is an attempt very briefly to epitomize the chief elements of a great scheme,—to give, in a nutshell, the substance of what our grammarians have borrowed from the logicians, then mixed with something of their own, next amplified with small details, and, in some instances, branched out and extended to enormous bulk and length. Of course, they have not failed to set forth the comparative merits of this scheme in a sufficiently favourable light. The two ingenious gentlemen who seem to have been chiefly instrumental in making it popular, say in their preface, "The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences; and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly familiar with the sections relating to subject and predicate, and should be able readily to analyze sentences, whether simple or compound, and to explain their structure and connection. * * * This exercise should always precede the more minute and subsidiary labor of parsing. If the latter be conducted, as it often is, independently of previous analysis, the principal advantage to be derived from the study of language, as an intellectual exercise, will inevitably be lost."—Latin Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard, p. vi. N. Butler, who bestows upon this subject about a dozen duodecimo pages, says in his preface, "The rules for the analysis of sentences, which is a very useful and interesting exercise, have been taken from Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, some changes and additions being made."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. iv.[332]

OBS. 5.—Wells, in the early copies of his School Grammar, as has been hinted, adopted a method of analysis similar to the Second one prescribed above; yet referred, even from the first, to "Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar," and to "De Sacy's General Grammar," as if these were authorities for what he then inculcated. Subsequently, he changed his scheme, from that of Parts Principal and Adjuncts, to one of Subjects and Predicates, "either grammatical or logical," also "either simple or compound;"—to one resembling Andrews and Stoddard's, yet differing from it, often, as to what constitutes a "grammatical predicate;"—to one resenbling [sic—KTH] the Third Method above, yet differing from it, (as does Andrews and Stoddard's,) in taking the logical subject and predicate before the grammatical. "The chapter on Analysis," said he then, "has been Revised and enlarged with great care, and will be found to embody all the most important principles on this subject [.] which are contained in the works of De Sacy, Andrews and Stoddard, Kühner, Crosby, and Crane. It is gratifying to observe that the attention of teachers is now so generally directed to this important mode of investigating the structure of our language, in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing."—Wells's School Gram., New Ed., 1850, p. iv.

OBS. 6.—In view of the fact, that Wells's chief mode of sentential analysis had just undergone an almost total metamorphosis, a change plausible perhaps, but of doubtful utility,—that, up to the date of the words just cited, and afterwards, so far and so long as any copies of his early "Thousands" remain in use, the author himself has earnestly directed attention to a method which he now means henceforth to abandon,—in this view, the praise and gratulation expressed above seem singular. If it has been found practicable, to slide "the attention of teachers," and their approbation too, adroitly over from one "important mode of investigating the structure of our language," to an other;—if "it is gratifying to observe," that the direction thus given to public opinion sustains itself so well, and "is so generally" acquiesced in;—if it is proved, that the stereotyped praise of one system of analysis may, without alteration, be so transferred to an other, as to answer the double purpose of commending and superseding;—it is not improbable that the author's next new plates will bear the stamp of yet other "most important principles" of analysis. This process is here recommended to be used "in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing,"—exercises, which, in Wells's Grammar, are generally, and very improperly, commingled; and if, to these, may be profitably conjoined either his present or his former scheme of analysis, it were well, had he somewhere put them together and shown how.

OBS. 7.—But there are other passages of the School Grammar, so little suited to this notion of "connection" that one can hardly believe the word ought to be taken in what seems its only sense. "Advanced classes should attend less to the common Order of Parsing, and more to the Analysis of language."—Wells's Grammar, "3d Thousand," p. 125; "113th Thousand," p. 132. This implies, what is probably true of the etymological exercise, that parsing is more rudimental than the other forms of analysis. It also intimates, what is not so clear, that pupils rightly instructed must advance from the former to the latter, as to something more worthy of their intellectual powers. The passage is used with reference to either form of analysis adopted by the author. So the following comparison, in which Parsing is plainly disparaged, stands permanently at the head of "the chapter on Analysis," to commend first one mode, and then an other: "It is particularly desirable that pupils should pass as early as practicable from the formalities of common PARSING, to the more important exercise of ANALYZING critically the structure of language. The mechanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monotonous and dull, while the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence, is adapted to call the mind of the learner into constant and vigorous action, and can hardly fail of exciting the deepest interest,"—Wells's Gram., 3d Th., p. 181; 113th Th., p. 184.

OBS. 8.—An ill scheme of parsing, or an ill use of a good one, is almost as unlucky in grammar, as an ill method of ciphering, or an ill use of a good one, would be in arithmetic. From the strong contrast cited above, one might suspect that, in selecting, devising, or using, a technical process for the exercising of learners in the principles of etymology and syntax, this author had been less fortunate than the generality of his fellows. Not only is it implied, that parsing is no critical analysis, but even what is set in opposition to the "mechanical routine," may very well serve for a definition of Syntactical Parsing—"the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence!" If this "practice," well ordered, can be at once interesting and profitable to the learner, so may parsing. Nor, after all, is even this author's mode of parsing, defective though it is in several respects, less "important" to the users of his book, or less valued by teachers, than the analysis which he sets above it.

OBS. 9.—S. S. Greene, a public teacher in Boston, who, in answer to a supposed "demand for a more philosophical plan of teaching the English language," has entered in earnest upon the "Analysis of Sentences," having devoted to one method of it more than the space of two hundred duodecimo pages, speaks of analysis and of parsing, thus: "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called analysis."—Greene's Analysis, p. 14. "Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, giving its modifications, relation, agreement or dependence, and the rule for its construction. Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence. Analysis should precede parsing."—Ib., p. 26. "A large proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but combinations or groups of words. These groups perform the office of the substantive, the adjective, or the adverb, and, in some one of these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. The pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence, must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before he separates them into the single words which compose them. This advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing."—Ib., p. 3.

OBS. 10.—On these passages, it may be remarked in the first place, that the distinction attempted between analysis and parsing is by no means clear, or well drawn. Nor indeed could it be; because parsing is a species of analysis. The first assertion would be just as true as it is now, were the former word substituted for the latter: thus, "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or of any complex element into the parts which compose it, is called parsing." Next, the "Parsing" spoken of in the second sentence, is Syntactical Parsing only; and, without a limitation of the species, neither this assertion nor the one concerning precedence is sufficiently true. Again, the suggestion, that, "Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence," has nothing distinctive in it; and, without some idea of the author's peculiar system of "elements," previously impressed upon the mind, is scarcely, if at all, intelligible. Lastly, that a pupil must understand a sentence,—or, what is the same thing, "learn the force of the words combined,"—before he can be sure of parsing each word rightly, is a very plain and certain truth; but what "advantage" over parsing this truth gives to the lesser analysis, which deals with "groups," it is not easy to discover. If the author had any clear idea of "this advantage," he has conveyed no such conception to his readers.

OBS. 11.—Greene's Analysis is the most expanded form of the Third Method above.[333] Its nucleus, or germinating kernel, was the old partition of subject and predicate, derived from the art of logic. Its chief principles may be briefly stated thus: Sentences, which are simple, or complex, or compound, are made up of words, phrases, and clauses—three grand classes of elements, called the first, the second, and the third class. From these, each sentence must have two elements; the Subject, or Substantive element, and the Predicate, or Predicative element, which are principal; and a sentence may have five, the subordinates being the Adjective element, the Objective element, and the Adverbial element. The five elements have sundry modifications and subdivisions. Each of the five may, like a sentence, be simple, or complex, or compound; and each may be of any of the three grand classes. The development of this scheme forms a volume, not small. The system is plausible, ingenious, methodical, mostly true, and somewhat elaborate; but it is neither very useful nor very accurate. It seems too much like a great tree, beautiful, symmetrical, and full of leaves, but raised or desired only for fruit, yet bearing little, and some of that little not of good quality, but knurly or bitter. The chief end of a grammar, designed for our tongue, is, to show what is, and what is not, good English. To this end, the system in question does not appear to be well adapted.

OBS. 12.—Dr. Bullions, the projector of the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all on the same plan," inserted in his Latin Grammar, of 1841, a short sketch of the new analysis by "subjects and predicates," "grammatical and logical," the scheme used by Andrews and Stoddard; but his English Grammar, which appeared in 1834, was too early for this "new and improved method of investigating" language. In his later English Grammar, of 1849, however, paying little regard to sameness of "plan" or conformity of definitions, he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages, placing the topic, not injudiciously, in the first part of his syntax, and referring to it thus in his Preface: "The subject of ANALYSIS, wholly omitted in the former work, is here introduced in its proper place; and to an extent in accordance with its importance."— Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 3.

OBS. 13.—In applying any of the different methods of analysis, as a school exercise, it will in general perhaps be best to use each separately; the teacher directing which one is to be applied, and to what examples. The selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work, will be found as suitable as any. Analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar; but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is parsing; which, because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own, is not commonly denominated analysis. The relation which other methods should bear to parsing, is, as we have seen, variously stated by different authors. Etymological parsing and Syntactical are, or ought to be, distinct exercises. The former, being the most simple, the most elementary, and also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter, should, without doubt, take precedence of all the rest, and be made familiar in the first place. Those who say, "Analysis should precede parsing," will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable, till this is somewhat known. But Syntactical Parsing being, when complete in form, the most thorough process of grammatical resolution, it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it, as above. It can hardly be said that any of these are necessary to this exercise, or to one an other; yet in a full course of grammatical instruction, each may at times be usefully employed.

OBS. 14.—Dr. Bullions suggests, that, "Analysis should precede Syntactical parsing, because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole."—Analytical and Pract. Gram., p. 114. This reason is entirely fictitious and truthless; for the words of a sentence are intuitively known to be its "parts and elements;" and, to "understand their relations," is as necessary to one form of analysis as to another; but, "intelligently to combine them," is no part of the parser's duty: this belongs to the writer; and where he has not done it, he must be criticised and censured, as one that knows not well what he says. In W. Allen's Grammar, as in Wells's, Syntactical parsing and Etymological are not divided. Wells intersperses his "Exercises in Parsing," at seven points of his Syntax, and places "the chapter on Analysis," at the end of it. Allen treats first of the several parts of grammar, didactically; then presents a series of exercises adapted to the various heads of the whole. At the beginning of these, are fourteen "Methods of Parsing," which show, successively, the properties and construction of his nine parts of speech; and, at the ninth method, which resolves infinitives, it is proposed that the pupil begin to apply a method of analysis similar to the Second one above.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. PRAXIS XII.—SYNTACTICAL.

_The grand clew to all syntactical parsing is THE SENSE; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the authors meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved.

In all complete syntactical parsing, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish the different parts of speech and their classes; to mention their modifications in order; to point out their relation, agreement, or government; and to apply the Rules of Syntax. Thus_:—

EXAMPLE PARSED.

"A young man studious to know his duty, and honestly bent on doing it, will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves; but, ah! poor fallen human nature! what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit—a rebel and a traitor—exert their sway against our only saving principle!"—G. Brown.

A is the indefinite article: and relates to man, or young man; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is—a man—a young man.

Young is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, young, younger, youngest: and relates to man; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—young man.

Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of will find; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is—man will find.

Studious is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; studious, more studious, most studious; or, studious, less studious, least studious: and relates to man; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—man studious.

To is a preposition: and shows the relation between studious and know; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is—studious to know.

Know is an irregular active-transitive verb, from know, knew, knowing, known; found in the infinitive mood, present tense—no person, or number: and is governed by to; according to Rule 18th, which says, "The infinitive mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb." Because the meaning is—to know.

His is a personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by duty; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is—his duty;—i. e., the young man's duty.

Duty is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by know; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—to know his duty.

And is a copulative conjunction: and connects the phrase which follows it, to that which precedes; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is—studious to know his duty, and honestly bent, &c.

Honestly is an adverb of manner: and relates to bent; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is—honestly bent.

Bent is a perfect participle, from the redundant active-transitive verb, bend, bent or bended, bending, bent or bended: and relates to man; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is—man bent. On is a preposition: and shows the relation between bent and doing; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is—bent on doing.

Doing is an imperfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, do, did, doing, done: and is governed by on; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is—on doing.

It is a personal pronoun, representing duty, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the objective case, being governed by doing; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—doing it;—i. e., doing his duty.

Will find is an irregular active-transitive verb, from find, found, finding, found; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singular number: and agrees with its nominative man; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is—man will find.

Himself is a compound personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender;" and is in the objective case, being governed by will find; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—will find himself;—i. e., his own mind or person.

Led is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, lead, led, leading, led: and relates to himself; according to Rule 20th, which says, "Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions." Because the meaning is—himself led.

Away is an adverb of place: and relates to led; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is—led away.

From is a preposition: and shows the relation between led and sin or folly; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is—led from sin or folly.

The is the definite article: and relates to sin and folly; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is—the sin or folly.

Sin is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by from; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—from sin.

Or is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects sin and folly; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is—sin or folly.

Folly is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is connected by or to sin, and governed by the same preposition from; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—from sin or folly.

In is a preposition: and shows the relation between indulge and which; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is—indulge in which—or, which they indulge in.

Which is a relative pronoun, representing sin or folly, in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 13th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together:" and is in the objective case, being governed by in; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—in which;—i. e., in which sin or folly.

The is the definite article: and relates to multitude; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is—the multitude.

Multitude is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of indulge; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is—multitude indulge.

Thoughtlessly is an adverb of manner: and relates to indulge; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is—thoughtlessly indulge.

Indulge is a regular active-transitive verb, from indulge, indulged, indulging, indulged; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative multitude; according to Rule 15th, which says, "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Because the meaning is—multitude indulge.

Themselves is a compound personal pronoun, representing multitude, in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 11th, which says, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number:" and is in the objective case, being governed by indulge; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—indulge themselves;—i. e., the individuals of the multitude indulge themselves.

But is a disjunctive conjunction: and connects what precedes and what follows; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is—A young man, &c., but, ah! &c.

Ah is an interjection, indicating sorrow: and is used independently; according to Rule 24th, which says, "Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words." Because the meaning is—ah!—unconnected with the rest of the sentence.

Poor is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, poor, poorer, poorest: and relates to nature; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—poor human nature.

Fallen is a participial adjective, compared (perhaps) by adverbs: and relates to nature; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—fallen nature.

Human is a common adjective, not compared: and relates to nature; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—human nature.

Nature is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put absolute by direct address; according to Rule 8th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Because the meaning is—poor fallen human nature!—the noun being unconnected with any verb.

What is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to conflicts; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—what conflicts.

Conflicts is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of are; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is—conflicts are.

Are is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its nominative conflicts; according to Rule 14th, which says, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Because the meaning is—conflicts are.

Thy is a personal pronoun, representing nature, in the second person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by portion; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is—thy portion.

Portion is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is put after are, in agreement with conflicts; according to Rule 6th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Because the meaning is—conflicts are thy portion.

When is a conjunctive adverb of time: and relates to the two verbs, are and exert; according to Rule 21st, which says, "Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs." Because the meaning is—what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit exert, &c.

Inclination is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of exert; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is—inclination and habit exert.

And is a copulative conjunction: and connects inclination and habit; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is—inclination and habit.

Habit is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is one of the subjects of exert; according to Rule 2d, which says, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Because the meaning is—inclination and habit exert.

A is the indefinite article: and relates to rebel; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is—a rebel.

Rebel is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with inclination; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is—inclination, a rebel.

And is a copulative conjunction: and connects rebel and traitor; according to Rule 22d, which says, "Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences." Because the meaning is—a rebel and a traitor.

A is the indefinite article: and relates to traitor; according to Rule 1st, which says, "Articles relate to the nouns which they limit." Because the meaning is—a traitor.

Traitor is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: and is put in apposition with habit; according to Rule 3d, which says, "A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Because the meaning is—habit, a traitor.

Exert is a regular active-transitive verb, from exert, exerted, exerting, exerted; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: and agrees with its two nominatives inclination and habit; according to Rule 16th, which says, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Because the meaning is—inclination and habit exert.

Their is a personal pronoun, representing inclination and habit, in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 12th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by sway; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is—their sway;—i. e., the sway of inclination and habit.

Sway is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by exert; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—exert sway.

Against is a preposition: and shows the relation between exert and principle; according to Rule 23d, which says, "Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them." Because the meaning is—exert against principle.

Our is a personal pronoun, representing the speakers, in the first person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:" and is in the possessive case, being governed by principle; according to Rule 4th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed." Because the meaning is—our principle;—i. e., the speakers' principle.

Only is a pronominal adjective, not compared: and relates to principle; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—only principle.

Saving is a participial adjective, compared by adverbs when it means frugal, but not compared in the sense here intended: and relates to principle; according to Rule 9th, which says, "Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns." Because the meaning is—saving principle.

Principle is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: and is governed by against; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Because the meaning is—against principle.

LESSON I.—ARTICLES.

"In English heroic verse, the capital pause of every line, is determined by the sense to be after the fourth, the fifth, the sixth or the seventh syllable."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 105.

"When, in considering the structure of a tree or a plant, we observe how all the parts, the roots, the stem, the bark, and the leaves, are suited to the growth and nutriment of the whole; when we survey all the parts and members of a living animal; or when we examine any of the curious works of art—such as a clock, a ship, or any nice machine; the pleasure which we have in the survey, is wholly founded on this sense of beauty."—Blair's Rhet., p. 49.

"It never can proceed from a good taste, to make a teaspoon resemble the leaf of a tree; for such a form is inconsistent with the destination of a teaspoon."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 351.

"In an epic poem, a history, an oration, or any work of genius, we always require a fitness, or an adjustment of means to the end which the author is supposed to have in view."—Blair's Rhet., p. 50.

"Rhetoric, Logic, and Grammar, are three arts that should always walk hand in hand. The first is the art of speaking eloquently; the second, that of thinking well; and the third, that of speaking with propriety."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 114.

   "Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees,
    Rock'd in the cradle of the western breeze."—Cowper.

LESSON II.—NOUNS.

"There goes a rumour that I am to be banished. And let the sentence come, if God so will. The other side of the sea is my Father's ground, as well as this side."—Rutherford.

"Gentlemen, there is something on earth greater than arbitrary or despotic power. The lightning has its power, and the whirlwind has its power, and the earthquake has its power. But there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power than lightning, whirlwind, or earthquake; that is—the threatened indignation of the whole civilized world."—Daniel Webster.

"And Isaac sent away Jacob; and he went to Padan Aram, unto Laban, son of Bethuel the Syrian, and brother of Rebecca, Jacob's and Esau's mother."—See Gen., xxviii, 5.

"The purpose you undertake is dangerous." "Why that is certain: it is dangerous to take a cold, to sleep, to drink; but I tell you, my Lord fool, out of this nettle danger, we pluck this flower safety."—Shakespeare.

"And towards the Jews alone, one of the noblest charters of liberty on earth—Magna Charta, the Briton's boast—legalized an act of injustice."—Keith's Evidences, p. 74.

"Were Demosthenes's Philippics spoken in a British assembly, in a similar conjuncture of affairs, they would convince and persuade at this day. The rapid style, the vehement reasoning, the disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, which perpetually animate them, would render their success infallible over any modern assembly. I question whether the same can be said of Cicero's orations; whose eloquence, however beautiful, and however well suited to the Roman taste, yet borders oftener on declamation, and is more remote from the manner in which we now expect to hear real business and causes of importance treated."—Blair's Rhet., p. 248.

"In fact, every attempt to present on paper the splendid effects of impassioned eloquence, is like gathering up dewdrops, which appear jewels and pearls on the grass, but run to water in the hand; the essence and the elements remain, but the grace, the sparkle, and the form, are gone."—Montgomery's Life of Spencer.

"As in life true dignity must be founded on character, not on dress and appearance; so in language the dignity of composition must arise from sentiment and thought, not from ornament."—Blair's Rhet., p. 144.

   "And man, whose heaven-erected face the smiles of love adorn,
    Man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands mourn."
        —Burns.

    "Ah wretched man! unmindful of thy end!
    A moment's glory! and what fates attend."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. xvii, l. 231.

LESSON III.—ADJECTIVES.

"Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought."—Blair's Rhet., p. 120.

"Upon this ground, we prefer a simple and natural, to an artificial and affected style; a regular and well-connected story, to loose and scattered narratives; a catastrophe which is tender and pathetic, to one which leaves us unmoved."—Ib., p. 23.

"A thorough good taste may well be considered as a power compounded of natural sensibility to beauty, and of improved understanding."—Ib., p. 18.

"Of all writings, ancient or modern, the sacred Scriptures afford us the highest instances of the sublime. The descriptions of the Deity, in them, are wonderfully noble; both from the grandeur of the object, and the manner of representing it."—Ib., p. 36.

"It is not the authority of any one person, or of a few, be they ever so eminent, that can establish one form of speech in preference to another. Nothing but the general practice of good writers and good speakers can do it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 107.

"What other means are there to attract love and esteem so effectual as a virtuous course of life? If a man be just and beneficent, if he be temperate, modest, and prudent, he will infallibly gain the esteem and love of all who know him."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 167.

"But there are likewise, it must be owned, people in the world, whom it is easy to make worse by rough usage, and not easy to make better by any other."—Abp. Seeker.

"The great comprehensive truth written in letters of living light on every page of our history—the language addressed by every past age of New England to all future ages, is this: Human happiness has no perfect security but freedom;—freedom, none but virtue;—virtue, none but knowledge: and neither freedom, nor virtue, nor knowledge, has any vigour or immortal hope, except in the principles of the Christian faith, and in the sanctions of the Christian religion."—President Quincy.

   "For bliss, as thou hast part, to me is bliss;
    Tedious, unshared with thee, and odious soon."
        —P. Lost, B. ix, l. 880.

LESSON IV.—PRONOUNS.

"There is but one governor whose sight we cannot escape, whose power we cannot resist: a sense of His presence and of duty to Him, will accomplish more than all the laws and penalties which can be devised without it."—Woodbridge, Lit. C., p. 154.

"Every voluntary society must judge who shall be members of their body, and enjoy fellowship with them in their peculiar privileges."—Watts.

"Poetry and impassioned eloquence are the only sources from which the living growth of a language springs; and even if in their vehemence they bring down some mountain rubbish along with them, this sinks to the bottom, and the pure stream flows along over it."—Philological Museum, i, 645. "This use is bounded by the province, county, or district, which gives name to the dialect, and beyond which its peculiarities are sometimes unintelligible, and always ridiculous."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 163.

"Every thing that happens, is both a cause and an effect; being the effect of what goes before, and the cause of what follows."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 297.

"Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in the power of thine hand to do it."—Prov., iii, 27.

"Yet there is no difficulty at all in ascertaining the idea. * * * By reflecting upon that which is myself now, and that which was myself twenty years ago, I discern they are not two, but one and the same self."—Butler's Analogy, p. 271.

"If you will replace what has been long expunged from the language, and extirpate what is firmly rooted, undoubtedly you yourself become an innovator."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 167; Murray's Gram., 364.

"To speak as others speak, is one of those tacit obligations, annexed to the condition of living in society, which we are bound in conscience to fulfill, though we have never ratified them by any express promise; because, if they were disregarded, society would be impossible, and human happiness at an end."—See Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 139.

"In England thou was in current use until, perhaps, near the commencement of the seventeenth century, though it was getting to be regarded as somewhat disrespectful. At Walter Raleigh's trial, Coke, when argument and evidence failed him, insulted the defendant by applying to him the term thou. 'All that Lord Cobham did,' he cried, 'was at thy instigation, thou viper! for I thou thee, thou traitor!'"—Fowler's E. Gram., §220.

   "Th' Egyptian crown I to your hands remit;
    And with it take his heart who offers it."—Shakspeare.

LESSON V.—VERBS.

"Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the understanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man from his rank in the creation."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 231.

"When a writer reasons, we look only for perspicuity; when he describes, we expect embellishment; when he divides, or relates, we desire plainness and simplicity."—Blair's Rhet., p. 144.

"Livy and Herodotus are diffuse; Thucydides and Sallust are succinct; yet all of them are agreeable."—Ib., p. 178.

"Whenever petulant ignorance, pride, malice, malignity, or envy, interposes to cloud or sully his fame, I will take upon me to pronounce that the eclipse will not last long."—Dr. Delany.

"She said she had nothing to say, for she was resigned, and I knew all she knew that concerned us in this world; but she desired to be alone, that in the presence of God only, she might without interruption do her last duty to me."—Spect., No. 520.

"Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal; while cunning and deception, the meteors of the earth, after glittering for a moment, must pass away."—Robert Hall. "See, I have this day set thee over the nations, and over the kingdoms, to root out, and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to plant."—Jeremiah, i, 10.

"God might command the stones to be made bread, or the clouds to rain it; but he chooses rather to leave mankind to till, to sow, to reap, to gather into barns, to grind, to knead, to bake, and then to eat."—London Quarterly Review.

"Eloquence is no invention of the schools. Nature teaches every man to be eloquent, when he is much in earnest. Place him in some critical situation, let him have some great interest at stake, and you will see him lay hold of the most effectual means of persuasion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 235.

"It is difficult to possess great fame and great ease at the same time. Fame, like fire, is with difficulty kindled, is easily increased, but dies away if not continually fed. To preserve fame alive, every enterprise ought to be a pledge of others, so as to keep mankind in constant expectation."—Art of Thinking, p. 50. "Pope, finding little advantage from external help, resolved thenceforward to direct himself, and at twelve formed a plan of study which he completed with little other incitement than the desire of excellence."—Johnson's Lives of Poets, p. 498.

   "Loose, then, from earth the grasp of fond desire,
    Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore."—Young.

LESSON VI.—PARTICIPLES.

"The child, affrighted with the view of his father's helmet and crest, and clinging to the nurse; Hector, putting off his helmet, taking the child into his arms, and offering up a prayer for him; Andromache, receiving back the child with a smile of pleasure, and at the same instant bursting into tears; form the most natural and affecting picture that can possibly be imagined."—Blair's Rhet., p. 435.

"The truth of being, and the truth of knowing are one; differing no more than the direct beam and the beam reflected."—Ld. Bacon. "Verbs denote states of being, considered as beginning, continuing, ending, being renewed, destroyed, and again repeated, so as to suit any occasion."—William Ward's Gram., p. 41.

"We take it for granted, that we have a competent knowledge and skill, and that we are able to acquit ourselves properly, in our own native tongue; a faculty, solely acquired by use, conducted by habit, and tried by the ear, carries us on without reflection."—Lowth's Gram., p. vi.

"I mean the teacher himself; who, stunned with the hum, and suffocated with the closeness of his school-room, has spent the whole day in controlling petulance, exciting indifference to action, striving to enlighten stupidity, and labouring to soften obstinacy."—Sir W. Scott.

"The inquisitive mind, beginning with criticism, the most agreeable of all amusements, and finding no obstruction in its progress, advances far into the sensitive part of our nature; and gains imperceptibly a thorough knowledge of the human heart, of its desires, and of every motive to action."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 42.

   "They please, are pleased; they give to get esteem;
    Till, seeming blest, they grow to what they seem."—Goldsmith.

LESSON VII.—ADVERBS.

"How cheerfully, how freely, how regularly, how constantly, how unweariedly, how powerfully, how extensively, he communicateth his convincing, his enlightening, his heart-penetrating, warming, and melting; his soul-quickening, healing, refreshing, directing, and fructifying influence!"—Brown's Metaphors, p. 96.

"The passage, I grant, requires to be well and naturally read, in order to be promptly comprehended; but surely there are very few passages worth comprehending, either of verse or prose, that can be promptly understood, when they are read unnaturally and ill."—Thelwall's Lect. "They waste life in what are called good resolutions—partial efforts at reformation, feebly commenced, heartlessly conducted, and hopelessly concluded."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 262.

"A man may, in respect of grammatical purity, speak unexceptionably, and yet speak obscurely and ambiguously; and though we cannot say, that a man may speak properly, and at the same time speak unintelligibly, yet this last case falls more naturally to be considered as an offence against perspicuity, than as a violation of propriety."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 104.

"Ye are witnesses, and God also, how holily and justly and unblamably we behaved ourselves among you that believe."—1 Thes., ii, 10.

"The question is not, whether they know what is said of Christ in the Scriptures; but whether they know it savingly, truly, livingly, powerfully."—Penington's Works, iii, 28.

   "How gladly would the man recall to life
    The boy's neglected sire! a mother too,
    That softer friend, perhaps more gladly still,
    Might he demand them at the gates of death!"—Cowper.

LESSON VIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

"Every person's safety requires that he should submit to be governed; for if one man may do harm without suffering punishment, every man has the same right, and no person can be safe."—Webster's Essays, p. 38.

"When it becomes a practice to collect debts by law, it is a proof of corruption and degeneracy among the people. Laws and courts are necessary, to settle controverted points between man and man; but a man should pay an acknowledged debt, not because there is a law to oblige him, but because it is just and honest, and because he has promised to pay it."—Ib., p. 42.

"The liar, and only the liar, is invariably and universally despised, abandoned, and disowned. It is therefore natural to expect, that a crime thus generally detested, should be generally avoided."—Hawkesworth.

"When a man swears to the truth of his tale, he tacitly acknowledges that his bare word does not deserve credit. A swearer will lie, and a liar is not to be believed even upon his oath; nor is he believed, when he happens to speak the truth."—Red Book, p. 108.

"John Adams replied, 'I know Great Britain has determined on her system, and that very determination determines me on mine. You know I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures. The die is now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unalterable determination.'"—SEWARD'S Life of John Quincy Adams, p. 26.

"I returned, and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happen to them all."—Ecclesiastes, ix, 11.

   "Little, alas! is all the good I can;
    A man oppress'd, dependent, yet a man."—Pope, Odys., B. xiv, p. 70.

LESSON IX.—PREPOSITIONS.

"He who legislates only for a party, is engraving his name on the adamantine pillar of his country's history, to be gazed on forever as an object of universal detestation."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 401.

"The Greek language, in the hands of the orator, the poet, and the historian, must be allowed to bear away the palm from every other known in the world; but to that only, in my opinion, need our own yield the precedence."—Barrow's Essays, p. 91.

"For my part, I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation, is incomparably the best; since, not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths, it leads to the stock on which they grew."—Burke, on Taste, p. 37. Better—"on which truths grow."

"All that I have done in this difficult part of grammar, concerning the proper use of prepositions, has been to make a few general remarks upon the subject; and then to give a collection of instances, that have occurred to me, of the improper use of some of them."—Priestley's Gram., p. 155.

"This is not an age of encouragement for works of elaborate research and real utility. The genius of the trade of literature is necessarily unfriendly to such productions."—Thelwall's Lect., p. 102.

"At length, at the end of a range of trees, I saw three figures seated on a bank of moss, with a silent brook creeping at their feet."—Steele.

   "Thou rather, with thy sharp and sulph'rous bolt,
    Splitst the unwedgeable and gnarled oak."—Shakspeare.

LESSON X.—INTERJECTIONS.

"Hear the word of the Lord, O king of Judah, that sittest upon the throne of David; thou, and thy servants, and thy people, that enter in by these gates: thus saith the Lord, Execute ye judgement and righteousness, and deliver the spoiled out of the hand of the oppressor."—Jeremiah, xxii, 2, 3.

"Therefore, thus saith the Lord concerning Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah, They shall not lament for him, saying, Ah my brother! or, Ah sister! they shall not lament for him, saying, Ah lord! or, Ah his glory! He shall be buried with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem."—Jer., xxii, 18, 19.

"O thou afflicted, tossed with tempest, and not comforted, behold, I will lay thy stones with fair colours, and lay thy foundations with sapphires."—Isaiah, liv, 11.

   "O prince! O friend! lo! here thy Medon stands;
    Ah! stop the hero's unresisted hands."
        —Pope, Odys., B. xxii, l. 417.

    "When, lo! descending to our hero's aid,
    Jove's daughter Pallas, war's triumphant maid!"
        —Ib., B. xxii, l. 222.

    "O friends! oh ever exercised in care!
    Hear Heaven's commands, and reverence what ye hear!"
        —Ib., B. xii, l. 324.

    "Too daring prince! ah, whither dost thou run?
    Ah, too forgetful of thy wife and you!"
        —Pope's Iliad, B. vi, l. 510.

CHAPTER II.—ARTICLES.

In this chapter, and those which follow it, the Rules of Syntax are again exhibited, in the order of the parts of speech, with Examples, Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and False Syntax. The Notes are all of them, in form and character, subordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of errors. The correction of the False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, will form an oral exercise, similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful.[334]

RULE I.—ARTICLES.

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit:[335] as, "At a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an aged elm."

   "See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing,
    The sot a hero, lunatic a king."—Pope's Essay, Ep. ii, l. 268.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

The definite article used intensively, may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, "A land which was the mightiest."—Byron. "The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared their alacrity."—Dr. Johnson. "He chooses it the rather"—Cowper. See Obs. 10th, below.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a plural adjective of number; as, "Thou hast a few names even in Sardis."—Rev., iii, 4. "There are a thousand things which crowd into my memory."—Spectator, No. 468. "The centurion commanded a hundred men."—Webster. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 26.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE I.

OBS. 1.—The article is a kind of index, usually pointing to some noun; and it is a general, if not a universal, principle, that no one noun admits of more than one article. Hence, two or more articles in a sentence are signs of two or more nouns; and hence too, by a very convenient ellipsis, an article before an adjective is often made to relate to a noun understood; as, "The grave [people] rebuke the gay [people], and the gay [people] mock the grave" [people].—Maturin's Sermons, p. 103. "The wise [persons] shall inherit glory."—Prov., iii, 35. "The vile [person] will talk villainy."—Coleridge's Lay Sermons, p. 105: see Isaiah, xxxii, 6. "The testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple" [ones].—Psal., xix, 7. "The Old [Testament] and the New Testament are alike authentic."—"The animal [world] and the vegetable world are adapted to each other."—"An epic [poem] and a dramatic poem are the same in substance."—Ld. Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 274. "The neuter verb is conjugated like the active" [verb].—Murray's Gram., p. 99. "Each section is supposed to contain a heavy [portion] and a light portion; the heavy [portion] being the accented syllable, and the light [portion] the unaccented" [syllable].—Rush, on the Voice, p. 364.

OBS. 2.—Our language does not, like the French, require a repetition of the article before every noun in a series; because the same article may serve to limit the signification of several nouns, provided they all stand in the same construction. Hence the following sentence is bad English: "The understanding and language have a strict connexion."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 356. The sense of the former noun only was meant to be limited. The expression therefore should have been, "Language and the understanding have a strict connexion," or, "The understanding has a strict connexion with language." In some instances, one article seems to limit the sense of several nouns that are not all in the same construction, thus: "As it proves a greater or smaller obstruction to the speaker's or writer's aim."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 200. That is—"to the aim of the speaker or the writer." It is, in fact, the possessive, that limits the other nouns; for, "a man's foes" means, "the foes of a man;" and, "man's wisdom," means, "the wisdom of man." The governing noun cannot have an article immediately before it. Yet the omission of articles, when it occurs, is not properly by ellipsis, as some grammarians declare it to be; for there never can be a proper ellipsis of an article, when there is not also an ellipsis of its noun. Ellipsis supposes the omitted words to be necessary to the construction, when they are not so to the sense; and this, it would seem, cannot be the case with a mere article. If such a sign be in any wise necessary, it ought to be used; and if not needed in any respect, it cannot be said to be understood. The definite article being generally required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns, we in this case repeat it before every term in a series; as, "They are singled out from among their fellows, as the kind, the amiable, the sweet-tempered, the upright."—Dr. Chalmers.

"The great, the gay, shall they partake The heav'n that thou alone canst make?"—Cowper.

OBS. 3.—The article precedes its noun, and is never, by itself, placed after it; as, "Passion is the drunkenness of the mind."—Southey. When an adjective likewise precedes the noun, the article is usually placed before the adjective, that its power of limitation may extend over that also; as, "A concise writer compresses his thoughts into the fewest possible words."—Blair's Rhet., p. 176.

"The private path, the secret acts of men, If noble, far the noblest of their lives."—Young.

OBS. 4.—The relative position of the article and the adjective is seldom a matter of indifference. Thus, it is good English to say, "both the men," or, "the two men;" but we can by no means say, "the both men" or, "two the men." Again, the two phrases, "half a dollar," and "a half dollar," though both good, are by no means equivalent. Of the pronominal adjectives, some exclude the article; some precede it; and some follow it, like other adjectives. The word same is seldom, if ever used without the definite article or some stronger definitive before it; as, "On the same day,"—"in that same hour,"—"These same gentlemen." After the adjective both, the definite article may be used, but it is generally unnecessary, and this is a sufficient reason for omitting it: as, "The following sentences will fully exemplify, to the young grammarian, both the parts of this rule."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 192. Say, "both parts." The adjective few may be used either with or without an article, but not with the same import: as, "The few who were present, were in the secret;" i. e., All then present knew the thing. "Few that were present, were in the secret;" i.e., Not many then present knew the thing. "When I say, 'There were few men with him,' I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, 'There were a few men with him,' I evidently intend to make the most of them."—Murray's Gram., p. 171. See Etymology, Articles, Obs. 28.

OBS. 5.—The pronominal adjectives which exclude the article, are any, each, either, every, much, neither, no, or none, some, this, that, these, those. The pronominal adjectives which precede the article, are all, both, many, such, and what; as, "All the world,"—"Both the judges,"—"Many a[336] mile,"—"Such a chasm,"—"What a freak." In like manner, any adjective of quality, when its meaning is limited by the adverb too, so, as, or how, is put before the article; as, "Too great a study of strength, is found to betray writers into a harsh manner."—Blair's Rhet., p. 179. "Like many an other poor wretch, I now suffer all the ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence." "Such a gift is too small a reward for so great a labour."—Brightland's Gram., p. 95. "Here flows as clear a stream as any in Greece. How beautiful a prospect is here!"—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 52. The pronominal adjectives which follow the article, are few, former, first, latter, last, little, one, other, and same; as, "An author might lean either to the one [style] or to the other, and yet be beautiful."—Blair's Rhet., p. 179. Many, like few, sometimes follows the article; as, "The many favours which we have received."—"In conversation, for many a man, they say, a many men."—Johnson's Dict. In this order of the words, a seems awkward and needless; as,

"Told of a many thousand warlike French."—Shak.

OBS. 6.—When the adjective is preceded by any other adverb than too, so, as, or how, the article is almost always placed before the adverb: as, "One of the most complete models;"—"An equally important question;"—"An exceedingly rough passage;"—"A very important difference." The adverb quite, however, may be placed either before or after the article, though perhaps with a difference of construction: as, "This is quite a different thing;"—or, "This is a quite different thing." "Finding it quite an other thing;"—or, "Finding it a quite other thing."—Locke, on Ed., p. 153. Sometimes two adverbs intervene between the article and the adjective; as, "We had a rather more explicit account of the Novii."—Philol. Museum, i, 458. But when an other adverb follows too, so, as, or how, the three words should be placed either before the article or after the noun; as, "Who stands there in so purely poetical a light."—Ib., i, 449. Better, perhaps: "In a light so purely poetical."

OBS. 7.—The definitives this, that, and some others, though they supersede the article an or a, may be followed by the adjective one; for we say, "this one thing," but not, "this a thing." Yet, in the following sentence, this and a being separated by other words, appear to relate to the same noun: "For who is able to judge this thy so great a people?"—1 Kings, iii, 9. But we may suppose the noun people to be understood after this. Again, the following example, if it is not wrong, has an ellipsis of the word use after the first a:

   "For highest cordials all their virtue lose,
    By a too frequent and too bold a use."—Pomfret.

OBS. 8.—When the adjective is placed after the noun, the article generally retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated before the adjective: as, "A man ignorant of astronomy;"—"The primrose pale." In Greek, when an adjective is placed after its noun, if the article is applied to the noun, it is repeated before the adjective; as, "[Greek: Hæ polis hæ megalæ,]"—"The city the great;" i.e., "The great city." [337]

OBS. 9.—Articles, according to their own definition and nature, come before their nouns; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to be placed after the noun to which they both relate: as, "Section the Fourth;"—"Henry the Eighth." Such examples, however, may possibly be supposed elliptical; as, "Section, the fourth division of the chapter;"—"Henry, the eighth king of that name:" and, if they are so, the article, in English, can never be placed after its noun, nor can two articles ever properly relate to one noun, in any particular construction of it. Priestley observes, "Some writers affect to transpose these words, and place the numeral adjective first; [as,] 'The first Henry.' Hume's History, Vol. i, p. 497. This construction is common with this writer, but there seems to be a want of dignity in it."—Rudiments of E. Gram., p. 150. Dr. Webster cites the word Great, in "Alexander the Great" as a name, or part of a name; that is, he gives it as an instance of "cognomination." See his American Dict., 8vo. And if this is right, the article may be said to relate to the epithet only, as it appears to do. For, if the word is taken substantively, there is certainly no ellipsis; neither is there any transposition in putting it last, but rather, as Priestley suggests, in putting it first.

OBS. 10.—The definite article is often prefixed to comparatives and superlatives; and its effect is, as Murray observes, (in the words of Lowth,) "to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely: as, 'The more I examine it, the better I like it.' 'I like this the least of any.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 33; Lowth's, 14. "For neither if we eat, are we the better; neither if we eat not, are we the worse."—1 Cor., viii, 8. "One is not the more agreeable to me for loving beef, as I do; nor the less agreeable for preferring mutton."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 365. "They are not the men in the nation, the most difficult to be replaced."—Priestley's Gram., p. 148. In these instances, the article seems to be used adverbially, and to relate only to the adjective or adverb following it. (See observation fourth, on the Etymology of Adverbs.) Yet none of our grammarians have actually reckoned the an adverb. After the adjective, the noun might perhaps be supplied; but when the word the is added to an adverb, we must either call it an adverb, or make an exception to Rule 1st above: and if an exception is to be made, the brief form which I have given, cannot well be improved. For even if a noun be understood, it may not appear that the article relates to it, rather than to the degree of the quality. Thus: "The deeper the well, the clearer the water." This Dr. Ash supposes to mean, "The deeper well the well is, the clearer water the water is."—Ash's Gram., p. 107. But does the text specify a particular "deeper well" or "clearer water?" I think not. To what then does the refer, but to the proportionate degree of deeper and clearer?

OBS. 11.—The article the is sometimes elegantly used, after an idiom common in the French language, in lieu of a possessive pronoun; as, "He looked him full in the face; i. e. in his face."—Priestley's Gram., p. 150. "Men who have not bowed the knee to the image of Baal."—Rom., xi, 4. That is, their knees.

OBS. 12.—The article an or a, because it implies unity, is applicable to nouns of the singular number only; yet a collective noun, being singular in form, is sometimes preceded by this article even when it conveys the idea of plurality and takes a plural verb: as, "There are a very great number [of adverbs] ending in ly."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 63. "A plurality of them are sometimes felt at the same instant."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 114. In support of this construction, it would be easy to adduce a great multitude of examples from the most reputable writers; but still, as it seems not very consistent, to take any word plurally after restricting it to the singular, we ought rather to avoid this if we can, and prefer words that literally agree in number: as, "Of adverbs there are very many ending in ly"—"More than one of them are sometimes felt at the same instant." The word plurality, like other collective nouns, is literally singular: as, "To produce the latter, a plurality of objects is necessary."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 224.

OBS. 13.—Respecting the form of the indefinite article, present practice differs a little from that of our ancient writers. An was formerly used before all words beginning with h, and before several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to require a: thus, we read in the Bible, "An help,"—"an house,"—"an hundred,"—"an one,"—"an ewer,"—"an usurer;" whereas we now say, "A help,"—"a house,"—"a hundred,"—"a one,"—"a ewer,"—"a usurer."

OBS. 14.—Before the word humble, with its compounds and derivatives, some use an, and others, a; according to their practice, in this instance, of sounding or suppressing the aspiration. Webster and Jameson sound the h, and consequently prefer a; as, "But a humbling image is not always necessary to produce that effect."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 205. "O what a blessing is a humble mind!"—Christian Experience, p. 342. But Sheridan, Walker, Perry, Jones, and perhaps a majority of fashionable speakers, leave the h silent, and would consequently say, "An humbling image,"—"an humble mind,"—&c.

OBS. 15.—An observance of the principles on which the article is to be repeated or not repeated in a sentence, is of very great moment in respect to accuracy of composition. These principles are briefly stated in the notes below, but it is proper that the learner should know the reasons of the distinctions which are there made. By a repetition of the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a repetition of the noun is implied; but without a repetition of the article, the adjectives, in all fairness of interpretation, are confined to one and the same noun: as, "No figures will render a cold or an empty composition interesting."—Blair's Rhet., p. 134. Here the author speaks of a cold composition and an empty composition as different things. "The metaphorical and the literal meaning are improperly mixed."—Murray's Gram., p. 339. Here the verb are has two nominatives, one of which is expressed, and the other understood. "But the third and the last of these [forms] are seldom used."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 186. Here the verb "are used" has two nominatives, both of which are understood; namely, "the third form," and "the last form." Again: "The original and present signification is always retained."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., Vol. ii, p. 149. Here one signification is characterized as being both original and present. "A loose and verbose manner never fails to create disgust."—Blair's Rhet., p. 261. That is, one manner, loose and verbose. "To give a short and yet clear and plain answer to this proposition."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 533. That is, one answer, short, clear, and plain; for the conjunctions in the text connect nothing but the adjectives.

OBS. 16.—To avoid repetition, even of the little word the, we sometimes, with one article, join inconsistent qualities to a plural noun;—that is, when the adjectives so differ as to individualize the things, we sometimes make the noun plural, in stead of repeating the article: as, "The north and south poles;" in stead of, "The north and the south pole."—"The indicative and potential moods;" in stead of "The indicative and the potential mood."—"The Old and New Testaments;" in stead of, "The Old and the New Testament." But, in any such case, to repeat the article when the noun is made plural, is a huge blunder; because it implies a repetition of the plural noun. And again, not to repeat the article when the noun is singular, is also wrong; because it forces the adjectives to coalesce in describing one and the same thing. Thus, to say, "The north and south pole" is certainly wrong, unless we mean by it, one pole, or slender stick of wood, pointing north and south; and again, to say, "The north and the south poles," is also wrong, unless we mean by it, several poles at the north and others at the south. So the phrase, "The Old and New Testament" is wrong, because we have not one Testament that is both Old and New; and again, "The Old and the New Testaments," is wrong, because we have not several Old Testaments and several New ones: at least we have them not in the Bible.

OBS. 17.—Sometimes a noun that admits no article, is preceded by adjectives that do not describe the same thing; as, "Never to jumble metaphorical and plain language together."—Blair's Rhet., p. 146. This means, "metaphorical language and plain language;" and, for the sake of perfect clearness, it would perhaps be better to express it so. "For as intrinsic and relative beauty must often be blended in the same building, it becomes a difficult task to attain both in any perfection."—Karnes, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 330. That is, "intrinsic beauty and relative beauty" must often be blended; and this phraseology would be better. "In correspondence to that distinction of male and female sex."—Blair's Rhet., p. 74. This may be expressed as well or better, in half a dozen other ways; for the article may be added, or the noun may be made plural, with or without the article, and before or after the adjectives. "They make no distinction between causes of civil and criminal jurisdiction."— Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 302. This means—"between causes of civil and causes of criminal jurisdiction;" and, for the sake of perspicuity, it ought to have been so written,—or, still better, thus: "They make no distinction between civil causes and criminal."

NOTES TO RULE I.

NOTE I.—When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that of a vowel; as, "With the talents of an angel, a man may be a fool."—Young.

NOTE II.—The article an or a must never be so used as to relate, or even seem to relate, to a plural noun. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "I invited her to spend a day in viewing a seat and gardens."—Rambler, No. 34. Say, "a seat and its gardens."

NOTE III.—When nouns are joined in construction, with different adjuncts, different dependence, or positive contrast, the article, if it belong at all to the latter, must be repeated. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitors."—Wm. Penn. Say, "the merit." So the article in brackets is absolutely necessary to the sense and propriety of the following phrase, though not inserted by the learned author: "The Latin introduced between the Conquest and [the] reign of Henry the Eighth."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 42.

NOTE IV.—When adjectives are connected, and the qualities belong to things individually different, though of the same name, the article should be repeated: as, "A black and a white horse;"—i. e., two horses, one black and the other white. "The north and the south line;"—i. e., two lines, running east and west.

NOTE V.—When adjectives are connected, and the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated: as, "A black and white horse;"—i. e., one horse, piebald. "The north and south line;"—i. e., one line, running north and south, like a meridian. NOTE VI.—When two or more individual things of the same name are distinguished by adjectives that cannot unite to describe the same thing, the article must be added to each if the noun be singular, and to the first only if the noun follow them in the plural: as, "The nominative and the objective case;" or, "The nominative and objective cases."—"The third, the fifth, the seventh, and the eighth chapter;" or, "The third, fifth, seventh, and eighth chapters." [338]

NOTE VII.—When two phrases of the same sentence have any special correspondence with each other, the article, if used in the former, is in general required also in the latter: as, "For ye know neither the day nor the hour."—Matt., xxv, 13. "Neither the cold nor the fervid are formed for friendship."—Murray's Key, p. 209. "The vail of the temple was rent in twain, from the top to the bottom."—Matt., xxvii, 51.

NOTE VIII.—When a special correspondence is formed between individual epithets, the noun which follows must not be made plural; because the article, in such a case, cannot be repeated as the construction of correspondents requires. Thus, it is improper to say, "Both the first and second editions" or, "Both the first and the second editions" for the accurate phrase, "Both the first and the second edition;" and still worse to say, "Neither the Old nor New Testaments" or, "Neither the Old nor the New Testaments" for the just expression, "Neither the Old nor the New Testament." Yet we may say, "Neither the old nor the new statutes" or, "Both the early and the late editions;" for here the epithets severally apply to more than one thing.

NOTE IX.—In a series of three or more terms, if the article is used with any, it should in general be added either to every one, or else to the first only. The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: "Through their attention to the helm, the sails, or rigging."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 11. Say, "the rigging."

NOTE X.—As the article an or a denotes "one thing of a kind," it should not be used as we use the, to denote emphatically a whole kind; and again, when the species is said to be of the genus, no article should be used to limit the latter. Thus some will say, "A jay is a sort of a bird;" whereas they ought to say, "The jay is a sort of bird." Because it is absurd to suggest, that one jay is a sort of one bird. Yet we may say, "The jay is a bird," or, "A jay is a bird;" because, as every species is one under the genus, so every individual is one under both.

NOTE XI.—The article should not be used before the names of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences, in their general sense; before terms that are strictly limited by other definitives; or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently definite without it: as, "Falsehood is odious."—"Iron is useful."—"Beauty is vain."—"Admiration is useless, when it is not supported by domestic worth"—Webster's Essays, p. 30.

NOTE XII.—When titles are mentioned merely as titles; or names of things, merely as names or words; the article should not be used before them: as, "He is styled Marquis;" not, "the Marquis," or, "a Marquis,"—"Ought a teacher to call his pupil Master?"—"Thames is derived from the Latin name Tam~esis."

NOTE XIII.—When a comparison or an alternative is made with two nouns, if both of them refer to the same subject, the article should not be inserted before the latter; if to different subjects, it should not be omitted: thus, if we say, "He is a better teacher than poet," we compare different qualifications of the same man; but if we say, "He is a better teacher than a poet," we speak of different men, in regard to the same qualification.

NOTE XIV.—The definite article, or some other definitive, (as this, that, these, those,) is generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun who or which in a restrictive clause; as, "All the men who were present, agreed to it."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 145. "The thoughts which passion suggests are always plain and obvious ones."—Blair's Rhet., p. 468. "The things which are impossible with men, are possible with God."—Luke, xviii, 27. See Etymology, Chap. V, Obs. 26th, &c., on Classes of Pronouns.

NOTE XV.—The article is generally required in that construction which converts a participle into a verbal or participial noun; as, "The completing of this, by the working-out of sin inherent, must be by the power and spirit of Christ in the heart."—Wm. Penn. "They shall be an abhorring unto all flesh."—Isaiah, lxvi, 24. "For the dedicating of the altar."—Numb., vii, 11.

NOTE XVI.—The article should not be added to any participle that is not taken in all other respects as a noun; as, "For the dedicating the altar."—"He made a mistake in the giving out the text." Expunge the, and let dedicating and giving here stand as participles only; for in the construction of nouns, they must have not only a definitive before them, but the preposition of after them.

NOTE XVII.—The false syntax of articles properly includes every passage in which there is any faulty insertion, omission, choice, or position, of this part of speech. For example: "When the verb is a passive, the agent and object change places."—Lowth's Gram., p. 73. Better: "When the verb is passive, the agent and the object change places." "Comparisons used by the sacred poets, are generally short."—Russell's Gram., p. 87. Better: "The comparisons," &c. "Pronoun means for noun, and is used to avoid the too frequent repetition of the noun."—Infant School Gram., p. 89. Say rather: "The pronoun is put for a noun, and is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of the noun." Or: "The word PRONOUN means for noun; and a pronoun is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of some noun."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I.

[Fist][The examples of False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, are to be corrected orally by the pupil, according to the formules given, or according to others framed in like manner, and adapted to the several notes.]

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—AN OR A.

"I have seen an horrible thing in the house of Israel."—Hosea, vi, 10.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the article an is used before horrible, which begins with the sound of the consonant h. But, according to Note 1st, under Rule 1st, "When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a consonant, and an, before that of a vowel." Therefore, an should be a; thus, "I have seen a horrible thing in the house of Israel."]

"There is an harshness in the following sentences."—Priestley's Gram., p. 188. "Indeed, such an one is not to be looked for."—Blair's Rhet., p. 27. "If each of you will be disposed to approve himself an useful citizen."—Ib., p. 263. "Land with them had acquired almost an European value."—Webster's Essays, p. 325. "He endeavoured to find out an wholesome remedy."—Neef's Method of Ed., p. 3. "At no time have we attended an Yearly Meeting more to our own satisfaction."—The Friend, v, 224. "Addison was not an humourist in character."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 303. "Ah me! what an one was he?"—Lily's Gram., p. 49. "He was such an one as I never saw."—Ib. "No man can be a good preacher, who is not an useful one."—Blair's Rhet., p. 283. "An usage which is too frequent with Mr. Addison."—Ib., p. 200. "Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of an horse."—Locke's Essay, p. 298. "An universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article."—Priestley's Gram., p. 154. "Architecture is an useful as well as a fine art."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 335. "Because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve an uniform signification."—Nutting's Gram., p. 78. "Such a work required the patience and assiduity of an hermit."—Johnson's Life of Morin. "Resentment is an union of sorrow with malignity."—Rambler, No. 185. "His bravery, we know, was an high courage of blasphemy."—Pope. "Hyssop; a herb of bitter taste."—Pike's Heb. Lex., p. 3.

   "On each enervate string they taught the note
    To pant, or tremble through an Eunuch's throat."—Pope.

UNDER NOTE II.—AN OR A WITH PLURALS.

"At a sessions of the court in March, it was moved," &c.—Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 61. "I shall relate my conversations, of which I kept a memoranda."—Duchess D'Abrantes, p. 26. "I took another dictionary, and with a scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS."—A. B. Johnson's Plan of a Dict., p. 12. "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, of a forty-five years old."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 338. "And it came to pass about an eight days after these sayings."—Luke, ix, 28." There were slain of them upon a three thousand men."—1 Mac., iv, 15." Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed another Alps of snow."—Addison, Tat., No. 161. "To make them a satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained."—Goldsmith's Greece, p. 187. "As a first fruits of many more that shall be gathered."—Barclay's Works, i, 506. "It makes indeed a little amends, by inciting us to oblige people."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 229. "A large and lightsome backstairs leads up to an entry above."—Ib., p. 260. "Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest."—Murray's Gram., p. 162; Smith's, 138. "With such a spirit and sentiments were hostilities carried on."—Robertson's America, i, 166. "In the midst of a thick woods, he had long lived a voluntary recluse."—G. B. "The flats look almost like a young woods."—Morning Chronicle. "As we went on, the country for a little ways improved, but scantily."—Essex County Freeman, Vol. ii, No. 11. "Whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after a seventy years captivity at Babylon."—Rollin's An. Hist., Vol. ii, p. 20. "He did riot go a great ways into the country."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 85.

   "A large amends by fortune's hand is made,
    And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd."—Rowe's Lucan, iv, 1241.

UNDER NOTE III.—NOUNS CONNECTED.

"As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds and odour of flowers."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 117. "The last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent, and softness of its pause."—Ib., ii, 113. "Before the use of the loadstone or knowledge of the compass."—Dryden. "The perfect participle and imperfect tense ought not to be confounded."—Murray's Gram., ii, 292. "In proportion as the taste of a poet, or orator, becomes more refined."—Blair's Rhet., p. 27. "A situation can never be intricate, as long as there is an angel, devil, or musician, to lend a helping hand."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 285. "Avoid rude sports: an eye is soon lost, or bone broken."—"Not a word was uttered, nor sign given."—Brown's Inst., p. 125. "I despise not the doer, but deed."—Ibid. "For the sake of an easier pronunciation and more agreeable sound."—Lowth. "The levity as well as loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history."— Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 115.

UNDER NOTE IV.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"It is proper that the vowels be a long and short one."—Murray's Gram., p. 327. "Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or short time before."—Ib., p. 70; Fisk's, 72. "There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 8. "The numbers are two; Singular and Plural."—Ib., p. 80; Gould's, 77. "The persons are three; First, Second, [and] Third."—Adam, et al. "Nouns and pronouns have three cases; the nominative, possessive, and objective."—Comly's Gram., p. 19; Ingersoll's, 21. "Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive."— Bullions's E. Gram., p. 35; Lennie's, 20. "How many numbers have pronouns? Two, the singular and plural."—Bradley's Gram., p. 82. "To distinguish between an interrogative and exclamatory sentence."—Murray's Gram., p. 280; Comly's, 163; Ingersoll's, 292. "The first and last of which are compounded members."—Lowth's Gram., p. 123. "In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and diffuse, the nervous and feeble manner."—Blair's Rhet., p. 183. "The passive and neuter verbs, I shall reserve for some future conversation."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 69. "There are two voices; the Active and Passive."—Adam's Gram., p. 59; Gould's, 87. "Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of which."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 7. "To feel the force of a compound, or derivative word."—Town's Analysis, p. 4. "To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions."—Murray's Gram., p. 150; Ingersoll's, 233. "E has a long and short sound in most languages."— Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 13. "When the figurative and literal sense are mixed and jumbled together."—Blair's Rhet., p. 151. "The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and Phoenician stand in connection."—CONANT: Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 28. "The languages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and Swedish."—Fowler, ib., p. 31.

UNDER NOTE V.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"The path of truth is a plain and a safe path"—Murray's Key, p. 236. "Directions for acquiring a just and a happy elocution."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 144. "Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 9. "How can it choose but wither in a long and a sharp winter."—Cowley's Pref., p. vi. "Into a dark and a distant unknown."—Chalmers, on Astronomy, p. 230. "When the bold and the strong enslaved his fellow man."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 21. "We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and a perfect sentence." —Murray's Gram., p. 306. "And hence arises a second and a very considerable source of the improvement of taste."—Blair's Rhet., p. 18. "Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and an agreeable emotion."—Ib., p. 50. "The deepest and the bitterest feeling still is, the separation."— Dr. M'Rie. "A great and a good man looks beyond time."—Brown's Institutes, p. 125. "They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance." —Ib. "The light and the worthless kernels will float."—Ib. "I rejoice that there is an other and a better world."—Ib. "For he is determined to revise his work, and present to the publick another and a better edition."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 7. "He hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority."—Murray's Gram., p. 172: see Priestley's, 147. "There is however another and a more limited sense."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 232.

UNDER NOTE VI.—ARTICLES OR PLURALS.

"This distinction forms, what are called the diffuse and the concise styles."—Blair's Rhet., p. 176. "Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of the Attic and the Asiatic manners."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 83. "But the great design of uniting the Spanish and the French monarchies under the former was laid."— Bolingbroke, on History, p. 180. "In the solemn and the poetic styles, it [do or did] is often rejected."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 68. "They cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative cases."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 151; Ingersoll's, 239; R. G. Smith's, 127. "They are named the POSITIVE, the COMPARATIVE, and the SUPERLATIVE degrees."—Smart's Accidence, p. 27. "Certain Adverbs are capable of taking an Inflection, namely, that of the comparative and the superlative degrees."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §321. "In the subjunctive mood, the present and the imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 187; Fisk's, 131. "The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tenses of this mood, are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 145. "What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?"—Ib., p. 116. "Nouns are sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter verb to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb."—Ib., p. 55. "The verb varies its endings in the singular in order to agree in form with the first, second, and third person of its nominative."—Ib., p. 47. "They are identical in effect, with the radical and the vanishing stresses."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 339. "In a sonnet the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth line rhyme to each other: so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh line; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth line; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth line."—Churchill's Gram., p. 311. "The iron and the golden ages are run; youth and manhood are departed."—Wright's Athens, p. 74. "If, as you say, the iron and the golden ages are past, the youth and the manhood of the world."—Ib. "An Exposition of the Old and New Testament."—Matthew Henry's Title-page. "The names and order of the books of the Old and New Testament."—Friends' Bible, p. 2; Bruce's, p. 2; et al. "In the second and third person of that tense."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 81. "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine natures."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 59. "Among whom arose the Italian, the Spanish, the French, and the English languages."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 111. "Whence arise these two, the singular and the plural Numbers."—Burn's Gram., p. 32.

UNDER NOTE VII.—CORRESPONDENT TERMS.

"Neither the definitions, nor examples, are entirely the same with his."—Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. vi. "Because it makes a discordance between the thought and expression."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 24. "Between the adjective and following substantive."—Ib. ii, 104. "Thus, Athens became both the repository and nursery of learning."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 28. "But the French pilfered from both the Greek and Latin."—Ib., p. 102. "He shows that Christ is both the power and wisdom of God."—The Friend, x, 414. "That he might be Lord both of the dead and living."—Rom., xiv, 9. "This is neither the obvious nor grammatical meaning of his words."—Blair's Rhet., p. 209. "Sometimes both the accusative and infinitive are understood."—Adam's Gram., p. 155; Gould's, 158. "In some cases we can use either the nominative or accusative promiscuously."—Adam, p. 156; Gould, 159. "Both the former and latter substantive are sometimes to be understood."—Adam, p. 157; Gould, 160. "Many whereof have escaped both the commentator and poet himself."—Pope. "The verbs must and ought have both a present and past signification."—Murray's Gram., p. 108. "How shall we distinguish between the friends and enemies of the government?"—Webster's Essays, p. 352. "Both the ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in those measures."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 260. "As the period has a beginning and end within itself it implies an inflexion."—Adams's Rhet., ii, 245. "Such as ought to subsist between a principal and accessory."—Kames, on Crit., ii, 39.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR.

"When both the upward and the downward slides occur in pronouncing a syllable, they are called a Circumflex or Wave."—Kirkham's Elocution, pp. 75 and 104. "The word that is used both in the nominative and objective cases."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 69. "But all the other moods and tenses of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are conjugated at large."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 81. "Some writers on Grammar object to the propriety of admitting the second future, in both the indicative and subjunctive moods."—Ib., p. 82. "The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."—Ib., p. 207. "The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods in this tense."—Ib., p. 208. "I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or English languages."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 7. "It is as necessary to make a distinction between the active transitive and the active intransitive forms of the verb, as between the active and passive forms."—Nixon's Parser, p. 13.

UNDER NOTE IX.—A SERIES OF TERMS.

"As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and husbandman."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 24. "They may be divided into four classes—the Humanists, Philanthropists, Pestalozzian and the Productive Schools."—Smith's New Gram., p. iii. "Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 138; L. Murray's, 68; R. C. Smith's, 27; Alger's, 28. "Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 2. "Should give is an irregular verb active, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, and the first person plural."—Ibid. "Us is a personal pronoun, first person plural, and in the objective case."—Ibid. "Them is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case."—Ibid. "It is surprising that the Jewish critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, of admiration, or a parenthesis."—Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 47. "The fifth, sixth, seventh, and the eighth verse."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 263. "Substitutes have three persons; the First, Second, and the Third."—Ib., p. 34. "John's is a proper noun, of the masculine gender, the third person, singular number, possessive case, and governed by wife, by Rule I."—Smith's New Gram., p. 48. "Nouns in the English language have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and objective."—Barrett's Gram., p. 13; Alexander's, 11. "The Potential [mood] has four [tenses], viz. the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and Pluperfect."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 96.

   "Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend,
    And own the patron, patriot, and the friend."—Savage, to Walpole.

UNDER NOTE X.—SPECIES AND GENUS.

"A pronoun is a part of speech put for a noun."—Paul's Accidence, p. 11. "A verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense."—Ib., p. 15. "A participle is a part of speech derived of a verb."—Ib., p. 38. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs to declare their signification."—Ib., p. 40. "A conjunction is a part of speech that joineth sentences together."—Ib., p. 41. "A preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts."—Ib., p. 42. "An interjection is a part of speech which betokeneth a sudden motion or passion of the mind."—Ib., p. 44. "An enigma or riddle is also a species of allegory."—Blair's Rhet., p. 151; Murray's Gram., 343. "We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory."—Ib.: Blair, 151; Mur., 341. "And thus have you exhibited a sort of a sketch of art."—HARRIS: in Priestley's Gram., p. 176. "We may 'imagine a subtle kind of a reasoning,' as Mr. Harris acutely observes."—Churchill's Gram., p. 71. "But, before entering on these, I shall give one instance of a very beautiful metaphor, that I may show the figure to full advantage."—Blair's Rhet., p. 143. "Aristotle, in his Poetics, uses metaphor in this extended sense, for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word; as a whole put for the part, or a part for a whole; the species for the genus, or a genus for the species."—Ib., p. 142. "It shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 69. "Cleon was another sort of a man."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 124. "To keep off his right wing, as a kind of a reserved body."—Ib., ii, 12. "This part of speech is called a verb."—Mack's Gram., p. 70. "What sort of a thing is it?"—Hiley's Gram., p. 20. "What sort of a charm do they possess?"—Bullions's Principles of E. Gram., p. 73.

   "Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole,
    That painful animal, a Mole."—Note to Dunciad, B. ii, l. 207.

UNDER NOTE XI.—ARTICLES NOT REQUISITE.

"Either thou or the boys were in the fault."—Comly's Key, in Gram., p. 174. "It may, at the first view, appear to be too general."—Murray's Gram., p. 222; Ingersoll's, 275. "When the verb has a reference to future time."—Ib.: M., p. 207; Ing., 264. "No; they are the language of imagination rather than of a passion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 165. "The dislike of the English Grammar, which has so generally prevailed, can only be attributed to the intricacy of syntax."—Russell's Gram., p. iv. "Is that ornament in a good taste?"—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 326. "There are not many fountains in a good taste."—Ib., ii, 329. "And I persecuted this way unto the death."—Acts, xxii, 4. "The sense of the feeling can, indeed, give us the idea of extension."—Blair's Rhet., p. 196. "The distributive adjective pronouns, each, every, either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singular number only."—Murray's Gram., p. 165; Lowth's, 89. "Expressing by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more words belonging to the other parts of speech."—Blair's Rhet., p. 84. "By the certain muscles which operate all at the same time."—Murray's Gram., p. 19. "It is sufficient here to have observed thus much in the general concerning them."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 112. "Nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language."—Murray's Gram., p. 319.

UNDER NOTE XII.—TITLES AND NAMES.

"He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman."—Brown's Inst., p. 126. "Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector."—Ib. "Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl."—Ib. "The chief magistrate is styled a President."—Ib. "The highest title in the state is that of the Governor."—Ib. "That boy is known by the name of the Idler."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 205. "The one styled the Mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "Banging all that possessed them under one class, he called that whole class a tree."—Blair's Rhet., p. 73. "For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole classes of objects."—Ib., p. 73. "It is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of a trope, or of a figure."—Ib., p. 133. "The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations, and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of an hiatus."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 217. "We hesitate to determine, whether the Tyrant alone, is the nominative, or whether the nominative includes the spy."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 246. "Hence originated the customary abbreviation of twelve months into a twelve-month; seven nights into se'night; fourteen nights into a fortnight."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 105.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—COMPARISONS AND ALTERNATIVES.

"He is a better writer than a reader."—W. Allen's False Syntax, Gram., p. 332. "He was an abler mathematician than a linguist."—Ib. "I should rather have an orange than apple."—Brown's Inst., p. 126. "He was no less able a negotiator, than a courageous warrior."—Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. i, p. 181. "In an epic poem we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or epigram."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 186. "That figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball."—Harris's Hermes, p. 258.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—ANTECEDENTS TO WHO OR WHICH.

"Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy."—Inst., p. 126. "The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that time."—Ib. "Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation."—Murray's Gram., p. 279; Comly's, 162; Ingersoll's, 291. "The work is designed for the use of persons, who may think it merits a place in their Libraries."—Murray's Gram., 8vo., p. iii. "That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at."—Ib., p. 298. "Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to three, do not reflect."—Ib., p. 75. "Substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession."—Ib., p. 132. "To these may be added verbs, which chiefly among the poets govern the dative."—Adam's Gram., p. 170; Gould's, 171. "Consonants are letters, which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."—Bucke's Gram., p. 9. "To employ the curiosity of persons who are skilled in grammar."—Murray's Gram., Pref., p. iii. "This rule refers only to nouns and pronouns, which have the same bearing or relation."—Ib., i, p. 204. "So that things which are seen, were not made of things which do appear."—Heb., xi, 3. "Man is an imitative creature; he may utter sounds, which he has heard."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 21. "But men, whose business is wholly domestic, have little or no use for any language but their own."—Webster's Essays, p. 5.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.

"Great benefit may be reaped from reading of histories."—Sewel's Hist., p. iii. "And some attempts were made towards writing of history."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 110. "It is Invading of the Priest's Office for any other to Offer it."—Right of Tythes, p. 200. "And thus far of forming of verbs."—Walker's Art of Teaching, p. 35. "And without shedding of blood is no remission."—Heb., ix, 22. "For making of measures we have the best method here in England."—Printer's Gram. "This is really both admitting and denying, at once."—Butler's Analogy, p. 72. "And hence the origin of making of parliaments."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 71. "Next thou objectest, that having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion. But that I deny: for, on the contrary, conversion presupposeth having light and grace."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 143. "They cried down wearing of rings and other superfluities as we do."—Ib., i, 236. "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold, or of putting on of apparel."—1 Peter, iii, 3. "In spelling of derivative Words, the Primitive must be kept whole."—British Gram., p. 50; Buchanan's Syntax, 9. "And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar."—Numbers, vii, 10. "Boasting is not only telling of lies, but also many unseemly truths."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 244. "We freely confess that forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful."—Barclay, i, 316. "For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy."—Inst. E. Gram., p. 126. "He turned all his thoughts to composing of laws for the good of the state."—Rollin's Ancient Hist., Vol. ii, p. 38.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—PARTICIPLES, NOT NOUNS. "It is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit, as truly as to be taken out of it after the falling in."—Barclay, i, 210. "For in the receiving and embracing the testimony of truth, they felt eased."—Ib., i, 469. "True regularity does not consist in the having but a single rule, and forcing every thing to conform to it."—Philol. Museum, i, 664. "To the man of the world, this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale, and not worth the attending to."—Life of Tho. Say, p. 144. "To be the deliverer of the captive Jews, by the ordering their temple to be re-built," &c.—Rollin, ii, 124. "And for the preserving them from being defiled."—N. E. Discipline, p. 133. "A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles."—Art of Thinking, p. 80. "Hirsutus had no other reason for the valuing a book."—Rambler, No. 177; Wright's Gram., p. 190. "To the being heard with satisfaction, it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 114. "And to the being well heard, and clearly understood, a good and distinct articulation contributes more, than power of voice."—Ib., p. 117.

   "Potential means the having power or will;
    As, If you would improve, you should be still."
        —Tobitt's Gram., p. 31.

UNDER NOTE XVII.—VARIOUS ERRORS.

"For the same reason, a neuter verb cannot become a passive."—Lowth's Gram., p. 74. "The period is the whole sentence complete in itself."—Ib., p. 115. "The colon or member is a chief constructive part, or greater division of a sentence."—Ib. "The semicolon or half member, is a less constructive part or subdivision, of a sentence or member."—Ib. "A sentence or member is again subdivided into commas or segments."—Ib., p. 116. "The first error that I would mention, is, a too general attention to the dead languages, with a neglect of our own."—Webster's Essays, p. 3. "One third of the importations would supply the demands of people."—Ib., p. 119. "And especially in grave stile."—Priestley's Gram., p. 72. "By too eager pursuit, he ran a great risk of being disappointed."—Murray's Key, Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 201. "Letters are divided into vowels and consonants."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 7; and others. "Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels."—Ib., i, 8; and others. "The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom."—Ib., i, 176. "If they gain, it is a too dear rate."—Barclay's Works, i, 504. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent a too frequent repetition of it."—Maunder's Gram., p. 1. "This vulgar error might perhaps arise from a too partial fondness for the Latin."—Dr. Ash's Gram., Pref., p. iv. "The groans which a too heavy load extorts from her."—Hitchcock, on Dyspepsy, p. 50. "The numbers [of a verb] are, of course, singular and plural."—Bucke's Gram. p. 58. "To brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation, are the indications of a great mind."—Murray's Key, ii, 236. "This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style."—Murray's Gram., i, 198. "This use of the word rather suits familiar and low style."—Priestley's Gram., p. 134. "According to the nature of the composition the one or other may be predominant."—Blair's Rhet., p. 102. "Yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure a too early expectation of the end."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 411. "An eulogy or a philippie may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon the subject of another."—Adams's Rhet., i, 298. "A French sermon, is for most part, a warm animated exhortation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 288. "I do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable a lot."—Channing, on Emancipation, p. 52. "The auxiliary and principal united, constitute a tense."—Murray's Gram., i, 75. "There are some verbs which are defective with respect to persons."—Ib., i, 109. "In youth, the habits of industry are most easily acquired."—Murray's Key, ii, 235. "Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out."—Bullions's Eng. Gram., p. 156.

CHAPTER III.—CASES, OR NOUNS.

The rules for the construction of Nouns, or Cases, are seven; hence this chapter, according to the order adopted above, reviews the series of rules from the second rule to the eighth, inclusively. Though Nouns are here the topic, all these seven rules apply alike to Nouns and to Pronouns; that is, to all the words of our language which are susceptible of Cases.

RULE II.—NOMINATIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case: as, "The Pharisees also, who were covetous, heard all these things; and they derided him."—Luke, xvi, 14. "But where the meekness of self-knowledge veileth the front of self-respect, there look thou for the man whom none can know but they will honour."—Book of Thoughts, p. 66.

   "Dost thou mourn Philander's fate?
    I know thou sayst it: says thy life the same?"
        —Young, N. ii, l. 22.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE II.

OBS. 1.—To this rule, there are no exceptions; and nearly all nominatives, or far the greater part, are to be parsed by it. There are however four different ways of disposing of the nominative case. First, it is generally the subject of a verb, according to Rule 2d. Secondly, it may be put in apposition with an other nominative, according to Rule 3d. Thirdly, it may be put after a verb or a participle not transitive, according to Rule 6th. Fourthly, it may be put absolute, or may help to form a phrase that is independent of the rest of the sentence, according to Rule 8th.

OBS. 2.—The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb; as, "Peace dawned upon his mind."—Johnson. "What is written in the law?"—Bible. But, in the following nine cases, the subject of the verb is usually placed after it, or after the first auxiliary: 1. When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case; as, "Shall mortals be implacable?"—Hooke. "What art thou doing?"—Id. "How many loaves have ye?"—Bible. "Are they Israelites? so am I."—Ib.

2. When the verb is in the imperative mood; as, "Go thou"—"Come ye" But, with this mood, the pronoun is very often omitted and understood; as, "Philip saith unto him, Come and see"—John, i, 46. "And he saith unto them, Be not affrighted."—Mark, xvi, 5.

3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed; as, "May she be happy!"—"How were we struck!"—Young. "Not as the world giveth, give I unto you."—Bible.

4. When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; as, "Had they known it;" for, "If they had known it."—"Were it true;" for, "If it were true."—"Could we draw by the covering of the grave;" for, "If we could draw," &c.

5. When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb; as, "This was his fear; nor was his apprehension groundless."—"Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it."—Gen., iii, 3.

6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it; as, "Here am I."—"Narrow is the way."—"Silver and gold have I none; but such as I have, give I thee."—Bible.

7. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical; as, "Echo the mountains round."—Thomson. "After the Light Infantry marched the Grenadiers, then followed the Horse."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 71.

8. When the verbs, say, answer, reply, and the like, introduce the parts of a dialogue; as, "'Son of affliction,' said Omar, 'who art thou?' 'My name,' replied the stranger, 'is Hassan.'"—Dr. Johnson.

9. When the adverb there precedes the verb; as, "There lived a man."—Montgomery. "In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound."—Owen. This use of there, the general introductory adverb of place, is idiomatic, and somewhat different from the use of the same word in reference to a particular locality; as, "Because there was not much water there."—John, iii, 23.

OBS. 3.—In exclamations, and some other forms of expression, a few verbs are liable to be suppressed, the ellipsis being obvious; as, "How different [is] this from the philosophy of Greece and Rome!"—DR. BEATTIE: Murray's Sequel, p. 127. "What a lively picture [is here] of the most disinterested and active benevolence!"—HERVEY: ib., p. 94. "When Adam [spake] thus to Eve."—MILTON: Paradise Lost, B. iv, l. 610.

OBS. 4.—Though we often use nouns in the nominative case to show whom we address, yet the imperative verb takes no other nominative of the second person, than the simple personal pronoun, thou, ye, or you, expressed or understood. It would seem that some, who ought to know better, are liable to mistake for the subject of such a verb, the noun which we put absolute in the nominative by direct address. Of this gross error, the following is an example: "Study boys. In this sentence," (says its author,) "study is a verb of the second person, plural number, and agrees with its nominative case, boys—according to the rule: A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Boys is a noun of the second person, plural number, masculine gender, in the nominative case to the verb study."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 17.[339] Now the fact is, that this laconic address, of three syllables, is written wrong; being made bad English for want of a comma between the two words. Without this mark, boys must be an objective, governed by study; and with it, a nominative, put absolute by direct address. But, in either case, study agrees with ye or you understood, and has not the noun for its subject, or nominative.

OBS. 5.—Some authors say, and if the first person be no exception, say truly: "The nominative case to a verb, unless it be a pronoun, is always of the third person."—Churchill's Gram., p. 141. But W. B. Fowle will have all pronouns to be adjectives. Consequently all his verbs, of every sort, agree with nouns "expressed or understood." This, and every other absurd theory of language, can easily be made out, by means of a few perversions, which may be called corrections, and a sufficient number of interpolations, made under pretence of filling up ellipses. Thus, according to this author, "They fear," means, "They things spoken of fear."—True Eng. Gram., p, 33. And, "John, open the door," or, "Boys, stop your noise," admits no comma. And, "Be grateful, ye children," and, "Be ye grateful children," are, in his view, every way equivalent: the comma in the former being, in his opinion, needless. See ib., p. 39.

OBS. 6.—Though the nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form, it is nevertheless, in the opinion of many of our grammarians, improper to place any noun in both relations at once, because this produces a confusion in the syntax of the word. Examples: "He then goes on to declare that there are, and distinguish of, four manners of saying Per se."—Walker's Treatise of Particles, p. xii. Better: "He then proceeds to show, that per se is susceptible of four different senses." "In just allegory and similitude there is always a propriety, or, if you choose to call it, congruity, in the literal sense, as well as a distinct meaning or sentiment suggested, which is called the figurative sense."—Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 291. Better: "In just allegory or similitude, there is always a propriety—or, if you choose to call it so, a congruity—in the literal sense," &c. "It must then be meant of his sins who makes, not of his who becomes, the convert."—Atterbury's Sermons, i, 2. Better: "It must then be meant of his sins who makes the convert, not of his who becomes converted." "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him."—1 Cor., ii, 9. A more regular construction would be: "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." The following example, from Pope, may perhaps be conceded to the poet, as an allowable ellipsis of the words "a friend," after is:

   "In who obtain defence, or who defend;
    In him who is, or him who finds, a friend."
        —Essay on Man, Ep. iv, l. 60.

Dr. Lowth cites the last three examples, without suggesting any forms of correction; and says of them, "There seems to be an impropriety in these sentences, in which the same noun stands in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective case."—Lowth's Gram., p. 73. He should have said—"of both the nominative and the objective case." Dr. Webster, citing the line, "In him who is, and him who finds, a friend," adds, "Lowth condemns this use of the noun in the nominative and objective at the same time; but without reason, as the cases are not distinguished in English."—Improved Gram., p. 175.

OBS. 7.—In Latin and Greek, the accusative before the infinitive, is often reckoned the subject of the latter verb; and is accordingly parsed by a sort of exception to the foregoing rule—or rather, to that general rule of concord which the grammarians apply to the verb and its nominative. This construction is translated into English, and other modern tongues, sometimes literally, or nearly so, but much oftener, by a nominative and a finite verb. Example: "[Greek: Eipen auton phonæthænai]."—Mark, x, 49. "Ait illum vocari."—Leusden. "Jussit eum vocari."—Beza. "Præcepit illum vocari."—Vulgate. "He commanded him to be called."—English Bible. "He commanded that he should be called."—Milnes's Gr. Gram., p. 143. "Il dit qu'on l'appelât."—French Bible. "He bid that somebody should call him." "Il commanda qu'on le fît venir."—Nouveau Test., Paris, 1812. "He commanded that they should make him come;" that is, "lead him, or bring him." "Il commanda qu'on l'appelât."—De Sacy's N. Test.

OBS. 8.—In English, the objective case before the infinitive mood, although it may truly denote the agent of the infinitive action, or the subject of the infinitive passion, is nevertheless taken as the object of the preceding verb, participle, or preposition. Accordingly our language does not admit a literal translation of the above-mentioned construction, except the preceding verb be such as can be interpreted transitively. "Gaudeo te val=ere," "I am glad that thou art well," cannot be translated more literally; because, "I am glad thee to be well," would not be good English. "Aiunt regem advent=are," "They say the king is coming," may be otherwise rendered "They declare the king to be coming;" but neither version is entirely literal; the objective being retained only by a change of aiunt, say, into such a verb as will govern the noun.

OBS. 9.—The following sentence is a literal imitation of the Latin accusative before the infinitive, and for that reason it is not good English: "But experience teacheth us, both these opinions to be alike ridiculous."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 262. It should be, "But experience teaches us, that both these opinions are alike ridiculous." The verbs believe, think, imagine, and others expressing mental action, I suppose to be capable of governing nouns or pronouns in the objective case, and consequently of being interpreted transitively. Hence I deny the correctness of the following explanation: "RULE XXIV. The objective case precedes the infinitive mode; [as,] 'I believe your brother to be a good man.' Here believe does not govern brother, in the objective case, because it is not the object after it. Brother, in the objective case, third person singular, precedes the neuter verb to be, in the infinitive mode, present time, third person singular."—S. Barrett's Gram., p. 135. This author teaches that, "The infinitive mode agrees with the objective case in number and person."—Ibid. Which doctrine is denied; because the infinitive has no number or person, in any language. Nor do I see why the noun brother, in the foregoing example, may not be both the object of the active verb believe, and the subject of the neuter infinitive to be, at the same time; for the subject of the infinitive, if the infinitive can be said to have a subject, is not necessarily in the nominative case, or necessarily independent of what precedes.

OBS. 10.—There are many teachers of English grammar, who still adhere to the principle of the Latin and Greek grammarians, which refers the accusative or objective to the latter verb, and supposes the former to be intransitive, or to govern only the infinitive. Thus Nixon: "The objective case is frequently put before the infinitive mood, as its subject; as, 'Suffer me to depart.'" [340]—English Parser, p. 34. "When an objective case stands before an infinitive mood, as 'I understood it to be him,' 'Suffer me to depart,' such objective should be parsed, not as governed by the preceding verb, but as the objective case before the infinitive; that is, the subject of it. The reason of this is—the former verb can govern one object only, and that is (in such sentences) the infinitive mood; the intervening objective being the subject of the infinitive following, and not governed by the former verb; as, in that instance, it would be governing two objects."—Ib., Note.[341]

OBS. 11.—The notion that one verb governs an other in the infinitive, just as a transitive verb governs a noun, and so that it cannot also govern an objective case, is not only contradictory to my scheme of parsing the infinitive mood, but is also false in itself, and repugnant to the principles of General Grammar. In Greek and Latin, it is certainly no uncommon thing for a verb to govern two cases at once; and even the accusative before the infinitive is sometimes governed by the preceding verb, as the objective before the infinitive naturally is in English. But, in regard to construction, every language differs more or less from every other; hence each must have its own syntax, and abide by its own rules. In regard to the point here in question, the reader may compare the following examples: "[Greek: Echo anagkæn exelthein]."—Luke, xiv, 18. "Habeo necesse exire."—Leusden. English: "I have occasion to go away." Again: "[Greek: O echon hota akouein, akoueto]."—Luke, xiv, 35. "Habens aures audiendi, audiat."—Leusden. "Qui habet aures ad audiendum, audiat."—Beza. English: "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear." But our most frequent use of the infinitive after the objective, is in sentences that must not be similarly constructed in Latin or Greek;[342] as, "And he commanded the porter to watch."—Mark, xiii, 34. "And he delivered Jesus to be crucified."—Mark, xv, 15. "And they led him out to crucify him."—Mark, xv, 20. "We heard him say."—Mark, xiv, 58. "That I might make thee know."—Prov., xxii, 21.

OBS. 12.—If our language does really admit any thing like the accusative before the infinitive, in the sense of a positive subject at the head of a clause, it is only in some prospective descriptions like the following: "Let certain studies be prescribed to be pursued during the freshman year; some of these to be attended to by the whole class; with regard to others, a choice to be allowed; which, when made by the student, (the parent or guardian sanctioning it,) to be binding during the freshman year: the same plan to be adopted with regard to the studies of the succeeding years."—GALLAUDET: Journal of the N. Y. Literary Convention, p. 118. Here the four words, some, choice, which, and plan, may appear to a Latinist to be so many objectives, or accusatives, placed before infinitives, and used to describe that state of things which the author would promote. If objectives they are, we may still suppose them to be governed by let, would have, or something of the kind, understood: as, "Let some of these be attended to;" or, "Some of these I would have to be attended to," &c. The relative which might with more propriety be made nominative, by changing "to be binding" to "shall be binding;" and as to the rest, it is very doubtful whether they are not now nominatives, rather than objectives. The infinitive, as used above, is a mere substitute for the Latin future participle; and any English noun or pronoun put absolute with a participle, is in the nominative case. English relatives are rarely, if ever, put absolute in this manner: and this may be the reason why the construction of which, in the sentence above, seems awkward. Besides, it is certain that the other pronouns are sometimes put absolute with the infinitive; and that, in the nominative case, not the objective: as,

   "And I to be a corporal in his field,
    And wear his colours like a tumbler's hoop!
    What? I! I love! I sue! I seek a wife!"—Shak., Love's Labour Lost.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE II.

THE SUBJECT OF A FINITE VERB.

"The whole need not a physician, but them that are sick."—Bunyan's Law and Gr., p. iv.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the objective pronoun them is here made the subject of the verb need, understood. But, according to Rule 2d, "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Therefore, them should be they; thus, "The whole need not a physician, but they that are sick."]

"He will in no wise cast out whomsoever cometh unto him."—Robert Hall "He feared the enemy might fall upon his men, whom he saw were off their guard."—Hutchinson's Massachusetts, ii, 133. "Whomsoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain."—Dymond's Essays, p. 48. "The idea's of the author have been conversant with the faults of other writers."—Swift's T. T., p. 55. "You are a much greater loser than me by his death."—Swift to Pope, l. 63. "Such peccadillo's pass with him for pious frauds."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 279. "In whom I am nearly concerned, and whom I know would be very apt to justify my whole procedure."—Ib., i, 560. "Do not think such a man as me contemptible for my garb."—Addison. "His wealth and him bid adieu to each other."—Priestley's Gram., p. 107. "So that, 'He is greater than me,' will be more grammatical than, 'He is greater than I.'"—Ib., p. 106. "The Jesuits had more interests at court than him."—SMOLLETT: in Pr. Gram., p. 106.[343] "Tell the Cardinal that I understand poetry better than him."—Id., ib. "An inhabitant of Crim Tartary was far more happy than him."—Id., ib. "My father and him have been very intimate since."—Fair American, ii, 53. "Who was the agent, and whom the object struck or kissed?"—Infant School Gram., p. 32. "To find the person whom he imagined was concealed there."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 225. "He offered a great recompense to whomsoever would help him."—HUME: in Pr. Gram., p. 104. "They would be under the dominion, absolute and unlimited, of whomsoever might exercise the right of judgement."—Gov. Haynes's Speech, in 1832. "They had promised to accept whomsoever should be born in Wales."—Stories by Croker. "We sorrow not as them that have no hope."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 27. "If he suffers, he suffers as them that have no hope."—Ib., p. 32. "We acknowledge that he, and him only, hath been our peacemaker."—Gratton. "And what can be better than him that made it?"—Jenks's Prayers, p. 329. "None of his school-fellows is more beloved than him."—Cooper's Gram., p. 42. "Solomon, who was wiser than them all."—Watson's Apology, p. 76. "Those whom the Jews thought were the last to be saved, first entered the kingdom of God."—Eleventh Hour, Tract, No. 4. "A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both."—Prov., xxvii, 3. "A man of business, in good company, is hardly more insupportable than her they call a notable woman."—Steele, Sped. "The king of the Sarmatians, whom we may imagine was no small prince, restored him a hundred thousand Roman prisoners."—Life of Antoninus, p. 83. "Such notions would be avowed at this time by none but rosicrucians, and fanatics as mad as them."—Bolingbroke's Ph. Tr., p. 24. "Unless, as I said, Messieurs, you are the masters, and not me."—BASIL HALL: Harrison's E. Lang., p. 173. "We had drawn up against peaceable travellers, who must have been as glad as us to escape."—BURNES'S TRAVELS: ibid. "Stimulated, in turn, by their approbation, and that of better judges than them, she turned to their literature with redoubled energy."—QUARTERLY REVIEW: Life of H. More: ibid. "I know not whom else are expected."—SCOTT'S PIRATE: ibid. "He is great, but truth is greater than us all."—Horace Mann, in Congress, 1850. "Him I accuse has entered."—Fowler's E. Gram., §482: see Shakspeare's Coriolanus, Act V, sc. 5.

   "Scotland and thee did each in other live."
        —Dryden's Po., Vol. ii, p. 220.

    "We are alone; here's none but thee and I."
        —Shak., 2 Hen. VI.

    "Me rather had, my heart might feel your love,
    Than my unpleas'd eye see your courtesy."
        —Idem: Joh. Dict.

    "Tell me, in sadness, whom is she you love?"
        —Id., Romeo and Juliet, A. I, sc. 1.

    "Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire
    Too high a fame, when him we serve's away."
        —Shak., Ant. and Cleop.

RULE III.—APPOSITION.

A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case: as, "But it is really I, your old friend and neighbour., Piso, late a dweller upon the Coelian hill, who am now basking in the warm skies of Palmyra."—Zenobia.

   "But he, our gracious Master, kind as just,
    Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust."—Barbauld.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE III.

OBS. 1—Apposition is that peculiar relation which one noun or pronoun bears to an other, when two or more are placed together in the same case, and used to designate the same person or thing: as, "Cicero the orator;"—"The prophet Joel;"—"He of Gath, Goliah;"—"Which ye yourselves do know;"—"To make him king;"—"To give his life a ransom for many;"—"I made the ground my bed;"—"I, thy schoolmaster;"—"We the People of the United States." This placing-together of nouns and pronouns in the same case, was reckoned by the old grammarians a figure of syntax; and from them it received, in their elaborate detail of the grammatical and rhetorical figures, its present name of apposition. They reckoned it a species of ellipsis, and supplied between the words, the participle being, the infinitive to be, or some other part of their "substantive verb:" as, "Cicero being the orator;"—"To make him to be king;"—"I who am thy schoolmaster." But the later Latin grammarians have usually placed it among their regular concords; some calling it the first concord, while others make it the last, in the series; and some, with no great regard to consistency, treating it both as a figure and as a regular concord, at the same time.

OBS. 2.—Some English grammarians teach, "that the words in the cases preceding and following the verb to be, may be said to be in apposition to each other."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 181; R. C. Smith's, 155; Fisk's, 126; Ingersoll's, 146; Merchant's, 91. But this is entirely repugnant to the doctrine, that apposition is a figure; nor is it at all consistent with the original meaning of the word apposition; because it assumes that the literal reading, when the supposed ellipsis is supplied, is apposition still. The old distinction, however, between apposition and same cases, is generally preserved in our grammars, and is worthy ever to be so. The rule for same cases applies to all nouns or pronouns that are put after verbs or participles not transitive, and that are made to agree in case with other nouns or pronouns going before, and meaning the same thing. But some teachers who observe this distinction with reference to the neuter verb be, and to certain passive verbs of naming, appointing, and the like, absurdly break it down in relation to other verbs, neuter or active-intransitive. Thus Nixon: "Nouns in apposition are in the same case; as, 'Hortensius died a martyr;' 'Sydney lived the shepherd's friend.'"—English Parser, p. 55. It is remarkable that all this author's examples of "nominatives in apposition," (and he gives eighteen in the exercise,) are precisely of this sort, in which there is really no apposition at all.

OBS. 3.—In the exercise of parsing, rule third should be applied only to the explanatory term; because the case of the principal term depends on its relation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under some other rule. In certain instances, too, it is better to waive the analysis which might be made under rule third, and to take both or all the terms together, under the rule for the main relation. Thus, the several proper names which distinguish an individual, are always in apposition, and should be taken together in parsing; as, William Pitt—Marcus Tullius Cicero. It may, I think, be proper to include with the personal names, some titles also; as, Lord Bacon—Sir Isaac Newton. William E. Russell and Jonathan Ware, (two American authors of no great note,) in parsing the name of "George Washington," absurdly take the former word as an adjective belonging to the latter. See Russell's Gram., p. 100; and Ware's, 17. R. C. Smith does the same, both with honorary titles, and with baptismal or Christian names. See his New Gram., p. 97. And one English writer, in explaining the phrases, "John Wickliffe's influence," "Robert Bruce's exertions," and the like, will have the first nouns to be governed by the last, and the intermediate ones to be distinct possessives in apposition with the former. See Nixon's English Parser, p. 59. Wm. B. Fowle, in his "True English Grammar," takes all titles, all given names, all possessives, and all pronouns, to be adjectives. According to him, this class embraces more than half the words in the language. A later writer than any of these says, "The proper noun is philosophically an adjective. Nouns common or proper, of similar or dissimilar import, may be parsed as adjectives, when they become qualifying or distinguishing words; as, President Madison,—Doctor Johnson,—Mr. Webster,—Esq. Carleton,—Miss Gould,—Professor Ware,—lake Erie,—the Pacific ocean,—Franklin House,—Union street."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 134. I dissent from all these views, at least so far as not to divide a man's name in parsing it. A person will sometimes have such a multitude of names, that it would be a flagrant waste of time, to parse them all separately: for example, that wonderful doctor, Paracelsus, who called himself, "Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus de Hoenheim."—Univ. Biog. Dict.

OBS. 4.—A very common rule for apposition in Latin, is this: "Substantives signifying the same thing, agree in case."—Adam's Latin Gram., p. 156. The same has also been applied to our language: "Substantives denoting the same person or thing, agree in case."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 102. This rule is, for two reasons, very faulty: first, because the apposition of pronouns seems not to be included it; secondly, because two nouns that are not in the same case, do sometimes "signify" or "denote" the same thing. Thus, "the city of London," means only the city London; "the land of Egypt," is only Egypt; and "the person of Richard" is Richard himself. Dr. Webster defines apposition to be, "The placing of two nouns in the same case, without a connecting word between them."—Octavo Dict. This, too, excludes the pronouns, and has exceptions, both various and numerous. In the first place, the apposition may be of more than two nouns, without any connective; as, "Ezra the priest, the scribe of the law."—Ezra, vii, 21. Secondly, two nouns connected by a conjunction, may both be put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun; as, "God hath made that same Jesus, whom ye have crucified, both Lord and Christ."—Acts, ii, 36. "Who made me a judge or a divider over you."—Luke, xii, 14. Thirdly, the apposition may be of two nouns immediately connected by and, provided the two words denote but one person or thing; as, "This great philosopher and statesman was bred a printer." Fourthly, it may be of two words connected by as, expressing the idea of a partial or assumed identity; as, "Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother."—2 Thess., iii, 15. "So that he, as God, sitteth in the temple of God."—Ib., ii, 4. Fifthly, it may perhaps be of two words connected by than; as, "He left them no more than dead men."—Law and Grace, p. 28. Lastly, there is a near resemblance to apposition, when two equivalent nouns are connected by or; as, "The back of the hedgehog is covered with prickles, or spines."—Webster's Dict.

OBS. 5.—To the rule for apposition, as I have expressed it, there are properly no exceptions. But there are many puzzling examples of construction under it, some of which are but little short of exceptions; and upon such of these as are most likely to embarrass the learner, some further observations shall be made. The rule supposes the first word to be the principal term, with which the other word, or subsequent noun or pronoun, is in apposition; and it generally is so: but the explanatory word is sometimes placed first, especially among the poets; as,

"From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd, Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes."—Thomson.

OBS. 6.—The pronouns of the first and second persons are often placed before nouns merely to distinguish their person; as, "I John saw these things."—Bible. "But what is this to you receivers?"—Clarkson's Essay on Slavery, p. 108. "His praise, ye brooks, attune."—Thomson. In this case of apposition, the words are in general closely united, and either of them may be taken as the explanatory term. The learner will find it easier to parse the noun by rule third; or both nouns, if there be two: as, "I thy father-in-law Jethro am come unto thee."—Exod., xviii, 6. There are many other examples, in which it is of no moment, which of the terms we take for the principal; and to all such the rule may be applied literally: as, "Thy son Benhadad king of Syria hath sent me to thee."—2 Kings, viii, 9.

OBS. 7.—When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put in apposition, the possessive termination added to one, denotes the case of both or all; as, "For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife"—Matt., xiv, 3; Mark, vi, 17. Here wife is in apposition with Herodias', and brother with Philip's; consequently all these words are reckoned to be in the possessive case. The Greek text, which is better, stands essentially thus: "For the sake of Herodias, the wife of Philip his brother." "For Jacob my servant's sake, and Israel mine elect."—Isaiah, xlv, 4. Here, as Jacob and Israel are only different names for the same person or nation, the four nouns in Italics are, according to the rule, all made possessives by the one sign used; but the construction is not to be commended: it would be better to say, "For the sake of Jacob my servant, and Israel mine elect." "With Hyrcanus the high priest's consent."—Wood's Dict., w. Herod. "I called at Smith's, the bookseller; or, at Smith the bookseller's."— Bullions's E. Gram., p. 105. Two words, each having the possessive sign, can never be in apposition one with the other; because that sign has immediate reference to the governing noun expressed or understood after it; and if it be repeated, separate governing nouns will be implied, and the apposition will be destroyed.[344]

OBS. 8.—If the foregoing remark is just, the apposition of two nouns in the possessive case, requires the possessive sign to be added to that noun which immediately precedes the governing word, whether expressed or understood, and positively excludes it from the other. The sign of the case is added, sometimes to the former, and sometimes to the latter noun, but never to both: or, if added to both, the two words are no longer in apposition. Example: "And for that reason they ascribe to him a great part of his father Nimrod's, or Belus's actions."—Rollin's An. Hist., Vol. ii, p. 6. Here father and Nimrod's are in strict apposition; but if actions governs Belus's, the same word is implied to govern Nimrod's, and the two names are not in apposition, though they are in the same case and mean the same person.

OBS. 9.—Dr. Priestley says, "Some would say, 'I left the parcel at Mr. Smith's, the bookseller;' others, 'at Mr. Smith the bookseller's;' and perhaps others, at 'Mr. Smith's the bookseller's.' The last of these forms is most agreeable to the Latin idiom, but the first seems to be more natural in ours; and if the addition consist [consists, says Murray,] of two or more words, the case seems to be very clear; as, 'I left the parcel at Mr. Smith's the bookseller and stationer;' i. e. at Mr. Smith's, who is a bookseller and stationer."—Priestley's Gram., p. 70. Here the examples, if rightly pointed, would all be right; but the ellipsis supposed, not only destroys the apposition, but converts the explanatory noun into a nominative. And in the phrase, "at Mr. Smiths, the bookseller's," there is no apposition, except that of Mr. with Smith's; for the governing noun house or store is understood as clearly after the one possessive sign as after the other. Churchill imagines that in Murray's example, "I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor," the last two nouns are in the nominative after "who was" understood; and also erroneously suggests, that their joint apposition with Stormont's might be secured, by saying, less elegantly, "I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor's."— Churchill's New Gram., p. 285. Lindley Murray, who tacitly takes from Priestley all that is quoted above, except the term "Mr.," and the notion of an ellipsis of "who is," assumes each of the three forms as an instance of apposition, but pronounces the first only to be "correct and proper." If, then, the first is elliptical, as Priestley suggests, and the others are ungrammatical, as Murray pretends to prove, we cannot have in reality any such construction as the apposition of two possessives; for the sign of the case cannot possibly be added in more than these three ways. But Murray does not adhere at all to his own decision, as may be seen by his subsequent remarks and examples, on the same page; as, "The emperor Leopold's;"—"Dionysius the tyrant's;"—"For David my servant's sake;"—"Give me here John the Baptist's head;"—"Paul the apostle's advice." See Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 176; Smith's New Gram., p. 150; and others.

OBS. 10.—An explanatory noun without the possessive sign, seems sometimes to be put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive case; and, if introduced by the conjunction as, it may either precede or follow the pronoun: thus, "I rejoice in your success as an instructer."— Sanborn's Gram., p. 244. "As an author, his 'Adventurer' is his capital work."—Murray's Sequel, p. 329.

   "Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage,
    The promised father of a future age."—Pope.

But possibly such examples may be otherwise explained on the principle of ellipsis; as, [He being] "the promised father," &c. "As [he was] an author," &c. "As [you are] an instructer."

OBS. 11.—When a noun or pronoun is repeated for the sake of emphasis, or for the adding of an epithet, the word which is repeated may properly be said to be in apposition with that which is first introduced; or, if not, the repetition itself implies sameness of case: as, "They have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water."—Jer., ii, 13.

"I find the total of their hopes and fears Dreams, empty dreams."—Cowper's Task, p. 71.

OBS. 12.—A noun is sometimes put, as it were, in apposition to a sentence; being used (perhaps elliptically) to sum up the whole idea in one emphatic word, or short phrase. But, in such instances, the noun can seldom be said to have any positive relation that may determine its case; and, if alone, it will of course be in the nominative, by reason of its independence. Examples: "He permitted me to consult his library—a kindness which I shall not forget."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 148. "I have offended reputation—a most unnoble swerving."—Shakspeare. "I want a hero,—an uncommon want."—Byron. "Lopez took up the sonnet, and after reading it several times, frankly acknowledged that he did not understand it himself; a discovery which the poet probably never made before."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 280.

   "In Christian hearts O for a pagan zeal!
    A needful, but opprobrious prayer!"—Young, N. ix, l. 995.

    "Great standing miracle, that Heav'n assign'd
    Its only thinking thing this turn of mind."—Pope.

OBS. 13.—A distributive term in the singular number, is frequently construed in apposition with a comprehensive plural; as, "They reap vanity, every one with his neighbour."—Bible. "Go ye every man unto his city."—Ibid. So likewise with two or more singular nouns which are taken conjointly; as, "The Son and Spirit have each his proper office."—Butler's Analogy, p. 163. And sometimes a plural word is emphatically put after a series of particulars comprehended under it; as, "Ambition, interest, glory, all concurred."—Letters on Chivalry, p. 11. "Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, patriots, all parties concurred in the illusion."—Hume's History, Vol. viii, p. 73. The foregoing examples are plain, but similar expressions sometimes require care, lest the distributive or collective term be so placed that its construction and meaning may be misapprehended. Examples: "We have turned every one to his own way."—Isaiah, liii, 6. Better: "We have every one turned to his own way." "For in many things we offend all."—James, iii, 2. Better: "For in many things we all offend." The latter readings doubtless convey the true sense of these texts. To the relation of apposition, it may be proper also to refer the construction of a singular noun taken in a distributive sense and repeated after by to denote order; as, "They went out one by one."—Bible. "Our whole company, man by man, ventured in."—Goldsmith. "To examine a book, page by page; to search a place, house by house."—Ward's Gram., p. 106. So too, perhaps, when the parts of a thing explain the whole; as,

   "But those that sleep, and think not on their sins,
    Pinch them, arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides, and shins."
        —Shak.

OBS. 14.—To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal adjectives each other and one an other are employed: as, "They love each other;"—"They love one an other." The words, separately considered, are singular; but, taken together, they imply plurality; and they can be properly construed only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. Each other is usually applied to two persons or things; and one an other, to more than two. The impropriety of applying them otherwise, is noticed elsewhere; (see, in Part II, Obs. 15th, on the Classes of Adjectives;) so that we have here to examine only their relations of case. The terms, though reciprocal and closely united, are seldom or never in the same construction. If such expressions be analyzed, each and one will generally appear to be in the nominative case, and other in the objective; as, "They love each other;" i. e. each loves the other. "They love one an other;" i. e. any or every one loves any or every other. Each and one (—if the words be taken as cases, and not adjectively—) are properly in agreement or apposition with they, and other is governed by the verb. The terms, however, admit of other constructions; as, "Be ye helpers one of an other."—Bible. Here one is in apposition with ye, and other is governed by of. "Ye are one an other's joy."—Ib. Here one is in apposition with ye, and other's is in the possessive case, being governed by joy. "Love will make you one an other's joy." Here one is in the objective case, being in apposition with you, and other's is governed as before. "Men's confidence in one an other;"—"Their dependence one upon an other." Here the word one appears to be in apposition with the possessive going before; for it has already been shown, that words standing in that relation never take the possessive sign. But if its location after the preposition must make it objective, the whole object is the complex term, "one an other." "Grudge not one against an other."—James, v, 9. "Ne vous plaignez point les uns des autres."—French Bible. "Ne suspirate alius adversus alium."—Beza. "Ne ingemiscite adversus alii alios."—Leusden. "[Greek: Mæ stenazete kat hallælon]."—Greek New Testament.

OBS. 15.—The construction of the Latin terms alius alium, alii alios, &c., with that of the French l'un l'autre, l'un de l'autre, &c., appears, at first view, sufficiently to confirm the doctrine of the preceding observation; but, besides the frequent use, in Latin and Greek, of a reciprocal adverb to express the meaning of one an other or each other, there are, from each of these languages, some analogical arguments for taking the English terms together as compounds. The most common term in Greek for one an other, ([Greek: Hallælon], dat. [Greek: hallælois, ais, ois], acc. [Greek: hallælous]: ab [Greek: hallos], alius,) is a single derivative word, the case of which is known by its termination; and each other is sometimes expressed in Latin by a compound: as, "Et osculantes se alterutrum, fleverunt pariter."—Vulgate. That is: "And kissing each other, they wept together." As this text speaks of but two persons, our translators have not expressed it well in the common version: "And they kissed one an other, and wept one with an other"—1 Sam., xx, 41. Alter-utrum is composed of a nominative and an accusative, like each-other; and, in the nature of things, there is no reason why the former should be compounded, and the latter not. Ordinarily, there seems to be no need of compounding either of them. But some examples occur, in which it is not easy to parse each other and one an other otherwise than as compounds: as, "He only recommended this, and not the washing of one another's feet."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 143.

   "The Temple late two brother sergeants saw,
    Who deem'd each other oracles of law."—Pope, B. ii, Ep. 2.[345]

OBS. 16.—The common and the proper name of an object are very often associated, and put in apposition; as, "The river Thames,"—"The ship Albion,"—"The poet Cowper"—"Lake Erie,"—"Cape May"—"Mount Atlas." But, in English, the proper name of a place, when accompanied by the common name, is generally put in the objective case, and preceded by of; as, "The city of New York,"—"The land of Canaan,"—"The island of Cuba,"—"The peninsula of Yucatan." Yet in some instances, even of this kind, the immediate apposition is preferred; as, "That the city Sepphoris should be subordinate to the city Tiberias."—Life of Josephus, p. 142. In the following sentence, the preposition of is at least needless: "The law delighteth herself in the number of twelve; and the number of twelve is much respected in holy writ."—Coke, on Juries. Two or three late grammarians, supposing of always to indicate a possessive relation between one thing and an other, contend that it is no less improper, to say, "The city of London, the city of New Haven, the month of March, the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, the towns of Exeter and Dover," than to say, "King of Solomon, Titus of the Roman Emperor, Paul of the apostle, or, Cicero of the orator."—See Barrett's Gram., p. 101; Emmons's, 16. I cannot but think there is some mistake in their mode of finding out what is proper or improper in grammar. Emmons scarcely achieved two pages more, before he forgot his criticism, and adopted the phrase, "in the city of New Haven."—Gram., p. 19.

OBS. 17.—When an object acquires a new name or character from the action of a verb, the new appellation is put in apposition with the object of the active verb, and in the nominative after the passive: as, "They named the child John;"—"The child was named John."—"They elected him president;"—"He was elected president." After the active verb, the acquired name must be parsed by Rule 3d; after the passive, by Rule 6th. In the following example, the pronominal adjective some, or the noun men understood after it, is the direct object of the verb gave, and the nouns expressed are in apposition with it: "And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers"—Ephesians, iv, 11. That is, "He bestowed some [men] as apostles; and some as prophets; and some as evangelists; and some as pastors and teachers." The common reader might easily mistake the meaning and construction of this text in two different ways; for he might take some to be either a dative case, meaning to some persons, or an adjective to the nouns which are here expressed. The punctuation, however, is calculated to show that the nouns are in apposition with some, or some men, in what the Latins call the accusative, case. But the version ought to be amended by the insertion of as, which would here be an express sign of the apposition intended.

OBS. 18.—Some authors teach that words in apposition must agree in person, number, and gender, as well as in case; but such agreement the following examples show not to be always necessary: "The Franks, a people of Germany."—W. Allen's Gram. "The Kenite tribe, the descendants of Hobab."—Milman's Hist. of the Jews. "But how can you a soul, still either hunger or thirst?"—Lucian's Dialogues, p. 14. "Who seized the wife of me his host, and fled."—Ib., p. 16.

   "Thy gloomy grandeurs (Nature's most august.
    Inspiring aspect!) claim a grateful verse."—Young, N. ix, l. 566.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE III.

ERRORS OF WORDS IN APPOSITION.

"Now, therefore, come thou, let us make a covenant, I and thou."—Gen., xxxi, 44.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronouns I and thou, of the nominative case, are here put in apposition with the preceding pronoun us, which is objective. But, according to Rule 3d, "A noun or a personal pronoun, used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." Therefore, I and thou should be thee and me; (the first person, in our idiom, being usually put last;) thus, "Now, therefore, come thou, let us make a covenant, thee and me."]

"Now, therefore, come thou, we will make a covenant, thee and me."—Variation of Gen. "The word came not to Esau, the hunter, that stayed not at home; but to Jacob, the plain man, he that dwelt in tents."—Wm. Penn. "Not to every man, but to the man of God, (i. e.) he that is led by the spirit of God."—Barclays Works, i, 266. "For, admitting God to be a creditor, or he to whom the debt should be paid, and Christ he that satisfies or pays it on behalf of man the debtor, this question will arise, whether he paid that debt as God, or man, or both?"—Wm. Penn. "This Lord Jesus Christ, the heavenly Man, the Emmanuel, God with us, we own and believe in: he whom the high priests raged against," &c.—George Fox. "Christ, and Him crucified, was the Alpha and Omega of all his addresses, the fountain and foundation of his hope and trust."—Experience of Paul, p. 399. "'Christ and Him crucified' is the head, and only head, of the church."—Denison's Sermon. "But if 'Christ and Him crucified' are the burden of the ministry, such disastrous results are all avoided."—Ib. "He never let fall the least intimation, that himself, or any other person, whomsoever, was the object of worship."—Hannah Adams's View, p. 250. "Let the elders that rule well, be counted worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in the word and doctrine."—1 Tim., v, 17. "Our Shepherd, him who is styled King of saints, will assuredly give his saints the victory."—Sermon. "It may seem odd to talk of we subscribers"—Fowlers True Eng. Gram., p. 20. "And they shall have none to bury them, them, their wives, nor their sons, nor their daughters; for I will pour their wickedness upon them."—Jeremiah, xiv, 16. "Yet I supposed it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother, and companion in labour, and fellow-soldier, but your messenger, and he that ministered to my wants."—Philippians, ii, 25.

   "Amidst the tumult of the routed train,
    The sons of false Antimachus were slain;
    He, who for bribes his faithless counsels sold,
    And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. xi. l. 161.

    "See the vile King his iron sceptre bear—
    His only praise attends the pious Heir;
    He, in whose soul the virtues all conspire,
    The best good son, from the worst wicked sire."
        —DR. LOWTH: Union Poems, p. 19.

    "Then from thy lips poured forth a joyful song
    To thy Redeemer!—yea, it poured along
    In most melodious energy of praise,
    To God, the Saviour, he of ancient days."
        —Arm Chair, p. 15.

RULE IV.—POSSESSIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed: as, "God's mercy prolongs man's life."—Allen.

"Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine; Touched by thy hand, again Rome's glories shine."—Pope.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IV.

OBS. 1.—Though the ordinary syntax of the possessive case is sufficiently plain and easy, there is perhaps, among all the puzzling and disputable points of grammar, nothing more difficult of decision, than are some questions that occur respecting the right management of this case. That its usual construction is both clearly and properly stated in the foregoing rule, is what none will doubt or deny. But how many and what exceptions to this rule ought to be allowed, or whether any are justly demanded or not, are matters about which there may be much diversity of opinion. Having heretofore published the rule without any express exceptions, I am not now convinced that it is best to add any; yet are there three different modes of expression which might be plausibly exhibited in that character. Two of these would concern only the parser; and, for that reason, they seem not to be very important. The other involves the approval or reprehension of a great multitude of very common expressions, concerning which our ablest grammarians differ in opinion, and our most popular digest plainly contradicts itself. These points are; first, the apposition of possessives, and the supposed ellipses which may affect that construction; secondly, the government of the possessive case after is, was, &c., when the ownership of a thing is simply affirmed or denied; thirdly, the government of the possessive by a participle, as such—that is, while it retains the government and adjuncts of a participle.

OBS. 2.—The apposition of one possessive with an other, (as, "For David my servant's sake,") might doubtless be consistently made a formal exception to the direct government of the possessive by its controlling noun. But this apposition is only a sameness of construction, so that what governs the one, virtually governs the other. And if the case of any noun or pronoun is known and determined by the rule or relation of apposition, there can be no need of an exception to the foregoing rule for the purpose of parsing it, since that purpose is already answered by rule third. If the reader, by supposing an ellipsis which I should not, will resolve any given instance of this kind into something else than apposition, I have already shown him that some great grammarians have differed in the same way before. Useless ellipses, however, should never be supposed; and such perhaps is the following: "At Mr. Smith's [who is] the bookseller."—See Dr. Priestley's Gram., p. 71.

OBS. 3.—In all our Latin grammars, the verb sum, fui, esse, to be, is said (though not with strict propriety) sometimes to signify possession, property, or duty, and in that sense to govern the genitive case: as, "Est regis;"—"It is the king's."—"Hominis est errare;"—"It is man's to err."—"Pecus est Melib&oelig;i;"—"The flock is Meliboeus's." And sometimes, with like import, this verb, expressed or understood, may govern the dative; as, "Ego [sum] dilecto meo, et dilectus meus [est] mihi."—Vulgate. "I am my beloved's, and my beloved is mine."—Solomon's Song, vi, 3. Here, as both the genitive and the dative are expressed in English by the possessive, if the former are governed by the verb, there seems to be precisely the same reason from the nature of the expression, and an additional one from analogy, for considering the latter to be so too. But all the annotators upon the Latin syntax suggest, that the genitive thus put after sum or est, is really governed, not by the verb, but by some noun understood; and with this idea, of an ellipsis in the construction, all our English grammarians appear to unite. They might not, however, find it very easy to tell by what noun the word beloved's or mine is governed, in the last example above; and so of many others, which are used in the same way: as, "There shall nothing die of all that is the children's of Israel."—Exod., ix, 4. The Latin here is, "Ut nihil omnino pereat ex his quæ pertinent ad filios Israel."—Vulgate. That is,—"of all those which belong to the children of Israel."

   "For thou art Freedom's now—and Fame's,
    One of the few, the immortal names,
    That were not born to die."—HALLECK: Marco Bozzaris.

OBS. 4.—Although the possessive case is always intrinsically an adjunct and therefore incapable of being used or comprehended in any sense that is positively abstract; yet we see that there are instances in which it is used with a certain degree of abstraction,—that is, with an actual separation from the name of the thing possessed; and that accordingly there are, in the simple personal pronouns, (where such a distinction is most needed,) two different forms of the case; the one adapted to the concrete, and the other to the abstract construction. That form of the pronoun, however, which is equivalent in sense to the concrete and the noun, is still the possessive case, and nothing more; as, "All mine are thine, and thine are mine."—John, xvii, 10. For if we suppose this equivalence to prove such a pronoun to be something more than the possessive case, as do some grammarians, we must suppose the same thing respecting the possessive case of a noun, whenever the relation of ownership or possession is simply affirmed or denied with such a noun put last: as, "For all things are yours; and ye are Christ's; and Christ is God's."—1 Cor., iii, 21. By the second example placed under the rule, I meant to suggest, that the possessive case, when placed before or after this verb, (be,) might be parsed as being governed by the nominative; as we may suppose "theirs" to be governed by "vanity," and "thine" by "learning," these nouns being the names of the things possessed. But then we encounter a difficulty, whenever a pronoun happens to be the nominative; as, "Therefore glorify God in your body, and in your spirit, which are God's"—1 Cor., vi, 20. Here the common resort would be to some ellipsis; and yet it must be confessed, that this mode of interpretation cannot but make some difference in the sense: as, "If ye be Christ's, then are ye Abraham's seed."—Gal., iii, 29. Here some may think the meaning to be, "If ye be Christ's seed, or children." But a truer version of the text would be, "If ye are of Christ, then are ye Abraham's seed."—"Que si vous êtes à Christ, vous êtes done la posterité d'Abraham."—French Bible.

OBS. 5.—Possession is the having of something, and if the possessive case is always an adjunct, referring either directly or indirectly to that which constitutes it a possessive, it would seem but reasonable, to limit the government of this case to that part of speech which is understood substantively—that is, to "the name of the thing possessed." Yet, in violation of this restriction, many grammarians admit, that a participle, with the regimen and adjuncts of a participle, may govern the possessive case; and some of them, at the same time, with astonishing inconsistency, aver, that the possessive case before a participle converts the latter into a noun, and necessarily deprives it of its regimen. Whether participles are worthy to form an exception to my rule or not, this palpable contradiction is one of the gravest faults of L. Murray's code of syntax. After copying from Lowth the doctrine that a participle with an article before it becomes a noun, and must drop the government and adjuncts of a participle, this author informs us, that the same principles are applicable to the pronoun and participle: as, "Much depends on their observing of the rule, and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of it;" in stead of, "their observing the rule," and "their neglecting it." And this doctrine he applies, with yet more positiveness, to the noun and participle; as if the error were still more glaring, to make an active participle govern a possessive noun; saying, "We shall perceive this more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun: as, 'Much depends upon Tyro's observing of the rule,' &c.; which is the same as, 'Much depends on Tyro's observance of the rule.' But, as this construction sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the sentiment in the following, or some other form: 'Much depends on the rule's being observed; and error will be the consequence of its being neglected? or—'on observing the rule; and—of neglecting it.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 193; Ingersoll's, 199; and others.

OBS. 6.—Here it is assumed, that "their observing the rule," or "Tyro's observing the rule," is an ungrammatical phrase; and, several different methods being suggested for its correction, a preference is at length given to what is perhaps not less objectionable than the original phrase itself. The last form offered, "on observing the rule," &c., is indeed correct enough in itself; but, as a substitute for the other, it is both inaccurate and insufficient. It merely omits the possessive case, and leaves the action of the participle undetermined in respect to the agent. For the possessive case before a real participle, denotes not the possessor of something, as in other instances, but the agent of the action, or the subject of the being or passion; and the simple question here is, whether this extraordinary use of the possessive case is, or is not, such an idiom of our language as ought to be justified. Participles may become nouns, if we choose to use them substantively; but can they govern the possessive case before them, while they govern also the objective after them, or while they have a participial meaning which is qualified by adverbs? If they can, Lowth, Murray, and others, are wrong in supposing the foregoing phrases to be ungrammatical, and in teaching that the possessive case before a participle converts it into a noun; and if they cannot, Priestley, Murray, Hiley, Wells, Weld, and others, are wrong in supposing that a participle, or a phrase beginning with a participle, may properly govern the possessive case. Compare Murray's seventh note under his Rule 10th, with the second under his Rule 14th. The same contradiction is taught by many other compilers. See Smith's New Grammar, pp. 152 and 162; Comly's Gram., 91 and 108; Ingersoll's, 180 and 199.

OBS. 7.—Concerning one of the forms of expression which Murray approves and prefers, among his corrections above, the learned doctors Lowth and Campbell appear to have formed very different opinions. The latter, in the chapter which, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, he devotes to disputed points in syntax, says: "There is only one other observation of Dr. Lowth, on which, before I conclude this article, I must beg leave to offer some remarks. 'Phrases like the following, though very common, are improper: Much depends upon the rule's being observed; and error will be the consequence of its being neglected. For here is a noun and a pronoun representing it, each in the possessive case, that is, under the government of another noun, but without other noun to govern it: for being observed, and being neglected, are not nouns: nor can you supply the place of the possessive case by the preposition of before the noun or pronoun.'[346] For my part," continues Campbell, "notwithstanding what is here very speciously urged, I am not satisfied that there is any fault in the phrases censured. They appear to me to be perfectly in the idiom of our tongue, and such as on some occasions could not easily be avoided, unless by recurring to circumlocution, an expedient which invariably tends to enervate the expression."—Philosophy of Rhetoric, B. ii, Ch. iv, p. 234.

OBS. 8.—Dr. Campbell, if I understand his argument, defends the foregoing expressions against the objections of Dr. Lowth, not on the ground that participles as such may govern the possessive case, but on the supposition that as the simple active participle may become a noun, and in that character govern the possessive case, so may the passive participle, and with equal propriety, notwithstanding it consists of two or more words, which must in this construction be considered as forming "one compound noun." I am not sure that he means to confine himself strictly to this latter ground, but if he does, his position cannot be said in any respect to contravene my rule for the possessive case. I do not, however, agree with him, either in the opinion which he offers, or in the negative which he attempts to prove. In view of the two examples, "Much depends upon the rule's being observed," and, "Much depends upon their observing of the rule," he says: "Now, although I allow both the modes of expression to be good, I think the first simpler and better than the second." Then, denying all faults, he proceeds: "Let us consider whether the former be liable to any objections, which do not equally affect the latter." But in his argument, he considers only the objections offered by Lowth, which indeed he sufficiently refutes. Now to me there appear to be other objections, which are better founded. In the first place, the two sentences are not equivalent in meaning; hence the preference suggested by this critic and others, is absurd. Secondly, a compound noun formed of two or three words without any hyphen, is at best such an anomaly, as we ought rather to avoid than to prefer. If these considerations do not positively condemn the former construction, they ought at least to prevent it from displacing the latter; and seldom is either to be preferred to the regular noun, which we can limit by the article or the possessive at pleasure: as, "Much depends on an observance of the rule."—"Much depends on their observance of the rule." Now these two sentences are equivalent to the two former, but not to each other; and, vice versa: that is, the two former are equivalent to these, but not to each other.[347]

OBS. 9.—From Dr. Campbell's commendation of Lowth, as having "given some excellent directions for preserving a proper distinction between the noun and the gerund,"—that is, between the participial noun and the participle,—it is fair to infer that he meant to preserve it himself; and yet, in the argument above mentioned, he appears to have carelessly framed one ambiguous or very erroneous sentence, from which, as I imagine, his views of this matter have been misconceived, and by which Murray and all his modifiers have been furnished with an example wherewith to confound this distinction, and also to contradict themselves. The sentence is this: "Much will depend on your pupil's composing, but more on his reading frequently."—Philos. of Rhet., p. 235. Volumes innumerable have gone abroad, into our schools and elsewhere, which pronounce this sentence to be "correct and proper." But after all, what does it mean? Does the adverb "frequently" qualify the verb "will depend" expressed in the sentence? or "will depend" understood after more? or both? or neither? Or does this adverb qualify the action of "reading?" or the action of "composing?" or both? or neither? But composing and reading, if they are mere nouns, cannot properly be qualified by any adverb; and, if they are called participles, the question recurs respecting the possessives. Besides, composing, as a participle, is commonly transitive; nor is it very fit for a noun, without some adjunct. And, when participles become nouns, their government (it is said) falls upon of, and their adverbs are usually converted into adjectives; as, "Much will depend on your pupil's composing of themes; but more, on his frequent reading." This may not be the author's meaning, for the example was originally composed as a mere mock sentence, or by way of "experiment;" and one may doubt whether its meaning was ever at all thought of by the philosopher. But, to make it a respectable example, some correction there must be; for, surely, no man can have any clear idea to communicate, which he cannot better express, than by imitating this loose phraseology. It is scarcely more correct, than to say, "Much will depend on an author's using, but more on his learning frequently." Yet is it commended as a model, either entire or in part, by Murray, Ingersoll, Fisk, R. C. Smith, Cooper, Lennie, Hiley, Bullions, C. Adams, A. H. Weld, and I know not how many other school critics.

OBS. 10.—That singular notion, so common in our grammars, that a participle and its adjuncts may form "one name" or "substantive phrase," and so govern the possessive case, where it is presumed the participle itself could not, is an invention worthy to have been always ascribed to its true author. For this doctrine, as I suppose, our grammarians are indebted to Dr. Priestley. In his grammar it stands thus: "When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea, or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case. Thus, instead of saying, What is the meaning of this lady holding up her train, i. e. what is the meaning of the lady in holding up her train, we may say, What is the meaning of this lady's holding up her train; just as we say, What is the meaning of this lady's dress, &c. So we may either say, I remember it being reckoned a great exploit; or, perhaps more elegantly, I remember its being reckoned, &c."—Priestley's Gram., p. 69. Now, to say nothing of errors in punctuation, capitals, &c., there is scarcely any thing in all this passage, that is either conceived or worded properly. Yet, coining from a Doctor of Laws, and Fellow of the Royal Society, it is readily adopted by Murray, and for his sake by others; and so, with all its blunders, the vain gloss passes uncensured into the schools, as a rule and model for elegant composition. Dr. Priestley pretends to appreciate the difference between participles and participial nouns, but he rather contrives a fanciful distinction in the sense, than a real one in the construction. His only note on this point,—a note about the "horse running to-day," and the "horse's running to-day,"—I shall leave till we come to the syntax of participles.

OBS. 11.—Having prepared the reader to understand the origin of what is to follow, I now cite from L. Murray's code a paragraph which appears to be contradictory to his own doctrine, as suggested in the fifth observation above; and not only so, it is irreconcilable with any proper distinction between the participle and the participial noun. "When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case; thus, instead of saying, 'What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily?' that is, 'What is the reason of this person, in dismissing his servant so hastily?' we may say, and perhaps ought to say, 'What is the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?' Just as we say, 'What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant?' So also, we say, 'I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;' or more properly, 'I remember its being reckoned,' &c. The following sentence is correct and proper: 'Much will depend on the pupil's composing, but more on his reading frequently.' It would not be accurate to say, 'Much will depend on the pupil composing.' &c. We also properly say; 'This will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently;' instead of, 'Of the pupil composing frequently.' The participle, in such constructions, does the office of a substantive; and it should therefore have a CORRESPONDENT REGIMEN."—Murray's Gram., Rule 10th, Note 7; Ingersoll's, p. 180; Fisk's, 108; R. C. Smith's, 152; Alger's, 61; Merchant's, 84. See also Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 150; "Abridged Ed.," 117.[348]

OBS. 12.—Now, if it were as easy to prove that a participle, as such, or (what amounts to the same thing) a phrase beginning with a participle, ought never to govern the possessive case, as it is to show that every part and parcel of the foregoing citations from Priestley, Murray, and others, is both weakly conceived and badly written, I should neither have detained the reader so long on this topic, nor ever have placed it among the most puzzling points of grammar. Let it be observed, that what these writers absurdly call "an entire CLAUSE of a sentence," is found on examination to be some short PHRASE, the participle with its adjuncts, or even the participle alone, or with a single adverb only; as, "holding up her train,"—"dismissing his servant so hastily,"—"composing,"—"reading frequently,"—"composing frequently." And each of these, with an opposite error as great, they will have to be "one name," and to convey but "one idea;" supposing that by virtue of this imaginary oneness, it may govern the possessive case, and signify something which a "lady," or a "person," or a "pupil," may consistently possess. And then, to be wrong in every thing, they suggest that any noun on which such a participle, with its adjuncts, "depends, may be put in the genitive case;" whereas, such a change is seldom, if ever, admissible, and in our language, no participle ever can depend on any other than the nominative or the objective case. Every participle so depending is an adjunct to the noun; and every possessive, in its turn, is an adjunct to the word which governs it. In respect to construction, no terms differ more than a participle which governs the possessive case, and a participle which does not. These different constructions the contrivers of the foregoing rule, here take to be equivalent in meaning; whereas they elsewhere pretend to find in them quite different significations. The meaning is sometimes very different, and sometimes very similar; but seldom, if ever, are the terms convertible. And even if they were so, and the difference were nothing, would it not be better to adhere, where we can, to the analogy of General Grammar? In Greek and Latin, a participle may agree with a noun in the genitive case; but, if we regard analogy, that genitive must be Englished, not by the possessive case, but by of and the objective; as, "[Greek: 'Epeì dokim`æn zæteîte toû 'en 'emoì laloûntos Christoû.]"—"Quandoquidem experimentum quæritis in me loquentis Christi."—Beza. "Since ye seek a proof of Christ speaking in me."—2 Cor., xiii, 3. We might here, perhaps, say, "of Christ's speaking in me," but is not the other form better? The French version is, "Puisque vous cherchez une preuve que Christ parle par moi;" and this, too, might be imitated in English: "Since ye seek a proof that Christ speaks by me."

OBS. 13.—As prepositions very naturally govern any of our participles except the simple perfect, it undoubtedly seems agreeable to our idiom not to disturb this government, when we would express the subject or agent of the being, action, or passion, between the preposition and the participle. Hence we find that the doer or the sufferer of the action is usually made its possessor, whenever the sense does not positively demand a different reading. Against this construction there is seldom any objection, if the participle be taken entirely as a noun, so that it may be called a participial noun; as, "Much depends on their observing of the rule."—Lowth, Campbell, and L. Murray. On the other hand, the participle after the objective is unobjectionable, if the noun or pronoun be the leading word in sense; as, "It would be idle to profess an apprehension of serious evil resulting in any respect from the utmost publicity being given to its contents."—London Eclectic Review, 1816. "The following is a beautiful instance of the sound of words corresponding to motion."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 333. "We shall discover many things partaking of both those characters."—West's Letters, p. 182. "To a person following the vulgar mode of omitting the comma."—Churchill's Gram., p. 365. But, in comparing the different constructions above noticed, writers are frequently puzzled to determine, and frequently too do they err in determining, which word shall be made the adjunct, and which the leading term. Now, wherever there is much doubt which of the two forms ought to be preferred, I think we may well conclude that both are wrong; especially, if there can easily be found for the idea an other expression that is undoubtedly clear and correct. Examples: "These appear to be instances of the present participle being used passively."—Murray's Gram., p. 64. "These are examples of the past participle being applied in an active sense."—Ib., 64. "We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives."—Priestley's Gram., p. 134; Murray's, 198; Ingersoll's, 206; Fisk's, 140; Smith's, 165. "By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to the substantive."—Murray's Gram., p. 39; also Ingersoll's, Fisk's, Alger's, Maltby's, Merchant's, Bacon's, and others. Here, if their own rule is good for any thing, these authors ought rather to have preferred the possessive case; but strike out the word being, which is not necessary to the sense, and all question about the construction vanishes. Or if any body will justify these examples as they stand, let him observe that there are others, without number, to be justified on the same principle; as, "Much depends on the rule being observed."—"Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently." Again: "Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians coming to attack him."—Rollin, ii, 86. "Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians' coming to attack him." That is—"for their coming," and not, "for them coming;" but much better than either: "Cyrus did not wait for the Babylonians to come and attack him." Again: "To prevent his army's being enclosed and hemmed in."—Rollin, ii, 89. "To prevent his army being enclosed and hemmed in." Both are wrong. Say, "To prevent his army from being enclosed and hemmed in." Again: "As a sign of God's fulfilling the promise."—Rollin, ii, 23. "As a sign of God fulfilling the promise." Both are objectionable. Say, "As a sign that God would fulfill the promise." Again: "There is affirmative evidence for Moses's being the author of these books."—Bp. Watson's Apology, p. 28. "The first argument you produce against Moses being the author of these books."—Ib., p. 29. Both are bad. Say,—"for Moses as being the author,"—"against Moses as being the author," &c.

OBS. 14.—Now, although thousands of sentences might easily be quoted, in which the possessive case is actually governed by a participle, and that participle not taken in every respect as a noun; yet I imagine, there are, of this kind, few examples, if any, the meaning of which might not be better expressed in some other way. There are surely none among all the examples which are presented by Priestley, Murray, and others, under their rule above. Nor would a thousand such as are there given, amount to any proof of the rule. They are all of them unreal or feigned sentences, made up for the occasion, and, like most others that are produced in the same way, made up badly—made up after some ungrammatical model. If a gentleman could possibly demand a lady's meaning in such an act as the holding-up of her train, he certainly would use none of Priestley's three questions, which, with such ridiculous and uninstructive pedantry, are repeated and expounded by Latham, in his Hand-Book, §481; but would probably say, "Madam, what do you mean by holding up your train?" It was folly for the doctor to ask an other person, as if an other could guess her meaning better than he. The text with the possessive is therefore not to be corrected by inserting a hyphen and an of, after Murray's doctrine before cited; as, "What is the meaning of this lady's holding-up of her train?" Murray did well to reject this example, but as a specimen of English, his own is no better. The question which he asks, ought to have been, "Why did this person dismiss his servant so hastily?" Fisk has it in the following form: "What is the reason of this person's dismissing his servant so hastily?"—English Grammar Simplified, p. 108. This amender of grammars omits the of which Murray and others scrupulously insert to govern the noun servant, and boldly avows at once, what their rule implies, that, "Participles are sometimes used both as verbs and as nouns at the same time; as, 'By the mind's changing the object,' &c."—Ib., p. 134; so Emmons's Gram., p. 64. But he errs as much as they, and contradicts both himself and them. For one ought rather to say, "By the mind's changing of the object;" else changing, which "does the office of a noun," has not truly "a correspondent regimen." Yet of is useless after dismissing, unless we take away the adverb by which the participle is prevented from becoming a noun. "Dismissing of his servant so hastily," is in itself an ungrammatical phrase; and nothing but to omit either the preposition, or the two adverbs, can possibly make it right. Without the latter, it may follow the possessive; but without the former, our most approved grammars say it cannot. Some critics, however, object to the of, because the dismissing is not the servant's act; but this, as I shall hereafter show, is no valid objection: they stickle for a false rule.

OBS. 15.—Thus these authors, differing from one an other as they do, and each contradicting himself and some of the rest, are, as it would seem, all wrong in respect to the whole matter at issue. For whether the phrase in question be like Priestley's, or like Murray's, or like Fisk's, it is still, according to the best authorities, unfit to govern the possessive case; because, in stead of being a substantive, it is something more than a participle, and yet they take it substantively. They form this phrase in many different fashions, and yet each man of them pretends that what he approves, is just like the construction of a regular noun: "Just as we say, 'What is the reason of this person's hasty dismission of his servant.'"—Murray, Fisk, and others. "Just as we say, 'What is the meaning of this lady's dress,' &c."—Priestley. The meaning of a lady's dress, forsooth! The illustration is worthy of the doctrine taught. "An entire clause of a sentence" substantively possessed, is sufficiently like "the meaning of a lady's dress, &c." Cobbett despised andsoforths, for their lack of meaning; and I find none in this one, unless it be, "of tinsel and of fustian." This gloss therefore I wholly disapprove, judging the position more tenable, to deny, if we consequently must, that either a phrase or a participle, as such, can consistently govern the possessive case. For whatever word or term gives rise to the direct relation of property, and is rightly made to govern the possessive case, ought in reason to be a noun—ought to be the name of some substance, quality, state, action, passion, being, or thing. When therefore other parts of speech assume this relation, they naturally become nouns; as, "Against the day of my burying."—John, xii, 7. "Till the day of his showing unto Israel."—Luke, i, 80. "By my own showing."—Cowper, Life, p. 22. "By a fortune of my own getting."—Ib. "Let your yea be yea, and your nay nay."—James, v, 12. "Prate of my whereabout."—Shah.

OBS. 16.—The government of possessives by "entire clauses" or "substantive phrases," as they are sometimes called, I am persuaded, may best be disposed of, in almost every instance, by charging the construction with impropriety or awkwardness, and substituting for it some better phraseology. For example, our grammars abound with sentences like the following, and call them good English: (1.) "So we may either say, 'I remember it being reckoned a great exploit;' or perhaps more elegantly, 'I remember its being reckoned a great exploit.'"—Priestley, Murray, and others. Here both modes are wrong; the latter, especially; because it violates a general rule of syntax, in regard to the case of the noun exploit. Say, "I remember it was reckoned a great exploit." Again: (2.) "We also properly say, 'This will be the effect of the pupil's composing frequently.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 179; and others. Better, "This will be the effect, if the pupil compose frequently." But this sentence is fictitious, and one may doubt whether good authors can be found who use compose or composing as being intransitive. (3.) "What can be the reason of the committee's having delayed this business?"—Murray's Key, p. 223. Say, "Why have the committee delayed this business?" (4.) "What can be the cause of the parliament's neglecting so important a business?"—Ib., p. 195. Say, "Why does the parliament neglect so important a business?" (5.) "The time of William's making the experiment, at length arrived."—Ib., p. 195. Say, "The time for William to make the experiment, at length arrived." (6.) "I hope this is the last time of my acting so imprudently."—Ib., p. 263. Say, "I hope I shall never again act so imprudently." (7.) "If I were to give a reason for their looking so well, it would be, that they rise early."—Ib., p. 263. Say, "I should attribute their healthful appearance to their early rising." (8.) "The tutor said, that diligence and application to study were necessary to our becoming good scholars."—Cooper's Gram., p. 145. Here is an anomaly in the construction of the noun scholars. Say, "The tutor said, that diligent application to study was necessary to our success in learning." (9.) "The reason of his having acted in the manner he did, was not fully explained."—Murray's Key, p. 263. This author has a very singular mode of giving "STRENGTH" to weak sentences. The faulty text here was. "The reason why he acted in the manner he did, was not fully explained."—Murray's Exercises, p. 131. This is much better than the other, but I should choose to say. "The reason of his conduct was not fully explained." For, surely, the "one idea or circumstance" of his "having acted in the manner in which he did act," may be quite as forcibly named by the one word conduct, as by all this verbiage, this "substantive phrase," or "entire clause," of such cumbrous length.

OBS. 17.—The foregoing observations tend to show, that the government of possessives by participles, is in general a construction little to be commended, if at all allowed. I thus narrow down the application of the principle, but do not hereby determine it to be altogether wrong. There are other arguments, both for and against the doctrine, which must be taken into the account, before we can fully decide the question. The double construction which may be given to infinitive verbs; the Greek idiom which allows to such verbs an article before them and an objective after them; the mixed character of the Latin gerund, part noun, part verb; the use or substitution of the participle in English for the gerund in Latin;—all these afford so many reasons by analogy, for allowing that our participle—except it be the perfect—since it participates the properties of a verb and a noun, as well as those of a verb and an adjective, may unite in itself a double construction, and be taken substantively in one relation, and participially in an other. Accordingly some grammarians so define it; and many writers so use it; both parties disregarding the distinction between the participle and the participial noun, and justifying the construction of the former, not only as a proper participle after its noun, and as a gerundive after its preposition; not only as a participial adjective before its noun, and as a participial noun, in the regular syntax of a noun; but also as a mixed term, in the double character of noun and participle at once. Nor are these its only uses; for, after an auxiliary, it is the main verb; and in a few instances, it passes into a preposition, an adverb, or something else. Thus have we from the verb a single derivative, which fairly ranks with about half the different parts of speech, and takes distinct constructions even more numerous; and yet these authors scruple not to make of it a hybridous thing, neither participle nor noun, but constructively both. "But this," says Lowth, "is inconsistent; let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its proper construction."—Gram., p. 82. And so say I—as asserting the general principle, and leaving the reader to judge of its exceptions. Because, without this mongrel character, the participle in our language has a multiplicity of uses unparalleled in any other; and because it seldom happens that the idea intended by this double construction may not be otherwise expressed more elegantly. But if it sometimes seem proper that the gerundive participle should be allowed to govern the possessive case, no exception to my rule is needed for the parsing of such possessive; because whatever is invested with such government, whether rightly or wrongly, is assumed as "the name of something possessed."

OBS. 18.—The reader may have observed, that in the use of participial nouns, the distinction of voice in the participle is sometimes disregarded. Thus, "Against the day of my burying," means, "Against the day of my being buried." But in this instance the usual noun burial or funeral would have been better than either: "Against the day of my burial." I. e., "In diem funerationis meæ."—Beza. "In diem sepulturæ meæ."—Leusden. "[Greek: 'Eis t`æn hæméran toû entaphiasmoû mou.]"—John, xii, 7. In an other text, this noun is very properly used for the Greek infinitive, and the Latin gerund; as, "For my burial."—Matt., xxvi, 12. "Ad funerandum me."—Beza. "Ad sepeliendum me."—Leusden. Literally: "For burying me." "[Greek: Pròs tò entaphiásai me.]" Nearly: "For to have me buried." Not all that is allowable, is commendable; and if either of the uncompounded terms be found a fit substitute for the compound participial noun, it is better to dispense with the latter, on account of its dissimilarity to other nouns: as, "Which only proceed upon the question's being begged."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 361. Better, "Which only proceed upon a begging of the question." "The king's having conquered in the battle, established his throne."—Nixon's Parser, p. 128. Better, "The king's conquering in the battle;" for, in the participial noun, the distinction of tense, or of previous completion, is as needless as that of voice. "The fleet's having sailed prevented mutiny."—Ib., p. 78. Better, "The sailing of the fleet,"—or, "The fleet's sailing" &c. "The prince's being murdered excited their pity."—Ibid. Better, "The prince's murder excited their indignation."

OBS. 19.—In some instances, as it appears, not a little difficulty is experienced by our grammarians, respecting the addition or the omission of the possessive sign, the terminational apostrophic s, which in nouns is the ordinary index of the possessive case. Let it be remembered that every possessive is governed, or ought to be governed, by some noun expressed or understood, except such as (without the possessive sign) are put in apposition with others so governed; and for every possessive termination there must be a separate governing word, which, if it is not expressed, is shown by the possessive sign to be understood. The possessive sign itself may and must be omitted in certain cases; but, because it can never be inserted or discarded without suggesting or discarding a governing noun, it is never omitted by ellipsis, as Buchanan, Murray, Nixon, and many others, erroneously teach. The four lines of Note 2d below, are sufficient to show, in every instance, when it must be used, and when omitted; but Murray, after as many octavo pages on the point, still leaves it perplexed and undetermined. If a person knows what he means to say, let him express it according to the Note, and he will not fail to use just as many apostrophes and Esses as he ought. How absurd then is that common doctrine of ignorance, which Nixon has gathered from Allen and Murray, his chief oracles! "If several nouns in the genitive case, are immediately connected by a conjunction, the apostrophic s is annexed to the last, but understood to the rest; as, Neither John (i. e. John's) nor Eliza's books."—English Parser, p. 115. The author gives fifteen other examples like this, all of them bad English, or at any rate, not adapted to the sense which he intends!

OBS. 20.—The possessive case generally comes immediately before the governing noun, expressed or understood; as, "All nature's difference keeps all nature's peace."—Pope. "Lady! be thine (i. e., thy walk) the Christian's walk."—Chr. Observer. "Some of Æschylus's [plays] and Euripides's plays are opened in this manner."—Blair's Rhet., p. 459. And in this order one possessive sometimes governs an other: as, "Peter's wife's mother;"—"Paul's sister's son."—Bible. But, to this general principle of arrangement, there are some exceptions: as,

1. When the governing noun has an adjective, this may intervene; as, "Flora's earliest smells."—Milton. "Of man's first disobedience."—Id. In the following phrase from the Spectator, "Of Will's last night's lecture," it is not very clear, whether Will's is governed by night's or by lecture; yet it violates a general principle of our grammar, to suppose the latter; because, on this supposition, two possessives, each having the sign, will be governed by one noun.

2. When the possessive is affirmed or denied; as, "The book is mine, and not John's." But here the governing noun may be supplied in its proper place; and, in some such instances, it must be, else a pronoun or the verb will be the only governing word: as, "Ye are Christ's [disciples, or people]; and Christ is God's" [son].—St. Paul. Whether this phraseology is thus elliptical or not, is questionable. See Obs. 4th, in this series.

3. When the case occurs without the sign, either by apposition or by connexion; as, "In her brother Absalom's house."—Bible. "David and Jonathan's friendship."—Allen. "Adam and Eve's morning hymn."—Dr. Ash. "Behold the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the Lord's thy God."—Deut.,, x, 14. "For peace and quiet's sake."—Cowper. "To the beginning of King James the First's reign."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 32.

OBS. 21—The possessive case is in general (though not always) equivalent to the preposition of and the objective; as, "Of Judas Iscariot, Simon's son."—John, xiii, 2. "To Judas Iscariot, the son of Simon."—Ib., xiii, 26. On account of this one-sided equivalence, many grammarians erroneously reckon the latter to be a "genitive case" as well as the former. But they ought to remember, that the preposition is used more frequently than the possessive, and in a variety of senses that cannot be interpreted by this case; as, "Of some of the books of each of these classes of literature, a catalogue will be given at the end of the work."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 178. Murray calls this a "laborious mode of expression," and doubtless it might be a little improved by substituting in for the third of; but my argument is, that the meaning conveyed cannot be expressed by possessives. The notion that of forms a genitive case, led Priestley to suggest, that our language admits a "double genitive;" as, "This book of my friend's."—Priestley's Gram., p. 71. "It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's."—Ib., p. 72. "This exactness of his."—STERNE: ib. The doctrine has since passed into nearly all our grammars; yet is there no double case here, as I shall presently show.

OBS. 22.—Where the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken, it is often omitted by ellipsis: as, "At the alderman's" [house];—"St. Paul's" [church];—"A book of my brother's" [books];—"A subject of the emperor's" [subjects];—"A friend of mine;" i. e., one of my friends. "Shall we say that Sacrificing was a pure invention of Adam's, or of Cain or Abel's?"—Leslie, on Tythes, p. 93. That is—of Adam's inventions, or of Cain or Abel's inventions. The Rev. David Blair, unable to resolve this phraseology to his own satisfaction, absurdly sets it down among what he calls "ERRONEOUS OR VULGAR PHRASES." His examples are these: "A poem of Pope's;"—"A soldier of the king's;"—"That is a horse of my father's."—Blair's Practical Gram., p. 110, 111. He ought to have supplied the plural nouns, poems, soldiers, horses. This is the true explanation of all the "double genitives" which our grammarians discover; for when the first noun is partitive, it naturally suggests more or other things of the same kind, belonging to this possessor; and when such is not the meaning, this construction is improper. In the following example, the noun eyes is understood after his:

   "Ev'n his, the warrior's eyes, were forced to yield,
    That saw, without a tear, Pharsalia's field."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. viii, l. 144.

OBS. 23.—When two or more nouns of the possessive form are in any way connected, they usually refer to things individually different but of the same name; and when such is the meaning, the governing noun, which we always suppress somewhere to avoid tautology, is understood wherever the sign is added without it; as, "A father's or mother's sister is an aunt."—Dr. Webster. That is, "A father's sister or a mother's sister is an aunt." "In the same commemorative acts of the senate, were thy name, thy father's, thy brother's, and the emperor's."—Zenobia, Vol. i, p. 231.

   "From Stiles's pocket into Nokes's" [pocket].
        —Hudibras, B. iii, C. iii, l. 715.

    "Add Nature's, Custom's, Reason's, Passion's strife."
        —Pope, Brit. Poets, Vol. vi, p. 383.

It will be observed that in all these examples the governing noun is singular; and, certainly, it must be so, if, with more than one possessive sign, we mean to represent each possessor as having or possessing but one object. If the noun be made plural where it is expressed, it will also be plural where it is implied. It is good English to say, "A father's or mother's sisters are aunts;" but the meaning is, "A father's sisters or a mother's sisters are aunts." But a recent school critic teaches differently, thus: "When different things of the same name belong to different possessors, the sign should be annexed to each; as, Adams's, Davies's, and Perkins' Arithmetics; i. e., three different books."—Spencer's Gram., p. 47. Here the example is fictitious, and has almost as many errors as words. It would be much better English to say, "Adams's, Davies's, and Perkins's Arithmetic;" though the objective form with of would, perhaps, be still more agreeable for these peculiar names. Spencer, whose Grammar abounds with useless repetitions, repeats his note elsewhere, with the following illustrations: "E. g. Olmstead's and Comstock's Philosophies. Gould's Adam's Latin Grammar."—Ib., p. 106. The latter example is no better suited to his text, than "Peter's wife's mother;" and the former is fit only to mean, "Olmstead's Philosophies and Comstock's Philosophies." To speak of the two books only, say," Olmstead's Philosophy and Comstock's."

OBS. 24.—The possessive sign is sometimes annexed to that part of a compound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case; as, "At his father-in-law's residence." Here, "At the residence of his father-in-law," would be quite as agreeable; and, as for the plural, one would hardly think of saying, "Men's wedding parties are usually held at their fathers-in-law's houses." When the compound is formed with of, to prevent a repetition of this particle, the possessive sign is sometimes added as above; and yet the hyphen is not commonly inserted in the phrase, as I think it ought to be. Examples: "The duke of Bridgewater's canal;"—"The bishop of Landaff's excellent book;"—"The Lord mayor of London's authority;"—"The captain of the guard's house."—Murray's Gram., p. 176. "The Bishop of Cambray's writings on eloquence."—Blair's Rhet., p. 345. "The bard of Lomond's lay is done."—Queen's Wake, p. 99. "For the kingdom of God's sake."—Luke, xviii, 29. "Of the children of Israel's half."—Numbers, xxxi, 30. From these examples it would seem, that the possessive sign has a less intimate alliance with the possessive case, than with the governing noun; or, at any rate, a dependence less close than that of the objective noun which here assumes it. And since the two nouns here so intimately joined by of, cannot be explained separately as forming two cases, but must be parsed together as one name governed in the usual way, I should either adopt some other phraseology, or write the compound terms with hyphens, thus: "The Duke-of-Bridgewater's canal;"—"The Bishop-of-Landaff's excellent book;"—"The Bard-of- Lomond's lay is done." But there is commonly some better mode of correcting such phrases. With deference to Murray and others, "The King of Great Britain's prerogative," [349] is but an untoward way of saying, "The prerogative of the British King;" and, "The Lord mayor of London's authority," may quite as well be written, "The authority of London's Lord Mayor." Blair, who for brevity robs the _Arch_bishop of half his title, might as well have said, "Fenelon's writings on eloquence." "Propter regnum Dei," might have been rendered, "For the kingdom of God;"—"For the sake of the kingdom of God;"—or, "For the sake of God's kingdom." And in lieu of the other text, we might say, "Of the Israelites' half."

OBS. 25.—"Little explanatory circumstances," says Priestley, "are particularly awkward between the genitive case, and the word which usually follows it; as, 'She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding.' Harriet Watson, Vol. i, p. 27."—Priestley's Gram., p 174. Murray assumes this remark, and adds respecting the example, "It ought to be, 'the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him.' "—Murray's Gram., p. 175. Intersertions of this kind are as uncommon as they are uncouth. Murray, it seems, found none for his Exercises, but made up a couple to suit his purpose. The following might have answered as well for an other: "Monsieur D'acier observes, that Zeno's (the Founder of the Sect,) opinion was Fair and Defensible in these Points."—Colliers Antoninus, p. ii.

OBS. 26.—It is so usual a practice in our language, to put the possessive sign always and only where the two terms of the possessive relation meet, that this ending is liable to be added to any adjunct which can be taken as a part of the former noun or name; as, (1.) "The court-martial's violent proceedings." Here the plural would be courts-martial; but the possessive sign must be at the end. (2.) "In Henry the Eighth's time."—Walker's Key, Introd., p. 11. This phrase can be justified only by supposing the adjective a part of the name. Better, "In the time of Henry the Eighth." (3.) "And strengthened with a year or two's age."—Locke, on Education, p. 6. Here two's is put for two years; and, I think, improperly; because the sign is such as suits the former noun, and not the plural. Better, "And strengthened with a year's age or more." The word two however is declinable as a noun, and possibly it may be so taken in Locke's phrase. (4.) "This rule is often infringed, by the case absolute's not being properly distinguished from certain forms of expression apparently similar to it."—Murray's Gram., p. 155; Fisk's, 113; Ingersoll's, 210. Here the possessive sign, being appended to a distinct adjective, and followed by nothing that can be called a noun, is employed as absurdly as it well can be. Say, "This rule is often infringed by an improper use of the nominative absolute;" for this is precisely what these authors mean. (5.) "The participle is distinguished from the adjective by the former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's denoting only a quality"—Murray's Gram., p. 65; Fisk's, 82; Ingersoll's, 45; Emmons's, 64; Alger's, 28. This is liable to nearly the same objections. Say, "The participle differs from an adjective by expressing the idea of time, whereas the adjective denotes only a quality." (6.) "The relatives that and as differ from who and which in the former's not being immediately joined to the governing word."—Nixon's Parser, p. 140. This is still worse, because former's, which is like a singular noun, has here a plural meaning; namely, "in the former terms' not being," &c. Say—"in that the former never follow the governing word."

OBS. 27.—The possessive termination is so far from being liable to suppression by ellipsis, agreeably to the nonsense of those interpreters who will have it to be "understood" wherever the case occurs without it, that on the contrary it is sometimes retained where there is an actual suppression of the noun to which it belongs. This appears to be the case whenever the pronominal adjectives former and latter are inflected, as above. The inflection of these, however, seems to be needless, and may well be reckoned improper. But, in the following line, the adjective elegantly takes the sign; because there is an ellipsis of both nouns; poor's being put for poor man's, and the governing noun joys being understood after it: "The rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay."—Goldsmith. So, in the following example, guilty's is put for guilty person's:

   "Yet, wise and righteous ever, scorns to hear
    The fool's fond wishes, or the guilty's prayer."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. v, l. 155.

This is a poetical license; and others of a like nature are sometimes met with. Our poets use the possessive case much more frequently than prose writers, and occasionally inflect words that are altogether invariable in prose; as,

   "Eager that last great chance of war he waits,
    Where either's fall determines both their fates."
        —Ibid., B. vi, l. 13.

OBS. 28.—To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s of the possessive singular is sometimes omitted, and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the case: as, "For conscience' sake."—Bible. "Moses' minister."—Ib. "Felix' room."—Ib. "Achilles' wrath."—Pope. "Shiraz' walls."—Collins. "Epicurus' sty."—Beattie. "Douglas' daughter."—Scott. "For Douglas' sake."—Ib. "To his mistress' eyebrow."—Shak. This is a sort of poetic license, as is suggested in the 16th Observation upon the Cases of Nouns, in the Etymology. But in prose the elision should be very sparingly indulged; it is in general less agreeable, as well as less proper, than the regular form. Where is the propriety of saying, Hicks' Sermons, Barnes' Notes, Kames' Elements, Adams' Lectures, Josephus' Works, while we so uniformly say, in Charles's reign, St. James's Palace, and the like? The following examples are right: "At Westminster and Hicks's Hall."—Hudibras. "Lord Kames's Elements of Criticism."—Murray's Sequel, p. 331. "Of Rubens's allegorical pictures."—Hazlitt. "With respect to Burns's early education."—Dugald Stewart. "Isocrates's pomp;"—"Demosthenes's life."—Blair's Rhet., p. 242. "The repose of Epicurus's gods."—Wilson's Heb. Gram., p. 93.

"To Douglas's obscure abode."—Scott, L. L., C. iii, st. 28.

"Such was the Douglas's command."—Id., ib., C. ii, st. 36.

OBS. 29.—Some of our grammarians, drawing broad conclusions from a few particular examples, falsely teach as follows: "When a singular noun ends in ss, the apostrophe only is added; as, 'For goodness' sake:' except the word witness; as, 'The witness's testimony.' When a noun in the possessive case ends in ence, the s is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained; as, 'For conscience' sake.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 49; Hamlin's, 16; Smith's New Gram., 47.[350] Of principles or inferences very much like these, is the whole system of "Inductive Grammar" essentially made up. But is it not plain that heiress's, abbess's, peeress's, countess's, and many other words of the same form, are as good English as witness's? Did not Jane West write justly, "She made an attempt to look in at the dear dutchess's?"—Letters to a Lady, p. 95. Does not the Bible speak correctly of "an ass's head," sold at a great price?—2 Kings, vi, 25. Is Burns also wrong, about "miss's fine lunardi," and "miss's bonnet?"—Poems, p. 44. Or did Scott write inaccurately, whose guide "Led slowly through the pass's jaws?"—Lady of the Lake, p. 121. So much for the ss; nor is the rule for the termination ence, or (as Smith has it) nce, more true. Prince's and dunce's are as good possessives as any; and so are the following:

   "That vice should triumph, virtue vice obey;
    This sprung some doubt of Providence's sway."—Parnell.

"And sweet Benevolence's mild command."—Lord Lyttleton.

    "I heard the lance's shivering crash,
    As when the whirlwind rends the ash."—Sir Walter Scott.

OBS. 30.—The most common rule now in use for the construction of the possessive case, is a shred from the old code of Latin grammar: "One substantive governs another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive case."—L. Murray's Rule X. This canon not only leaves occasion for an additional one respecting pronouns of the possessive case, but it is also obscure in its phraseology, and too negligent of the various modes in which nouns may come together in English. All nouns used adjectively, and many that are compounded together, seem to form exceptions to it. But who can limit or enumerate these exceptions? Different combinations of nouns have so often little or no difference of meaning, or of relation to each other, and so frequently is the very same vocal expression written variously by our best scholars, and ablest lexicographers, that in many ordinary instances it seems scarcely possible to determine who or what is right. Thus, on the authority of Johnson, one might write, a stone's cast, or stone's throw; but Webster has it, stones-cast, or stones-throw; Maunder, stonecast, stonethrow; Chalmers, stonescast; Worcester, stone's-cast. So Johnson and Chalmers write stonesmickle, a bird; Webster has it, stone's-mickle; yet, all three refer to Ainsworth as their authority, and his word is stone-smickle: Littleton has it stone-smich. Johnson and Chalmers write, popeseye and sheep's eye; Walker, Maunder, and Worcester, popeseye and sheep's-eye; Scott has pope's-eye and sheepseye; Webster, pope's-eye and sheep's-eye, bird-eye, and birds-eye. Ainsworth has goats beard, for the name of a plant; Johnson, goatbeard; Webster, goat-beard and goats-beard. Ainsworth has prince's feather, for the amaranth; Johnson, Chalmers, Walker, and Maunder, write it princes-feather; Webster and Worcester, princes'-feather; Bolles has it princesfeather: and here they are all wrong, for the word should be prince's-feather. There are hundreds more of such terms; all as uncertain in their orthography as these.

OBS. 31.—While discrepances like the foregoing abound in our best dictionaries, none of our grammars supply any hints tending to show which of these various forms we ought to prefer. Perhaps the following suggestions, together with the six Rules for the Figure of Words, in Part First, may enable the reader to decide these questions with sufficient accuracy. (1.) Two short radical nouns are apt to unite in a permanent compound, when the former, taking the sole accent, expresses the main purpose or chief characteristic of the thing named by the latter; as, teacup, sunbeam, daystar, horseman, sheepfold, houndfish, hourglass. (2.) Temporary compounds of a like nature may be formed with the hyphen, when there remain two accented syllables; as, castle-wall, bosom-friend, fellow-servant, horse-chestnut, goat-marjoram, marsh-marigold. (3.) The former of two nouns, if it be not plural, may be taken adjectively, in any relation that differs from apposition and from possession; as, "The silver cup,"—"The parent birds,"—"My pilgrim feet,"—"Thy hermit cell,"—"Two brother sergeants." (4.) The possessive case and its governing noun, combining to form a literal name, may be joined together without either hyphen or apostrophe: as, tradesman, ratsbane, doomsday, kinswoman, craftsmaster. (5.) The possessive case and its governing noun, combining to form a metaphorical name, should be written with both apostrophe and hyphen; as, Job's-tears, Jew's-ear, bear's-foot, colts-tooth, sheep's-head, crane's-bill, crab's-eyes, hound's-tongue, king's-spear, lady's-slipper, lady's-bedstraw, &c. (6.) The possessive case and its governing noun, combining to form an adjective, whether literal or metaphorical, should generally be written with both apostrophe and hyphen; as, "Neats-foot oil,"—"Calfs-foot jelly,"—"A carp's-tongue drill,"—"A bird's-eye view,"—"The states'-rights' party,"—"A camel's-hair shawl." But a triple compound noun may be formed with one hyphen only: as, "In doomsday-book;" (—Joh. Dict.;) "An armsend-lift." Cardell, who will have all possessives to be adjectives, writes an example thus: "John's camel's hair girdle."—Elements of Eng. Gram., p. 39. That is as if John's camel had a hair girdle! (7.) When the possessive case and its governing noun merely help to form a regular phrase, the compounding of them in any fashion may be reckoned improper; thus the phrases, a day's work, at death's door, on New Year's Day, a new year's gift, All Souls' Day, All Saints' Day, All Fools' Day, the saints' bell, the heart's blood, for dog's meat, though often written otherwise, may best stand as they do here.

OBS. 32.—The existence of a permanent compound of any two words, does not necessarily preclude the use of the possessive relation between the same words. Thus, we may speak of a horse's shoe or a goat's skin, notwithstanding there are such words as horseshoe and goatskin. E.g., "That preach ye upon the housetops."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Matt., x, 27. "Unpeg the basket on the house's top."—Beauties of Shak., p. 238. Webster defines frostnail, (which, under the word cork, he erroneously writes frost nail,) "A nail driven into a horse-shoe, to prevent the horse from slipping on ice." Worcester has it, "A nail driven into a horse's shoe, to prevent his slipping on the ice." Johnson, "A nail with a prominent head driven into the horse's shoes, that it may pierce the ice." Maunder, "A nail with a sharp head driven into the horses' shoes in frosty weather." None of these descriptions is very well written. Say rather, "A spur-headed nail driven into a horse's shoe to prevent him from slipping." There is commonly some difference, and sometimes a very great one, between the compound noun and the possessive relation, and also between the radical compound and that of the possessive. Thus a harelip is not a hare's lip, nor is a headman a headsman, or heart-ease heart's-ease. So, according to the books, a cat-head, a cat's-head, and a cat's head, are three very different things; yet what Webster writes, cat-tail, Johnson, cats-tail, Walker and others, cats-tail, means but the same thing, though not a cat's tail. Johnson's "kingspear, Jews-ear, lady-mantle, and lady-bedstraw," are no more proper, than Webster's "bear's-wort, lion's foot, lady's mantle, and lady's bed-straw." All these are wrong.

OBS. 33.—Particular examples, both of proper distinction, and of blind irregularity, under all the heads above suggested, may be quoted and multiplied indefinitely, even from our highest literary authorities; but, since nothing can be settled but by the force of principles, he who would be accurate, must resort to rules,—must consider what is analogical, and, in all doubtful cases, give this the preference. But, in grammar, particular analogies are to be respected, as well as those which are more general. For example, the noun side, in that relation which should seem to require the preceding noun to be in the possessive case, is usually compounded with it, the hyphen being used where the compound has more than two syllables, but not with two only; as, bedside, hillside, roadside, wayside, seaside, river-side, water-side, mountain-side. Some instances of the separate construction occur, but they are rare: as, "And her maidens walked along by the river's side."—Exodus, ii, 5. After this noun also, the possessive preposition of is sometimes omitted; as, "On this side the river;"(—Bible;) "On this side Trent."—Cowell. Better, "On this side of the river," &c. "Blind Bartimeus sat by the highway side, begging."—Mark, x, 46. Here Alger more properly writes "highway-side." In Rev., xiv, 20th, we have the unusual compound, "horse-bridles." The text ought to have been rendered, "even unto the horses' bridles." Latin, "usque ad frænos equorum." Greek, "[Greek: achri ton chalinon ton hippon]."

OBS. 34.—Correlatives, as father and son, husband and wife, naturally possess each other; hence such combinations as father's son, and son's father, though correct enough in thought, are redundant in expression. The whole and a part are a sort of correlatives, but the whole seems to possess its parts, more properly than any of the parts, the whole. Yet we seldom put the whole in the possessive case before its part, or parts, but rather express the relation by of; as, "a quarter of a dollar," rather than, "a dollar's quarter." After the noun half, we usually suppress this preposition, if an article intervene; as, "half a dollar," rather than, "half of a dollar," or "a dollar's half." So we may say, "half the way," for "half of the way;" but we cannot say, "half us" for "half of us." In the phrase, "a half dollar," the word half is an adjective, and a very different meaning is conveyed. Yet the compounds half-pint and half-penny are sometimes used to signify, the quantity of half a pint, the value of half a penny. In weight, measure, or time, the part is sometimes made possessive of the whole; as, "a pound's weight, a yard's length, an hour's time." On the contrary, we do not say, "weight's pound, length's yard, or time's hour;" nor yet, "a pound of weight, a yard of length;" and rarely do we say, "an hour of time." Pound and yard having other uses, we sometimes say, "a pound in weight, a yard in length;" though scarcely, "an hour in time."

OBS. 35.—Between a portion of time and its correlative action, passion, or being, the possessive relation is interchangeable; so that either term may be the principal, and either, the adjunct: as, "Three years' hard work," or, "Three years of hard work." Sometimes we may even put either term in either form; as, "During the ten years' war,"—"During the ten years of war,"—"During the war of ten years,"—"During the war's ten years." Hence some writers, not perceiving why either word should make the other its governed adjunct, place both upon a par, as if they were in apposition; as, "Three days time."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 156. "By a few years preparation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 341. "Of forty years planting."—Wm. Penn. "An account, of five years standing." If these phrases were correct, it would also be correct to say, "one day time,"—"one year preparation,"—"one year planting,"—"of one year standing;" but all these are manifestly bad English; and, by analogy, so are the others.

OBS. 36.—Any noun of weight, measure, or time, put immediately before an other, if it be not in the possessive case, will naturally be understood adjectively; as, "No person can, by words only, give to an other an adequate idea of a pound weight, or [a] foot rule."—Gregory's Dict. This phraseology can, with propriety, refer only to the weight or the rule with which we weigh or measure; it cannot signify a pound in weight, or a foot in length, though it is very probable that the author intended the latter. When the noun times is used before an other noun by way of multiplication, there may be supposed an ellipsis of the preposition of between the two, just as when we divide by the word half; as, "An hour is sixty times the length of a minute."—Murray's Gram., p. 48. "Thirty seconds are half the length of a minute." That is,—"half of the length,"—"sixty times of the length."

NOTES TO RULE IV.

NOTE I.—In the syntax of the possessive case, its appropriate form, singular or plural, should be observed, agreeably to the sense and declension of the word. Thus, write John's, men's, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs; and not, Johns, mens', her's, it's, our's, your's, their's.

NOTE II.—When nouns of the possessive case are connected by conjunctions or put in apposition, the sign of possession must always be annexed to such, and such only, as immediately precede the governing noun, expressed or understood; as, "John and Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than James's or Andrew's"—"For David my servant's sake."—Bible. "For my sake and the gospel's."—Ib. "Lost in love's and friendship's smile."—Scott.

NOTE III.—The relation of property may also be expressed by the preposition of and the objective; as, "The will of man," for "man's will." Of these forms, we should adopt that which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable; and, by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant repetition of either.

NOTE IV.—A noun governing the possessive plural, should not, by a forced agreement, be made plural, when its own sense does not require it; as, "For our parts,"—"Were I in your places:" for we may with propriety say, "Our part, your place, or your condition;" as well as, "Our desire, your intention, their resignation."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 169. A noun taken figuratively may also be singular, when the literal meaning would require the plural: such expressions as, "their face,"—"their neck,"—"their hand,"—"their head,"—"their heart,"—"our mouth,"—"our life,"—are frequent in the Scriptures, and not improper.

NOTE V.—The possessive case should not be needlessly used before a participle that is not taken in other respects as a noun. The following phrase is therefore wrong: "Adopted by the Goths in their pronouncing the Greek."—Walker's Key, p. 17. Expunge their. Again: "Here we speak of their becoming both in form and signification passive."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 226. Say rather, "Here we speak of them as becoming passive, both in form and signification."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IV.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—THE POSSESSIVE FORM.

"Mans chief good is an upright mind." See Brown's Institutes of E. Gram., p. 179.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the noun mans, which is intended for the possessive singular of man, has not the appropriate form of that case and number. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 4th, "In the syntax ef the possessive case, its appropriate form, singular or plural, should be observed, agreeably to the sense and declension of the word." Therefore, mans should be maris, with the apostrophe before the s; thus, "Man's chief good is an upright mind."]

"The translator of Mallets History has the following note,"—Webster's Essays, p. 263. "The act, while it gave five years full pay to the officers, allowed but one year's pay to the privates."—Ib., p. 184. "For the study of English is preceded by several years attention to Latin and Greek."—Ib., p. 7. "The first, the Court Baron, is the freeholders or freemens court."—Coke, Litt., p. 74. "I affirm, that Vaugelas' definition labours under an essential defect."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 163. "I affirm, that Vangelas's definition labours under an essential defect."—Murray's Octavo Gram., Fourth Amer. Ed., Vol. ii, p. 360.[351] "There is a chorus in Aristophane's plays."—Blair's Rhet., p. 480. "It denotes the same perception in my mind as in their's."—Duncan's Logic, p. 65. "This afterwards enabled him to read Hicke's Saxon Grammar."—Life of Dr. Murray, p. 76. "I will not do it for tens sake."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 56. "I arose, and asked if those charming infants were her's."—Werter, p. 21. "They divide their time between milliners shops and taverns."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. i, p. 65. "The angels adoring of Adam is also mentioned in the Talmud."—Sale's Koran, p. 6. "Quarrels arose from the winners insulting of those who lost."—Ib., p. 171. "The vacancy, occasioned by Mr. Adams' resignation."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. vii. "Read for instance Junius' address, commonly called his letter to the king."—Ib., i, 225. "A perpetual struggle against the tide of Hortensius' influence."—Ib., ii, 23. "Which, for distinction sake, I shall put down severally."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 302. "The fifth case is in a clause signifying the matter of ones fear."—Ib., p. 312. "And they took counsel, and bought with them the potters' field."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Matt., xxvii, 7. "Arise for thy servant's help, and redeem them for thy mercy's sake."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 265. "Shall not their cattle, and their substance, and every beast of their's be ours?"—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Gen., xxxiv, 23. "And every beast of their's, be our's?"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: ib. "It's regular plural, bullaces, is used by Bacon."—Churchill's Gram., p. 213. "Mordecai walked every day before the court of the womens house."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Esther, ii, 11. "Behold, they that wear soft clothing are in king's houses."—IB. and FRIENDS' BIBLE: Matt., xi, 8: also Webster's Imp. Gram., p. 173. "Then Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses' wife, and her two sons; and Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, came, with his sons and his wife, unto Moses."—ALGER'S BIBLE, and THE FRIENDS': Exod., xviii, 2—6. "King James' translators merely revised former translations."—Rev. B. Frazee's Gram., p. 137. "May they be like corn on houses tops."—White, on the English Verb., p. 160.

   "And for his Maker's image sake exempt."
        —Par. Lost, B. xi, l. 514.

    "By all the fame acquir'd in ten years war."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. i, l. 674.

    "Nor glad vile poets with true critics gore."
        —Pope's Dunicad, [sic—KTH] p. 175.

    "Man only of a softer mold is made,
    Not for his fellow's ruin, but their aid."
        —Dryden's Poems, p. 92.

UNDER NOTE II.—POSSESSIVES CONNECTED.

"It was necessary to have both the physician, and the surgeon's advice."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 140. "This out-side fashionableness of the Taylor on Tire-woman's making."—Locke, on Education, p. 49. "Some pretending to be of Paul's party, others of Apollos, others of Cephas, and others, pretending yet higher, to be of Christ's."—Woods Dict., w. Apollos. "Nor is it less certain that Spenser's and Milton's spelling agrees better with our pronunciation."— Philol. Museum, i, 661. "Law's, Edwards', and Watts' surveys of the Divine Dispensations."—Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 193. "And who was Enoch's Saviour, and the Prophets?"—Bayly's Works, p. 600. "Without any impediment but his own, or his parents or guardians will."—Literary Convention, p. 145. "James relieves neither the boy[352] nor the girl's distress."—Nixon's Parser, p. 116. "John regards neither the master nor the pupil's advantage."—Ib., p. 117. "You reward neither the man nor the woman's labours."—Ib. "She examines neither James nor John's conduct."— Ib. "Thou pitiest neither the servant nor the master's injuries."—Ib. "We promote England or Ireland's happiness."—Ib. "Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same?"—Brown's Inst., p. 179. "Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same?"—Ib. "What was Simon's and Andrew's employment?"— Author. "Till he can read himself Sanctii Minerva with Scioppius and Perizonius's Notes."—Locke, on Education, p. 295.

   "And love's and friendship's finely—pointed dart
    Falls blunted from each indurated heart."—Goldsmith.

UNDER NOTE III.—CHOICE OF FORMS.

"But some degree of trouble is all men's portion."—Murray's Key, p. 218; Merchant's, 197. "With his father's and mother's names upon the blank leaf."—Corner-Stone, p. 144. "The general, in the army's name, published a declaration."—HUME: in Priestley's Gram., p. 69. "The Commons' vote."—Id, ib. "The Lords' house."—Id., ib. "A collection of writers faults."—SWIFT: ib., p. 68. "After ten years wars."—Id., ib. "Professing his detestation of such practices as his predecessors."—Notes to the Dunciad. "By that time I shall have ended my years office."—Walker's Particles, p. 104. "For Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife."—Mark, vi, 17. "For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife."—Murray's Key, p. 194. "I endure all things for the elect's sakes, that they may also obtain salvation."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: 2 Tim., ii, 10. "For the elects' sakes."—SCOTT'S BIBLE. "For the elect's sake."—ALGER'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S. "He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir."—W. Allen's Exercises, Gram., p. 329. "The throne we honour is the choice of the people."—"An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander."—"An excellent tutor of a person of fashion's child!"—Gil Bias, Vol. 1, p. 20. "It is curious enough, that this sentence of the Bishop is, itself, ungrammatical!"—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 201. "The troops broke into Leopold the emperor's palace."—Nixon's Parser, p. 59. "The meeting was called by Eldon the judge's desire."—Ibid. "Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen."—Brace's Gram., p. 79. "The venerable president of the Royal Academy's debility has lately increased."—Maunder's Gram., p. 12.

UNDER NOTE IV.—NOUNS WITH POSSESSIVES PLURAL.

"God hath not given us our reasons to no purpose."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 496. "For our sakes, no doubt, this is written."—1 Cor., ix, 10. "Are not health and strength of body desirable for their own sakes?"—Hermes, p. 296; Murray's Gram., 289. "Some sailors who were boiling their dinners upon the shore."—Day's Sandford and Merton, p. 99. "And they in their turns were subdued by others."—Pinnock's Geography, p. 12. "Industry on our parts is not superseded by God's grace."—Arrowsmith. "Their Healths perhaps may be pretty well secur'd."—Locke, on Education, p. 51. "Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor."—Murray's Gram., p. 211. "It were to be wished, his correctors had been as wise on their parbs."—Harris's Hermes, p. 60. "The Arabs are commended by the ancients for being most exact to their words, and respectful to their kindred."—Sale's Koran. "That is, as a reward of some exertion on our parts."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 86. "So that it went ill with Moses for their sakes."—Psalms, cvi, 32. "All liars shall have their parts in the burning lake."—Watts, p. 33. "For our own sakes as well as for thine."—Pref. to Waller's Poems, p. 3. "By discover- ing their abilities to detect and amend errors."—Murray's Gram., Vol. 11, p. iv.

"This world I do renounce; and, in your sights, Shake patiently my great affliction off."—Beauties of Shak., p. 286 "If your relenting angers yield to treat, Pompey and thou, in safety, here may meet."—Rowe's Lucan, B. iii, l. 500.

UNDER NOTE Y.—POSSESSIVES WITH PARTICIPLES.

"This will encourage him to proceed without his acquiring the prejudice."—Smith's Gram., p. 5. "And the notice which they give of an action's being completed or not completed."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 72; Alger's, 30. "Some obstacle or impediment that prevents its taking place."—Priestley's Gram., p. 38; Alex. Murray's, 37. "They have apostolical authority for their so frequently urging the seeking of the Spirit."—The Friend, Vol. xii, p. 54. "Here then is a wide field for reason's exerting its powers in relation to the objects of taste."— Blair's Rhet., p. 18. "Now this they derive altogether from their having a greater capacity of imitation and description."—Ib., p. 51. "This is one clear reason of their paying a greater attention to that construction." —Ib., p. 123. "The dialogue part had also a modulation of its own, which was capable of its being set to notes."—Ib., p. 471. "What is the reason of our being often so frigid and unpersuasive in public discourse?"—Ib., p. 334. "Which is only a preparation for his leading his forces directly upon us."—Ib., p. 264. "The nonsense about which's relating to things only, and having no declension, needs no refutation."—Fowle's True E. Gram., p. 18. "Who, upon his breaking it open, found nothing but the following inscription."—Rollin, Vol. ii, p. 33. "A prince will quickly have reason to repent his having exalted one person so high."—Id., ii, 116. "Notwithstanding it's being the immediate subject of his discourse."— Churchill's Gram., p. 294. "With our definition of its being synonymous with time."—Booth's Introd., p. 29. "It will considerably increase the danger of our being deceived."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 293. "His beauties can never be mentioned without their suggesting his blemishes also."— Blair's Rhet., p. 442. "No example has ever been adduced of a man's conscientiously approving of an action, because of its badness."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 90. "The last episode of the angel's shewing Adam the fate of his posterity, is happily imagined."—Blair's Rhet., p. 452. "And the news came to my son, of his and the bride being in Dublin."—Castle Rackrent, p. 44. "There is no room for the mind's exerting any great effort."—Blair's Rhet., p. 32. "One would imagine, that these criticks never so much as heard of Homer's having written first."—Pope's Preface to Homer. "Condemn the book, for its not being a geography."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 317. "There will be in many words a transition from their being the figurative to their being the proper signs of certain ideas."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 322. "The doctrine of the Pope's being the only source of ecclesiastical power."—Religious World, ii, 290. "This has been the more expedient from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners."—Murray's Exercises, Introd., p. v. "This was occasioned by the Grammar's having been set up, and not admitting of enlargement."—Ib., Advertisement, p. ix.

RULE V.—OBJECTIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case: as, "I found her assisting him"—"Having finished the work, I submit it."

   "Preventing fame, misfortune lends him wings,
    And Pompey's self his own sad story brings."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. viii, l. 66.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE V.

OBS. 1.—To this rule there are no exceptions; but to the old one adopted by Murray and others, "Active verbs govern the objective case," there are more than any writer will ever think it worth his while to enumerate. In point of brevity, the latter has the advantage, but in nothing else; for, as a general rule for NOUNS AND PRONOUNS, this old brief assertion is very defective; and, as a rule for "THE SYNTAX OF VERBS," under which head it has been oftener ranked, it is entirely useless and inapplicable. As there are four different constructions to which the nominative case is liable, so there are four in which the objective may be found; and two of these are common to both; namely, apposition, and sameness of case. Every objective is governed by some verb or participle, according to Rule 5th, or by some preposition, according to Rule 7th; except such as are put in apposition with others, according to Rule 3d, or after an infinitive or a participle not transitive, according to Rule 6th: as, "Mistaking one for the other, they took him, a sturdy fellow, called Red Billy, to be me." Here is every construction which the objective case can have; except, perhaps, that in which, as an expression of time, place, measure, or manner, it is taken after the fashion of an adverb, the governing preposition being suppressed, or, as some say, no governing word being needed. Of this exception, the following quotations may serve for examples: "It holds on by a single button round my neck, cloak-fashion"—EDGEWORTH'S Castle Rackrent. p. 17. A man quite at leisure to parse all his words, would have said, "in the fashion of a cloak." Again: "He does not care the rind of a lemon for her all the while."—Ib., p. 108. "We turn our eyes this way or that way."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 172; Frazee's Gram., 157. Among his instances of "the objective case restrictive," or of the noun "used in the objective, without a governing word," Dr. Bullions gives this: "Let us go home" But, according to the better opinion of Worcester, home is here an adverb, and not a noun. See Obs. 6th on Rule 7th.

OBS. 2.—The objective case generally follows the governing word: as, "And Joseph knew his brethren, but they knew not him"—Gen., xlii, 8. But when it is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative; as, "Me he restored to mine office, and him he hanged."—Gen., xli, 13. "John have I beheaded."—Luke, ix, 9. "But me ye have not always."—Matt., xxvi, 11. "Him walking on a sunny hill he found."—Milton. In poetry, the objective is sometimes placed between the nominative and the verb; as,

"His daring foe securely him defied."—Milton.

"Much he the place admired, the person more."—Id.

"The broom its yellow leaf shed."—Langhorne.

If the nominative be a pronoun which cannot be mistaken for an objective, the words may possibly change places; as, "Silver and gold have I none."—Acts, iii, 6. "Created thing nought valued he nor shunn'd."—Milton, B. ii, l. 679. But such a transposition of two nouns can scarcely fail to render the meaning doubtful or obscure; as,

   "This pow'r has praise, that virtue scarce can warm,
    Till fame supplies the universal charm."—Dr. Johnson.

A relative or an interrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the head of its clause, and of course it precedes the verb which governs it; as, "I am Jesus, whom thou persecutest."—Acts, ix, 5. "Which of the prophets have not your fathers persecuted?"—Ib., vii, 52.

   "Before their Clauses plac'd, by settled use,
    The Relatives these Clauses introduce."—Ward's Gram., p. 86.

OBS. 3.—Every active-transitive verb or participle has some noun or pronoun for its object, or some pronominal adjective which assumes the relation of the objective case. Though verbs are often followed by the infinitive mood, or a dependent clause, forming a part of the logical predicate; yet these terms, being commonly introduced by a connecting particle, do not form such an object as is contemplated in our definition of a transitive verb. Its government of the objective, is the only proper criterion of this sort of verb. If, in the sentence, "Boys love to play," the former verb is transitive, as several respectable grammarians affirm; why not also in a thousand others; as, "Boys like to play;"—"Boys delight to play;"—"Boys long to play;"—"The boys seem to play;"—"The boys cease to play;"—"The boys ought to play;"—"The boys go out to play;"—"The boys are gone out to play;"—"The boys are allowed to play;" and the like? The construction in all is precisely the same, and the infinitive may follow one kind of verb just as well as an other. How then can the mere addition of this mood make any verb transitive? or where, on such a principle, can the line of distinction for transitive verbs be drawn? The infinitive, in fact, is governed by the preposition to; and the preceding verb, if it has no other object, is intransitive. It must, however, be confessed that some verbs which thus take the infinitive after them, cannot otherwise be intransitive; as, "A great mind disdains to hold any thing by courtesy."—Johnson's Life of Swift. "They require to be distinguished by a comma."—Murray's Gram., p. 272.

OBS. 4.—A transitive verb, as I have elsewhere shown, may both govern the objective case, and be followed by an infinitive also; as, "What have I to do with thee?"—John, ii, 4. This question, as one would naturally take it, implies, "I have nothing to do with thee;" and, by analogy, what is governed by have, and not by do; so that the latter verb, though not commonly intransitive, appears to be so here. Indeed the infinitive mood is often used without an objective, when every other part of the same verb would require one. Maunder's rule is, "Transitive verbs and participles govern either the objective case or the infinitive mode."—Comprehensive Gram., p. 14. Murray teaches, not only that, "The infinitive mood does the office of a substantive in the objective case; as, 'Boys love to play;'" but that, "The participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb; as, 'He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely.'"—See his Octavo Gram., pp. 184 and 194. And again: "Part of a sentence, as well as a noun or pronoun, may be said to be in the objective case, or to be put objectively, governed by the active verb; as, 'We sometimes see virtue in distress, but we should consider how great will be her ultimate reward.' Sentences or phrases under this circumstance, may be termed objective sentences or phrases."—Ib., p. 180.

OBS. 5.—If we admit that sentences, parts of sentences, infinitives, participles with their adjuncts, and other phrases, as well as nouns and pronouns, may be "in the objective case;" it will be no easy matter, either to define this case, or to determine what words do, or do not, govern it.[353] The construction of infinitives and participles will be noticed hereafter. But on one of Murray's examples, I would here observe, that the direct use of the infinitive for an objective noun is a manifest Grecism; as, "For to will is present with me; but to perform that which is good, I find not."—Octavo Gram., p. 184. That is, "the performance of that which is good, I find not." Or perhaps we may supply a noun after the verb, and take this text to mean, "But to perform that which is good, I find not the ability." Our Bible has it, "But how to perform that which is good. I find not;" as if the manner in which he might do good, was what the apostle found not: but Murray cites it differently, omitting the word how, as we see above. All active verbs to which something is subjoined by when, where, whence, how, or why, must be accounted intransitive, unless we suppose them to govern such nouns of time, place, degree, manner, or cause, as correspond to these connectives; as, "I know why she blushed." Here we might supply the noun reason, as, "I know the reason why she blushed;" but the word is needless, and I should rather parse know as being intransitive. As for "virtue in distress," if this is an "objective phrase," and not to be analyzed, we have millions of the same sort; but, if one should say, "Virtue in distress excites pity," the same phrase would demonstrate the absurdity of Murray's doctrine, because the two nouns here take two different cases.

OBS. 6.—The word that, which is often employed to introduce a dependent clause, is, by some grammarians, considered as a pronoun, representing the clause which follows it; as, "I know that Messias cometh."—John, iv, 25. This text they would explain to mean, "Messias cometh, I know that;" and their opinion seems to be warranted both by the origin and by the usual import of the particle. But, in conformity to general custom, and to his own views of the practical purposes of grammatical analysis, the author has ranked it with the conjunctions. And he thinks it better, to call those verbs intransitive, which are followed by that and a dependent clause, than to supply the very frequent ellipses which the other explanation supposes. To explain it as a conjunction, connecting an active-transitive verb and its object, as several respectable grammarians do, appears to involve some inconsistency. If that is a conjunction, it connects what precedes and what follows; but a transitive verb should exercise a direct government, without the intervention of a conjunction. On the other hand, the word that has not, in any such sentence, the inherent nature of a pronoun. The transposition above, makes it only a pronominal adjective; as, "Messias cometh, I know that fact." And in many instances such a solution is impracticable; as, "The people sought him, and came unto him, and stayed him, that he should not depart from them."—Luke, iv, 42. Here, to prove that to be a pronoun, the disciples of Tooke and Webster must resort to more than one imaginary ellipsis, and to such inversion as will scarcely leave the sense in sight.

OBS. 7.—In some instances the action of a transitive verb gives to its direct object an additional name, which is also in the objective case, the two words being in apposition; as, "Thy saints proclaim thee king."—Cowper. "And God called the firmament Heaven."—Bible. "Ordering them to make themselves masters of a certain steep eminence."—Rollin, ii, 67. And, in such a construction, the direct object is sometimes placed before the verb; though the name which results from the action, cannot be so placed: as, "And Simon he surnamed Peter."—Mark, iii, 15. "Him that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple of my God."—Rev., iii, 12. Some grammarians seem not to have considered this phraseology as coming within the rule of apposition. Thus Webster: "We have some verbs which govern two words in the objective case; as,

    'Did I request thee, maker, from my clay
    To mold me man?'—Milton, 10, 744.

'God seems to have made him what he was.'—Life of Cowper."[354]—Philosophical Gram., p. 170. Improved Gram., p. 120. See also Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 154; "Abridged Ed.," p. 119; and Fowler's E. Gram., §450. So Murray: "Some of our verbs appear to govern two words in the objective case; as, 'The Author of my being formed me man.'—'They desired me to call them brethren.'—'He seems to have made him what he was.' "—Octavo Gram., p. 183. Yet this latter writer says, that in the sentence, "They appointed me executor," and others like it," the verb to be is understood."—Ib., p. 182. These then, according to his own showing, are instances of apposition; but I pronounce then such, without either confounding same cases with apposition, or making the latter a species of ellipsis. See Obs. 1st and 2d, under Rule 3d.

OBS. 8.—In general, if not always, when a verb is followed by two objectives which are neither in apposition nor connected by a conjunction, one of them is governed by a preposition understood; as, "I paid [to] him the money"—"They offered [to] me a seat"—"He asked [of] them the question"—"I yielded, and unlock'd [to] her all my heart."—Milton. In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the preposition is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative; as, "He was paid the money," in stead of, "The money was paid [to] him."—"I was offered a seat," in stead of, "A seat was offered [to] me." This kind of error is censured by Murray more than once, and yet he himself has, in very many instances, fallen into it. His first criticism on it, is in the following words: "We sometimes meet with such expressions as these: 'They were asked a question;' 'They were offered a pardon;' 'He hath been left a great estate by his father.' In these phrases, verbs passive are made to govern the objective case. This license is not to be approved. The expressions should be: 'A question was put to them;' 'A pardon was offered to them;' 'His father left him a great estate.'"—L. Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 183. See Obs. 12, below.

OBS. 9.—In the Latin syntax, verbs of asking and teaching are said to govern two accusatives; as, "Posce Deum veniam, Beg pardon of God."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 207. "Docuit me grammaticam, He taught me grammar."—Grant, Adam, and others. And again: "When a verb in the active voice governs two cases, in the passive it retains the latter case; as, Doceor grammaticam, I am taught grammar."—Adam's Gram., p. 177. These writers however suggest, that in reality the latter accusative is governed, not by the verb, but by a preposition understood. "'Poscere deos veniam is 'to ask the gods for pardon.'"—Barnes's Philological Gram., p. 116. In general the English idiom does not coincide with what occurs in Latin under these rules. We commonly insert a preposition to govern one or the other of the terms. But we sometimes leave to the verb the objective of the person, and sometimes that of the thing; and after the two verbs ask and teach, we sometimes seem to leave both: as, "When thou dost ask me blessing, I'll kneel down, and ask of thee forgiveness."— Shakspeare. "In long journeys, ask your master leave to give ale to the horses."—Swift. "And he asked them of their welfare."—Gen., xliii, 27. "They asked of him the parable."—Mark, iv, 10. ("Interrogârunt eum de parabolâ."—Beza.) "And asking them questions"—Luke, ii, 46. "But teach them thy sons."—Deut., iv, 9. "Teach them diligently unto thy children"—Ib., vi, 7. '"Ye shall teach them your children."—Ib., xi, 19. "Shall any teach God knowledge?"—Job, xxi, 22. "I will teach you the fear of the Lord."—Psal, xxxiv, 11. "He will teach us of his ways."—Isaiah, ii, 3; Micah, iv, 2. "Let him that is taught in the word, communicate."—Gal., vi, 6.

OBS. 10.—After a careful review of the various instances in which more than one noun or pronoun may possibly be supposed to be under the government of a single active verb in English, I incline to the opinion that none of our verbs ought to be parsed as actually governing two cases, except such as are followed by two objectives connected by a conjunction. Consequently I do not admit, that any passive verb can properly govern an objective noun or pronoun. Of the ancient Saxon dative case, and of what was once considered the government of two cases, there yet appear some evident remains in our language; as, "Give him bread to eat."—"Bread shall be given him"—Bible. But here, by almost universal consent, the indirect object is referred to the government of a "preposition understood;" and in many instances this sort of ellipsis is certainly no elegance: as, "Give [to] truth and virtue the same arms which you give [to] vice and falsehood, and the former are likely to prevail."—Blair's Rhet., p. 235. The questionable expression, "Ask me blessing," if interpreted analogically, must mean, "Ask for me a blessing," which is more correct and explicit; or, if me be not supposed a dative, (and it does not appear to be so, above,) the sentence is still wrong, and the correction must be, "Ask of me a blessing," or, "Ask my blessing." So, "Ask your master leave," ought rather to be, "Ask of your master leave," "Ask your master for leave," or, "Ask your master's leave." The example from Mark ought to be, "They asked him about the parable." Again, the elliptical sentence, "Teach them thy sons," is less perspicuous, and therefore less accurate, than the full expression, "Teach them to thy sons." To teach is to tell things to persons, or to instruct persons in things; to ask is to request or demand things of or from persons, or to interrogate or solicit persons about or for things. These verbs cannot be proved to govern two cases in English, because it is more analogical and more reasonable to supply a preposition, (if the author omits it,) to govern one or the other of the objects.

OBS. 11.—Some writers erroneously allow passive verbs to govern the objective in English, not only where they imagine our idiom to coincide with the Latin, but even where they know that it does not. Thus Dr. Crombie: "Whatever is put in the accusative case after the verb, must be the nominative to it in the passive voice, while the other case is retained under the government of the verb, and cannot become its nominative. Thus, 'I persuade you to this or of this, 'Persuadeo hoc tibi. Here, the person persuaded is expressed in the dative case, and cannot, therefore, be the nominative to the passive verb. We must, therefore, say, Hoc tibi persuadetur, 'You are persuaded of this;' not, Tu persuaderis. 'He trusted me with this affair,' or 'He believed me in this,' Hoc mihi credidit.—Passively, Hoc mihi creditum est. 'I told you this,' Hoc tibi dixi. 'YOU WERE TOLD THIS,' Hoc tibi dictum est; not, Tu dictus es." [No, surely: for, 'Tu dictus es,' means, 'You were called,' or, 'Thou art reputed;'—and, if followed by any case, it must be the nominative.'] "It is the more necessary to attend to this rule, and to these distinctions, as the idioms of the two languages do not always concur. Thus, Hoc tibi dictum est, means not only 'This was told to you,' but 'YOU WERE TOLD THIS.' Liber mihi apatre promissus est, means both 'A book was promised (to) me by my father,' and 'I WAS PROMISED A BOOK.' Is primum rogatua est sententiam, 'He was first asked for his opinion,' and 'An opinion was first asked of him;' in which last the accusative of the person becomes, in Latin, the nominative in the passive voice." See Grants Latin Gram., p. 210.

OBS. 12.—Murray's second censure upon passive government, is this: "The following sentences, which give [to] the passive voice the regimen of an active verb, are very irregular, and by no means to be imitated. 'The bishops and abbots were allowed their seats in the house of lords.' 'Thrasea was forbidden the presence of the emperor.' 'He was shown that very story in one of his own books.'[355] These sentences should have been: 'The bishops and abbots were allowed to have (or to take) their seats in the house of lords;' or, 'Seats in the house of lords were allowed to the bishops and abbots:' 'Thrasea was forbidden to approach the presence of the emperor;' or, 'The presence of the emperor was forbidden to Thrasea:' 'That very story was shown to him in one of his own books.'"—Octavo Gram., p. 223. See Obs. 8, above. One late grammarian, whose style is on the whole highly commendable for its purity and accuracy, forbears to condemn the phraseology here spoken of; and, though he does not expressly defend and justify it, he seems disposed to let it pass, with the license of the following canon. "For convenience, it may be well to state it as a rule, that—Passive verbs govern an objective, when the nominative to the passive verb is not the proper object of the active voice."—Barnard's Analytic Gram., p. 134. An other asserts the government of two cases by very many of our active verbs, and the government of one by almost any passive verb, according to the following rules: "Verbs of teaching, giving, and some others of a similar nature, govern two objectives, the one of a person and the other of a thing; as, He taught me grammar: His tutor gave him a lesson: He promised me a reward. A passive verb may govern an objective, when the words immediately preceding and following it, do not refer to the same thing; as, Henry was offered a dollar by his father to induce him to remain."—J. M. Putnam's Gram., pp. 110 and 112.

OBS. 13.—The common dogmas, that an active verb must govern an object, and that a neuter or intransitive verb must not, amount to nothing as directions to the composer; because the classification of verbs depends upon this very matter, whether they have, or have not, an object after them; and no general principle has been, or can be, furnished beforehand, by which their fitness or unfitness for taking such government can be determined. This must depend upon usage, and usage must conform to the sense intended. Very many verbs—probably a vast majority—govern an object sometimes, but not always: many that are commonly intransitive or neuter, are not in all their uses so; and many that are commonly transitive, have sometimes no apparent regimen. The distinction, then, in our dictionaries, of verbs active and neuter, or transitive and intransitive, serves scarcely any other purpose, than to show how the presence or absence of the objective case, affects the meaning of the word. In some instances the signification of the verb seems almost merged in that of its object; as, to lay hold, to make use, to take care. In others, the transitive character of the word is partial; as, "He paid my board; I told you so." Some verbs will govern any objective whatever; as, to name, to mention. What is there that cannot be named or mentioned? Others again are restricted to one noun, or to a few; as, to transgress a law, or rule. What can be transgressed, but a law, a limit, or something equivalent? Some verbs will govern a kindred noun, or its pronoun, but scarcely any other; as, "He lived a virtuous life."—"Hear, I pray you, this dream which I have dreamed"—Gen., xxxvii, 6. "I will also command the clouds that they rain no rain upon it."—Isaiah, v, 6.

OBS. 14.—Our grammarians, when they come to determine what verbs are properly transitive, and what are not so, do not in all instances agree in opinion. In short, plain as they think the matter, they are much at odds. Many of them say, that, "In the phrases, 'To dream a dream,' 'To live a virtuous life,' 'To run a race,' 'To walk a horse,' 'To dance a child,' the verbs assume a transitive character, and in these cases may be denominated active."—See Guy's Gram., p. 21; Murray's, 180; Ingersoll's, 183; Fisk's, 123; Smith's, 153. This decision is undoubtedly just; yet a late writer has taken a deal of pains to find fault with it, and to persuade his readers, that, "No verb is active in any sense, or under any construction, that will not, in every sense, permit the objective case of a personal pronoun after it."—Wright's Gram., p. 174. Wells absurdly supposes, "An intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective."—Gram., p. 145. Some imagine that verbs of mental action, such as conceive, think, believe, &c., are not properly transitive; and, if they find an object after such a verb, they choose to supply a preposition to govern it: as, "I conceived it (of it) in that light."—Guy's Gram., p. 21. "Did you conceive (of) him to be me?"—Ib., p. 28. With this idea, few will probably concur.

OBS. 15.—We sometimes find the pronoun me needlessly thrown in after a verb that either governs some other object or is not properly transitive, at least, in respect to this word; as, "It ascends me into the brain; dries me there all the foolish, dull, and crudy vapours."—Shakspeare's Falstaff. "Then the vital commoners and inland petty spirits muster me all to their captain, the heart."—Id. This is a faulty relic of our old Saxon dative case. So of the second person; "Fare you well, Falstaff."—Shak. Here you was written for the objective case, but it seems now to have become the nominative to the verb fare. "Fare thee well."—W. Scott. "Farewell to thee."—Id. These expressions were once equivalent in syntax; but they are hardly so now; and, in lieu of the former, it would seem better English to say, "Fare thou well." Again: "Turn thee aside to thy right hand or to thy left, and lay thee hold on one of the young men, and take thee his armour."—2 Sam., ii, 21. If any modern author had written this, our critics would have guessed he had learned from some of the Quakers to misemploy thee for thou. The construction is an imitation of the French reciprocal or reflected verbs. It ought to be thus: "Turn thou aside to thy right hand or to thy left, and lay hold on one of the young men, and take to thyself his armour." So of the third person: "The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies."—HUME: Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 180. Here both of the pronouns are worse than useless, though Murray discerned but one error.

   "Good Margaret, run thee into the parlour;
    There thou shalt find my cousin Beatrice."—SHAK.: Much Ado.

NOTES TO RULE V.

NOTE I.—Those verbs or participles which require a regimen, or which signify action that must terminate transitively, should not be used without an object; as, "She affects [kindness,] in order to ingratiate [herself] with you."—"I must caution [you], at the same time, against a servile imitation of any author whatever."—Blair's Rhet., p. 192.

NOTE II.—Those verbs and participles which do not admit an object, or which express action that terminates in themselves, or with the doer, should not be used transitively; as, "The planters grow cotton." Say raise, produce, or cultivate. "Dare you speak lightly of the law, or move that, in a criminal trial, judges should advance one step beyond what it permits them to go?"—Blair's Rhet., p. 278. Say,—"beyond the point to which it permits them to go."

NOTE III.—No transitive verb or participle should assume a government to which its own meaning is not adapted; as, "Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—personal, it personates 'man.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 131. Say, "It represents man." "Where a string of such sentences succeed each other."—Blair's Rhet., p. 168. Say, "Where many such sentences come in succession."

NOTE IV.—The passive verb should always take for its subject or nominative the direct object of the active-transitive verb from which it is derived; as, (Active,) "They denied me this privilege." (Passive,) "This privilege was denied me;" not, "I was denied this privilege:" for me may be governed by to understood, but privilege cannot, nor can any other regimen be found for it.

NOTE V.—Passive verbs should never be made to govern the objective case, because the receiving of an action supposes it to terminate on the subject or nominative.[356] Errors: "Sometimes it is made use of to give a small degree of emphasis."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 197. Say, "Sometimes it is used," &c. "His female characters have been found fault with as insipid."—Hazlitt's Lect., p. 111. Say,—"have been censured;" or,—"have been blamed, decried, dispraised, or condemned."

NOTE VI.—The perfect participle, as such, should never be made to govern any objective term; because, without an active auxiliary, its signification is almost always passive: as, "We shall set down the characters made use of to represent all the elementary sounds."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 5; Fisk's, 34. Say,—"the characters employed, or used."

NOTE VII.—As the different cases in English are not always distinguished by their form, care must be taken lest their construction be found equivocal, or ambiguous; as, "And we shall always find our sentences acquire more vigour and energy when thus retrenched."—Blair's Rhet., p. 111. Say, "We shall always find that our sentences acquire more vigour," &c.; or, "We shall always find our sentences to acquire more vigour and energy when thus retrenched."

NOTE VIII.—In the language of our Bible, rightly quoted or printed, ye is not found in the objective case, nor you in the nominative; scriptural texts that preserve not this distinction of cases, are consequently to be considered inaccurate.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE V.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE OBJECTIVE FORM.

"Who should I meet the other day but my old friend!"—Spectator, No. 32.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun who is in the nominative case, and is used as the object of the active-transitive verb should meet. But, according to Rule 5th, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case." Therefore, who should be whom; thus, "Whom should I meet," &c.]

"Let not him boast that puts on his armour, but he that takes it off."—Barclay's Works, iii, 262. "Let none touch it, but they who are clean."—Sale's Koran, 95. "Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and they that dwell therein."—Psalms, xcviii, 7. "Pray be private, and careful who you trust."—Mrs. Goffe's Letter. "How shall the people know who to entrust with their property and their liberties?"— District School, p. 301. "The chaplain entreated my comrade and I to dress as well as possible."—World Displayed, i, 163. "He that cometh unto me, I will in no wise cast out."—Tract, No. 3, p. 6. "Who, during this preparation, they constantly and solemnly invoke."—Hope of Israel, p. 84. "Whoever or whatever owes us, is Debtor; whoever or whatever we owe, is Creditor."—Marsh's Book-Keeping, p. 23. "Declaring the curricle was his, and he should have who he chose in it."—Anna Ross, p. 147. "The fact is, Burke is the only one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries who we can rank as a first-rate orator."—The Knickerbocker, May, 1833. "Thus you see, how naturally the Fribbles and the Daffodils have produced the Messalina's of our time:"—Brown's Estimate, ii, 53. "They would find in the Roman list both the Scipio's."—Ib., ii, 76. "He found his wife's clothes on fire, and she just expiring."—New-York Observer. "To present ye holy, unblameable, and unreproveable in his sight."—Barclay's Works, i, 353. "Let the distributer do his duty with simplicity; the superintendent, with diligence; he who performs offices of compassion, with cheerfulness."—Stuart's Romans, xii, 9. "If the crew rail at the master of the vessel, who will they mind?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 106. "He having none but them, they having none but hee."—DRAYTON'S Polyolbion.

"Thou, nature, partial nature, I arraign! Of thy caprice maternal I complain!"—Burns's Poems, p. 50. "Nor knows he who it is his arms pursue With eager clasps, but loves he knows not who."—Addison's, p. 218.

UNDER NOTE I.—OF VERBS TRANSITIVE.

"When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 116. "Though thou wilt not acknowledge, thou canst not deny the fact."—Murray's Key, p. 209. "They specify, like many other adjectives, and connect sentences."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 114. "The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences."—Murray's Gram., p. 312. "A few Exercises are subjoined to each important definition, for him to practice upon as he proceeds in committing."—Nutting's Gram., 3d Ed., p. vii. "A verb signifying actively governs the accusative."—Adam's Gram., p. 171; Gould's, 172; Grant's, 199; and others. "Or, any word that will conjugate, is a verb."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 44. "In these two concluding sentences, the author, hastening to finish, appears to write rather carelessly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 216. "He simply reasons on one side of the question, and then finishes."—Ib., p. 306. "Praise to God teaches to be humble and lowly ourselves."—ATTERBURY: ib., p. 304. "This author has endeavored to surpass."—Green's Inductive Gram., p. 54. "Idleness and plezure fateeg az soon az bizziness."—Noah Webster's Essays, p. 402. "And, in conjugating, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 140. "He said Virginia would have emancipated long ago."—The Liberator, ix, 33. "And having in a readiness to revenge all disobedience."—2 Cor., x, 6. "However, in these cases, custom generally determines."—Wright's Gram., p. 50. "In proof, let the following cases demonstrate."—Ib., p. 46. "We must surprise, that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles."—Ib., p. 147. "How should we surprise at the expression, 'This is a soft question!'"—Ib., p. 219. "And such as prefer, can parse it as a possessive adjective."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 89. "To assign all the reasons, that induced to deviate from other grammarians, would lead to a needless prolixity."—Alexander's Gram., p. 4. "The Indicative mood simply indicates or declares."—Farnum's Gram., p. 33.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF VERBS INTRANSITIVE.

"In his seventh chapter he expatiateth himself at great length."—Barclay's Works, iii, 350. "He quarrelleth my bringing some testimonies of antiquity, agreeing with what I say."—Ib., iii, 373. "Repenting him of his design."—Hume's Hist., ii, 56. "Henry knew, that an excommunication could not fail of operating the most dangerous effects."—Ib., ii, 165. "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject."—Mrs. Macaulay's Hist., iii, 177. "He is always master of his subject; and seems to play himself with it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 445. "But as soon as it comes the length of disease, all his secret infirmities shew themselves."—Ib., p. 256. "No man repented him of his wickedness."—Jeremiah, viii, 6. "Go thee one way or other, either on the right hand, or on the left."—Ezekiel, xxi, 16. "He lies him down by the rivers side."—Walker's Particles, p. 99. "My desire has been for some years past, to retire myself to some of our American plantations."—Cowley's Pref. to his Poems, p. vii. "I fear me thou wilt shrink from the payment of it."—Zenobia, i, 76. "We never recur an idea, without acquiring some combination."—Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. xxxii.

   "Yet more; the stroke of death he must abide,
    Then lies him meekly down fast by his brethren's side."—Milton.

UNDER NOTE III.—OF VERBS MISAPPLIED.

"A parliament forfeited all those who had borne arms against the king."—Hume's Hist., ii, 223. "The practice of forfeiting ships which had been wrecked."—Ib., i, 500. "The nearer his military successes approached him to the throne."—Ib., v, 383. "In the next example, you personifies ladies, therefore it is plural."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 103. "The first its personates vale; the second its represents stream."—Ib., p. 103. "Pronouns do not always avoid the repetition of nouns."—Ib., p. 96. "Very is an adverb of comparison, it compares the adjective good."—Ib., p. 88. "You will please to commit the following paragraph."—Ib., p. 140. "Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs require an auxiliary to conjugate some of their tenses."—Murray's Gram., p. 100. "The deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an auxiliary to conjugate several of their tenses."—Ib., p. 100. "I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body has done since."—Ib., p. 145. "A uniform variety assumes as many set forms as Proteus had shapes."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 72. "When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession."—Nixon's Parser, p. 57. "Where such sentences frequently succeed each other."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 349. "Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most proper."—Blair's Rhet., p. 99; Murray's Gram., i, 303.

"Jul. Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? Rom. Neither, fair saint, if either thee dislike."—Shak.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF PASSIVE VERBS.

"We too must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 134. "For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet," &c.—Ib., p. 259; Kirkham's Elocution, 143; Jamieson's Rhet., 310. "By what code of morals am I denied the right and privilege?"—Dr. Bartlett's Lect., p. 4. "The children of Israel have alone been denied the possession of it."—Keith's Evidences, p. 68. "At York fifteen hundred Jews were refused all quarter."—Ib., p. 73. "He would teach the French language in three lessons, provided he was paid fifty-five dollars in advance."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 4. "And when he was demanded of the Pharisees, when the kingdom of God should come."—Luke, xvii, 20. "I have been shown a book."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 392. "John Horne Tooke was refused admission only because he had been in holy orders."—Diversions of Purley, i, 60. "Mr. Horne Tooke having taken orders, he was refused admission to the bar."—Churchill's Gram., p. 145. "Its reference to place is lost sight of."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 116. "What striking lesson are we taught by the tenor of this history?"—Bush's Questions, p. 71. "He had been left, by a friend, no less than eighty thousand pounds."—Priestley's Gram., p. 112. "Where there are many things to be done, each must be allowed its share of time and labour."—Johnson's Pref. to Dict., p. xiii. "Presenting the subject in a far more practical form than it has been heretofore given."—Kirkham's Phrenology, p. v. "If a being of entire impartiality should be shown the two companies."—Scott's Pref. to Bible, p. vii. "He was offered the command of the British army."—Grimshaw's Hist., p. 81. "Who had been unexpectedly left a considerable sum."—Johnson's Life of Goldsmith. "Whether a maid or a widow may be granted such a privilege."—Spectator, No. 536. "Happily all these affected terms have been denied the public suffrage."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 199. "Let him next be shewn the parsing table."—Nutting's Gram., p. viii. "Thence, he may be shown the use of the Analyzing Table."—Ib., p. ix. "Pittacus was offered a great sum of money."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 228. "He had been allowed more time for study."—Ib., p. 229. "If the walks were a little taken care of that lie between them."—Addison's Spect., No. 414. "Suppose I am offered an office or a bribe."—Pierpont's Discourse, Jan. 27, 1839.

   "Am I one chaste, one last embrace deny'd?
    Shall I not lay me by his clay-cold side?"
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. ix, l. 103.

UNDER NOTE V.—PASSIVE VERBS TRANSITIVE.

"The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion."—Murray's Gram., p. 203; Ingersoll's, 231; Greenlef's, 35; Fisk's, 143; Smith's, 170; Guy's, 90; Fowler's, 555. "They were refused entrance into the house."—Murray's Key, ii, 204. "Their separate signification has been lost sight of."—Horne Tooke, ii, 422. "But, whenever ye is made use of, it must be in the nominative, and never in the objective, case."—Cobbett's E. Gram., 58. "It is said, that more persons than one are paid handsome salaries, for taking care to see acts of parliament properly worded."—Churchill's Gram., p. 334. "The following Rudiments of English Grammar, have been made use of in the University of Pennsylvania."—DR. ROGERS: in Harrison's Gram., p. 2. "It never should be lost sight of."—Newman's Rhetoric, p. 19. "A very curious fact hath been taken notice of by those expert metaphysicians."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 281. "The archbishop interfered that Michelet's lectures might be put a stop to."—The Friend, ix, 378. "The disturbances in Gottengen have been entirely put an end to."—Daily Advertiser. "Besides those that are taken notice of in these exceptions."—Priestley's Gram., p. 6. "As one, two, or three auxiliary verbs are made use of."—Ib., p. 24. "The arguments which have been made use of."—Addison's Evidences, p. 32. "The circumstance is properly taken notice of by the author."—Blair's Rhet., p. 217. "Patagonia has never been taken possession of by any European nation."—Cumming's Geog., p. 62. "He will be found fault withal no more, i. e. not hereafter."—Walker's Particles, p. 226. "The thing was to be put an end to somehow."—Leigh Hunt's Byron, p. 15. "In 1798, the Papal Territory was taken possession of by the French."—Pinnock's Geog., p. 223. "The idea has not for a moment been lost sight of by the Board."—Common School Journal, i, 37. "I shall easily be excused the labour of more transcription."—Johnson's Life of Dryden. "If I may be allowed that expression."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 259, and 288. "If without offence I may be indulged the observation."—Ib., p. 295. "There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in composition."— Murray's Gram., p. 280; Ingersoll's, 293. "Such unaccountable infirmities might be in many, perhaps in most, cases got the better of."—Seattle's Moral Science, i, 153. "Which ought never to be had recourse to."—Ib., i, 186. "That the widows may be taken care of."—Barclay's Works, i, 499. "Other cavils will yet be taken notice of."—Pope's Pref. to Homer. "Which implies, that all Christians are offered eternal salvation."—West's Letters, p. 149. "Yet even the dogs are allowed the crumbs which fall from their master's table."—Campbell's Gospels, Matt., xv. 27. "For we say the light within must be taken heed unto."—Barclay's Works, i, 148. "This sound of a is taken notice of in Steele's Grammar."—Walker's Dict., p. 22. "One came to be paid ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles."—Castle Rackrent, p. 104. "Let him, therefore, be carefully shewn the application of the several questions in the table."—Nutting's Gram., p. 8, "After a few times, it is no longer taken notice of by the hearers."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 182. "It will not admit of the same excuse, nor be allowed the same indulgence, by people of any discernment."—Ibid. "Inanimate things may be made property of."—Beanie's M. Sci., p. 355.

   "And, when he's bid a liberaller price,
    Will not be sluggish in the work, nor nice."—Butler's Poems, p. 162.

UNDER NOTE VI.—OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES.

"All the words made use of to denote spiritual and intellectual things, are in their origin metaphors."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 380. "A reply to an argument commonly made use of by unbelievers."—Blair's Rhet., p. 293. "It was heretofore the only form made use of in the preter tenses."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 47. "Of the points, and other characters made use of in writing."—Ib., p. xv. "If thy be the personal pronoun made use of."—Walker's Dict. "The Conjunction is a word made use of to connect sentences."—Burn's Gram., p. 28. "The points made use of to answer these purposes are the four following."—Harrison's Gram., p. 67. "Incense signifies perfumes exhaled by fire, and made use of in religious ceremonies."—Murray's Key, p. 171. "In most of his orations, there is too much art; even carried the length of ostentation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 246. "To illustrate the great truth, so often lost sight of in our times."—Common School Journal, I, 88. "The principal figures, made use of to affect the heart, are Exclamation, Confession, Deprecation, Commination, and Imprecation."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 133. "Disgusted at the odious artifices made use of by the Judge."—Junius, p. 13. "The whole reasons of our being allotted a condition, out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise."—Butler's Analogy p. 109. "Some characteristieal circumstance being generally invented or laid hold of."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 246.

   "And by is likewise us'd with Names that shew
    The Means made use of, or the Method how."—Ward's Gram., p. 105.

UNDER NOTE VII.—CONSTRUCTIONS AMBIGUOUS.

"Many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison as well as adjectives."—Priestley's Gram., p. 133. "But the author, who, by the number and reputation of his works, formed our language more than any one, into its present state, is Dryden."—Blair's Rhet., p. 180. "In some States, Courts of Admiralty have no juries, nor Courts of Chancery at all."—Webster's Essays, p, 146. "I feel myself grateful to my friend."—Murray's Key, p. 276. "This requires a writer to have, himself, a very clear apprehension of the object he means to present to us."—Blair's Rhet., p. 94. "Sense has its own harmony, as well as sound."—lb., p. 127. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an i which was formerly inserted, and made an addition of a syllable to the word."—Priestley's Gram., p. 67. "There are few, whom I can refer to, with more advantage than Mr. Addison."—Blair's Rhet., p. 139. "DEATH, in theology, [is a] perpetual separation from God, and eternal torments."—Webster's Dict. "That could inform the traveler as well as the old man himself!"—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 345.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—YE AND YOU IN SCRIPTURE.

"Ye daughters of Rabbah, gird ye with sackcloth."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Jer., xlix, 3. "Wash ye, make you clean."—Brown's Concordance, w. Wash. "Strip ye, and make ye bare, and gird sackcloth upon your loins."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Isaiah, xxxii, 11. "You are not ashamed that you make yourselves strange to me."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Job, xix, 3. "You are not ashamed that ye make yourselves strange to me."—ALGER'S BIBLE: ib. "If you knew the gift of God."—Brown's Concordance, w. Knew. "Depart from me, ye workers of iniquity, I know ye not."—Penington's Works, ii, 122.

RULE VI.—SAME CASES.

A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing: as, "It is I."—"These are they."—"The child was named John."—"It could not be he."—"The Lord sitteth King forever."—Psalms, xxix, 10.

   "What war could ravish, commerce could bestow,
    And he return'd a friend, who came a foe."
        —Pope, Ep. iii, l. 206.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VI.

OBS. 1.—Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preperfect participles, always govern the objective case; but active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their participles, take the same case after as before them, when both words refer to the same thing. The latter are rightly supposed not to govern[357] any case; nor are they in general followed by any noun or pronoun. But, because they are not transitive, some of them become connectives to such words as are in the same case and signify the same thing. That is, their finite tenses may be followed by a nominative, and their infinitives and participles by a nominative or an objective, agreeing with a noun or a pronoun which precedes them. The cases are the same, because the person or thing is one; as, "I am he."—"Thou art Peter."—"Civil government being the sole object of forming societies, its administration must be conducted by common consent."—Jefferson's Notes, p. 129. Identity is both the foundation and the characteristic of this construction. We chiefly use it to affirm or deny, to suggest or question, the sameness of things; but sometimes figuratively, to illustrate the relations of persons or things by comparison:[358] as, "I am the true vine, and my Father is the husbandman."—John, xv, 1. "I am the vine, ye are the branches."—John, xv, 5. Even the names of direct opposites, are sometimes put in the same case, under this rule; as,

   "By such a change thy darkness is made light,
    Thy chaos order, and thy weakness might."—Cowper, Vol. i, p. 88.

OBS. 2.—In this rule, the terms after and preceding refer rather to the order of the sense and construction, than to the mere placing of the words; for the words in fact admit of various positions. The proper subject of the verb is the nominative to it, or before it, by Rule 2d; and the other nominative, however placed, is understood to be that which comes after it, by Rule 6th. In general, however, the proper subject precedes the verb, and the other word follows it, agreeably to the literal sense of the rule. But when the proper subject is placed after the verb, as in certain instances specified in the second observation under Rule 2d, the explanatory nominative is commonly introduced still later; as, "But be thou an example of the believers."—1 Tim. iv, 12. "But what! is thy servant a dog?"—2 Kings, viii, 13. "And so would I, were I Parmenio."—Goldsmith. "O Conloch's daughter! is it thou?"—Ossian. But in the following example, on the contrary, there is a transposition of the entire lines, and the verb agrees with the two nominatives in the latter:

   "To thee were solemn toys or empty show,
    The robes of pleasure and the veils of wo."—Dr. Johnson.

OBS. 3.—In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed,[359] or both are placed after the verb; as, "Am I a Jew?"—John, xviii, 35. "Art thou a king then?"—Ib., ver. 37. "What is truth?"—Ib., ver. 38. "Who art thou?"—Ib., i, 19. "Art thou Elias?"—Ib., i, 21. "Tell me, Alciphron, is not distance a line turned endwise to the eye?"—Berkley's Dialogues, p. 161.

"Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape?"—Milton.

"Art thou that traitor angel? art thou he?"—Idem.

OBS. 4.—In a declarative sentence also, there may be a rhetorical or poetical transposition of one or both of the terms: as, "And I thy victim now remain."—Francis's Horace, ii, 45. "To thy own dogs a prey thou shalt be made."—Pope's Homer, "I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame."—Job, xxix, 15. "Far other scene is Thrasymenè now."—Byron. In the following sentence, the latter term is palpably misplaced: "It does not clearly appear at first what the antecedent is to they."—Blair's Rhet., p. 218. Say rather: "It does not clearly appear at first, what is the antecedent to [the pronoun] they." In examples transposed like the following, there is an elegant ellipsis of the verb to which the pronoun is nominative; as, am, art, &c.

   "When pain and anguish wring the brow,
    A ministering angel thou."—Scott's Marmion.

    "The forum's champion, and the people's chief,
    Her new-born Numa thou—with reign, alas! too brief."—Byron.

    "For this commission'd, I forsook the sky—
    Nay, cease to kneel—thy fellow-servant I."—Parnell.

OBS. 5.—In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come before the verb; as, "I know not who she is."—"Who did you say it was?"—"I know not how to tell thee who I am."—Romeo. "Inquire thou whose son the stripling is."—1 Sam., xvii, 56. "Man would not be the creature which he now is."—Blair. "I could not guess who it should be."—Addison. And they are sometimes placed in this manner by hyberbaton [sic—KTH], or transposition; as, "Yet he it is."—Young. "No contemptible orator he was."—Dr. Blair. "He it is to whom I shall give a sop."—John, xiii, 26. "And a very noble personage Cato is."—Blair's Rhet., p. 457. "Clouds they are without water."—Jude, 12.

   "Of worm or serpent kind it something looked,
    But monstrous, with a thousand snaky heads."—Pollok, B. i, l. 183.

OBS. 6.—As infinitives and participles have no nominatives of their own, such of them as are not transitive in their nature, may take different cases after them; and, in order to determine what case it is that follows them, the learner must carefully observe what preceding word denotes the same person or thing, and apply the principle of the rule accordingly. This word being often remote, and sometimes understood, the sense is the only clew to the construction. Examples: "Who then can bear the thought of being an outcast from his presence?"—Addison. Here outcast agrees with who, and not with thought. "I cannot help being so passionate an admirer as I am."—Steele. Here admirer agrees with I. "To recommend what the soberer part of mankind look upon to be a trifle."—Steele. Here trifle agrees with what as relative, the objective governed by upon. "It would be a romantic madness, for a man to be a lord in his closet."—Id. Here madness is in the nominative case, agreeing with it; and lord, in the objective, agreeing with man. "To affect to be a lord in one's closet, would be a romantic madness." In this sentence also, lord is in the objective, after to be; and madness, in the nominative, after would be.

   "'My dear Tibullus!' If that will not do,
    Let me be Horace, and be Ovid you."—Pope, B. ii, Ep. ii, 143.

OBS. 7.—An active-intransitive or a neuter participle in ing, when governed by a preposition, is often followed by a noun or a pronoun the case of which depends not on the preposition, but on the case which goes before. Example: "The Jews were in a particular manner ridiculed for being a credulous people."—Addison's Evidences, p. 28. Here people is in the nominative case, agreeing with Jews. Again: "The learned pagans ridiculed the Jews for being a credulous people." Here people is in the objective case, because the preceding noun Jews is so. In both instances the preposition for governs the participle being, and nothing else. "The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither attempt to palliate or deny."—PITT: Bullions's E. Gram., p. 82; S. S. Greene's, 174. Sanborn has this text, with "nor" for "or."—Analytical Gram., p. 190. This example has been erroneously cited, as one in which the case of the noun after the participle is not determined by its relation to any other word. Sanborn absurdly supposes it to be "in the nominative independent." Bullions as strangely tells us, "it may correctly be called the objective indefinite"—like me in the following example: "He was not sure of its being me."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 82. This latter text I take to be bad English. It should be, "He was not sure of it as being me;" or, "He was not sure that it was I." But, in the text above, there is an evident transposition. The syntactical order is this: "I shall neither deny nor attempt to palliate the atrocious crime of being a young man." The words man and I refer to the same person, and are therefore in the same case, according to the rule which I have given above.

OBS. 8.—S. S. Greene, in his late Grammar, improperly denominates this case after the participle being, "the predicate-nominative," and imagines that it necessarily remains a nominative even when the possessive case precedes the participle. If he were right in this, there would be an important exception to Rule 6th above. But so singularly absurd is his doctrine about "abridged predicates," that in general the abridging shows an increase of syllables, and often a conversion of good English into bad. For example: "It [the predicate] remains unchanged in the nominative, when, with the participle of the copula, it becomes a verbal noun, limited by the possessive case of the subject; as, 'That he was a foreigner prevented his election,'='His being a foreigner prevented his election.'"—Greene's Analysis, p. 169. Here the number of syllables is unaltered; but foreigner is very improperly called "a verbal noun," and an example which only lacks a comma, is changed to what Wells rightly calls an "anomalous expression," and one wherein that author supposes foreigner and his to be necessarily in the same case. But Greene varies this example into other "abridged forms," thus: "I knew that he was a foreigner," = "I knew his being, or of his being a foreigner." "The fact that he was a foreigner, = of his being a foreigner, was undeniable." "When he was first called a foreigner, = on his being first called a foreigner, his anger was excited."—Ib., p. 171. All these changes enlarge, rather than abridge, the expression; and, at the same time, make it questionable English, to say the least of it.

OBS. 9.—In some examples, the adverb there precedes the participle, and we evidently have nothing by which to determine the case that follows; as, "These judges were twelve in number. Was this owing to there being twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations?"—Webster's Essays, p. 263. Say rather: "Was this because there were twelve primary deities among the Gothic nations?" "How many are injured by Adam's fall, that know nothing of there ever being such a man in the world!"—Barclay's Apology, p. 185. Say rather,—"who know not that there ever was such a man in the world!"

OBS. 10.—In some other examples, we find a possessive before the participle, and a doubtful case after it; as, "This our Saviour himself was pleased to make use of as the strongest argument of his being the promised Messiah"—Addison's Evidences, p. 81. "But my chief affliction consisted in my being singled out from all the other boys, by a lad about fifteen years of age, as a proper object upon whom he might let loose the cruelty of his temper."—Cowper's Memoir, p. 13. "[Greek: Tou patros [ontos] onou euthus hypemnæsthæ]. He had some sort of recollection of his father's being an ass"—Collectanea Græca Minora, Notæ, p. 7. This construction, though not uncommon, is anomalous in more respects than one. Whether or not it is worthy to form an exception to the rule of same cases, or even to that of possessives, the reader may judge from the observations made on it under the latter. I should rather devise some way to avoid it, if any can be found—and I believe there can; as, "This our Saviour himself was pleased to advance as the strongest proof that he was the promised Messiah."—"But my chief affliction consisted in this, that I was singled out," &c. The story of the mule is, "He seemed to recollect on a sudden that his father was an ass." This is the proper meaning of the Greek text above; but the construction is different, the Greek nouns being genitives in apposition.

OBS. 11.—A noun in the nominative case sometimes follows a finite verb, when the equivalent subject that stands before the verb, is not a noun or pronoun, but a phrase or a sentence which supplies the place of a nominative; as, "That the barons and freeholders derived their authority from kings, is wholly a mistake."—Webster's Essays, p. 277. "To speak of a slave as a member of civil society, may, by some, be regarded a solecism."—Stroud's Sketch, p. 65. Here mistake and solecism are as plainly nominatives, as if the preceding subjects had been declinable words.

OBS. 12.—When a noun is put after an abstract infinitive that is not transitive, it appears necessarily to be in the objective case,[360] though not governed by the verb; for if we supply any noun to which such infinitive may be supposed to refer, it must be introduced before the verb by the preposition for: as, "To be an Englishman in London, a Frenchman in Paris, a Spaniard in Madrid, is no easy matter; and yet it is necessary."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 89. That is, "For a traveller to be an Englishman in London," &c. "It is certainly as easy to be a scholar, as a gamester."—Harris's Hermes, p. 425. That is, "It is as easy for a young man to be a scholar, as it is for him to be a gamester." "To be an eloquent speaker, in the proper sense of the word, is far from being a common or easy attainment."—Blair's Rhet., p. 337. Here attainment is in the nominative, after is—or, rather after being, for it follows both; and speaker, in the objective after to be. "It is almost as hard a thing [for a man] to be a poet in despite of fortune, as it is [for one to be a poet] in despite of nature."—Cowley's Preface to his Poems, p. vii.

OBS. 13.—Where precision is necessary, loose or abstract infinitives are improper; as, "But to be precise, signifies, that they express that idea, and no more."—Blair's Rhet., p. 94; Murray's Gram., 301; Jamieson's Rhet., 64. Say rather: "But, for an author's words to be precise, signifies, that they express his exact idea, and nothing more or less."

OBS. 14.—The principal verbs that take the same case after as before them, except those which are passive, are the following: to be, to stand, to sit, to lie, to live, to grow, to become, to turn, to commence, to die, to expire, to come, to go, to range, to wander, to return, to seem, to appear, to remain, to continue, to reign. There are doubtless some others, which admit of such a construction; and of some of these, it is to be observed, that they are sometimes transitive, and govern the objective: as, "To commence a suit."—Johnson. "O continue thy loving kindness unto them."—Psalms, xxxvi, 10. "A feather will turn the scale."—Shak. "Return him a trespass offering."—1 Samuel. "For it becomes me so to speak."—Dryden. But their construction with like cases is easily distinguished by the sense; as, "When I commenced author, my aim was to amuse."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 286. "Men continue men's destroyers."—Nixon's Parser, p. 56. "'Tis most just, that thou turn rascal"—Shak., Timon of Athens. "He went out mate, but he returned captain."—Murray's Gram., p. 182. "After this event he became physician to the king."—Ib. That is, "When I began to be an author," &c.

   "Ev'n mean self-love becomes, by force divine,
    The scale to measure others' wants by thine."—Pope.

OBS. 15.—The common instructions of our English grammars, in relation to the subject of the preceding rule, are exceedingly erroneous and defective. For example: "The verb TO BE, has always a nominative case after it, unless it be in the infinitive mode."—Lowth's Gram., p. 77. "The verb TO BE requires the same case after it as before it."—Churchill's Gram., p. 142. "The verb TO BE, through all its variations, has the same case after it, expressed or understood, as that which next precedes it."—Murray's Gram., p. 181; Alger's, 62; Merchant's, 91; Putnam's, 116; Smith's, 97; and many others. "The verb TO BE has usually the same case after it, as that which immediately precedes it."—Hall's Gram., p. 31. "Neuter verbs have the same case after them, as that which next precedes them."—Folker's Gram., p. 14. "Passive verbs which signify naming, and others of a similar nature, have the same case before and after them."—Murray's Gram., p. 182. "A Noun or Pronoun used in predication with a verb, is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES—'Thou art a scholar.' 'It is I.' 'God is love.'"—S. W. Clark's Pract. Gram., p. 149. So many and monstrous are the faults of these rules, that nothing but very learned and reverend authority, could possibly impose such teaching anywhere. The first, though written by Lowth, is not a whit wiser than to say, "The preposition to has always an infinitive mood after it, unless it be a preposition." And this latter absurdity is even a better rule for all infinitives, than the former for all predicated nominatives. Nor is there much more fitness in any of the rest. "The verb TO BE, through all," or even in any, of its parts, has neither "always" nor usually a case "expressed or understood" after it; and, even when there is a noun or a pronoun put after it, the case is, in very many instances, not to be determined by that which "next" or "immediately" precedes the verb. Examples: "A sect of freethinkers is a sum of ciphers."—Bentley. "And I am this day weak, though anointed king."—2 Sam., iii, 39. "What made Luther a great man, was his unshaken reliance on God."—Kortz's Life of Luther, p. 13. "The devil offers his service; He is sent with a positive commission to be a lying spirit in the mouth of all the prophets."—Calvin's Institutes, p. 131. It is perfectly certain that in these four texts, the words sum, king, reliance, and spirit, are nominatives, after the verb or participle; and not objectives, as they must be, if there were any truth in the common assertion, "that the two cases, which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike."—Smith's New Gram., p. 98. Not only may the nominative before the verb be followed by an objective, but the nominative after it may be preceded by a possessive; as, "Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son."—"It is the king's chapel, and it is the king's court."—Amos, vii, 13. How ignorant then must that person be, who cannot see the falsity of the instructions above cited! How careless the reader who overlooks it!

NOTES TO RULE VI.

NOTE I.—The putting of a noun in an unknown case after a participle or a participial noun, produces an anomaly which it seems better to avoid; for the cases ought to be clear, even in exceptions to the common rules of construction. Examples: (1.) "WIDOWHOOD, n. The state of being a widow."—Webster's Dict. Say rather, "WIDOWHOOD, n. The state of a widow."—Johnson, Walker, Worcester. (2.) "I had a suspicion of the fellow's being a swindler/" Say rather, "I had a suspicion that the fellow was a swindler." (3.) "To prevent its being a dry detail of terms."—Buck. Better, "To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms." [361]

NOTE II.—The nominative which follows a verb or participle, ought to accord in signification, either literally or figuratively, with the preceding term which is taken for a sign of the same thing. Errors: (1.) "To be convicted of bribery, was then a crime altogether unpardonable."—Blair's Rhet., p. 265. To be convicted of a crime, is not the crime itself; say, therefore, "Bribery was then a crime altogether unpardonable." (2.) "The second person is the object of the Imperative."—Murray's Gram., Index, ii, 292. Say rather, "The second person is the subject of the imperative;" for the object of a verb is the word governed by it, and not its nominative.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VI.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—OF PROPER IDENTITY.

"Who would not say, 'If it be me,' rather than, If it be I?"—Priestley's Gram., p. 105.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun me,—which comes after the neuter verb be, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun it, the verb's nominative,[362] which refers to the same thing. But, according to Rule 6th, "A noun or a pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing." Therefore, me should be I; thus, "Who would not say, 'If it be I,' rather than, 'If it be me?'"]

"Who is there? It is me."—Priestley, ib., p. 104. "It is him."—Id., ib., 104. "Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes, they are them."—Id., ib., 104. "It is not me you are in love with."—Addison's Spect., No. 290; Priestley's Gram., p. 104; and Campbell's Rhet., p. 203. "It cannot be me."—SWIFT: Priestley's Gram., p. 104. "To that which once was thee."—PRIOR: ib., 104. "There is but one man that she can have, and that is me."—CLARISSA: ib., 104. "We enter, as it were, into his body, and become, in some measure, him."—ADAM SMITH: ib., p. 105. "Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am not thee."—Shak., Timon. "He knew not whom they were."—Milnes, Greek Gram., p. 234. "Who do you think me to be?"—Priestley's Gram., p. 108. "Whom do men say that I, the Son of man, am?"—Matt., xvi, 13. "But whom say ye that I am?"—Ib., xvi, 15.—"Whom think ye that I am? I am not he."—Acts, xiii, 25. "No; I am mistaken; I perceive it is not the person whom I supposed it was."—Winter in London, ii, 66. "And while it is Him I serve, life is not without value."—Zenobia, i, 76. "Without ever dreaming it was him."—Life of Charles XII, p. 271. "Or he was not the illiterate personage whom he affected to be."—Montgomery's Lect. "Yet was he him, who was to be the greatest apostle of the Gentiles."—Barclay's Works, i, 540. "Sweet was the thrilling ecstacy; I know not if 'twas love, or thee."—Queen's Wake, p. 14. "Time was, when none would cry, that oaf was me."—Dryden, Prol. "No matter where the vanquish'd be, nor whom."—Rowe's Lucan, B. i, l. 676. "No, I little thought it had been him."—Life of Oration. "That reverence and godly fear, whose object is 'Him who can destroy both body and soul in hell.'"—Maturin's Sermons, p. 312. "It is us that they seek to please, or rather to astonish."—West's Letters, p. 28. "Let the same be she that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac."—Gen., xxiv, 14. "Although I knew it to be he."—Dickens's Notes, p. 9. "Dear gentle youth, is't none but thee?"—Dorset's Poems, p. 4. "Whom do they say it is?"—Fowler's E. Gram., §493.

   "These are her garb, not her; they but express
    Her form, her semblance, her appropriate dress."—Hannah More.

UNDER NOTE I.—THE CASE DOUBTFUL.

"I had no knowledge of there being any connexion between them."—Stone, on Freemasonry, p. 25. "To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same as being the actors of it ourselves."—Murray's Key, p. 170. "It must arise from feeling delicately ourselves."—Blair's Rhet., p. 330; Murray's Gram., 248. "By reason of there not having been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement."—Mass. Legislature, 1839. "PUPILAGE, n. The state of being a scholar."—Johnson, Walker, Webster, Worcester. "Then the other part's being the definition would make it include all verbs of every description."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 343. "John's being my friend,[363] saved me from inconvenience."—Ib., p. 201. "William's having become a judge, changed his whole demeanor."—Ib., p. 201. "William's having been a teacher, was the cause of the interest which he felt."—Ib., p. 216. "The being but one among many stifleth the chidings of conscience."—Book of Thoughts, p. 131. "As for its being esteemed a close translalation [sic—KTH], I doubt not many have been led into that error by the shortness of it."—Pope's Pref. to Homer. "All presumption of death's being the destruction of living beings, must go upon supposition that they are compounded, and so discerptible."—Butler's Analogy, p. 63. "This argues rather their being proper names."—Churchill's Gram., p. 382. "But may it not be retorted, that its being a gratification is that which excites our resentment?"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 145. "Under the common notion, of its being a system of the whole poetical art."—Blair's Rhet., p. 401. "Whose time or other circumstances forbid their becoming classical scholars."—Literary Convention, p. 113. "It would preclude the notion of his being a merely fictitious personage."—Philological Museum, i, 446. "For, or under pretence of their being heretics or infidels."—The Catholic Oath; Geo. III, 31st. "We may here add Dr. Home's sermon on Christ's being the Object of religious Adoration."—Relig. World, Vol. ii, p. 200. "To say nothing of Dr. Priestley's being a strenuous advocate," &c.—Ib., ii, 207. "By virtue of Adam's being their public head."—Ib., ii, 233. "Objections against there being any such moral plan as this."—Butler's Analogy, p. 57. "A greater instance of a man's being a blockhead."—Spect., No. 520. "We may insure or promote its being a happy state of existence to ourselves."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 86. "By its often falling a victim to the same kind of unnatural treatment."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 41. "Their appearing foolishness is no presumption against this."—Butler's Analogy, p. 189. "But what arises from their being offences; i. e. from their being liable to be perverted."—Ib., p. 185. "And he entered into a certain man's house, named Justus, one that worshipped God."—Acts, xviii, 7.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF FALSE IDENTIFICATION.

"But to be popular, he observes, is an ambiguous word."—Blair's Rhet., p. 307. "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is often the nominative case to a verb."—L. Murray's Index, Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 290. "When any person, in speaking, introduces his own name, it is the first person; as, 'I, James, of the city of Boston.'"—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 43. "The name of the person spoken to, is the second person; as, 'James, come to me.'"—Ibid. "The name of the person or thing spoken of, or about, is the third person; as, 'James has come.'"—Ibid. "The object [of a passive verb] is always its subject or nominative case."—Ib., p. 62. "When a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the actor."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 44. "And the person commanded, is its nominative."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 120. "The first person is that who speaks."—Pasquier's Lévizac, p. 91. "The Conjugation of a Verb is its different variations or inflections throughout the Moods and Tenses."—Wright's Gram., p. 80. "The first person is the speaker. The second person is the one spoken to. The third person is the one spoken of."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part i, p. 6; Hiley's, 18. "The first person is the one that speaks, or the speaker."—Sanborn's Gram., pp. 23 and 75. "The second person is the one that is spoken to, or addressed."—Ibid. "The third person is the one that is spoken of, or that is the topic of conversation."—Ibid. "I, is the first person Singular. We, is the first person Plural."—Murray's Gram., p. 51; Alger's, Ingersoll's, and many others. "Thou, is the second person Singular. Ye or you, is the second person Plural."—Ibid. "He, she, or it, is the third person Singular. They, is the third person Plural."—Ibid. "The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the verb."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 43. "The noun John is the actor, therefore John is in the nominative case."—Ibid. "The actor is always the nominative case."—Smith's New Gram., p. 62. "The nominative case is always the agent or actor."—Mack's Gram., p. 67. "Tell the part of speech each name is."—J. Flint's Gram., p. 6. "What number is boy? Why? What number is pens? Why?"—Ib., p. 27. "The speaker is the first person, the person spoken to, the second person, and the person or thing spoken of, is the third person."—Ib., p. 26. "What nouns are masculine gender? All males are masculine gender."—Ib., p. 28. "An interjection is a sudden emotion of the mind."—Barrett's Gram., p. 62.

RULE VII.—OBJECTIVES.

A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case: as, "The temple of fame stands upon the grave: the flame that burns upon its altars, is kindled from the ashes of great men"—Hazlitt.

"Life is His gift, from whom whate'er life needs, With ev'ry good and perfect gift, proceeds."—Cowper, Vol. i, p. 95.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VII.

OBS. 1.—To this rule there are no exceptions; for prepositions, in English, govern no other case than the objective.[364] But the learner should observe that most of our prepositions may take the imperfect participle for their object, and some, the pluperfect, or preperfect; as, "On opening the trial they accused him of having defrauded them."—"A quick wit, a nice judgment, &c., could not raise this man above being received only upon the foot of contributing to mirth and diversion."—Steele. And the preposition to is often followed by an infinitive verb; as, "When one sort of wind is said to whistle, and an other to roar; when a serpent is said to hiss, a fly to buzz, and falling timber to crash; when a stream is said to flow, and hail to rattle; the analogy between the word and the thing signified, is plainly discernible."—Blair's Rhet., p. 55. But let it not be supposed that participles or infinitives, when they are governed by prepositions, are therefore in the objective case; for case is no attribute of either of these classes of words: they are indeclinable in English, whatever be the relations they assume. They are governed as participles, or as infinitives, and not as cases. The mere fact of government is so far from creating the modification governed, that it necessarily presupposes it to exist, and that it is something cognizable in etymology.

OBS. 2.—The brief assertion, that, "Prepositions govern the objective case," which till very lately our grammarians have universally adopted as their sole rule for both terms, the governing and the governed,—the preposition and its object,—is, in respect to both, somewhat exceptionable, being but partially and lamely applicable to either. It neither explains the connecting nature of the preposition, nor applies to all objectives, nor embraces all the terms which a preposition may govern. It is true, that prepositions, when they introduce declinable words, or words that have cases, always govern the objective; but the rule is liable to be misunderstood, and is in fact often misapplied, as if it meant something more than this. Besides, in no other instance do grammarians attempt to parse both the governing word and the governed, by one and the same rule. I have therefore placed the objects of this government here, where they belong in the order of the parts of speech, expressing the rule in such terms as cannot be mistaken; and have also given, in its proper place, a distinct rule for the construction of the preposition itself. See Rule 23d.

OBS. 3.—Prepositions are sometimes elliptically construed with adjectives, the real object of the relation being thought to be some objective noun understood: as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high; i. e. in a vain manner, in secret places, at the first time, on high places. Such phrases usually imply time, place, degree, or manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the learner may supply the ellipsis.

OBS. 4.—In some phrases, a preposition seems to govern a perfect participle; but these expressions are perhaps rather to be explained as being elliptical: as, "To give it up for lost;"—"To take that for granted which is disputed."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 109. That is, perhaps, "To give it up for a thing lost;"—"To take that for a thing granted," &c. In the following passage the words ought and should are employed in such a manner that it is difficult to say to what part of speech they belong: "It is that very character of ought and should which makes justice a law to us; and the same character is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more faintly than to justice."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 286. The meaning seems to be, "It is that very character of being owed and required, that makes justice a law to us;" and this mode of expression, as it is more easy to be parsed, is perhaps more grammatical than his Lordship's. But, as preterits are sometimes put by enallage for participles, a reference of them to this figure may afford a mode of explanation in parsing, whenever they are introduced by a preposition, and not by a nominative: as, "A kind of conquest Cæsar made here; but made not here his brag Of, came, and saw, and overcame"—Shak., Cymb., iii, 1. That is,—"of having come, and seen, and overcome." Here, however, by assuming that a sentence is the object of the preposition, we may suppose the pronoun I to be understood, as ego is in the bulletin referred to, "Veni, vidi, vici." For, as a short sentence is sometimes made the subject of a verb, so is it sometimes made the object of a preposition; as,

   "Earth's highest station ends in, 'here he lies;'
    And 'dust to dust,' concludes her noblest song."—Young.

OBS. 5.—In some instances, prepositions precede adverbs; as, at once, at unawares, from thence, from above, till now, till very lately, for once, for ever. Here the adverb, though an indeclinable word, appears to be made the object of the preposition. It is in fact used substantively, and governed by the preposition. The term forever is often written as one word, and, as such, is obviously an adverb. The rest are what some writers would call adverbial phrases; a term not very consistent with itself, or with the true idea of parsing. If different parts of speech are to be taken together as having the nature of an adverb, they ought rather to coalesce and be united; for the verb to parse, being derived from the Latin pars, a part, implies in general a distinct recognition of the elements or words of every phrase or sentence.

OBS. 6.—Nouns of time, measure, distance, or value, have often so direct a relation to verbs or adjectives, that the prepositions which are supposed to govern them, are usually suppressed; as, "We rode sixty miles that day." That is,—"through sixty miles on that day." "The country is not a farthing richer."—Webster's Essays, p. 122. That is,—"richer by a farthing." "The error has been copied times without number."—Ib., p. 281. That is,—"on or at times innumerable." "A row of columns ten feet high, and a row twice that height, require different proportions." Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 344. That is,—"high to ten feet," and, "a row of twice that height." "Altus sex pedes, High on or at six feet."—Dr. Murray's Hist of Europ. Lang., ii, 150. All such nouns are in the objective case, and, in parsing them, the learner may supply the ellipsis;[365] or, perhaps it might be as well, to say, as do B. H. Smart and some others, that the noun is an objective of time, measure, or value, taken adverbially, and relating directly to the verb or adjective qualified by it. Such expressions as, "A board of six feet long,"—"A boy of twelve years old," are wrong. Either strike out the of, or say, "A board of six feet in length,"—"A boy of twelve years of age;" because this preposition is not suited to the adjective, nor is the adjective fit to qualify the time or measure.

OBS. 7.—After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or unto is often understood;[366] as, "It is like [to or unto] silver."—Allen. "How like the former."—Dryden. "Near yonder copse."—Goldsmith. "Nigh this recess."—Garth. As similarity and proximity are relations, and not qualities, it might seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, prepositions; and some grammarians have so classed the last two. Dr. Johnson seems to be inconsistent in calling near a preposition, in the phrase, "So near thy heart," and an adjective, in the phrase, "Being near their master." See his Quarto Dict. I have not placed them with the prepositions, for the following four reasons: (1.) Because they are sometimes compared; (2.) Because they sometimes have adverbs evidently relating to them; (3.) Because the preposition to or unto is sometimes expressed after them; and (4.) Because the words which usually stand for them in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives.[367] But like, when it expresses similarity of manner, and near and nigh, when they express proximity of degree, are adverbs.

OBS. 8.—The word worth is often followed by an objective, or a participle, which it appears to govern; as, "If your arguments produce no conviction, they are worth nothing to me."—Beattie. "To reign is worth ambition."—Milton. "This is life indeed, life worth preserving."—Addison. It is not easy to determine to what part of speech worth here belongs. Dr. Johnson calls it an adjective, but says nothing of the object after it, which some suppose to be governed by of understood. In this supposition, it is gratuitously assumed, that worth is equivalent to worthy, after which of should be expressed; as, "Whatsoever is worthy of their love, is worth their anger."—Denham. But as worth appears to have no certain characteristic of an adjective, some call it a noun, and suppose a double ellipsis; as, "'My knife is worth a shilling;' i. e. 'My knife is of the worth of a shilling.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 163. "'The book is worth that sum;' that is, 'The book is (the) worth (of) that sum;' 'It is worth while;' that is, 'It is (the) worth (of the) while.'"—Nixon's Parser, p. 54. This is still less satisfactory;[368] and as the whole appears to be mere guess-work, I see no good reason why worth is not a preposition, governing the noun or participle.[369] If an adverb precede worth, it may as well be referred to the foregoing verb, as when it occurs before any other preposition: as, "It is richly worth the money."—"It lies directly before your door." Or if we admit that an adverb sometimes relates to this word, the same thing may be as true of other prepositions; as, "And this is a lesson which, to the greatest part of mankind, is, I think, very well worth learning."—Blair's Rhet., p. 303. "He sees let down from the ceiling, exactly over his head, a glittering sword, hung by a single hair."—Murray's E. Reader, p. 33. See Exception 3d to Rule 21st.

OBS. 9.—Both Dr. Johnson and Horne Tooke, (who never agreed if they could help it,) unite in saying that worth, in the phrases, "Wo worth the man,"—"Wo worth the day," and the like, is from the imperative of the Saxon verb wyrthan or weorthan, to be; i. e., "Wo be [to] the man," or, "Wo betide the man," &c. And the latter affirms, that, as the preposition by is from the imperative of beon, to be, so with, (though admitted to be sometimes from withan, to join,) is often no other than this same imperative verb wyrth or worth: if so, the three words, by, with, and worth, were originally synonymous, and should now be referred at least to one and the same class. The dative case, or oblique object, which they governed as Saxon verbs, becomes their proper object, when taken as English prepositions; and in this also they appear to be alike. Worth, then, when it signifies value, is a common noun; but when it signifies equal in value to, it governs an objective, and has the usual characteristics of a preposition. Instances may perhaps be found in which worth is an adjective, meaning valuable or useful, as in the following lines:

   "They glow'd, and grew more intimate with God,
    More worth to men, more joyous to themselves."
        —Young, N. ix, l. 988.

In one instance, the poet Campbell appears to have used the word worthless as a preposition:

   "Eyes a mutual soul confessing,
    Soon you'll make them grow
    Dim, and worthless your possessing,
    Not with age, but woe!"

OBS. 10.—After verbs of giving, paying, procuring, and some others, there is usually an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person; as, "Give [to] him water to drink."—"Buy [for] me a knife."—"Pay [to] them their wages." So in the exclamation, "Wo is me!" meaning, "Wo is to me!" This ellipsis occurs chiefly before the personal pronouns, and before such nouns as come between the verb and its direct object; as, "Whosoever killeth you, will think that he doeth [to] God service."—John, xvi, 2. "Who brought [to] her masters much gain by soothsaying."—Acts, xvi, 16. "Because he gave not [to] God the glory."—Ib., xii, 23. "Give [to] me leave to allow [to] myself no respite from labour."—Spect., No. 454. "And the sons of Joseph, which were born [to] him in Egypt, were two souls."—Gen., xlvi, 27. This elliptical construction of a few objectives, is what remains to us of the ancient Saxon dative case. If the order of the words be changed, the preposition must be inserted; as, "Pray do my service to his majesty."—Shak. The doctrine inculcated by several of our grammarians, that, "Verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some others, are often employed to govern two objectives," (Wells, §215,) I have, under a preceding rule, discountenanced; preferring the supposition, which appears to have greater weight of authority, as well as stronger support from reason, that, in the instances cited in proof of such government, a preposition is, in fact, understood. Upon this question of ellipsis, depends, in all such instances, our manner of parsing one of the objective words.

OBS. 11.—In dates, as they are usually written, there is much abbreviation; and several nouns of place and time are set down in the objective case, without the prepositions which govern them: as, "New York, Wednesday, 20th October, 1830."—Journal of Literary Convention. That is, "At New York, on Wednesday, the 20th day of October, in the year 1830."

NOTE TO RULE VII.

An objective noun of time or measure, if it qualifies a subsequent adjective, must not also be made an adjunct to a preceding noun; as, "To an infant of only two or three years old."—Dr. Wayland. Expunge of, or for old write of age. The following is right: "The vast army of the Canaanites, nine hundred chariots strong, covered the level plain of Esdraelon."—Milman's Jews, Vol. i, p. 159. See Obs. 6th above.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VII. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—OF THE OBJECTIVE IN FORM.

"But I do not remember who they were for."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 265.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun who is in the nominative case, and is made the object of the preposition for. But, according to Rule 7th, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case." Therefore, who should be whom; thus, "But I do not remember whom they were for."]

"But if you can't help it, who do you complain of?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 137. "Who was it from? and what was it about?"—Edgeworth's Frank, p. 72. "I have plenty of victuals, and, between you and I, something in a corner."—Day's Sandford and Merton. "The upper one, who I am now about to speak of."—Hunt's Byron, p. 311. "And to poor we, thine enmity's most capital."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 201. "Which thou dost confess, were fit for thee to use, as they to claim."—Ib., p. 196. "To beg of thee, it is my more dishonour, than thou of them."—Ib., p. 197. "There are still a few who, like thou and I, drink nothing but water."—Gil Blas, Vol. i, p. 104. "Thus, I shall fall; Thou shalt love thy neighbour; He shall be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of I, thou, he."—Lennie's E. Gram., p. 22; Bullions's, 32. "So saucy with the hand of she here—What's her name?"—Shak., Ant. and Cleop., Act iii, Sc. 11. "All debts are cleared between you and I."—Id., Merchant of Venice, Act iii, Sc. 2. "Her price is paid, and she is sold like thou."—Milman's Fall of Jerusalem. "Search through all the most flourishing era's of Greece."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 16. "The family of the Rudolph's had been long distinguished."—The Friend, Vol. v, p. 54. "It will do well enough for you and I."—Castle Rackrent, p. 120. "The public will soon discriminate between him who is the sycophant, and he who is the teacher."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 10. "We are still much at a loss who civil power belongs to."—Locke. "What do you call it? and who does it belong to?"—Collier's Cebes. "He had received no lessons from the Socrates's, the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the age."—Hatter's Letters. "I cannot tell who to compare them to."—Bunyan's P. P., p. 128. "I see there was some resemblance betwixt this good man and I."—Pilgrim's Progress, p. 298. "They by that means have brought themselves into the hands and house of I do not know who."—Ib., p. 196. "But at length she said there was a great deal of difference between Mr. Cotton and we."—Hutchinson's Mass., ii, 430. "So you must ride on horseback after we." [370]—MRS. GILPIN: Cowper, i, 275. "A separation must soon take place between our minister and I."—Werter, p. 109. "When she exclaimed on Hastings, you, and I."—Shakspeare. "To who? to thee? What art thou?"—Id. "That they should always bear the certain marks who they came from."—Butler's Analogy, p. 221.

   "This life has joys for you and I,
    And joys that riches ne'er could buy."—Burns.

UNDER THE NOTE—OF TIME OR MEASURE.

"Such as almost every child of ten years old knows."—Town's Analysis, p. 4. "One winter's school of four months, will carry any industrious scholar, of ten or twelve years old, completely through this book."—Ib., p. 12. "A boy of six years old may be taught to speak as correctly, as Cicero did before the Roman Senate."—Webster's Essays, p. 27. "A lad of about twelve years old, who was taken captive by the Indians."—Ib., p. 235. "Of nothing else but that individual white figure of five inches long which is before him."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 288. "Where lies the fault, that boys of eight or ten years old, are with great difficulty made to understand any of its principles."—Guy's Gram., p. v. "Where language of three centuries old is employed."—Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 21. "Let a gallows be made of fifty cubits high."—Esther, v. 14. "I say to this child of nine years old bring me that hat, he hastens and brings it me."—Osborn's Key, p. 3. "He laid a floor twelve feet long, and nine feet wide; that is, over the extent of twelve feet long, and of nine feet wide."—Merchants School Gram., p. 95. "The Goulah people are a tribe of about fifty thousand strong."—Examiner, No. 71. RULE VIII.—NOM. ABSOLUTE.

A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word: as, "He failing, who shall meet success?"—"Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live forever?"—Zech., i, 5. "Or I only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working?"—1 Cor., ix, 6. "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God?"—Rom., ix, 20. "O rare we!"—Cowper. "Miserable they!"—Thomson.

"The hour conceal'd, and so remote the fear, Death still draws nearer, never seeming near."—Pope.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VIII.

OBS. 1.—Many grammarians make an idle distinction between the nominative absolute and the nominative independent, as if these epithets were not synonymous; and, at the same time, they are miserably deficient in directions for disposing of the words so employed. Their two rules do not embrace more than one half of those frequent examples in which the case of the noun or pronoun depends on no other word. Of course, the remaining half cannot be parsed by any of the rules which they give. The lack of a comprehensive rule, like the one above, is a great and glaring defect in all the English grammars that the author has seen, except his own, and such as are indebted to him for such a rule. It is proper, however, that the different forms of expression which are embraced in this general rule, should be discriminated, one from an other, by the scholar: let him therefore, in parsing any nominative absolute, tell how it is put so; whether with a participle, by direct address, by pleonasm, or by exclamation. For, in discourse, a noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, after four modes, or under the following four circumstances: (of which Murray's "case absolute," or "nominative absolute," contains only the first:)

I. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause, or a concomitant fact; as, "I say, this being so, the law being broken, justice takes place."—Law and Grace, p. 27. "Pontius Pilate being governor of Judea, and Herod being tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of Iturea." &c.—Luke, iii, 1. "I being in the way, the Lord led me to the house of my master's brethren."—Gen., xxiv, 27.

    ————-"While shame, thou looking on,
    Shame to be overcome or overreach'd,
    Would utmost vigor raise."—Milton, P. L., B. ix, 1, 312.

II. When, by direct address, it is put in the second person, and set off from the verb, by a comma or an exclamation point; as, "At length, Seged, reflect and be wise."—Dr. Johnson. "It may be, drunkard, swearer, liar, thief, thou dost not think of this."—Law and Grace, p. 27.

"This said, he form'd thee, Adam! thee, O man! Dust of the ground, and in thy nostrils breath'd The breath of life."—Milton's Paradise Lost, B. vii, l. 524.

III. When, by pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of emphasis, and is not made the subject or the object of any verb; as, "He that hath, to him shall be given."—Mark, iv, 25. "He that is holy, let him be holy still."—Rev., xxii, 11. "Gad, a troop shall overcome him."—Gen., xlix, 19. "The north and the south, thou hast created them."—Psalms, lxxxix, 12. "And they that have believing masters, let them not despise them."—1 Tim., vi, 2. "And the leper in whom the plague is, his clothes shall be rent, and his head bare."—Levit., xiii, 45. "They who serve me with adoration,—I am in them, and they [are] in me."—R. W. EMERSON: Liberator, No. 996.

    ————————————-"What may this mean,
    That thou, dead corse, again in complete steel,
    Revisitst thus the glimpses of the moon,
    Making night hideous; and, we fools of nature,[371]
    So horribly to shake our disposition
    With thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls?"—Shak. Hamlet.

IV. When, by mere exclamation, it is used without address, and without other words expressed or implied to give it construction; as, "And the Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed, the Lord, the Lord God, merciful and gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth." Exodus, xxxiv, 6. "O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God!"—Rom., xi, 33. "I should not like to see her limping back, Poor beast!"—Southey.

   "Oh! deep enchanting prelude to repose,
    The dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes!"—Campbell.

OBS. 2.—The nominative put absolute with a participle, is often equivalent to a dependent clause commencing with when, while, if, since, or because. Thus, "I being a child," may be equal to, "When I was a child," or, "Because I was a child." Here, in lieu of the nominative, the Greeks used the genitive case, and the Latins, the ablative. Thus, the phrase, "[Greek: Kai hysteræsantos oinou]," "And the wine failing," is rendered by Montanus, "Et deficiente vino;" but by Beza, "Et cum defecisset vinum;" and in our Bible, "And when they wanted wine."—John, ii, 3. After a noun or a pronoun thus put absolute, the participle being is frequently understood, especially if an adjective or a like case come after the participle; as,

   "They left their bones beneath unfriendly skies,
    His worthless absolution [being] all the prize."
        —Cowper, Vol. i, p. 84.

    "Alike in ignorance, his reason [———] such,
    Whether he thinks too little or too much."—Pope, on Man.

OBS. 3.—The case which is put absolute in addresses or invocations, is what in the Latin and Greek grammars is called the Vocative. Richard Johnson says, "The only use of the Vocative Case, is, to call upon a Person, or a thing put Personally, which we speak to, to give notice to what we direct our Speech; and this is therefore, properly speaking, the only Case absolute or independent which we may make use of without respect to any other Word."—Gram. Commentaries, p. 131. This remark, however, applies not justly to our language; for, with us, the vocative case, is unknown, or not distinguished from the nominative. In English, all nouns of the second person are either put absolute in the nominative, according to Rule 8th, or in apposition with their own pronouns placed before them, according to Rule 3d: as, "This is the stone which was set at nought of you builders."—Acts, iv, 11. "How much rather ought you receivers to be considered as abandoned and execrable!"—Clarkson's Essay, p. 114.

   "Peace! minion, peace! it boots not me to hear
    The selfish counsel of you hangers-on."
        —Brown's Inst., p. 189.

    "Ye Sylphs and Sylphids, to your chief give ear;
    Fays, Faries, Genii, Elves, and Dæmons, hear!"
        —Pope, R. L., ii, 74.

OBS. 4.—The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on something understood; and, when their construction can be satisfactorily explained on the principle of ellipsis, they are not put absolute, unless the ellipsis be that of the participle. The following examples may perhaps be resolved in this manner, though the expressions will lose much of their vivacity: "A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!"—Shak. "And he said unto his father, My head! my head!"—2 Kings, iv, 19. "And Samson said, With the jaw-bone of an ass, heaps upon heaps, with the jaw of an ass, have I slain a thousand men."—Judges, xv, 16. "Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth."—Matt., v, 38. "Peace, be still."—Mark, iv, 39. "One God, world without end. Amen."—Com. Prayer.

"My fan, let others say, who laugh at toil; Fan! hood! glove! scarf! is her laconic style."—Young.

OBS. 5.—"Such Expressions as, Hand to Hand, Face to Face, Foot to Foot, are of the nature of Adverbs, and are of elliptical Construction: For the Meaning is, Hand OPPOSED to Hand, &c."—W. Ward's Gram., p. 100. This learned and ingenious author seems to suppose the former noun to be here put absolute with a participle understood; and this is probably the best way of explaining the construction both of that word and of the preposition that follows it. So Samson's phrase, "heaps upon heaps," may mean, "heaps being piled upon heaps;" and Scott's, "man to man, and steel to steel," may be interpreted, "man being opposed to man, and steel being opposed to steel:"

   "Now, man to man, and steel to steel,
    A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel."—Lady of the Lake.

OBS. 6.—Cobbett, after his own hasty and dogmatical manner, rejects the whole theory of nominatives absolute, and teaches his "soldiers, sailors, apprentices, and ploughboys," that, "The supposition, that there can be a noun, or pronoun, which has reference to no verb, and no preposition, is certainly a mistake."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 201. To sustain his position, he lays violent hands upon the plain truth, and even trips himself up in the act. Thus: "For want of a little thought, as to the matter immediately before us, some grammarians have found out 'an absolute case,' as they call it; and Mr. Lindley Murray gives an instance of it in these words: 'Shame being lost, all virtue is lost.' The full meaning of this sentence is this: 'It being, or the state of things being such, that shame is lost, all virtue is lost.'"—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 191. Again: "There must, you will bear in mind, always be a verb expressed or understood. One would think, that this was not the case in [some instances: as,] 'Sir, I beg you to give me a bit of bread.' The sentence which follows the Sir, is complete; but the Sir appears to stand wholly without connexion. However, the full meaning is this: 'I beg you, who are a Sir, to give me a bit of bread.' Now, if you take time to reflect a little on this matter, you will never be puzzled for a moment by those detached words, to suit which grammarians have invented vocative cases and cases absolute, and a great many other appellations, with which they puzzle themselves, and confuse and bewilder and torment those who read their books."—Ib., Let. xix, ¶¶ 225 and 226. All this is just like Cobbett. But, let his admirers reflect on the matter as long as they please, the two independent nominatives it and state, in the text, "It being, or the state of things being such," will forever stand a glaring confutation both of his doctrine and of his censure: "the case absolute" is there still! He has, in fact, only converted the single example into a double one!

OBS. 7.—The Irish philologer, J. W. Wright, is even more confident than Cobbett, in denouncing "the case absolute;" and more severe in his reprehension of "Grammarians in general, and Lowth and Murray in particular," for entertaining the idea of such a case. "Surprise must cease," says he, "on an acquaintance with the fact, that persons who imbibe such fantastical doctrine should be destitute of sterling information on the subject of English grammar.—The English language is a stranger to this case. We speak thus, with confidence, conscious of the justness of our opinion:—an opinion, not precipitately formed, but one which is the result of mature and deliberate inquiry. 'Shame being lost, all virtue is lost:' The meaning of this is,—'When shame is being lost, all virtue is lost.' Here, the words is being lost form the true present tense of the passive voice; in which voice, all verbs, thus expressed, are unsuspectedly situated: thus, agreeing with the noun shame, as the nominative of the first member of the sentence."—Wright's Philosophical Gram., p. 192. With all his deliberation, this gentleman has committed one oversight here, which, as it goes to contradict his scheme of the passive verb, some of his sixty venerable commenders ought to have pointed out to him. My old friend, the "Professor of Elocution in Columbia College," who finds by this work of "superior excellence," that "the nature of the verb, the most difficult part of grammar, has been, at length, satisfactorily explained," ought by no means, after his "very attentive examination" of the book, to have left this service to me. In the clause, "all virtue is lost," the passive verb "is lost" has the form which Murray gave it—the form which, till within a year or two, all men supposed to be the only right one; but, according to this new philosophy of the language, all men have been as much in error in this matter, as in their notion of the nominative absolute. If Wright's theory of the verb is correct, the only just form of the foregoing expression is, "all virtue is being lost." If this central position is untenable, his management of the nominative absolute falls of course. To me, the inserting of the word being into all our passive verbs, seems the most monstrous absurdity ever broached in the name of grammar. The threescore certifiers to the accuracy of that theory, have, I trow, only recorded themselves as so many ignoramuses; for there are more than threescore myriads of better judgements against them.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VIII.

NOUNS OR PRONOUNS PUT ABSOLUTE.

"Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed."—Brown's Inst., p. 190.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun him, whose case depends on no other word, is in the objective case. But, according to Rule 8th, "A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word." Therefore, him should be he; thus, "He having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed."]

"Me being young, they deceived me."—Inst. E. Gram., p. 190. "Them refusing to comply, I withdrew."—Ib. "Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew."—Ib. "The child is lost; and me, whither shall I go?"—Ib. "Oh! happy us, surrounded with so many blessings."—Murray's Key, p. 187; Merchant's, 197; Smith's New Gram., 96; Farnum's, 63. "'Thee, too! Brutus, my son!' cried Cæsar, overcome."—Brown's Inst., p. 190. "Thee! Maria! and so late! and who is thy companion?"—New-York Mirror, Vol. x, p. 353. "How swiftly our time passes away! and ah! us, how little concerned to improve it!"—Comly's Gram., Key, p. 192.

   "There all thy gifts and graces we display,
    Thee, only thee, directing all our way."

CHAPTER IV.—ADJECTIVES.

The syntax of the English Adjective is fully embraced in the following brief rule, together with the exceptions, observations, and notes, which are, in due order, subjoined.

RULE IX.—ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns: as, "Miserable comforters are ye all"—Job, xvi, 2. "No worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires and powers of an immortal spirit."—Blair.

   "Whatever faction's partial notions are,
    No hand is wholly innocent in war."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. vii, l. 191.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of an intervening verb; as, "To insult the afflicted, is impious"—Dillwyn. "That he should refuse, is not strange"—"To err is human." Murray says, "Human belongs to its substantive 'nature' understood."—Gram., p. 233. From this I dissent.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

In combined arithmetical numbers, one adjective often relates to an other, and the whole phrase, to a subsequent noun; as, "One thousand four hundred and fifty-six men."—"Six dollars and eighty-seven and a half cents for every five days' service."—"In the one hundred and twenty-second year."—"One seven times more than it was wont to be heated."—Daniel, iii, 19.

EXCEPTION THIRD.

With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly; (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To be sincere, is to be wise, innocent, and safe."—Hawkesworth. "Capacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or hold."—Crabb's Synonymes. "Indeed, the main secret of being sublime, is to say great things in few and plain words."—Hiley's Gram., p. 215. "Concerning being free from sin in heaven, there is no question."—Barclay's Works, iii, 437. Better: "Concerning freedom from sin," &c.

EXCEPTION FOURTH.

Adjectives are sometimes substituted for their corresponding abstract nouns; (perhaps, in most instances, elliptically, like Greek neuters;) as, "The sensations of sublime and beautiful are not always distinguished by very distant boundaries."—Blair's Rhet., p. 47. That is, "of sublimity and beauty." "The faults opposite to the sublime are chiefly two: the frigid, and the bombast"—Ib., p. 44. Better: "The faults opposite to sublimity, are chiefly two; frigidity and bombast." "Yet the ruling character of the nation was that of barbarous and cruel."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 26. That is, "of barbarity and cruelty." "In a word, agreeable and disagreeable are qualities of the objects we perceive," &c.—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 99. "Polished, or refined, was the idea which the author had in view."—Blair's Rhet., p. 219.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IX.

OBS. 1.—Adjectives often relate to nouns or pronouns understood; as, "A new sorrow recalls all the former" [sorrows].—Art of Thinking, p. 31. [The place] "Farthest from him is best."—Milton, P. L. "To whom they all gave heed, from the least [person] to the greatest" [person].—Acts, viii, 10. "The Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, a great God, a mighty [God], and a terrible" [God].—Deut., x, 17. "Every one can distinguish an angry from a placid, a cheerful from a melancholy, a thoughtful from a thoughtless, and a dull from a penetrating, countenance."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 192. Here the word countenance is understood seven times; for eight different countenances are spoken of. "He came unto his own [possessions], and his own [men] received him not."—John, i, 11. The Rev. J. G. Cooper, has it: "He came unto his own (creatures,) and his own (creatures) received him not."—Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 44. This ambitious editor of Virgil, abridger of Murray, expounder of the Bible, and author of several "new and improved" grammars, (of different languages,) should have understood this text, notwithstanding the obscurity of our version. "[Greek: Eis ta idia ælthe. kai oi idioi auton ou parelabon]."—"In propria venit, et proprii eum non receperunt."—Montanus. "Ad sua venit, et sui eum non exceperunt."—Beza. "Il est venu chez soi; et les siens ne l'ont point reçu."—French Bible. Sometimes the construction of the adjective involves an ellipsis of several words, and those perhaps the principal parts of the clause; as, "The sea appeared to be agitated more than [in that degree which is] usual."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 217. "During the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little as [in the least] possible" [degree].—Blair's Rhet., p. 107; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 312.

   "Presumptuous man! the reason wouldst thou find,
    Why [thou art] form'd so weak, so little, and so blind"
        —Pope.

OBS. 2.—Because qualities belong only to things, most grammarians teach, that, "Adjectives are capable of being added to nouns only."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 26. Or, as Murray expresses the doctrine: "Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood."—Octavo Gram., p. 161. "The adjective always relates to a substantive."—Ib., p. 169. This teaching, which is alike repugnant to the true definition of an adjective, to the true rule for its construction, and to all the exceptions to this rule, is but a sample of that hasty sort of induction, which is ever jumping to false conclusions for want of a fair comprehension of the facts in point. The position would not be tenable, even if all our pronouns were admitted to be nouns, or "substantives;" and, if these two parts of speech are to be distinguished, the consequence must be, that Murray supposes a countless number of unnecessary and absurd ellipses. It is sufficiently evident, that in the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate immediately to pronouns, and only through them to the nouns which they represent. Examples: "I should like to know who has been carried off, except poor dear me."—Byron. "To poor us there is not much hope remaining."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p 204. "It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, marks the difference between prose and verse."—Murray's Gram., p. 260. "And sometimes after them both."—Ib., p. 196. "All men hail'd me happy."—Milton. "To receive unhappy me."—Dryden. "Superior to them all."—Blair's Rhet., p. 419. "They returned to their own country, full of the discoveries which they had made."—Ib., p. 350. "All ye are brethren."—Matt., xxiii, 8. "And him only shalt thou serve."—Matt., iv, 10.

   "Go wiser thou, and in thy scale of sense
    Weigh thy opinion against Providence."—Pope.

OBS. 3.—When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by a noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb; as, "I am glad that the door is made wide."—"An unbounded prospect doth not long continue agreeable."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 244. "Every thing which is false, vicious, or unworthy, is despicable to him, though all the world should approve it."—Spectator, No. 520. Here false, vicious, and unworthy, relate to which; and despicable relates to thing. The practice of Murray and his followers, of supplying a "substantive" in all such cases, is absurd. "When the Adjective forms the Attribute of a Proposition, it belongs to the noun [or pronoun] which serves as the Subject of the Proposition, and cannot be joined to any other noun, since it is of the Subject that we affirm the quality expressed by this Adjective."—De Sacy, on General Gram., p. 37. In some peculiar phrases, however, such as, to fall short of, to make bold with, to set light by, the adjective has such a connexion with the verb, that it may seem questionable how it ought to be explained in parsing. Examples: (1.) "This latter mode of expression falls short of the force and vehemence of the former."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 353. Some will suppose the word short to be here used adverbially, or to qualify falls only; but perhaps it may as well be parsed as an adjective, forming a predicate with "falls," and relating to "mode," the nominative. (2.) "And that I have made so bold with thy glorious Majesty."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 156. This expression is perhaps elliptical: it may mean, "that I have made myself so bold," &c. (3.) "Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his mother: and all the people shall say, Amen."—Deut., xxvii, 16. This may mean, "that setteth light esteem or estimation," &c.

OBS. 4.—When an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle, the noun or pronoun to which it relates, is sometimes before it, and sometimes after it, and often considerably remote; as, "A real gentleman cannot but practice those virtues which, by an intimate knowledge of mankind, he has found to be useful to them."—"He [a melancholy enthusiast] thinks himself obliged in duty to be sad and disconsolate."—Addison. "He is scandalized at youth for being lively, and at childhood for being playful."—Id. "But growing weary of one who almost walked him out of breath, he left him for Horace and Anacreon."—Steele.

OBS. 5.—Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often used, by ellipsis, as nouns; as, the learned, for learned men. Such phrases usually designate those classes of persons or things, which are characterized by the qualities they express; and this, the reader must observe, is a use quite different from that substitution of adjectives for nouns, which is noticed in the fourth exception above. In our language, the several senses in which adjectives may thus be taken, are not distinguished with that clearness which the inflections of other tongues secure. Thus, the noble, the vile, the excellent, or the beautiful, may be put for three extra constructions: first, for noble persons, vile persons, &c.; secondly, for the noble man, the vile man, &c.; thirdly, for the abstract qualities, nobility, vileness, excellence, beauty. The last-named usage forms an exception to the rule; in the other two the noun is understood, and should be supplied by the parser. Such terms, if elliptical, are most commonly of the plural number, and refer to the word persons or things understood; as, "The careless and the imprudent, the giddy and the fickle, the ungrateful and the interested, everywhere meet us."—Blair. Here the noun persons is to be six times supplied. "Wherever there is taste, the witty and the humorous make themselves perceived."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 21. Here the author meant, simply, the qualities wit and humour, and he ought to have used these words, because the others are equivocal, and are more naturally conceived to refer to persons. In the following couplet, the noun places or things is understood after "open," and again after "covert," which last word is sometimes misprinted "coverts:"

   "Together let us beat this ample field,
    Try what the open, what the covert, yield."—Pope, on Man.

OBS. 6.—The adjective, in English, is generally placed immediately before its noun; as, "Vain man! is grandeur given to gay attire?"—Beattie. Those adjectives which relate to pronouns, most commonly follow them; as, "They left me weary on a grassy turf."—Milton. But to both these general rules there are many exceptions; for the position of an adjective may be varied by a variety of circumstances, not excepting the mere convenience of emphasis: as, "And Jehu said, Unto which of all us?"—2 Kings, ix, 5. In the following instances the adjective is placed after the word to which it relates:

1. When other words depend on the adjective, or stand before it to qualify it; as, "A mind conscious of right,"—"A wall three feet thick,"—"A body of troops fifty thousand strong."

2. When the quality results from an action, or receives its application through a verb or participle; as, "Virtue renders life happy."—"He was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza."—1 Kings, xvi, 9. "All men agree to call vinegar sour, honey sweet, and aloes bitter."—Burke, on Taste, p. 38. "God made thee perfect, not immutable."—Milton.

3. When the quality excites admiration, and the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive; as, "Goodness infinite,"—"Wisdom unsearchable."—Murray.

4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun; as, "Truth stands independent of all external things."—Burgh. "Honour is not seemly for a fool."—Solomon.

5. When the adjective is formed by means of the prefix a; as, afraid, alert, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware, averse, ashamed, askew. To these may be added a few other words; as, else, enough, extant, extinct, fraught, pursuant.

6. When the adjective has the nature, but not the form, of a participle; as, "A queen regnant,"—"The prince regent,"—"The heir apparent,"—"A lion, not rampant, but couchant or dormant"—"For the time then present."

OBS. 7.—In some instances, the adjective may either precede or follow its noun; and the writer may take his choice, in respect to its position: as, 1. In poetry—provided the sense be obvious; as,

    —————————"Wilt thou to the isles
    Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime,
    Fly in the train of Autumn?"
        —Akenside, P. of I., Book i, p. 27.

    ——————————————-"Wilt thou fly
    With laughing Autumn to the Atlantic isles,
    And range with him th' Hesperian field?"
        —Id. Bucke's Gram., p. 120.

2. When technical usage favours one order, and common usage an other; as, "A notary public," or, "A public notary;"—"The heir presumptive," or, "The presumptive heir."—See Johnson's Dict., and Webster's.

3. When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, "A Being infinitely wise," or, "An infinitely wise Being." Murray, Comly, and others, here approve only the former order; but the latter is certainly not ungrammatical.

4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun; as, "A woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensible, and virtuous woman." Here again, Murray, Comly, and others, approve only the former order; but I judge the latter to be quite as good.

5. When the adjective is emphatic, it may be foremost in the sentence, though the natural order of the words would bring it last; as, "Weighty is the anger of the righteous."—Bible. "Blessed are the pure in heart."—Ib. "Great is the earth, high is the heaven, swift is the sun in his course."—1 Esdras, iv, 34. "The more laborious the life is, the less populous is the country."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 151.

6. When the adjective and its noun both follow a verb as parts of the predicate, either may possibly come before the other, yet the arrangement is fixed by the sense intended: thus there is a great difference between the assertions, "We call the boy good," and, "We call the good boy"

OBS. 8.—By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb; as, "In particular;" that is, "In a particular manner;" equivalent to particularly. So "in general" is equivalent to generally. It has already been suggested, that, in parsing, the scholar should here supply the ellipsis. See Obs. 3d, under Rule vii.

OBS. 9.—Though English adjectives are, for the most part, incapable of any agreement, yet such of them as denote unity or plurality, ought in general to have nouns of the same number: as, this man, one man, two men, many men.[372] In phrases of this form, the rule is well observed; but in some peculiar ways of numbering things, it is commonly disregarded; for certain nouns are taken in a plural sense without assuming the plural termination. Thus people talk of many stone of cheese,—many sail of vessels,—many stand of arms,—many head of cattle,—many dozen of eggs,—many brace of partridges,—many pair of shoes. So we read in the Bible of "two hundred pennyworth of bread," and "twelve manner of fruits." In all such phraseology, there is, in regard to the form of the latter word, an evident disagreement of the adjective with its immediate noun; but sometimes, (where the preposition of does not occur,) expressions that seem somewhat like these, may be elliptical: as when historians tell of many thousand foot (soldiers), or many hundred horse (troops). To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may precede a plural one; as, "One hundred men,"—"Every six weeks." And to denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like manner, precede an or a with a singular noun; as, "The Odyssey entertains us with many a wonderful adventure, and many a landscape of nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 436." There starts up many a writer."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 306.

   "Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
    And waste its sweetness on the desert air."—Gray.

OBS. 10.—Though this and that cannot relate to plurals, many writers do not hesitate to place them before singulars taken conjointly, which are equivalent to plurals; as, "This power and will do necessarily produce that which man is empowered to do."—Sale's Koran, i, 229. "That sobriety and self-denial which are essential to the support of virtue."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 218. "This modesty and decency were looked upon by them as a law of nature."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 45. Here the plural forms, these and those, cannot be substituted; but the singular may be repeated, if the repetition be thought necessary. Yet, when these same pronominal adjectives are placed after the nouns to suggest the things again, they must be made plural; as, "Modesty and decency were thus carefully guarded, for these were looked upon as being enjoined by the law of nature."

OBS. 11.—In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs is improper; but, in poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is sometimes elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or participle; as; "Gradual sinks the breeze Into a perfect calm."—Thomson's Seasons, p. 34. "To Thee I bend the knee; to Thee my thoughts Continual climb."—Ib., p. 48. "As on he walks Graceful, and crows defiance."—Ib., p. 56. "As through the falling glooms Pensive I stray."—Ib., p. 80. "They, sportive, wheel; or, sailing down the stream, Are snatch'd immediate by the quick-eyed trout."—Ib., p. 82. "Incessant still you flow."—Ib., p. 91. "The shatter'd clouds Tumultuous rove, the interminable sky Sublimer swells."—Ib., p. 116. In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjective or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the definitions of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case in question, quality is to be expressed, or manner: if the former, an adjective is always proper; if the latter, an adverb. That is, in this case, the adverb, though not always required in poetry, is specially requisite in prose. The following examples will illustrate this point: "She looks cold;"—"She looks coldly on him."—"I sat silent;"—"I sat silently musing."—"Stand firm; maintain your cause firmly." See Etymology, Chap, viii, Obs. 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th, on the Modifications of Adverbs.

OBS. 12.—In English, an adjective and its noun are often taken as a sort of compound term, to which other adjectives may be added; as, "An old man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old man."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 169; Brit. Gram., 195; Buchanan's, 79. "Of an other determinate positive new birth, subsequent to baptism, we know nothing."—West's Letters, p. 183. When adjectives are thus accumulated, the subsequent ones should convey such ideas as the former may consistently qualify, otherwise the expression will be objectionable. Thus the ordinal adjectives, first, second, third, next, and last, may qualify the cardinal numbers, but they cannot very properly be qualified by them. When, therefore, we specify any part of a series, the cardinal adjective ought, by good right, to follow the ordinal, and not, as in the following phrase, be placed before it: "In reading the nine last chapters of John."—Fuller. Properly speaking, there is but one last chapter in any book. Say, therefore, "the last nine chapters;" for, out of the twenty-one chapters in John, a man may select several different nines. (See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 7th, on the Degrees of Comparison.) When one of the adjectives merely qualifies the other, they should be joined together by a hyphen; as, "A red-hot iron."—"A dead-ripe melon." And when both or all refer equally and solely to the noun, they ought either to be connected by a conjunction, or to be separated by a comma. The following example is therefore faulty: "It is the business of an epic poet, to form a probable interesting tale."—Blair's Rhet., p. 427. Say, "probable and interesting;" or else insert a comma in lieu of the conjunction.

   "Around him wide a sable army stand,
    A low-born, cell-bred, selfish, servile band."
        —Dunciad, B. ii, l. 355.

OBS. 13.—Dr. Priestley has observed: "There is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the negative adjective no; and I do not see," says he, "how it can be remedied in any language. If I say, 'No laws are better than the English,' it is only my known sentiments that can inform a person whether I mean to praise, or dispraise them."—Priestley's Gram., p. 136. It may not be possible to remove the ambiguity from the phraseology here cited, but it is easy enough to avoid the form, and say in stead of it, "The English laws are worse than none," or, "The English laws are as good as any;" and, in neither of these expressions, is there any ambiguity, though the other may doubtless be taken in either of these senses. Such an ambiguity is sometimes used on purpose: as when one man says of an other, "He is no small knave;" or, "He is no small fool."

   "There liv'd in primo Georgii (they record)
    A worthy member, no small fool, a lord."—Pope, p. 409.

NOTES TO RULE IX.

NOTE I.—Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number: as, "That sort, those sorts;"—"This hand, these hands." [373]

NOTE II.—When the adjective is necessarily plural, or necessarily singular, the noun should be made so too: as, "Twenty pounds" not, "Twenty pound;"—"Four feet long," not, "Four foot long;"—"One session" not, "One sessions."

NOTE III.—The reciprocal expression, one an other, should not be applied to two objects, nor each other, or one the other, to more than two; as, "Verse and prose, on some occasions, run into one another, like light and shade."—Blair's Rhet., p. 377; Jamieson's, 298. Say, "into each other" "For mankind have always been butchering each other"—Webster's Essays, p. 151. Say, "one an other" See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th, on the Classes of Adjectives.

NOTE IV.—When the comparative degree is employed with than, the latter term of comparison should never include the former; nor the former the latter: as, "Iron is more useful than all the metals"—"All the metals are less useful than iron." In either case, it should be, "all the other metals,"

NOTE V.—When the superlative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison, which is introduced by of, should never exclude the former; as, "A fondness for show, is, of all other follies, the most vain." Here the word other should be expunged; for this latter term must include the former: that is, the fondness for show must be one of the follies of which it is the vainest.

NOTE VI.—When equality is denied, or inequality affirmed, neither term of the comparison should ever include the other; because every thing must needs be equal to itself, and it is absurd to suggest that a part surpasses the whole: as, "No writings whatever abound so much with the bold and animated figures, as the sacred books."—Blair's Rhet., p. 414. Say, "No other writings whatever;" because the sacred books are "writings" See Etymology, Chap, iv, Obs. 6th, on Regular Comparison.

NOTE VII.—Comparative terminations, and adverbs of degree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible of comparison; and all double comparatives and double superlatives should be avoided: as, "So universal a complaint:" say rather, "So general."—"Some less nobler plunder:" say, "less noble"—"The most straitest sect:" expunge most. See Etymology, Chap, iv, from Obs. 5th to Obs. 13th, on Irregular Comparison.[374]

NOTE VIII.—When adjectives are connected by and, or, or nor, the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first; as, "He is older and more respectable than his brother." To say, "more respectable and older" would be obviously inelegant, as possibly involving the inaccuracy of "more older."

NOTE IX.—When one adjective is superadded to an other without a conjunction expressed or understood, the most distinguishing quality must be expressed next to the noun, and the latter must be such as the former may consistently qualify; as, "An agreeable young man," not, "A young agreeable man."—"The art of speaking, like all other practical arts, may be facilitated by rules,"—Enfield's Speaker, p. 10. Example of error: "The Anglo-Saxon language possessed, for the two first persons, a Dual number."—Fowler's E. Gram., 1850, p. 59. Say, "the first two persons;" for the second of three can hardly be one of the first; and "two first" with the second and third added, will clearly make more than three. See Obs. 12th, above.

NOTE X.—In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is a vulgar error; the adverb alone being proper, when manner or degree is to be expressed, and not quality; as, "He writes elegant;" say, "elegantly."—"It is a remarkable good likeness;" say, "remarkably good."

NOTE XI.—The pronoun them should never be used as an adjective, in lieu of those: say, "I bought those books;" not, "them books." This also is a vulgar error, and chiefly confined to the conversation of the unlearned.[375]

NOTE XII.—When the pronominal adjectives, this and that, or these and those, are contrasted; this or these should represent the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those the former: as,

   "And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can,
    In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man."—Pope.

    "Farewell my friends! farewell my foes!
    My peace with these, my love with those!"—Burns.

NOTE XIII.—The pronominal adjectives either and neither, in strict propriety of syntax, relate to two things only; when more are referred to, any and none, or any one and no one, should be used in stead of them: as, "Any of the three," or, "Any one of the three;" not, "Either of the three."—"None of the four," or, "No one of the four;" not, "Neither of the four." [376]

NOTE XIV.—The adjective whole must not be used in a plural sense, for all; nor less, in the sense of fewer; nor more or most, in any ambiguous construction, where it may be either an adverb of degree, or an adjective of number or quantity: as, "Almost the whole inhabitants were present."—HUME: see Priestley's Gram., p. 190.[377] Say, "Almost all the inhabitants." "No less than three dictionaries have been published to correct it."—Dr. Webster. Say, "No fewer." "This trade enriched some people more than them."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 215. This passage is not clear in its import: it may have either of two meanings. Say, "This trade enriched some other people, besides them." Or, "This trade enriched some others more than it did them."

NOTE XV.—Participial adjectives retain the termination, but not the government of participles; when, therefore, they are followed by the objective case, a preposition must be inserted to govern it: as, "The man who is most sparing of his words, is generally most deserving of attention."

NOTE XVI.—When the figure of any adjective affects the syntax and sense of the sentence, care must be taken to give to the word or words that form, simple or compound, which suits the true meaning and construction. Examples: "He is forehead bald, yet he is clean."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Lev., xiii, 41. Say, "forehead-bald.,"—ALGER'S BIBLE, and SCOTT'S. "From such phrases as, 'New England scenery,' convenience requires the omission of the hyphen."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 89. This is a false notion. Without the hyphen, the phrase properly means, "New scenery in England;" but New-England scenery is scenery in New England. "'Many coloured wings,' means many wings which are coloured; but 'many-coloured wings' means wings of many colours."—Blair's Gram., p. 116.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IX.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.

"I am not recommending these kind of sufferings to your liking."—BP.
SHERLOCK: Lowth's Gram., p. 87.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adjective these is plural, and does not agree with its noun kind, which is singular. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 9th: "Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouns in number." Therefore, these should be this; thus, "I am not recommending this kind of sufferings."]

"I have not been to London this five years."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 152. "These kind of verbs are more expressive than their radicals."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., Vol. ii, p. 163. "Few of us would be less corrupted than kings are, were we, like them, beset with flatterers, and poisoned with that vermin."—Art of Thinking, p. 66. "But it seems this literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours."—Roderick Random, Vol. ii, p. 87. "If I had not left off troubling myself about those kind of things."—Swift. "For these sort of things are usually join'd to the most noted fortune."—Bacon's Essays, p. 101. "The nature of that riches and long-suffering is, to lead to repentance."—Barclay's Works, iii, 380. "I fancy they are these kind of gods, which Horace mentions."—Addison, on Medals, p. 74. "During that eight days they are prohibited from touching the skin."—Hope of Israel, p. 78. "Besides, he had not much provisions left for his army."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 86. "Are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities?"—Ib., p. 192. "It distinguisheth still more remarkably the feelings of the former from that of the latter."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. xvii. "And this good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world."—Campbell's Gospels, Matt., xxiv, 14. "This twenty years have I been with thee."—Gen., xxxi, 38. "In these kind of expressions some words seem to be understood."—Walker's Particles, p. 179. "He thought these kind of excesses indicative of greatness."—Hunt's Byron, p. 117. "These sort of fellows are very numerous."—Spect., No. 486. "Whereas these sort of men cannot give account of their faith."—Barclay's Works, i, 444. "But the question is, whether that be the words."—Ib., iii, 321. "So that these sort of Expressions are not properly Optative."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 276. "Many things are not that which they appear to be."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 176. "So that every possible means are used."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. iv.

   "We have strict statutes, and most biting laws,
    Which for this nineteen years we have let sleep."—Shak.

    "They could not speak; and so I left them both,
    To bear this tidings to the bloody king."—Id., Richard III.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF FIXED NUMBERS.

"Why, I think she cannot be above six foot two inches high."—Spect., No. 533. "The world is pretty regular for about forty rod east and ten west."—Ib., No. 535. "The standard being more than two foot above it."—BACON: Joh. Dict., w. Standard. "Supposing (among other Things) he saw two Suns, and two Thebes."—Bacon's Wisdom, p. 25. "On the right hand we go into a parlour thirty three foot by thirty nine."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 258. "Three pound of gold went to one shield."—1 Kings, x, 17. "Such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that sessions."—The Friend, x, 389. "And, truly, he hath saved me this pains."—Barclay's Works, ii, 266. "Within this three mile may you see it coming."—SHAK.: Joh. Dict., w. Mile. "Most of the churches, not all, had one or more ruling elder."—Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., i, 375. "While a Minute Philosopher, not six foot high, attempts to dethrone the Monarch of the universe."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 151. "The wall is ten foot high."—Harrison's Gram., p. 50. "The stalls must be ten foot broad."—Walker's Particles, p. 201. "A close prisoner in a room twenty foot square, being at the north side of his chamber, is at liberty to walk twenty foot southward, not to walk twenty foot northward."—LOCKE: Joh. Dict., w. Northward. "Nor, after all this pains and industry, did they think themselves qualified."—Columbian Orator, p. 13. "No less than thirteen gypsies were condemned at one Suffolk assizes, and executed."—Webster's Essays, p. 333. "The king was petitioned to appoint one, or more, person, or persons."—MACAULAY: Priestley's Gram., p. 194. "He carries weight! he rides a race! 'Tis for a thousand pound!"—Cowper's Poems, i, 279. "They carry three tire of guns at the head, and at the stern there are two tire of guns."—Joh. Dict., w. Galleass. "The verses consist of two sort of rhymes."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 112. "A present of 40 camel's load of the most precious things of Syria."—Wood's Dict., Vol. i, p. 162. "A large grammar, that shall extend to every minutiæ."—S. Barrett's Gram., Tenth Ed., Pref., p. iii.

   "So many spots, like næves on Venus' soil,
    One jewel set off with so many foil."—Dryden.

    "For, of the lower end, two handful
    It had devour'd, it was so manful."—Hudibras, i, 365.

UNDER NOTE III.—OF RECIPROCALS.

"That shall and will might be substituted for one another."—Priestley's Gram., p. 131. "We use not shall and will promiscuously for one another."—Brightland's Gram., p. 110. "But I wish to distinguish the three high ones from each other also."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 13. "Or on some other relation, which two objects bear to one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 142. "Yet the two words lie so near to one another in meaning, that in the present case, any one of them, perhaps, would have been sufficient."—Ib., p. 203. "Both orators use great liberties with one another."—Ib., p. 244. "That greater separation of the two sexes from one another."—Ib., p. 466. "Most of whom live remote from each other."—Webster's Essays, p. 39. "Teachers like to see their pupils polite to each other."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 28. "In a little time, he and I must keep company with one another only."—Spect., No. 474. "Thoughts and circumstances crowd upon each other."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 32. "They cannot see how the ancient Greeks could understand each other."—Literary Convention, p. 96. "The spirit of the poet, the patriot, and the prophet, vied with each other in his breast."—Hazlitt's Lect., p. 112. "Athamas and Ino loved one another."—Classic Tales, p. 91. "Where two things are compared or contrasted to one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 119. "Where two things are compared, or contrasted, with one another."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 324. "In the classification of words, almost all writers differ from each other."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. iv.

   "I will not trouble thee, my child. Farewell;
    We'll no more meet; no more see one another."—Shak. Lear.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF COMPARATIVES.

"Errours in Education should be less indulged than any."—Locke, on Ed., p. iv. "This was less his case than any man's that ever wrote."—Pref. to Waller. "This trade enriched some people more than it enriched them." [378]—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 215. "The Chaldee alphabet, in which the Old Testament has reached us, is more beautiful than any ancient character known."—Wilson's Essay, p. 5. "The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any religion ever did."—Murray's Key, p. 169. "The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any in New Spain."—Robertson's America, ii, 477. "Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than ever was writ."—Pope. "Shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature, than any writer."—Blair's Rhet., p. 468. "One son I had—one, more than all my sons, the strength of Troy."—Cowper's Homer. "Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old age."—Gen., xxxvii, 3.

UNDER NOTE V.—OF SUPERLATIVES.

"Of all other simpletons, he was the greatest."—Nutting's English Idioms. "Of all other beings, man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude."—Ibid., Gram., p. 110. "This lady is the prettiest of all her sisters."—Peyton's Elements of Eng. Lang., p. 39. "The relation which, of all others, is by far the most fruitful of tropes, I have not yet mentioned."—Blair's Rhet., p. 141. "He studied Greek the most of any nobleman."—Walker's Particles, p. 231. "And indeed that was the qualification of all others most wanted at that time."—Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 35. "Yet we deny that the knowledge of him, as outwardly crucified, is the best of all other knowledge of him."—Barclay's Works, i, 144. "Our ideas of numbers are of all others the most accurate and distinct."—Duncan's Logic, p. 35. "This indeed is of all others the case when it can be least necessary to name the agent."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., i, 231. "The period, to which you have arrived, is perhaps the most critical and important of any moment of your lives."—Ib., i, 394. "Perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of any pronouncing Dictionary yet known."—Red Book, p. x. "This is the tenth persecution, and of all the foregoing, the most bloody."—Sammes's Antiquities, Chap. xiii. "The English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of any language in the world."—See Bucke's Gram., p. 141. "Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest Invention of any writer whatever."—Pope's Preface to Homer. "In a version of this particular work, which most of any other seems to require a venerable antique cast."—Ib. "Because I think him the best informed of any naturalist who has ever written."— Jefferson's Notes, p. 82. "Man is capable of being the most social of any animal."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 145. "It is of all others that which most moves us."—Ib., p. 158. "Which of all others, is the most necessary article."—Ib., p. 166.

   "Quoth he 'this gambol thou advisest,
    Is, of all others, the unwisest.'"—Hudibras, iii, 316.

UNDER NOTE VI.—INCLUSIVE TERMS. "Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the flood."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 101. "I think it superior to any work of that nature we have yet had."—Dr. Blair's Rec. in Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 300. "We have had no grammarian who has employed so much labour and judgment upon our native language, as the author of these volumes."—British Critic, ib., ii, 299. "No persons feel so much the distresses of others, as they who have experienced distress themselves."—Murray's Key, 8vo., p. 227. "Never was any people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation."—Ib., p. 185; Frazee's Gram., p. 135. "No tongue is so full of connective particles as the Greek."—Blair's Rhet., p. 85. "Never sovereign was so much beloved by the people."—Murray's Exercises, R. xv, p. 68. "No sovereign was ever so much beloved by the people."—Murray's Key, p. 202. "Nothing ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child."—Ib., p. 203; Merchant's, 195. "Of all the figures of speech, none comes so near to painting as metaphor."—Blair's Rhet., p. 142; Jamieson's, 149. "I know none so happy in his metaphors as Mr. Addison."—Blair's Rhet., p. 150. "Of all the English authors, none is so happy in his metaphors as Addison."—Jamieson's, Rhet., p. 157. "Perhaps no writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as Aristotle."—Blair, p. 177; Jamieson, 251. "Never was any writer so happy in that concise spirited style as Mr. Pope."—Blair's Rhet., p. 403. "In the harmonious structure and disposition of periods, no writer whatever, ancient or modern, equals Cicero."—Blair, 121; Jamieson, 123. "Nothing delights me so much as the works of nature."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 150. "No person was ever so perplexed as he has been to-day."—Murray's Key, ii, 216. "In no case are writers so apt to err as in the position of the word only."—Maunder's Gram., p. 15. "For nothing is so tiresome as perpetual uniformity."—Blair's Rhet., p. 102.

   "No writing lifts exalted man so high,
    As sacred and soul-moving poesy."—Sheffield.

UNDER NOTE VII.—EXTRA COMPARISONS.

"How much more are ye better than the fowls!"—Luke, xii, 24. "Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest."—2 Esdras, iv, 34. "This word peer is most principally used for the nobility of the realm."—Cowell. "Because the same is not only most universally received," &c.—Barclay's Works, i, 447. "This is, I say, not the best and most principal evidence."—Ib., iii, 41. "Offer unto God thanksgiving, and pay thy vows unto the Most Highest."—The Psalter, Ps. 1, 14. "The holy place of the tabernacle of the Most Highest."—Ib., Ps. xlvi, 4. "As boys should be educated with temperance, so the first greatest lesson that should be taught them is to admire frugality."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 152. "More universal terms are put for such as are more restricted."—Brown's Metaphors, p. 11. "This was the most unkindest cut of all."—Dodd's Beauties of Shak., p. 251; Singer's Shak., ii, 264. "To take the basest and most poorest shape."—Dodd's Shak., p. 261. "I'll forbear: and am fallen out with my more headier will."—Ib., p. 262. "The power of the Most Highest guard thee from sin."—Percival, on Apostolic Succession, p. 90. "Which title had been more truer, if the dictionary had been in Latin and Welch."—VERSTEGAN: Harrison's E. Lang., p. 254. "The waters are more sooner and harder frozen, than more further upward, within the inlands."—Id., ib. "At every descent, the worst may become more worse."—H. MANN: Louisville Examiner, 8vo, Vol. i, p. 149.

   "Or as a moat defensive to a house
    Against the envy of less happier lands."—Shakspeare.

    "A dreadful quiet felt, and worser far
    Than arms, a sullen interval of war."—Dryden.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"It breaks forth in its most energetick, impassioned, and highest strain."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 66. "He has fallen into the most gross and vilest sort of railing."—Barclay's Works, iii, 261. "To receive that more general and higher instruction which the public affords."—District School, p. 281. "If the best things have the perfectest and best operations."—HOOKER: Joh. Dict. "It became the plainest and most elegant, the most splendid and richest, of all languages."—See Bucke's Gram., p. 140. "But the most frequent and the principal use of pauses, is, to mark the divisions of the sense."—Blair's Rhet., p. 331; Murray's Gram., 248. "That every thing belonging to ourselves is the perfectest and the best."—Clarkson's Prize Essay, p. 189. "And to instruct their pupils in the most thorough and best manner."—Report of a School Committee.

UNDER NOTE IX.—ADJECTIVES SUPERADDED.

"The Father is figured out as an old venerable man."—Dr. Brownlee's Controversy. "There never was exhibited such another masterpiece of ghostly assurance."—Id. "After the three first sentences, the question is entirely lost."—Spect., No, 476. "The four last parts of speech are commonly called particles."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 14. "The two last chapters will not be found deficient in this respect."—Student's Manual, p. 6. "Write upon your slates a list of the ten first nouns."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 85. "We have a few remains of other two Greek poets in the pastoral style, Moschus and Bion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 393. "The nine first chapters of the book of Proverbs are highly poetical."—Ib., p. 417. "For of these five heads, only the two first have any particular relation to the sublime."—Ib., p. 35. "The resembling sounds of the two last syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 69. "The three last are arbitrary."—Ib., p. 72. "But in the phrase 'She hangs the curtains,' the verb hangs is a transitive active verb."—Comly's Gram., p. 30. "If our definition of a verb, and the arrangement of transitive or intransitive active, passive, and neuter verbs, are properly understood."—Ib., 15th Ed., p. 30. "These two last lines have an embarrassing construction."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 160. "God was provoked to drown them all, but Noah and other seven persons."—Wood's Dict., ii, 129. "The six first books of the Æneid are extremely beautiful."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 27. "A few more instances only can be given here."—Murray's Gram., p. 131. "A few more years will obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form."—Nutting's Gram., p. 46. "Some define them to be verbs devoid of the two first persons."—Crombie's Treatise, p. 205. "In such another Essay-tract as this."—White's English Verb, p. 302. "But we fear that not such another man is to be found."—REV. ED. IRVING: on Horne's Psalms, p. xxiii.

   "Oh such another sleep, that I might see
    But such another man!"—SHAK., Antony and Cleopatra.

UNDER NOTE X.—ADJECTIVES FOR ADVERBS.

"The is an article, relating to the noun balm, agreeable to Rule 11."—Comly's Gram., p. 133. "Wise is an adjective relating to the noun man's, agreeable to Rule 11th."—Ibid., 12th Ed., often. "To whom I observed, that the beer was extreme good."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 127. "He writes remarkably elegant."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 152. "John behaves truly civil to all men."—Ib., p. 153. "All the sorts of words hitherto considered have each of them some meaning, even when taken separate."—Beattie's Moral Science, i, 44. "He behaved himself conformable to that blessed example."—Sprat's Sermons, p. 80. "Marvellous graceful."—Clarendon, Life, p. 18. "The Queen having changed her ministry suitable to her wisdom."—Swift, Exam., No. 21. "The assertions of this author are easier detected."—Swift: censured in Lowth's Gram., p. 93. "The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no stronger than that."—Bentley: ibid. "If one author had spoken nobler and loftier than an other."—Id., ib. "Xenophon says express."—Id., ib. "I can never think so very mean of him."—Id., ib. "To convince all that are ungodly among them, of all their ungodly deeds, which they have ungodly committed."—Jude, 15th: ib. "I think it very masterly written."—Swift to Pope, Let. 74: ib. "The whole design must refer to the golden age, which it lively represents."—Addison, on Medals: ib. "Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book."—BURDER: approved in Webster's Impr. Gram., p. 107; Frazee's, 140; Maltby's, 93. "Agreeable to the law of nature, children are bound to support their indigent parents."—Webster's Impr. Gram., p. 109. "Words taken independent of their meaning are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender."—Maltby's Gr., 96.

"Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 236.

UNDER NOTE XI.—THEM FOR THOSE.

"Though he was not known by them letters, or the name Christ."—Wm. Bayly's Works, p. 94. "In a gig, or some of them things."—Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent, p. 35. "When cross-examined by them lawyers."—Ib., p. 98. "As the custom in them cases is."—Ib., p. 101. "If you'd have listened to them slanders."—Ib., p. 115. "The old people were telling stories about them fairies, but to the best of my judgment there's nothing in it."—Ib., p. 188. "And is it not a pity that the Quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles than the testimony of them old Pharisees?"—Hibbard's Errors of the Quakers, p. 107.

UNDER NOTE XII.—THIS AND THAT.

"Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear: this is the anticipation of good, that of evil."—Brown's Institutes, p. 135. "The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy; but we should not therefore account those happy, and these miserable."—Ib.

   "Ellen and Margaret fearfully,
    Sought comfort in each other's eye;
    Then turned their ghastly look each one,
    This to her sire, that to her son."
        Scott's Lady of the Lake, Canto ii, Stanza 29.

    "Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids,
    In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades;
    These by Apollo's silver bow were slain,
    Those Cynthia's arrows stretched upon the plain."
        —Pope, Il., xxiv, 760.

    "Memory and forecast just returns engage,
    This pointing back to youth, that on to age."
        —See Key.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—EITHER AND NEITHER.

"These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; truth, duty, and interest. But the arguments directed towards either of them are generically distinct."—Blair's Rhet., p. 318. "A thousand other deviations may be made, and still either of them may be correct in principle. For these divisions and their technical terms, are all arbitrary."—R. W. Green's Inductive Gram., p. vi. "Thus it appears, that our alphabet is deficient, as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds; and has no letter to represent either of five simple consonant sounds."—Churchill's Gram., p. 19. "Then neither of these [five] verbs can be neuter."—Oliver B. Peirce's Gram., p. 343. "And the asserter is in neither of the four already mentioned."—Ib., p. 356. "As it is not in either of these four."—Ib., p. 356. "See whether or not the word comes within the definition of either of the other three simple cases."—Ib., p. 51. "Neither of the ten was there."—Frazee's Gram., p. 108. "Here are ten oranges, take either of them."—Ib., p. 102. "There are three modes, by either of which recollection will generally be supplied; inclination, practice, and association."—Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. xxix. "Words not reducible to either of the three preceding heads."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, pp. 335 and 340. "Now a sentence may be analyzed in reference to either of these [four] classes."—Ib., p. 577.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—WHOLE, LESS, MORE, AND MOST.

"Does not all proceed from the law, which regulates the whole departments of the state?"—Blair's Rhet., p. 278. "A messenger relates to Theseus the whole particulars."—Kames. El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 313. "There are no less than twenty dipthhongs [sic—KTH] in the English language."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. xii. "The Redcross Knight runs through the whole steps of the Christian life."—Spectator No. 540. "There were not less than fifty or sixty persons present."—Teachers' Report. "Greater experience, and more cultivated society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression."—Blair's Rhet., p. 152; Murray's Gram., i, 351. "By which means knowledge, much more than oratory, is become the principal requisite."—Blair's Rhet., p. 254. "No less than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets."—Lemp. Dict., n. Homer. "Temperance, more than medicines, is the proper means of curing many diseases."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 222. "I do not suppose, that we Britons want genius, more than our neighbours."—Ib., p. 215. "In which he saith, he has found no less than twelve untruths."—Barclay's Works, i, 460. "The several places of rendezvous were concerted, and the whole operations fixed."—HUME: see Priestley's Gram., p. 190. "In these rigid opinions the whole sectaries concurred."—Id., ib. "Out of whose modifications have been made most complex modes."—LOCKE: Sanborn's Gram., p. 148. "The Chinese vary each of their words on no less than five different tones."—Blair's Rhet., p. 58. "These people, though they possess more shining qualities, are not so proud as he is, nor so vain as she."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. "'Tis certain, we believe ourselves more, after we have made a thorough Inquiry into the Thing."—Brightland's Gram., p. 244. "As well as the whole Course and Reasons of the Operation."—Ib. "Those rules and principles which are of most practical advantage."—Newman's Rhet., p. 4. "And there shall be no more curse."—Rev., xxii, 3. "And there shall be no more death."—Rev., xxi, 4. "But in recompense, we have more pleasing pictures of ancient manners."—Blair's Rhet., p. 436. "Our language has suffered more injurious changes in America, since the British army landed on our shores, than it had suffered before, in the period of three centuries."—Webster's Essays, Ed. of 1790, p. 96. "The whole conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 166.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES.

"To such as think the nature of it deserving their attention."—Butler's Analogy, p. 84. "In all points, more deserving the approbation of their readers."—Keepsake, 1830. "But to give way to childish sensations was unbecoming our nature."—Lempriere's Dict., n. Zeno. "The following extracts are deserving the serious perusal of all."—The Friend, Vol. v, p. 135. "No inquiry into wisdom, however superficial, is undeserving attention."—Bulwer's Disowned, ii, 95. "The opinions of illustrious men are deserving great consideration."—Porter's Family Journal, p. 3. "And resolutely keeps its laws, Uncaring consequences."—Burns's Works, ii, 43. "This is an item that is deserving more attention."—Goodell's Lectures.

"Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, To a fresh comer, and resign the stage."—Dryden.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—FIGURE OF ADJECTIVES.

"The tall dark mountains and the deep toned seas."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 278. "O! learn from him To station quick eyed Prudence at the helm."—ANON.: Frost's El. of Gram., p. 104. "He went in a one horse chaise."—Blair's Gram., p. 113. "It ought to be, 'in a one horse chaise.'"—Dr. Crombie's Treatise, p. 334. "These are marked with the above mentioned letters."—Folker's Gram., p. 4. "A many headed faction."—Ware's Gram., p. 18. "Lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar for the perhaps heaven inspired effort."—Fowle's True English Gram., Part 2d, p. 25. "Common metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines; one of eight, and the next of six syllables. They were formerly written in two fourteen syllable lines."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 69. "Short metre stanzas consist of four Iambic lines; the third of eight, and the rest of six syllables."—Ibid. "Particular metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight."—Ibid. "Hallelujah metre stanzas consist of six Iambic lines; the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six."—Ibid. "Long metre stanzas are merely the union of four Iambic lines, of ten syllables each."—Ibid. "A majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the Old Testament poets."—Blair's Rhet., p. 418.

"You sulphurous and thought executed fires, Vaunt couriers to oak cleaving thunderbolts, Singe my white head! And thou, all shaking thunder Strike flat the thick rotundity o' the world!"—Beauties of Shak., p. 264.

CHAPTER V.—PRONOUNS.

The rules for the agreement of Pronouns with their antecedents are four; hence this chapter extends from the tenth rule to the thirteenth, inclusively. The cases of Pronouns are embraced with those of nouns, in the seven rules of the third chapter.

RULE X.—PRONOUNS.

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender:[379] as, "This is the friend of whom I spoke; he has just arrived."—"This is the book which I bought; it is an excellent work."—"Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it too."—Cowper.

   "Speak thou, whose thoughts at humble peace repine,
    Shall Wolsey's wealth with Wolsey's end be thine?"—Dr. Johnson.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite, or unknown to the speaker, this rule is not strictly applicable; because the person, number, and gender, are rather assumed in the pronoun, than regulated by an antecedent: as, "I do not care who knows it."—Steele. "Who touched me? Tell me who it was."—"We have no knowledge how, or by whom, it is inhabited."—ABBOT: Joh. Dict.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously distinguishable with regard to sex; as, "Which is the real friend to the child, the person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the person who, considering only its health, resists its importunities?"—Opis. "He loads the animal he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot distinctly view it"—Murray's Gram., p. 301. "The nightingale sings most sweetly when it sings in the night."—Bucke's Gram., p. 52.

EXCEPTION THIRD.

The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any antecedent, and is sometimes a mere expletive, and sometimes the representative of an action expressed afterwards by a verb; as, "Whether she grapple it with the pride of philosophy."—Chalmers. "Seeking to lord it over God's heritage."—The Friend, vii, 253. "It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes strong drink."—Prov., xxxi, 4. "Having no temptation to it, God cannot act unjustly without defiling his nature."—Brown's Divinity, p. 11.

"Come, and trip it as you go, On the light fantastic toe."—Milton.

EXCEPTION FOURTH.

A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits a plural pronoun, but never in the same clause; as, "Hard has been the fate of many a great genius, that while they have conferred immortality on others, they have wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to posterity."—Welwood's Pref. to Rowe's Lucan.

   "In Hawick twinkled many a light,
    Behind him soon they set in night."—W. Scott.

EXCEPTION FIFTH.

When a plural pronoun is put by enallagè for the singular, it does not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural verb; as, "We [Lindley Murray] have followed those authors, who appear to have given them the most natural and intelligible distribution."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 29. "We shall close our remarks on this subject, by introducing the sentiments of Dr. Johnson respecting it."—Ib. "My lord, you know I love you"—Shakspeare.

EXCEPTION SIXTH.

The pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent in one sense, because it takes it in an other; as, "I have perused Mr. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, and find it[380] a very laborious, learned, and useful Work."—Tho. Knipe, D. D. "Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than one."—Smith's New Gram., p. 8. "Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male."—Ib. "The Utica Sentinel says it has not heard whether the wounds are dangerous."—Evening Post. (Better: "The editor of the Utica Sentinel says, he has not heard," &c.) "There is little Benjamin with their ruler."—Psalms, lxviii, 27.

"Her end when emulation misses, She turns to envy, stings, and hisses."—Swift's Poems, p. 415.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE X.

OBS. 1.—Respecting a pronoun, the main thing is, that the reader perceive clearly for what it stands; and next, that he do not misapprehend its relation of case. For the sake of completeness and uniformity in parsing, it is, I think, expedient to apply the foregoing rule not only to those pronouns which have obvious antecedents expressed, but also to such as are not accompanied by the nouns for which they stand. Even those which are put for persons or things unknown or indefinite, may be said to agree with whatever is meant by them; that is, with such nouns as their own properties indicate. For the reader will naturally understand something by every pronoun, unless it be a mere expletive, and without any antecedent. For example: "It would depend upon who the forty were."—Trial at Steubenville, p. 50. Here who is an indefinite relative, equivalent to what persons; of the third person, plural, masculine; and is in the nominative case after were, by Rule 6th. For the full construction seems to be this: "It would depend upon the persons who the forty were." So which, for which person, or which thing, (if we call it a pronoun rather than an adjective,) may be said to have the properties of the noun person or thing understood; as,

   "His notions fitted things so well,
    That which was which he could not tell."—Hudibras.

OBS. 2.—The pronoun we is used by the speaker or writer to represent himself and others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of fiction, in stead of the singular, to intimate that the speaker or writer is not alone in his opinions; or, perhaps more frequently, to evade the charge of egotism; for this modest assumption of plurality seems most common with those who have something else to assume: as, "And so lately as 1809, Pope Pius VII, in excommunicating his 'own dear son,' Napoleon, whom he crowned and blessed, says: 'We, unworthy as we are, represent the God of peace.'"—Dr. Brownlee. "The coat fits us as well as if we had been melted and poured into it."—Prentice. Monarchs sometimes prefer we to I, in immediate connexion with a singular noun; as, "We Alexander, Autocrat of all the Russias."—"We the Emperor of China," &c.—Economy of Human Life, p. vi. They also employ the anomalous compound ourself, which is not often used by other people; as, "Witness ourself at Westminster, 28 day of April, in the tenth year of our reign. CHARLES."

"Cæs. What touches us ourself, shall be last serv'd." —Shak., J. C., Act iii, Sc. 1.

"Ourself to hoary Nestor will repair." —Pope, Iliad, B. x, l. 65.

OBS. 3.—The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural, is now generally applied alike to one person or to more. Several observations upon this fashionable substitution of the plural number for the singular, will be found in the fifth and sixth chapters of Etymology. This usage, however it may seem to involve a solecism, is established by that authority against which the mere grammarian has scarcely a right to remonstrate. Alexander Murray, the schoolmaster, observes, "When language was plain and simple, the English always said thou, when speaking to a single person. But when an affected politeness, and a fondness for continental manners and customs began to take place, persons of rank and fashion said you in stead of thou. The innovation gained ground, and custom gave sanction to the change, and stamped it with the authority of law."—English Gram., Third Edition, 1793, p. 107. This respectable grammarian acknowledged both thou and you to be of the second person singular. I do not, however, think it necessary or advisable to do this, or to encumber the conjugations, as some have done, by introducing the latter pronoun, and the corresponding form of the verb, as singular.[381] It is manifestly better to say, that the plural is used for the singular, by the figure Enallagè. For if you has literally become singular by virtue of this substitution, we also is singular for the same reason, as often as it is substituted for I; else the authority of innumerable authors, editors, compilers, and crowned, heads, is insufficient to make it so. And again, if you and the corresponding form of the verb are literally of the second person singular, (as Wells contends, with an array of more than sixty names of English grammarians to prove it,) then, by their own rule of concord, since thou and its verb are still generally retained in the same place by these grammarians, a verb that agrees with one of these nominatives, must also agree with the other; so that you hast and thou have, you seest and thou see, may be, so far as appears from their instructions, as good a concord as can be made of these words!

OBS. 4.—The putting of you for thou has introduced the anomalous compound yourself, which is now very generally used in stead of thyself. In this instance, as in the less frequent adoption of ourself for myself, Fashion so tramples upon the laws of grammar, that it is scarcely possible to frame an intelligible exception in her favour. These pronouns are essentially singular, both in form and meaning; and yet they cannot be used with I or thou, with me or thee, or with any verb that is literally singular; as, "I ourself am." but, on the contrary, they must be connected only with such plural terms as are put for the singular; as, "We ourself are king."—"Undoubtedly you yourself become an innovator."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 364; Campbell's Rhet., 167.

   "Try touch, or sight, or smell; try what you will,
    You strangely find nought but yourself alone."
        —Pollok, C. of T., B. i, l. 162.

OBS. 5.—Such terms of address, as your Majesty, your Highness, your Lordship, your Honour, are sometimes followed by verbs and pronouns of the second person plural, substituted for the singular; and sometimes by words literally singular, and of the third person, with no other figure than a substitution of who for which: as, "Wherein your Lordship, who shines with so much distinction in the noblest assembly in the world, peculiarly excels"—Dedication of Sale's Koran. "We have good cause to give your Highness the first place; who, by a continued series of favours have obliged us, not only while you moved in a lower orb, but since the Lord hath called your Highness to supreme authority."—Massachusetts to Cromwell, in 1654.

OBS. 6.—The general usage of the French is like that of the English, you for thou; but Spanish, Portuguese, or German politeness requires that the third person be substituted for the second. And when they would be very courteous, the Germans use also the plural for the singular, as they for thou. Thus they have a fourfold method of addressing a person: as, they, denoting the highest degree of respect; he, a less degree; you, a degree still less; and thou, none at all, or absolute reproach. Yet, even among them, the last is used as a term of endearment to children, and of veneration to God! Thou, in English, still retains its place firmly, and without dispute, in all addresses to the Supreme Being; but in respect to the first person, an observant clergyman has suggested the following dilemma: "Some men will be pained, if a minister says we in the pulpit; and others will quarrel with him, if he says I."—Abbott's Young Christian, p. 268.

OBS. 7.—Any extensive perversion of the common words of a language from their original and proper use, is doubtless a matter of considerable moment. These changes in the use of the pronouns, being some of them evidently a sort of complimentary fictions, some religious people have made it a matter of conscience to abstain from them, and have published their reasons for so doing. But the moral objections which may lie against such or any other applications of words, do not come within the grammarian's province. Let every one consider for himself the moral bearing of what he utters: not forgetting the text, "But I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the day of judgement: for by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned."—Matt., xii, 36 and 37. What scruples this declaration ought to raise, it is not my business to define. But if such be God's law, what shall be the reckoning of those who make no conscience of uttering continually, or when they will, not idle words only, but expressions the most absurd, insignificant, false, exaggerated, vulgar, indecent, injurious, wicked, sophistical, unprincipled, ungentle, and perhaps blasphemous, or profane?

OBS. 8.—The agreement of pronouns with their antecedents, it is necessary to observe, is liable to be controlled or affected by several of the figures of rhetoric. A noun used figuratively often suggests two different senses, the one literal, and the other tropical; and the agreement of the pronoun must be sometimes with this, and sometimes with that, according to the nature of the trope. If the reader be unacquainted with tropes and figures, he should turn to the explanation of them in Part Fourth of this work; but almost every one knows something about them, and such as must here be named, will perhaps be made sufficiently intelligible by the examples. There seems to be no occasion to introduce under this head more than four; namely, personification, metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche.

OBS. 9.—When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object personified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the literal sense; as, "There were others whose crime it was rather to neglect Reason than to disobey her."—Dr. Johnson. "Penance dreams her life away."—Rogers. "Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud."—Id. Here if the pronoun were made neuter, the personification would be destroyed; as, "By the progress which England had already made in navigation and commerce, it was now prepared for advancing farther."—Robertson's America, Vol. ii, p. 341. If the pronoun it was here intended to represent England, the feminine she would have been much better; and, if such was not the author's meaning, the sentence has some worse fault than the agreement of a pronoun with its noun in a wrong sense.

OBS. 10.—When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the pronoun usually agrees with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense; as, "Pitt was the pillar which upheld the state."—"The monarch of mountains rears his snowy head."—"The stone which the builders rejected."—Matt., xxi, 42. According to this rule, which would be better than whom, in the following text: "I considered the horns, and, behold, there came up among them an other little horn, before whom there were three of the first horns plucked up by the roots."—Daniel, vii, 8. In Rom., ix, 33, there is something similar: "Behold, I lay in Sion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence: and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed." Here the stone or rock is a metaphor for Christ, and the pronoun him may be referred to the sixth exception above; but the construction is not agreeable, because it is not regular: it would be more grammatical, to change on him to thereon. In the following example, the noun "wolves," which literally requires which, and not who, is used metaphorically for selfish priests; and, in the relative, the figurative or personal sense is allowed to prevail:

   "Wolves shall succeed for teachers, grievous wolves,
    Who all the sacred mysteries of Heaven
    To their own vile advantages shall turn."
        —Milton, P. L., B. xii, l. 508.

This seems to me somewhat forced and catachrestical. So too, and worse, the following; which makes a star rise and speak:

   "So spake our Morning Star then in his rise,
    And looking round on every side beheld
    A pathless desert, dusk with horrid shades."
        —Id., P. R., B. i, l. 294.

OBS. 11.—When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of different properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative, and sometimes in the literal sense; as, "When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of Egypt. As they called them, so they went from them: [i. e., When Moses and the prophets called the Israelites, they often refused to hear:] they sacrificed unto Baalim, and burnt incense to graven images. I taught Ephraim also to go, taking them by their arms; but they knew not that I healed them."—Hosea, xi, 1, 2, 3. The mixture and obscurity which are here, ought not to be imitated. The name of a man, put for the nation or tribe of his descendants, may have a pronoun of either number, and a nation may be figuratively represented as feminine; but a mingling of different genders or numbers ought to be avoided: as, "Moab is spoiled, and gone up out of her cities, and his chosen young men are gone down to the slaughter."—Jeremiah, xlviii, 15.

   "The wolf, who [say that] from the nightly fold,
    Fierce drags the bleating prey, ne'er drunk her milk,
    Nor wore her warming fleece."—Thomson's Seasons.

    "That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven,
    Who sees with equal eye, as God of all,
    A hero perish or a sparrow fall."—Pope's Essay on Man.

"And heaven behold its image in his breast."—Ib.

"Such fate to suffering worth is given, Who long with wants and woes has striven."—Burns.

OBS. 12.—When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less than it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not in the literal sense; as,

"A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death."—Thomson

    "But to the generous still improving mind,
    That gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy,
    To him the long review of ordered life
    Is inward rapture only to be felt."—Id. Seasons.

OBS. 13.—Pronouns usually follow the words which they represent; but this order is sometimes reversed: as, "Whom the cap fits, let him put it on."—"Hark! they whisper; angels say," &c.—Pope. "Thou, O Lord, art a God full of compassion."—Old Test. And in some cases of apposition, the pronoun naturally comes first; as, "I Tertius"—"Ye lawyers." The pronoun it, likewise, very often precedes the clause or phrase which it represents; as, "Is it not manifest, that the generality of people speak and write very badly?"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 160; Murray's Gram., i, 358. This arrangement is too natural to be called a transposition. The most common form of the real inversion is that of the antecedent and relative in poetry; as,

   "Who stops to plunder at this signal hour,
    The birds shall tear him, and the dogs devour."
        —POPE: Iliad, xv, 400.

OBS. 14.—A pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or a sentence; and in this case the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter: as, "Surely the Lord is in this place, and I knew it not."—Gen., xxviii, 10. "Yet men can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity; which is to talk and act as if they had a demonstration of its falsehood."—Butler's Analogy, p. 269. "When it is asked wherein personal identity consists, the answer should be the same as if it were asked, wherein consists similitude or equality."—Ib., p. 270. "Also, that the soul be without knowledge, it is not good."—Prov., xix, 2. In this last example, the pronoun is not really necessary. "That the soul be without knowledge, is not good."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 144. Sometimes an infinitive verb is taken as an antecedent; as, "He will not be able to think, without which it is impertinent to read; nor to act, without which it is impertinent to think."—Bolingbroke, on History, p. 103.

OBS. 15.—When a pronoun follows two words, having a neuter verb between them, and both referring to the same thing, it may represent either of them, but not often with the same meaning: as, 1. "I am the man, who command." Here, who command belongs to the subject I, and the meaning is, "I who command, am the man." (The latter expression places the relative nearer to its antecedent, and is therefore preferable.) 2. "I am the man who commands." Here, who commands belongs to the predicate man, and the meaning is, "I am the commander." Again: "I perceive thou art a pupil, who possessest good talents."—Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 136. Here the construction corresponds not to the perception, which is, of the pupil's talents. Say, therefore, "I perceive thou art a pupil possessing (or, who possesses) good talents."

OBS. 16.—After the expletive it, which may be employed to introduce a noun or a pronoun of any person, number, or gender, the above-mentioned distinction is generally disregarded; and the relative is most commonly made to agree with the latter word, especially if this word be of the first or the second person: as, "It is no more I that do it."—Rom., vii, 20. "For it is not ye that speak."—Matt., x, 20. The propriety of this construction is questionable. In the following examples, the relative agrees with the it, and not with the subsequent nouns: "It is the combined excellencies of all the denominations that gives to her her winning beauty and her powerful charms."—Bible Society's Report, 1838, p. 89. "It is purity and neatness of expression which is chiefly to be studied."—Blair's Rhet., p. 271. "It is not the difficulty of the language, but on the contrary the simplicity and facility of it, that occasions this neglect."—Lowth's Gram., p. vi. "It is a wise head and a good heart that constitutes a great man."—Child's Instructor, p. 22.

OBS. 17.—The pronoun it very frequently refers to something mentioned subsequently in the sentence; as, "It is useless to complain of what is irremediable." This pronoun is a necessary expletive at the commencement of any sentence in which the verb is followed by a phrase or a clause which, by transposition, might be made the subject of the verb; as, "It is impossible to please every one."—W. Allen's Gram. "It was requisite that the papers should be sent."—Ib. The following example is censured by the Rev. Matt. Harrison: "It is really curious, the course which balls will sometimes take."—Abernethy's Lectures. "This awkward expression," says the critic, "might have been avoided by saying, 'The course which balls will sometimes take is really curious.'"—Harrison, on the English Language, p. 147. If the construction is objectionable, it may, in this instance, be altered thus: "It is really curious, to observe the course which balls will sometimes take!" So, it appears, we may avoid a pleonasm by an addition. But he finds a worse example: saying, "Again, in an article from the 'New Monthly,' No. 103, we meet with the same form of expression, but with an aggravated aspect:—'It is incredible, the number of apothecaries' shops, presenting themselves.' It would be quite as easy to say, 'The number of apothecaries' shops, presenting themselves, is incredible.' "—Ib., p. 147. This, too, may take an infinitive, "to tell," or "to behold;" for there is no more extravagance in doubting one's eyes, than in declaring one's own statement "incredible." But I am not sure that the original form is not allowable. In the following line, we seem to have something like it:

"It curled not Tweed alone, that breeze."—Sir W. Scott.

OBS. 18.—Relative and interrogative pronouns are placed at or near the beginning of their own clauses; and the learner must observe that, through all their cases, they almost invariably retain this situation in the sentence, and are found before their verbs even when the order of the construction would reverse this arrangement: as, "He who preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal."—Murray, p. 159. "He whom you seek."—Lowth.

   "The good must merit God's peculiar care;
    But who, but God, can tell us who they are?"—Pope.

OBS. 19.—A relative pronoun, being the representative of some antecedent word or phrase, derives from this relation its person, number, and gender, but not its case. By taking an other relation of case, it helps to form an other clause; and, by retaining the essential meaning of its antecedent, serves to connect this clause to that in which the antecedent is found. No relative, therefore, can ever be used in an independent simple sentence, or be made the subject of a subjunctive verb, or be put in apposition with any noun or pronoun; but, like other connectives, this pronoun belongs at the head of a clause in a compound sentence, and excludes conjunctions, except when two such clauses are to be joined together, as in the following example: "I should be glad, at least, of an easy companion, who may tell me his thoughts, and to whom I may communicate mine."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 196.

OBS. 20.—The two special rules commonly given by the grammarians, for the construction of relatives, are not only unnecessary,[382] but faulty. I shall notice them only to show my reasons for discarding them. With whom they originated, it is difficult to say. Paul's Accidence has them, and if Dean Colet, the supposed writer, did not take them from some earlier author, they must have been first taught by him, about the year 1510; and it is certain that they have been copied into almost every grammar published since. The first one is faulty, because, "When there cometh no nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative shall [not always] be the nominative case to the verb;" as may be seen by the following examples: "Many are the works of human industry, which to begin and finish are [say is] hardly granted to the same man."—Dr. Johnson's Adv. to Dict. "They aim at his removal; which there is reason to fear they will effect."—"Which to avoid, I cut them off."—Shak., Hen. IV. The second rule is faulty, because, "When there cometh a nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative shall [not always] be such case as the verb will have after it;" as may be seen by the following examples: "The author has not advanced any instances, which he does not think are pertinent."—Murray's Gram., i, 192. "Which we have reason to think was the case with the Greek and Latin."—Ib., 112. "Is this your son, who ye say was born blind?"—John, ix, 19. The case of the relative cannot be accurately determined by any rules of mere location. It may be nominative to a verb afar off, or it may be objective with a verb immediately following; as, "Which I do not find that there ever was."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 31. "And our chief reason for believing which is that our ancestors did so before us."—Philological Museum, i, 641. Both these particular rules are useless, because the general rules for the cases, as given in chapter third above, are applicable to relatives, sufficient to all the purpose, and not liable to any exceptions.

OBS. 21.—In syntactical parsing, each word, in general, is to be resolved by some one rule; but the parsing of a pronoun commonly requires two; one for its agreement with the noun or nouns for which it stands, and an other for its case. The rule of agreement will be one of the four which are embraced in this present chapter; and the rule for the case will be one of the seven which compose chapter third. So that the whole syntax of pronouns requires the application of eleven different rules, while that of nouns or verbs is embraced in six or seven, and that of any other part of speech, in one only. In respect to their cases, relatives and interrogatives admit of every construction common to nouns, or to the personal pronouns, except apposition. This is proved by the following examples:

1. Nominatives by Rule 2d: "I who write;—Thou who writest;—He who writes;—The animal which runs."—Dr. Adam. "He that spareth his rod, hateth his son."—Solomon. "He who does any thing which he knows is wrong, ventures on dangerous ground."—"What will become of us without religion?"—Blair. "Here I determined to wait the hand of death; which, I hope, when at last it comes, will fall lightly upon me."—Dr. Johnson. "What is sudden and unaccountable, serves to confound."—Crabb. "They only are wise, who are wise to salvation."—Goodwin.

2. Nominatives by Rule 6th: (i.e., words parsed as nominatives after the verbs, though mostly transposed:) "Who art thou?"—Bible. "What were we?"—Ib. "Do not tell them who I am."—"Let him be who he may, he is not the honest fellow that he seemed."—"The general conduct of mankind is neither what it was designed, nor what it ought to be."

3. Nominatives absolute by Rule 8th: "There are certain bounds to imprudence, which being transgressed, there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of things."—Bp. Butler. "Which being so, it need not be any wonder, why I should."—Walker's Particles, Pref., p. xiv. "He offered an apology, which not being admitted, he became submissive."—Murray's Key, p. 202. This construction of the relative is a Latinism, and very seldom used by the best English writers.

4. Possessives by Rule 4th: "The chief man of the island, whose name was Publius."—Acts. "Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none can escape."—Dr. Johnson. "To contemplate on Him whose yoke is easy and whose burden is light."—Steele.

5. Objectives by Rule 5th: "Those whom she persuaded."—Dr. Johnson. "The cloak that I left at Troas."—St. Paul. "By the things which he suffered."—Id. "A man whom there is reason to suspect."—"What are we to do?"—Burke. "Love refuses nothing that love sends."—Gurnall. "The first thing, says he, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality; to inculcate which, is to be the design of his work."—Blair's Rhet., p. 421. "Whomsoever you please to appoint."—Lowth. "Whatsover [sic—KTH] he doeth, shall prosper."—Bible. "What we are afraid to do before men, we should be afraid to think before God."—Sibs. "Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which I do?"—Gen., xviii, 32. "Shall I hide from Abraham what I am going to do?"—"Call imperfection what thou fanciest such."—Pope.

6. Objectives by Rule 6th: (i.e., pronouns parsed as objectives after neuter verbs, though they stand before them:) "He is not the man that I took him to be."—"Whom did you suppose me to be?"—"If the lad ever become what you wish him to be."

7. Objectives by Rule 7th: "To whom shall we go?"—Bible. "The laws by which the world is governed, are general."—Bp. Butler. "Whom he looks upon as his defender."—Addison. "That secret heaviness of heart which unthinking men are subject to."—Id. "I cannot but think the loss of such talents as the man of whom I am speaking was master of, a more melancholy instance."—Steele. "Grammar is the solid foundation upon which all other science rests."—Buchanan's Eng. Synt., p. xx.

OBS. 22.—In familiar language, the relative of the objective case is frequently understood; as, "The man [whom] I trust."—Cowper. "Here is the letter [which] I received." So in the following sentences: "This is the man they hate. These are the goods they bought. Are these the Gods they worship? Is this the woman you saw?"—Ash's Gram., p. 96. This ellipsis seems allowable only in the familiar style. In grave writing, or deliberate discourse, it is much better to express this relative. The omission of it is often attended with some obscurity; as, "The next error [that] I shall mention [,] is a capital one."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 157. "It is little [that] we know of the divine perfections."—Scougal, p. 94. "The faith [which] we give to memory, may be thought, on a superficial view, to be resolvable into consciousness, as well as that [which] we give to the immediate impressions of sense."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 53. "We speak that [which] we do know, and testify that [which] we have seen."—John, iii, 11. The omission of a relative in the nominative case, is almost always inelegant; as, "This is the worst thing [that] could happen."—"There were several things [which] brought it upon me."—Pilgrim's Progress, p. 162. The latter ellipsis may occur after but or than, and it is also sometimes allowed in poetry; as, [There is] "No person of reflection but [who] must be sensible, that an incident makes a stronger impression on an eye-witness, than when heard at second hand."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 257.

"In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man."—Pope, on Man.

"Abuse on all he lov'd, or lov'd him, spread."—Id., to Arbuthnot.

"There's nothing blackens like the ink of fools."—Id., to Augustus.

OBS. 23.—The antecedent is sometimes suppressed, especially in poetry; as, "Who will, may be a judge."—Churchill. "How shall I curse [him or them] whom God hath not cursed?"—Numbers, xxiii, 8. "There are, indeed, [some persons] who seem disposed to extend her authority much farther."—Campbell's Philosophy of Rhet., p. 187.

    [He] "Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor;
    [He] Who lives to fancy, never can be rich."—Young.

    "Serious should be an author's final views;
    [They] Who write for pure amusement, ne'er amuse."—Id.

OBS. 24.—Which, as well as who, was formerly applied to persons; as, "Our Father which art in heaven."—Bible. "Pray for them which despitefully use you."—Luke, vi, 28. And, as to the former example here cited, some British critics, still preferring the archaism, have accused "The Americans" of "poor criticism," in that they "have changed which into who, as being more consonant to the rules of Grammar." Falsely imagining, that which and who, with the same antecedent, can be of different genders, they allege, that, "The use of the neuter pronoun carried with it a certain vagueness and sublimity, not inappropriate in reminding us that our worship is addressed to a Being, infinite, and superior to all distinctions applicable to material objects."—Men and Manners in America: quoted and endorsed by the REV. MATT. HARRISON, in his treatise on the English Language, p. 191. This is all fancy; and, in my opinion, absurd. It is just like the religious prejudice which could discern "a singular propriety" in "the double superlative most highest."—Lowth's Gram., p. 28. But which may still be applied to a young child, if sex and intelligence be disregarded; as, "The child which died." Or even to adults, when they are spoken of without regard to a distinct personality or identity; as, "Which of you will go?"—"Crabb knoweth not which is which, himself or his parodist."—Leigh Hunt.

OBS. 25.—A proper name taken merely as a name, or an appellative taken in any sense not strictly personal, must be represented by which, and not by who; as, "Herod—which is but an other name for cruelty."—"In every prescription of duty, God proposeth himself as a rewarder; which he is only to those that please him."—Dr. J. Owen. Which would perhaps be more proper than whom, in the following passage: "They did not destroy the nations, concerning whom the Lord commanded them."—Psalms, cvi, 34. Dr. Blair has preferred it in the following instance: "My lion and my pillar are sufficiently interpreted by the mention of Achilles and the minister, which I join to them."—Lectures, p. 151. He meant, "whose names I connect with theirs;" and not, that he joined the person of Achilles to a lion, or that of a minister to a pillar.

OBS. 26.—When two or more relative clauses pertain to the same antecedent, if they are connected by a conjunction, the same relative ought to be employed in each, agreeably to the doctrine of the seventh note below; but if no conjunction is expressed or understood between them, the pronouns ought rather to be different; as, "There are many things that you can speak of, which cannot be seen."—R W. Green's Gram., p. 11. This distinction is noticed in the fifth chapter of Etymology, Obs. 29th, on the Classes of Pronouns. Dr. Priestley says, "Whatever relative be used, in a series of clauses, relating to the same antecedent, the same ought to be used in them all. 'It is remarkable, that Holland, against which the war was undertaken, and that, in the very beginning, was reduced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing.'—Universal History, Vol. 25, p. 117. It ought to have been, and which in the very beginning."—Priestley's Gram., p. 102. L. Murray, (as I have shown in the Introduction, Ch. x, ¶ 22,) assumes all this, without references; adding as a salvo the word "generally," which merely impairs the certainty of the rule:—"the same relative ought generally to be used in them all."—Octavo Gram., p. 155. And, of who and that, Cobbett says: "Either may do; but both never ought to be relatives of the same antecedent in the same sentence."—Gram., ¶ 202. The inaccuracy of these rules is as great as that of the phraseology which is corrected under them. In the following sentence, the first relative only is restrictive, and consequently the other may be different: "These were the officers that were called Homotimoi, and who signalized themselves afterwards so gloriously upon all occasions."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 62. See also in Rev., x, 6th, a similar example without the conjunction.

OBS. 27.—In conversation, the possessive pronoun your is sometimes used in a droll way, being shortened into your in pronunciation, and nothing more being meant by it, than might be expressed by the article an or a: as, "Rich honesty dwells, like your miser, sir, in a poor house; as, your pearl in your foul oyster."—Shakspeare.

NOTES TO RULE X.

NOTE 1.—A pronoun should not be introduced in connexion with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to an other pronoun; as, "And then there is good use for Pallas her glass."—Bacon's Wisdom, p. 22. Say—"for Pallas's glass."

   "My banks they are furnish'd with bees,
    Whose murmur invites one to sleep."—Shenstone, p. 284.

This last instance, however, is only an example of pleonasm; which is allowable and frequent in animated discourse, but inelegant in any other. Our grammarians have condemned it too positively. It occurs sundry times in the Bible; as, "Know ye that the LORD he is God."—Psalms, c, 3.

NOTE II.—A change of number in the second person, or even a promiscuous use of ye and you in the same case and the same style, is inelegant, and ought to be avoided; as, "You wept, and I for thee"—"Harry, said my lord, don't cry; I'll give you something towards thy loss."—Swift's Poems, p. 267. "Ye sons of sloth, you offspring of darkness, awake from your sleep."—Brown's Metaphors, p. 96. Our poets have very often adopted the former solecism, to accommodate their measure, or to avoid the harshness of the old verb in the second person singular: as, "Thy heart is yet blameless, O fly while you may!"—Queen's Wake, p. 46.

   "Oh! Peggy, Peggy, when thou goest to brew,
    Consider well what you're about to do."—King's Poems, p. 594.

    "As in that lov'd Athenian bower,
    You learn'd an all-commanding power,
    Thy mimic soul, O nymph endear'd!
    Can well recall what then it heard."—Collins, Ode to Music.

NOTE III.—The relative who is applied only to persons, and to animals or things personified; and which, to brute animals and inanimate things spoken of literally: as, "The judge who presided;"—"The old crab who advised the young one;"—"The horse which ran away;"—"The book which was given me."

NOTE IV.—Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons directly as such, should not be represented by the relative who: to say, "The family whom I visited," would hardly be proper; that would here be better. When such nouns are strictly of the neuter gender, which may represent them; as, "The committees which were appointed." But where the idea of rationality is predominant, who or whom seems not to be improper; as, "The conclusion of the Iliad is like the exit of a great man out of company whom he has entertained magnificently."—Cowper. "A law is only the expression of the desire of a multitude who have power to punish."—Brown's Philosophy of the Mind.

NOTE V.—In general, the pronoun must so agree with its antecedent as to present the same idea, and never in such a manner as to confound the name with the thing signified, or any two things with each other. Examples: "Jane is in the nominative case, because it leads the sentence."—Infant School Gram., p. 30. Here it represents the word "Jane" and not the person Jane. "What mark or sign is put after master to show that he is in the possessive case? Spell it"—Ib., p. 32. Here the word "master" is most absurdly confounded with the man; and that to accommodate grammar to a child's comprehension!

NOTE VI.—The relative that may be applied either to persons or to things. In the following cases, it is more appropriate than who, whom, or which; and ought to be preferred, unless it be necessary to use a preposition before the relative:—(1.) After an adjective of the superlative degree, when the relative clause is restrictive;[383] as, "He was the first that came."—"He was the fittest person that could then be found."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 422. "The Greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever appeared in the world."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., p. 127. (2.) After the adjective same, when the relative clause is restrictive; as, "He is the same man that you saw before."— Priestley's Gram., p. 101; Murray's, 156; Campbell's Rhet., 422. (3.) After the antecedent who; as, "Who that is a sincere friend to it, can look with indifference upon attempts to shake the foundation of the fabric?"—Washington. (4.) After two or more antecedents that demand a relative adapted both to persons and to things; as, "He spoke largely of the men and things that he had seen."—"When some particular person or thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly marked."— Murray's Gram., p. 51. (5.) After an unlimited antecedent which the relative clause is designed to restrict; as, "Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn."—Gray. "Music that accords with the present tone of mind, is, on that account, doubly agreeable."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 311. "For Theocritus descends sometimes into ideas that are gross and mean."—Blair's Rhet., p. 393. (6.) After any antecedent introduced by the expletive it; as, "It is you that suffer."—"It was I, and not he, that did it."—Churchill's Gram., p. 142. "It was not he[384] that they were so angry with."—Murray's Exercises, R. 17. "It was not Gavius alone that Verres meant to insult."—Blair's Rhet., p. 325. (7.) And, in general, wherever the propriety of who or which is doubtful; as, "The little child that was placed in the midst."

NOTE VII.—When two or more relative clauses connected by a conjunction have a similar dependence in respect to the antecedent, the same pronoun must be employed in each; as, "O thou, who art, and who wast, and who art to come!"—"And they shall spread them before the sun, and the moon, and all the host of heaven, whom they have loved, and whom they have served, and after whom they have walked, and whom they have sought, and whom they have worshiped."—Jer., viii, 2. NOTE VIII.—The relative, and the preposition governing it, should not be omitted, when they are necessary to the sense intended, or to a proper connexion of the parts of the sentence; as, "He is still in the situation you saw him." Better thus: "He is still in the situation in which you saw him."

NOTE IX.—After certain nouns, of time, place, manner, or cause, the conjunctive adverbs when, where, whither, whence, how, and why, are a sort of special relatives; but no such adverb should be used where a preposition and a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the terms: as, "A cause where justice is so much concerned." Say, "A cause in which." See Etymology, Obs. 6th, 7th, and 8th, on the Classes of Adverbs.

NOTE X.—Where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective will not express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated, or inserted in stead of it: as, "We see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow, and are led to consider the cause of it." Say,—"the cause of that variety;" because the it may mean the variety, the colour, or the rainbow.

NOTE XI.—To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative should, in general, be placed as near as possible to the antecedent. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "He is like a beast of prey, that is void of compassion." Better thus: "He that is void of compassion, is like a beast of prey."

NOTE XII.—The pronoun what should never be used in stead of the conjunction that; as, "Think no man so perfect but what he may err." This is a vulgar fault. Say,—"but that he may err."

NOTE XIII.—A pronoun should never be used to represent an adjective,—except the pronominal adjectives, and others taken substantively; because a pronoun can neither express a concrete quality as such, nor convert it properly into an abstract: as, "Be attentive; without which you will learn nothing." Better thus: "Be attentive; for without attention you will learn nothing."

NOTE XIV.—Though the relative which may in some instances stand for a phrase or a sentence, it is seldom, if ever, a fit representative of an indicative assertion; as, "The man opposed me, which was anticipated."— Nixon's Parser, p. 127. Say,—"but his opposition was anticipated." Or: "The man opposed me, as was anticipated." Or:—"as I expected he would." Again: "The captain disobeys orders, which is punished."—Ib., p. 128. This is an other factitious sentence, formed after the same model, and too erroneous for correction: none but a conceited grammatist could ever have framed such a construction.

NOTE XV.—The possessive pronouns, my, thy, his, her, its, &c., should be inserted or repeated as often as the sense or construction of the sentence requires them; their omission, like that of the articles, can scarcely in any instance constitute a proper ellipsis: as, "Of Princeton and vicinity."—Say, "Of Princeton and its vicinity." "The man and wife."—Say, "The man and his wife." "Many verbs vary both their signification and construction."—Adam's Gram., p. 170; Gould's, 171. Say,—"and their construction."

NOTE XVI.—In the correcting of any discord between the antecedent and its pronoun, if the latter for any sufficient reason is most proper as it stands, the former must be changed to accord with it: as, "Let us discuss what relates to each particular in their order:—its order."— Priestley's Gram., p. 193. Better thus: "Let us discuss what relates to the several particulars, in their order." For the order of things implies plurality.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE X. UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—OF AGREEMENT

"The subject is to be joined with his predicate."—BP. WILKINS: Lowth's
Gram., p. 42.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun his is of the masculine gender, and does not correctly represent its antecedent noun subject, which is of the third person, singular, neuter. But, according to Rule 10th, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender." Therefore, his should be its; thus, "The subject is to be joined with its predicate."]

"Every one must judge of their own feelings."—Byron's Letters. "Every one in the family should know their duty."—Wm. Penn. "To introduce its possessor into 'that way in which it should go.'"—Infant School Gram., p. v. "Do not they say, every true believer has the Spirit of God in them?"—Barclay's Works, iii, 388. "There is none in their natural state righteous, no not one."—Wood's Dict. of Bible, ii, 129. "If ye were of the world, the world would love his own."—John, xv, 19. "His form had not yet lost all her original brightness."—Milton. "No one will answer as if I were their friend or companion."—Steele, Spect., No. 534. "But in lowliness of mind let each esteem other better than themselves."— Philippians, ii, 3. "And let none of you imagine evil in your hearts against his neighbour."—Zechariah, viii, 17. "For every tree is known by his own fruit."—Luke, vi, 44. "But she fell to laughing, like one out of their right mind."—Castle Rackrent, p. 51. "Now these systems, so far from having any tendency to make men better, have a manifest tendency to make him worse."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 128. "And nobody else would make that city their refuge any more."—Josephus's Life, p. 158. "What is quantity, as it respects syllables or words? It is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it."—Bradley's Gram., p. 108. "In such expressions the adjective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning, that they are usually parsed as such."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 103. "The tongue is like a race-horse; which runs the faster the less weight it carries."—ADDISON: Joh. Dict.; Murray's Key, Rule 8. "As two thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift the greatest weight with their jaws, one of them had several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their sockets."—Newspaper. "Everybody nowadays publishes memoirs; everybody has recollections which they think worthy of recording."—Duchess D'Abrantes, p. 25. "Every body trembled for themselves or their friends."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 171.

   "A steed comes at morning: no rider is there;
    But its bridle is red with the sign of despair."—Campbell.

UNDER NOTE I.—PRONOUNS WRONG OR NEEDLESS.

"Charles loves to study; but John, alas! he is very idle."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 22. "Or what man is there of you, whom if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone?"—Matt., vii, 9. "Who, in stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief."— Tillotson. "Whom ye delivered up, and denied him in the presence of Pontius Pilate."—Acts, iii, 13. "Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper chamber."—Acts, ix, 37. "Then Manasseh knew that the Lord he was God."—2 Chron., xxxiii, 13. "Whatever a man conceives clearly, he may, if he will be at the trouble, put it into distinct propositions, and express it clearly to others."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 293. "But to that point of time which he has chosen, the painter being entirely confined, he cannot exhibit various stages of the same action."—Blair's Rhet., p. 52. "It is without any proof at all what he subjoins."—Barclay's Works, i, 301. "George Fox his Testimony concerning Robert Barclay."—Ib., i, 111. "According to the author of the Postscript his advice."—Ib., iii, 263. "These things seem as ugly to the Eye of their Meditations, as those Æthiopians pictur'd in Nemesis her Pitcher."—Bacon's Wisdom of the Ancients, p. 49. "Moreover, there is always a twofold Condition propounded with Sphynx her Ænigma's."—Ib., p. 73. "Whoever believeth not therein, they shall perish."—Sale's Koran, p. 20. "When, at Sestius his entreaty, I had been at his house."—Walker's Particles, p. 59.

   "There high on Sipylus his shaggy brow,
    She stands, her own sad monument of woe."
        —Pope's Homer, B. xxiv, l. 777.

UNDER NOTE II.—CHANGE OF NUMBER.

"So will I send upon you famine, and evil beasts, and they shall bereave thee."—Ezekiel, v, 17. "Why do you plead so much for it? why do ye preach it up?"—Barclay's Works, i, 180. "Since thou hast decreed that I shall bear man, your darling."—Edward's First Lesson in Gram., p. 106. "You have my book and I have thine; i.e. thy book."—Chandler's Gram., 1821, p. 22. "Neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what you are."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 70. "Return, thou backsliding Israel, saith the Lord, and I will not cause mine anger to fall upon you."—Jeremiah, iii, 12. "The Almighty, unwilling to cut thee off in the fullness of iniquity, has sent me to give you warning."—Art of Thinking, p. 278. "Wert thou born only for pleasure? were you never to do any thing?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 63. "Thou shalt be required to go to God, to die, and give up your account."—BARNES'S NOTES: on Luke, xii, 20. "And canst thou expect to behold the resplendent glory of the Creator? would not such a sight annihilate you?"—Milton. "If the prophet had commanded thee to do some great thing, would you have refused?"—Common School Journal, i, 80. "Art thou a penitent? Evince your sincerity by bringing forth fruits meet for repentance."—Christian's Vade-Mecum, p. 117. "I will call thee my dear son: I remember all your tenderness."— Classic Tales, p. 8. "So do thou, my son: open your ears, and your eyes."—Wright's Athens, p. 33. "I promise you, this was enough to discourage thee."—Pilgrim's Progress, p. 446. "Ere you remark an other's sin, Bid thy own conscience look within."—Gay. "Permit that I share in thy woe, The privilege can you refuse?"—Perfect's Poems, p. 6. "Ah! Strephon, how can you despise Her who without thy pity dies?"—Swift's Poems, p. 340.

   "Thy verses, friend, are Kidderminster stuff,
    And I must own, you've measur'd out enough."—Shenstone.

    "This day, dear Bee, is thy nativity;
    Had Fate a luckier one, she'd give it ye."—Swift.

UNDER NOTE III.—WHO AND WHICH.

"Exactly like so many puppets, who are moved by wires."—Blair's Rhet., p. 462. "They are my servants, which I brought forth out of the land of Egypt."—Leviticus, xxv, 42. "Behold I and the children which God hath given me."—Heb., ii, 13; Webster's Bible, and others. "And he sent Eliakim which was over the household, and Shebna the scribe."—2 Kings, xix, 2. "In a short time the streets were cleared of the corpses who filled them."—M'Ilvaine's Led., p. 411. "They are not of those which teach things which they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."—Barclay's Works, i, 435. "As a lion among the beasts of the forest, as a young lion among the flocks of sheep; who, if he go through, both treadeth down and teareth in pieces."—Micah, v, 8. "Frequented by every fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water."—Rasselas, p. 10. "He had two sons, one of which was adopted by the family of Maximus."—Lempriere, w. Æmytius. "And the ants, who are collected by the smell, are burned by fire."—The Friend, xii, 49. "They being the agents, to which this thing was trusted."—Nixon's Parser, p. 139. "A packhorse who is driven constantly forwards and backwards to market."—LOCKE: Joh. Dict. "By instructing children, the affection of which will be increased."—Nixon's Parser, p. 136. "He had a comely young woman which travelled with him."—Hutchinson's Hist., i, 29. "A butterfly, which thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to light upon a beehive."—Inst., p. 143. "It is an enormous elephant of stone, who disgorges from his uplifted trunk a vast but graceful shower."—Zenobia, i, 150. "He was met by a dolphin, who sometimes swam before him, and sometimes behind him."—Edward's First Lessons in Gram., p. 34.

   "That Cæsar's horse, who, as fame goes,
    Had corns upon his feet and toes,
    Was not by half so tender-hooft,
    Nor trod upon the ground so soft."—Hudibras, p. 6.

UNDER NOTE IV.—NOUNS OF MULTITUDE.

"He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him."—Murray's Exercises, p. 52. "The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary."—Ibid. "Nor does he describe classes of sinners who do not exist."—Anti-Slavery Magazine, i, 27. "Because the nations among whom they took their rise, were not savage."—Murray's Gram., p. 113. "Among nations who are in the first and rude periods of society."—Blair's Rhet., p. 60. "The martial spirit of those nations, among whom the feudal government prevailed."—Ib., p. 374. "France who was in alliance with Sweden."—Smollett's Voltaire, vi, 187. "That faction in England who most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions."—Mrs. Macaulay's Hist., iii, 21. "We may say, the crowd, who was going up the street.'"—Cobbett's Gram., ¶ 204. "Such members of the Convention who formed this Lyceum, as have subscribed this Constitution."—New-York Lyceum.

UNDER NOTE V.—CONFUSION OF SENSES.

"The possessor shall take a particular form to show its case."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 53. "Of which reasons the principal one is, that no Noun, properly so called, implies its own Presence."—Harris's Hermes, p. 76. "Boston is a proper noun, which distinguishes it from other cities."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 22. "Conjunction means union, or joining together. It is used to join or unite either words or sentences."—Ib., p. 20. "The word interjection means thrown among. It is interspersed among other words to express sudden or strong emotion."—Ib., p. 21. "In deed, or in very deed, may better be written separately, as they formerly were."—Cardell's Gram., 12mo, p. 89. "Alexander, on the contrary, is a particular name, and is restricted to distinguish him alone."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 25. "As an indication that nature itself had changed her course."—Hist. of America, p. 9. "Of removing from the United States and her territories the free people of colour."—Jenifer. "So that gh may be said not to have their proper sound."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 10. "Are we to welcome the loathsome harlot, and introduce it to our children?"—Maturin's Sermons, p. 167. "The first question is this, 'Is reputable, national, and present use, which, for brevity's sake, I shall hereafter simply denominate good use, always uniform in her decisions?"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 171. "Time is always masculine, on account of its mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the object of love."—Murray's Gram., p. 37; Blair's, 125; Sanborn's, 189; Emmons's, 13; Putnam's, 25; Fisk's, 57; Ingersoll's, 26; Greenleaf's, 21. See also Blair's Rhet., p. 76. "When you speak to a person or thing, it is in the second person."—Bartlett's Manual, Part ii, p. 27. "You now know the noun, for it means name."—Ibid. "T. What do you see? P. A book. T. Spell it."—R. W. Green's Gram., p. 12. "T. What do you see now? P. Two books. T. Spell them."—Ibid. "If the United States lose her rights as a nation."—Liberator, Vol. ix, p. 24. "When a person or thing is addressed or spoken to, it is in the second person."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 7. "When a person or thing is spoken of, it is in the third person."—Ibid. "The ox, that ploughs the ground, has the same plural termination also, oxen."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 40.

   "Hail, happy States! thine is the blissful seat,
    Where nature's gifts and art's improvements meet."
             EVERETT: Columbian Orator, p. 239.

UNDER NOTE VI.—THE RELATIVE THAT.

(1.) "This is the most useful art which men possess."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 275. "The earliest accounts which history gives us concerning all nations, bear testimony to these facts."—Blair's Rhet., p. 379; Jamieson's, 300. "Mr. Addison was the first who attempted a regular inquiry" [into the pleasures of taste.]—Blair's Rhet., p. 28. "One of the first who introduced it was Montesquieu."—Murray's Gram., p. 125. "Massillon is perhaps the most eloquent writer of sermons which modern times have produced."—Blair's Rhet., p. 289. "The greatest barber who ever lived, is our guiding star and prototype."—Hart's Figaro, No. 6.

(2.) "When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same which are subjoined to the verbs, from which the nouns are derived."—Priestley's Gram., p. 157. "The same proportions which are agreeable in a model, are not agreeable in a large building."—Kames, EL of Crit., ii, 343. "The same ornaments, which we admire in a private apartment, are unseemly in a temple."—Murray's Gram., p. 128. "The same whom John saw also in the sun."—Milton. P. L., B. iii, l. 623.

(3.) "Who can ever be easy, who is reproached with his own ill conduct?"—Thomas à Kempis, p. 72. "Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green?"—Inst., p. 143. "Who who has either sense or civility, does not perceive the vileness of profanity?"

(4.) "The second person denotes the person or thing which is spoken to."—Compendium in Kirkham's Gram. "The third person denotes the person or thing which is spoken of."—Ibid. "A passive verb denotes action received or endured by the person or thing which is its nominative."—Ibid, and Gram., p. 157. "The princes and states who had neglected or favoured the growth of this power."—Bolingbroke, on History, p. 222. "The nominative expresses the name of the person, or thing which acts, or which is the subject of discourse."—Hiley's Gram., p. 19. (5.) "Authors who deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty."—Blair's Rhet., p. 108. "Writers who deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty."—Murray's Gram., p. 313. "The neuter gender denotes objects which are neither male nor female."—Merchant's Gram., p. 26. "The neuter gender denotes things which have no sex."—Kirkham's Compendium. "Nouns which denote objects neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender."—Wells's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 49. "Objects and ideas which have been long familiar, make too faint an impression to give an agreeable exercise to our faculties."—Blair's Rhet., p. 50. "Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the grammarian's province."—Murray's Gram., p. 164. "Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit."—Ib., p. 132. "After all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar accurate," &c.—Ib., p. 36. "Possibly, all which I have said, is known and taught."—A. B. Johnson's Plan of a Dict., p. 15.

(6.) "It is a strong and manly style which should chiefly be studied."—Blair's Rhet., p. 261. "It is this which chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant."—Ib., p. 313. "I hope it is not I with whom he is displeased."—Murray's Key, R. 17. "When it is this alone which renders the sentence obscure."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 242. "This sort of full and ample assertion, 'it is this which,' is fit to be used when a proposition of importance is laid down."—Blair's Rhet., p. 197. "She is the person whom I understood it to have been." See Murray's Gram., p. 181. "Was it thou, or the wind, who shut the door?"—Inst., p. 143. "It was not I who shut it."—Ib.

(7.) "He is not the person who it seemed he was."—Murray's Gram., p. 181; Ingersoll's, p. 147. "He is really the person who he appeared to be."—Same. "She is not now the woman whom they represented her to have been."—Same. "An only child, is one who has neither brother nor sister; a child alone, is one who is left by itself"—Blair's Rhet., p. 98; Jamieson's, 71; Murray's Gram. 303.

UNDER NOTE VII.—RELATIVE CLAUSES CONNECTED.

(1.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of a thing; of whatever we conceive in any way to subsist, or of which we have any notion."—Lowth's Gram., p. 14. (2.) "A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any notion."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 27; Alger's, 15; Bacon's, 9; E. Dean's, 8; A. Flint's, 10; Folker's, 5; Hamlin's, 9; Ingersoll's, 14; Merchant's, 25; Pond's, 15; S. Putnam's, 10; Rand's, 9; Russell's, 9; T. Smith's, 12; and others. (3.) "A substantive or noun is the name of any person, place, or thing that exists, or of which we can have an idea."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 6. (4.) "A noun is the name of anything that exists, or of which we form an idea."—Hallock's Gram., p. 37. (5.) "A Noun is the name of any person, place, object, or thing, that exists, or which we may conceive to exist."—D. C. Allen's Grammatic Guide, p. 19. (6.) "The name of every thing that exists, or of which we can form any notion, is a noun."—Fisk's Murray's Gram., p. 56. (7.) "An allegory is the representation of some one thing by an other that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it."—Murray's Gram., p. 341. (8.) "Had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to young minds, or which were of a trivial or injurious nature."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. v. (9.) "Man would have others obey him, even his own kind; but he will not obey God, that is so much above him, and who made him."—Penn's Maxims. (10.) "But what we may consider here, and which few Persons have taken Notice of, is," &c.—Brightland's Gram., p. 117. (11.) "The Compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed."—Murray's Gram., p. 107; Fisk's, 81; Hart's, 68; Ingersoll's, 104; Merchant's, 63. (12.) "The remaining parts of speech, which are called the indeclinable parts, or that admit of no variations, will not detain us long."—Blair's Rhet., p. 84.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—THE RELATIVE AND PREPOSITION.

"In the temper of mind he was then."—Addison, Spect., No. 54. "To bring them into the condition I am at present."—Spect., No. 520. "In the posture I lay."—Swift's Gulliver. "In the sense it is sometimes taken."—Barclay's Works, i, 527. "Tools and utensils are said to be right, when they serve for the uses they were made."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 99. "If, in the extreme danger I now am, I do not imitate the behaviour of those," &c.—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 193. "News was brought, that Darius was but twenty miles from the place they then were."—Ib., ii, 113. "Alexander, upon hearing this news, continued four days in the place he then was."—Ib., ii, 113. "To read, in the best manner it is now taught."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 246. "It may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner it should be studied."—Hallock's Gram., p. 9. "Participles are words derived from verbs, and convey an idea of the acting of an agent, or the suffering of an object, with the time it happens."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 50.

   "Had I but serv'd my God with half the zeal
    I serv'd my king, he would not in mine age
    Have left me naked to mine enemies."—Beauties of Shak., p. 173.

UNDER NOTE IX.—ADVERBS FOR RELATIVES.

"In compositions where pronunciation has no place."—Blair's Rhet., p. 101. "They framed a protestation, where they repeated their claims."—Hume's Hist. "Which have reference to Substances, where Sex never had existence."—Harris's Hermes, p. 43. "Which denote substances where sex never had existence."—Murray's Gram., p. 38; Fisk's, 57. "There is no rule given how truth may be found out."—Walker's Particles, p. 160. "The nature of the objects whence they are taken."—Blair's Rhet., p. 165. "That darkness of character, where we can see no heart."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 236. "The states where they negotiated."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 159. "Till the motives whence men act be known."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 262. "He assigns the principles whence their power of pleasing flows."—Blair's Rhet., p. 19. "But I went on, and so finished this History in that form as it now appears."—Sewel's Preface, p. v. "By prepositions we express the cause why, the instrument by which, wherewith, or the manner how a thing is done."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 128; John Burn's, 121. "They are not such in the language whence they are derived."—Town's Analysis, p. 13. "I find it very hard to persuade several, that their passions are affected by words from whence they have no ideas."—Burke, on the Sublime, p. 95. "The known end, then, why we are placed in a state of so much affliction, hazard, and difficulty, is our improvement in virtue and piety."—Butler's Anal., p. 109.

   "Yet such his acts, as Greeks unborn shall tell,
    And curse the battle where their fathers fell."
        —Pope, Il., B. x, I. 61.

UNDER NOTE X.—REPEAT THE NOUN.

"Youth may be thoughtful, but it is not very common."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 85. "A proper name is that given to one person or thing."—Bartlett's School Manual, ii, 27. "A common name is that given to many things of the same sort."—Ibid. "This rule is often violated; some instances of which are annexed."—Murray's Gram., p. 149; Ingersoll's, 237. "This is altogether careless writing. It renders style often obscure, always embarrassed and inelegant."—Blair's Rhet., p. 106. "Every inversion which is not governed by this rule, will be disrelished by every one of taste."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 62. "A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded."—Murray's Gram., p. 9; Alger's, 11; Bacon's, 8; Merchant's, 9; Hiley's, 3; and others. "An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the two Vowels is sounded."—Lennie's Gram., p. 5. "Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and his descendants, are called Hebrews."—Wood's Dict. "Every word in our language, of more than one syllable, has one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner."—Murray's Gram., p. 236. "Two consonants proper to begin a word must not be separated; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided; as, ut-most, un-der."—Ib., p. 22. "Shall the intellect alone feel no pleasures in its energy, when we allow them to the grossest energies of appetite and sense?"—Harris's Hermes, p. 298; Murray's Gram., 289. "No man hath a propensity to vice as such: on the contrary, a wicked deed disgusts him, and makes him abhor the author."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 66. "The same that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 8. "What is Language? It is the means of communicating thoughts from one to another."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 15. "A simple word is that which is not made up of more than one."—Adam's Gram., p. 4; Gould's, p. 4. "A compound word is that which is made up of two or more words."—Ib. "When a conjunction is to be supplied, it is called Asyndeton."—Adam's Gram., p. 235.

UNDER NOTE XI.—PLACE OF THE RELATIVE.

"It gives a meaning to words, which they would not have."—Murray's Gram., p. 244. "There are many words in the English language, that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs."—Ib., p. 114. "Which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do which are used to form the potential mood."—Ib., p. 67. "These accents make different impressions on the mind, which will be the subject of a following speculation."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 108. "And others very much differed from the writer's words, to whom they were ascribed."—Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. xii. "Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated, an easy fall will be proper."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 250; Bullions's E. Gram., 167. "There is an ellipsis of the verb in the last clause, which, when you supply, you find it necessary to use the adverb not."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 176; Murray's Gram., 368. "Study is singular number, because its nominative I is, with which it agrees."—Smith's New Gram., p. 22. "John is the person, or, thou art who is in error."—Wright's Gram., p. 136. "For he hath made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin."—2 Cor., v, 21.

   "Take that of me, my friend, who have the power
    To seal the accuser's lips."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 268.

UNDER NOTE XII.—WHAT FOR THAT.

"I had no idea but what the story was true."—Browns Inst., p. 144. "The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle."—Ib. "He had no intimation but what the men were honest."—Ib. "Neither Lady Haversham nor Miss Mildmay will ever believe, but what I have been entirely to blame."—See Priestley's Gram., p. 93. "I am not satisfied, but what the integrity of our friends is more essential to our welfare than their knowledge of the world."—Ibid. "There is, indeed, nothing in poetry, so entertaining or descriptive, but what a didactic writer of genius may be allowed to introduce in some part of his work."—Blair's Rhet., p. 401. "Brasidas, being bit by a mouse he had catched, let it slip out of his fingers: 'No creature, (says he,) is so contemptible but what may provide for its own safety, if it have courage.'"—PLUTARCH: Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 81.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—ADJECTIVES FOR ANTECEDENTS.

"In narration, Homer is, at all times, remarkably concise, which renders him lively and agreeable."—Blair's Rhet., p. 435. "It is usual to talk of a nervous, a feeble, or a spirited style; which are plainly the characters of a writer's manner of thinking."—Ib., p. 92. "It is too violent an alteration, if any alteration were necessary, which none is."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 134. "Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which, there can be no docility."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 385. "Judas declared him innocent; which he could not be, had he in any respect deceived the disciples."—Porteus. "They supposed him to be innocent, which he certainly was not."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 50; Emmons's, 25. "They accounted him honest, which he certainly was not."—Fetch's Comp. Gram., p. 89. "Be accurate in all you say or do; for it is important in all the concerns of life."—Brown's Inst., p. 145. "Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked; which indeed he is, if the law is just."—Ib. "To be pure in heart, pious, and benevolent, which all may be, constitutes human happiness."—Murray's Gram., p. 232. "To be dexterous in danger, is a virtue; but to court danger to show it, is weakness."—Penn's Maxims.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—SENTENCES FOR ANTECEDENTS.

"This seems not so allowable in prose; which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate."—Murray's Gram., p. 175. "The accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word; which is favourable to the melody."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 86. "Every line consists of ten syllables, five short and five long; from which there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."—Ib., ii, 89. "The soldiers refused obedience, which has been explained."—Nixon's Parser, p. 128. "Cæsar overcame Pompey, which was lamented."—Ib. "The crowd hailed William, which was expected."—Ib. "The tribunes resisted Scipio, which was anticipated."—Ib. "The censors reproved vice, which was admired."—Ib. "The generals neglected discipline, which has been proved."—Ib. "There would be two nominatives to the verb was, which is improper."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 205; Gould's, 202. "His friend bore the abuse very patiently; which served to increase his rudeness: it produced, at length, contempt and insolence."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 50; Emmons's, 25. "Almost all compounded sentences, are more or less elliptical; some examples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech."—Murray's Gram., p. 217; Guy's, 90; R G. Smith's, 180; Ingersoll's, 153; Fisk's, 144; J. M. Putnam's, 137; Weld's, 190, Weld's Imp. Ed., 214.

UNDER NOTE XV.—REPEAT THE PRONOUN.

"In things of Nature's workmanship, whether we regard their internal or external structure, beauty and design are equally conspicuous."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 269. "It puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper or figurative sense."—Ib., ii, 231. "Neither my obligations to the muses, nor expectations from them, are so great."—Cowley's Preface. "The Fifth Annual Report of the Anti-Slavery Society of Ferrisburgh and vicinity."—Liberator, ix, 69. "Meaning taste in its figurative as well as proper sense."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 360. "Every measure in which either your personal or political character is concerned."—Junius, Let. ix. "A jealous, righteous God has often punished such in themselves or offspring."—Extracts, p. 179. "Hence their civil and religious history are inseparable."—Milman's Jews, i, 7. "Esau thus carelessly threw away both his civil and religious inheritance."—Ib., i, 24. "This intelligence excited not only our hopes, but fears likewise."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 170. "In what manner our defect of principle and ruling manners have completed the ruin of the national spirit of union."—Brown's Estimate, i, 77. "Considering her descent, her connexion, and present intercourse."—Webster's Essays, p. 85. "His own and wife's wardrobe are packed up in a firkin."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part i, p. 73.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—CHANGE THE ANTECEDENT.

"The sound of e and o long, in their due degrees, will be preserved, and clearly distinguished."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 242. "If any person should be inclined to think," &c., "the author takes the liberty to suggest to them," &c.—Ib., Pref., p. iv. "And he walked in all the ways of Asa his father; he turned not aside from it."—1 Kings, xxii, 43. "If ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their trespasses."—Matt., xviii, 35. "Nobody ever fancied they were slighted by him, or had the courage to think themselves his betters."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 8. "And Rebekah took goodly raiment of her eldest son Esau, which were with her in the house, and put them upon Jacob her younger son."—Gen., xxvii, 15. "Where all the attention of man is given to their own indulgence."— Maturin's Sermons, p. 181. "The idea of a father is a notion superinduced to the substance, or man—let man be what it will."—Locke's Essay, i, 219. "Leaving every one to do as they list."—Barclay's Works, i, 460. "Each body performed his part handsomely."—J. Flint's Gram., p. 15. "This block of marble rests on two layers of stone, bound together with lead, which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from forcing out several of them."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part i, p. 72.

   "Love gives to every power a double power,
    Above their functions and their offices."—Shakspeare.

RULE XI.—PRONOUNS.

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number: as, "The council were divided in their sentiments."—"The Christian world are beginning to awake out of their slumber."—C. Simeon. "Whatever Adam's posterity lost through him, that and more they gain in Christ."—J. Phipps.

   "To this, one pathway gently-winding leads,
    Where march a train with baskets on their heads."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. xviii, l. 657.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XI.

OBS. 1.—The collective noun, or noun of multitude, being a name that signifies many, may in general be taken in either of two ways, according to the intention of the user: that is, either with reference to the aggregate as one thing, in which sense it will accord with the neuter pronoun it or which; or with reference to the individuals, so as to accord with a plural pronoun they, their, them, or who, masculine, or feminine, as the individuals of the assemblage may happen to be. The noun itself, being literally singular both in form and in fact, has not unfrequently some article or adjective before it that implies unity; so that the interpretation of it in a plural sense by the pronoun or verb, was perhaps not improperly regarded by the old grammarians as an example of the figure syllepsis:.as, "Liberty should reach every individual of a people, as they all share one common nature."—Spectator, No. 287.

   "Thus urg'd the chief; a generous troop appears,
    Who spread their bucklers and advance their spears."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. xi, l. 720.

OBS. 2.—Many of our grammarians say, "When a noun of multitude is preceded by a definitive word, which clearly limits the sense to an aggregate with an idea of unity, it requires a verb and pronoun to agree with it in the singular number."—Murray's Gram., p. 153; Ingersoll's, 249; Fisk's, 122; Fowler's, 528. But this principle, I apprehend, cannot be sustained by an appeal to general usage. The instances in practice are not few, in which both these senses are clearly indicated with regard to the same noun; as, "Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgement require secrecy."—Constitution of the United States, Art. i, Sec. 5. "I mean that part of mankind who are known by the name of women's men, or beaux."—Addison, Spect., No. 536. "A set of men who are common enough in the world."—Ibid. "It is vain for a people to expect to be free, unless they are first willing to be virtuous."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 397. "For this people's heart is waxed gross, and their ears are dull of hearing, and their eyes they have closed."—Matt., xiii, 15. "This enemy had now enlarged their confederacy, and made themselves more formidable than before."—Life of Antoninus, p. 62.

   "Thus from the tents the fervent legion swarms;
    So loud their clamour, and so keen their arms."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. xvi, l. 320.

OBS. 3.—Most collective nouns of the neuter gender, may take the regular plural form, and be represented by a pronoun in the third person, plural, neuter; as, "The nations will enforce their laws." This construction comes under Rule 10th, as does also the singular, "The nations will enforce its laws;" for, in either case, the agreement is entirely literal. Half of Murray's Rule 4th is therefore needless. To Rule 11th above, there are properly no exceptions; because the number of the pronoun is itself the index to the sense in which the antecedent is therein taken. It does not follow, however, but that there may be violations of the rule, or of the notes under it, by the adoption of one number when the other would be more correct, or in better taste. A collection of things inanimate, as a fleet, a heap, a row, a tier, a bundle, is seldom, if ever, taken distributively, with a plural pronoun. For a further elucidation of the construction of collective nouns, see Rule 15th, and the observations under it.

NOTES TO RULE XI.

NOTE I.—A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter; as, "When a legislative body makes laws, it acts for itself only; but when it makes grants or contracts, it acts as a party."—Webster's Essays, p. 40. "A civilized people has no right to violate its solemn obligations, because the other party is uncivilized."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 314.

NOTE II.—When a collective noun is followed by two or more words which must each in some sense agree with it, uniformity of number is commonly preferable to diversity, and especially to such a mixture as puts the singular both before and after the plural; as, "That ingenious nation who have done so much honour to modern literature, possesses, in an eminent degree, the talent of narration."—Blair's Rhet., p. 364. Better: "which has done."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XI.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE IDEA OF PLURALITY.

"The jury will be confined till it agrees on a verdict."—Brown's Inst., p. 145.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun it is of the singular number, and does not correctly represent its antecedent jury, which is a collective noun conveying rather the idea of plurality. But, according to Rule 11th, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number." Therefore, it should be they; thus, "The jury will be confined till they agree on a verdict."]

"And mankind directed its first cares towards the needful."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 114. "It is difficult to deceive a free people respecting its true interest."—Life of Charles XII, p. 67. "All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies and vices are innumerable."—Swift. "Every sect saith, 'Give me liberty:' but give it him, and to his power, he will not yield it to any body else."—Oliver Cromwell. "Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up himself as a young lion."—Numbers, xxiii, 24. "For all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth."—Gen., vi, 12. "There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put it in great consternation."—Goldsmith.

UNDER NOTE I.—THE IDEA OF UNITY.

"The meeting went on in their business as a united body."—Foster's Report, i, 69. "Every religious association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for themselves."—Gould's Advocate, iii, 405. "It would therefore be extremely difficult to raise an insurrection in that State against their own government."—Webster's Essays, p. 104. "The mode in which a Lyceum can apply themselves in effecting a reform in common schools."—New York Lyceum. "Hath a nation changed their gods, which are yet no gods?"—Jeremiah, ii, 11. "In the holy scriptures each of the twelve tribes of Israel is often called by the name of the patriarch, from whom they descended."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., ii, 331.

UNDER NOTE II.—UNIFORMITY OF NUMBER.

"A nation, by the reparation of their own wrongs, achieves a triumph more glorious than any field of blood can ever give."—J. Q. Adams. "The English nation, from which we descended, have been gaining their liberties inch by inch."—Webster's Essays, p. 45. "If a Yearly Meeting should undertake to alter its fundamental doctrines, is there any power in the society to prevent their doing so?"—Foster's Report, i, 96. "There is a generation that curseth their father, and doth not bless their mother."—Proverbs, xxx, 11. "There is a generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet is not washed from their filthiness."—Ib., xxx, 12. "He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the Lord his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them."—Numb., xxiii, 21. "My people hath forgotten me, they have burnt incense to vanity."—Jer., xviii, 15. "When a quarterly meeting hath come to a judgment respecting any difference, relative to any monthly meeting belonging to them," &c.—Extracts, p. 195; N. E. Discip., p. 118. "The number of such compositions is every day increasing, and appear to be limited only by the pleasure or conveniency of the writer."—Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 37. "The church of Christ hath the same power now as ever, and are led by the same Spirit into the same practices."—Barclay's Works, i, 477. "The army, whom the chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile their miserable march."—Lockhart's Napoleon, ii, 165.

RULE XII.—PRONOUNS.

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as, "Minos and Thales sung to the lyre the laws which they composed."—STRABO: Blair's Rhet., p. 379. "Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in their death they were not divided."—2 Sam., i, 23.

"Rhesus and Rhodius then unite their rills, Caresus roaring down the stony hills."—Pope, Il., B. xii, l. 17.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

When two or more antecedents connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural pronoun; as, "This great philosopher and statesman continued in public life till his eighty-second year."—"The same Spirit, light, and life, which enlighteneth, also sanctifieth, and there is not an other."—Penington. "My Constantius and Philetus confesseth me two years older when I writ it."—Cowley's Preface. "Remember these, O Jacob and Israel! for thou art my servant."—Isaiah, xliv, 21. "In that strength and cogency which renders eloquence powerful."—Blair's Rhet., p. 252.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

When two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural pronoun; as, "The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office."—"The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward."—"Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake."—"It is the sense in which the word is used, and not the letters of which it is composed, that determines what is the part of speech to which it belongs."—Cobbett's Gram., ¶ 130.

EXCEPTION THIRD.

When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural pronoun; as, "Every plant and every tree produces others after its own kind."—"It is the cause of every reproach and distress which has attended your government."—Junius, Let. xxxv. But if the latter be a collective noun, the pronoun may be plural; as, "Each minister and each church act according to their own impressions."—Dr. M'Cartee.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XII.

OBS. 1.—When the antecedents are of different persons, the first person is preferred to the second, and the second to the third; as, "John, and thou, and I, are attached to our country."—"John and thou are attached to your country."—"The Lord open some light, and show both you and me our inheritance!"—Baxter. "Thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood."—Numbers, xviii, 1.

   "For all are friends in heaven; all faithful friends;
    And many friendships in the days of Time
    Begun, are lasting here, and growing still:
    So grows ours evermore, both theirs and mine."
        —Pollok, C. of T., B. v, l. 335.

OBS 2.—The gender of pronouns, except in the third person singular, is distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing that of a pronoun which has antecedents of different genders, the masculine should be preferred to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter. The parser of English should remember, that this is a principle of General Grammar.

OBS 3.—When two words are taken separately as nominatives, they ought not to be united in the same sentence as antecedents. In the following example, therefore, them should be it: "The first has a lenis, and the other an asper over them."—Printer's Gram., p. 246. Better thus: "The first has a lenis over it, and the other an asper."

OBS. 4.—Nouns that stand as nominatives or antecedents, are sometimes taken conjointly when there is no conjunction expressed; as, "The historian, the orator, the philosopher, address themselves primarily to the understanding: their direct aim is, to inform, to persuade, to instruct."—Blair's Rhet., p. 377. The copulative and may here be said to be understood, because the verb and the pronouns are plural; but it seems better in general, either to introduce the connective word, or to take the nouns disjunctively: as, "They have all the copiousness, the fervour, the inculcating method, that is allowable and graceful in an orator; perhaps too much of it for a writer."—Blair's Rhet., p. 343. To this, however, there may be exceptions,—cases in which the plural form is to be preferred,—especially in poetry; as,

   "Faith, justice, heaven itself, now quit their hold,
    When to false fame the captive heart is sold."—Brown, on Satire.

OBS. 5.—When two or more antecedents connected by and are nominally alike, one or more of them may be understood; and, in such a case, the pronoun must still be plural, as agreeing with all the nouns, whether expressed or implied: as, "But intellectual and moral culture ought to go hand in hand; they will greatly help each other."—Dr. Weeks. Here they stands for intellectual culture and moral culture. The following example is incorrect: "The Commanding and Unlimited mode may be used in an absolute sense, or without a name or substitute on which it can depend."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 80. Change it to they, or and to or. See Note 6th to Rule 16th.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XII.

PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY AND.

"Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance."—Brown's
Inst., p. 146.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the pronoun itself is of the singular number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents discontent and sorrow, which are connected by and, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 12th, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with then, jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Therefore, itself should be themselves; thus, "Discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance."]

"Both conversation and public speaking became more simple and plain, such as we now find it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 59. "Idleness and ignorance, if it be suffered to proceed, &c."—JOHNSON: Priestley's Gram., p. 186. "Avoid questions and strife; it shows a busy and contentious disposition."—Wm. Penn. "To receive the gifts and benefits of God with thanksgiving, and witness it blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer, is owned by us."—Barclays Works, i, 213. "Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose between his duty and his reputation."—Junius, p. 9. "All the sincerity, truth, and faithfulness, or disposition of heart or conscience to approve it, found among rational creatures, necessarily originate from God."—Brown's Divinity, p. 12. "Your levity and heedlessness, if it continue, will prevent all substantial improvement."—Brown's Inst., p. 147. "Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it oppressive."—Ib. "Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because it cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection."—Ib. "Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation, of manners: it implies a want of solid merit."—Ib. "If love and unity continue, it will make you partakers of one an other's joy."—Ib. "Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter: it will destroy, like a canker, every germ of friendship."—Ib. "Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity; guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it."—Ib. "Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others."—Ib.

   "With the azure and vermilion
    Which is mix'd for my pavilion."—Byron's Manfred, p. 9.

RULE XIII.—PRONOUNS.

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as; "James or John will favour us with his company."—"Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries."

   "What virtue or what mental grace,
    But men unqualified and base
        Will boast it their possession?"—Cowper, on Friendship.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII.

OBS. 1.—When two or more singular antecedents are connected by or or nor, the pronoun which represents them, ought in general to be singular, because or and nor are disjunctives; and, to form a complete concord, the nouns ought also to be of the same person and gender, that the pronoun may agree in all respects with each of them. But when plural nouns are connected in this manner, the pronoun will of course be plural, though it still agrees with the antecedents singly; as, "Neither riches nor honours ever satisfy their pursuers." Sometimes, when different numbers occur together, we find the plural noun put last, and the pronoun made plural after both, especially if this noun is a mere substitute for the other; as,

   "What's justice to a man, or laws,
    That never comes within their claws."—Hudibras.

OBS. 2.—When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are connected by or or nor, they cannot very properly be represented by any pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. The following sentences are therefore inaccurate; or at least they contradict the teachings of their own authors: "Either thou or I am greatly mistaken, in our judgment on this subject."—Murray's Key, p. 184 "Your character, which I, or any other writer, may now value ourselves by (upon) drawing."—SWIFT: Lowth's Gram., p. 96. "Either you or I will be in our place in due time."—Coopers Gram., p. 127. But different pronouns may be so connected as to refer to such antecedents taken separately; as, "By requiring greater labour from such slave or slaves, than he or she or they are able to perform."—Prince's Digest. Or, if the gender only be different, the masculine may involve the feminine by implication; as, "If a man smite the eye of his servant, or the eye of his maid, that it perish, he shall let him go free for his eye's sake."—Exodus, xxi, 26.

OBS. 3.—It is however very common to resort to the plural number in such instances as the foregoing, because our plural pronouns are alike in all the genders; as, "When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite."—Numbers, vi, 2. "Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with stones, till they die."—Deut., xvii, 5. "Not on outward charms could he or she build their pretensions to please."—Opie, on Lying, p. 148. "Complimenting either man or woman on agreeable qualities which they do not possess, in hopes of imposing on their credulity."—Ib., p. 108. "Avidien, or his wife, (no matter which,) sell their presented partridges and fruits."—Pope, Sat. ii, l. 50. "Beginning with Latin or Greek hexameter, which are the same."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 79.

   "Did ever Proteus, Merlin, any witch,
    Transform themselves so strangely as the rich?"
        —Pope, Ep. i, l. 152.

OBS. 4.—From the observations and examples above, it may be perceived, that whenever there is a difference of person, number, or gender, in antecedents connected disjunctively, there is an inherent difficulty respecting the form of the pronoun personal. The best mode of meeting this inconvenience, or of avoiding it by a change of the phraseology, may be different on different occasions. The disjunctive connexion of explicit pronouns is the most correct, but it savours too much of legal precision and wordiness to be always eligible. Commonly an ingenious mind may invent some better expression, and yet avoid any syntactical anomaly. In Latin, when nouns are connected by the conjunctions which correspond to or or nor, the pronoun or verb is so often made plural, that no such principle as that of the foregoing Rule, or of Rule 17th, is taught by the common grammars of that language. How such usage can be logically right, however, it is difficult to imagine. Lowth, Murray, Webster, and most other English grammarians, teach, that, "The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of the copulative; and, as the verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, it must be in the singular number."—Lowth's Gram., p. 75; L. Murray's, 151; Churchill's, 142; W. Allen's, 133; Lennie's, 83; and many others. If there is any allowable exception to this principle, it is for the adoption of the plural when the concord cannot be made by any one pronoun singular; as, "If I value my friend's wife or son upon account of their connexion with him."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 73. "Do not drink wine nor strong drink, thou nor thy sons with thee, when ye go into the tabernacle of the congregation."—Levit., x, 8. These examples, though they do not accord with the preceding rule, seem not to be susceptible of any change for the better. There are also some other modes of expression, in which nouns that are connected disjunctively, may afterwards be represented together; as "Foppery is a sort of folly much more contagious THAN pedantry; but as they result alike from affectation, they deserve alike to be proscribed."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 217.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIII.

PRONOUNS WITH ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY OR OR NOR.

"Neither prelate nor priest can give their flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors."—Dr. Brownlee.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and does not correctly represent its two antecedents prelate and priest, which are connected by nor, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 13th, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together." Therefore, their should be his; thus, "Neither prelate nor priest can give his flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors."]

"And is there a heart of parent or of child, that does not beat and burn within them?"—Maturin's Sermons, p. 367. "This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for their service to the body."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 178. "If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut them off, and cast them from thee."—Matt., xviii, 8. "The same might as well be said of Virgil, or any great author, whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to their reputation."—Pope's Pref. to Homer. "Either James or John, one of them, will come."—Smith's New Gram., p. 37. "Even a rugged rock or barren heath, though in themselves disagreeable, contribute by contrast to the beauty of the whole."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 185. "That neither Count Rechteren nor Monsieur Mesnager had behaved themselves right in this affair."—Spect., No. 481. "If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffer for their opinions, they are 'martyrs.'"—Gospel its own Witness, p. 80. "If an ox gore a man or a woman, that they die; then the ox shall be surely stoned."—Exodus, xxi, 28. "She was calling out to one or an other, at every step, that a Habit was ensnaring them."—DR. JOHNSON: Murray's Sequel, 181. "Here is a Task put upon Children, that neither this Author, nor any other have yet undergone themselves."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 162. "Hence, if an adjective or participle be subjoined to the verb, when of the singular number, they will agree both in gender and number with the collective noun."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 154; Gould's, 158. "And if you can find a diphthong, or a triphthong, be pleased to point them out too."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 16. "And if you can find a diphthong, or a triphthong, a trissyllable, or a polysyllable, point them respectively out."—Ib., p. 25. "The false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic have intrenched themselves."—Christian Spect., viii, 185. "While the man or woman thus assisted by art expects their charms will be imputed to nature alone."—Opie, 141. "When you press a watch, or pull a clock, they answer your question with precision; for they repeat exactly the hour of the day, and tell you neither more nor less than you desire to know."—Bolingbroke, on History, p. 102.

   "Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy,
    Not Prester John, or Cham of Tartary,
    Are in their houses Monarch more than I."
        —KING: Brit. Poets, Vol. iii, p. 613.

CHAPTER VI.—VERBS.

In this work, the syntax of Verbs is embraced in six consecutive rules, with the necessary exceptions, notes, and observations, under them; hence this chapter extends from the fourteenth to the twentieth rule in the series.

RULE XIV.—FINITE VERBS.

Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number: as, "I know; thou knowst, or knowest; he knows, or knoweth"—"The bird flies; the birds fly."

   "Our fathers' fertile fields by slaves are till'd,
    And Rome with dregs of foreign lands is fill'd."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. vii, l. 600.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIV.

OBS. 1.—To this general rule for the verb, there are properly no exceptions;[385] and all the special rules that follow, which prescribe the concord of verbs in particular instances, virtually accord with it. Every finite verb, (that is, every verb not in the infinitive mood,) must have some noun, pronoun, or phrase equivalent, known as the subject of the being, action, or passion;[386] and with this subject, whether expressed or understood, the verb must agree in person and number. The infinitive mood, as it does not unite with a nominative to form an assertion, is of course exempt from any such agreement. These may be considered principles of Universal Grammar. The Greeks, however, had a strange custom of using a plural noun of the neuter gender, with a verb of the third person singular; and in both Greek and Latin, the infinitive mood with an accusative before it was often equivalent to a finite verb with its nominative. In English we have neither of these usages; and plural nouns, even when they denote no absolute plurality, (as shears, scissors, trowsers, pantaloons, tongs,) require plural verbs or pronouns: as, "Your shears come too late, to clip the bird's wings."—SIDNEY: Churchill's Gram., p. 30.

OBS. 2.—When a book that bears a plural title, is spoken of as one thing, there is sometimes presented an apparent exception to the foregoing rule; as, "The Pleasures of Memory was published in the year 1792, and became at once popular."—Allan Cunningham. "The 'Sentiments of a Church-of-England Man' is written with great coolness, moderation, ease, and perspicuity."—Johnson's Life of Swift. "The 'Pleasures of Hope' is a splendid poem; it was written for perpetuity."—Samuel L. Knapp. In these instances, there is, I apprehend, either an agreement of the verb, by the figure syllepsis, with the mental conception of the thing spoken of; or an improper ellipsis of the common noun, with which each sentence ought to commence; as, "The poem entitled,"—"The work entitled," &c. But the plural title sometimes controls the form of the verb; as, "My Lives are reprinting."—Dr. Johnson.

OBS. 3.—In the figurative use of the present tense for the past or imperfect, the vulgar have a habit of putting the third person singular with the pronoun I; as, "Thinks I to myself."—Rev. J. Marriott. "O, says I, Jacky, are you at that work?"—Day's Sandford and Merton. "Huzza! huzza! Sir Condy Rackrent forever, was the first thing I hears in the morning."—Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent, p. 97. This vulgarism is to be avoided, not by a simple omission of the terminational s, but rather by the use of the literal preterit: as, "Thought I to myself;"—"O, said I;"—"The first thing I heard." The same mode of correction is also proper, when, under like circumstances, there occurs a disagreement in number; as, "After the election was over, there comes shoals of people from all parts."—Castle Rackrent, p. 103. "Didn't ye hear it? says they that were looking on."—Ib., p. 147. Write, "there came,"—"said they."

OBS. 4.—It has already been noticed, that the article a, or a singular adjective, sometimes precedes an arithmetical number with a plural noun; as, "A thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday."—Psalms, xc, 4. So we might say, "One thousand years are,"—"Each thousand years are"—"Every thousand years are," &c. But it would not be proper to say, "A thousand years is," or, "Every thousand years is;" because the noun years is plainly plural, and the anomaly of putting a singular verb after it, is both needless and unauthorized. Yet, to this general rule for the verb, the author of a certain "English Grammar on the Productive System," (a strange perversion of Murray's compilation, and a mere catch-penny work, now extensively used in New England,) is endeavouring to establish, by his own bare word, the following exception: "Every is sometimes associated with a plural noun, in which case the verb must be singular; as, 'Every hundred years constitutes a century.'"—Smith's New Gram., p. 103. His reason is this; that the phrase containing the nominative, "signifies a single period of time, and is, therefore, in reality singular."—Ib. Cutler also, a more recent writer, seems to have imbibed the same notion; for he gives the following sentence as an example of "false construction: Every hundred years are called a century."—Cutler's Grammar and Parser, p. 145. But, according to this argument, no plural verb could ever be used with any definite number of the parts of time; for any three years, forty years, or threescore years and ten, are as single a period of time, as "every hundred years," "every four years," or "every twenty-four hours." Nor is it true, that, "Every is sometimes associated with a plural noun;" for "every years" or "every hours," would be worse than nonsense. I, therefore, acknowledge no such exception; but, discarding the principle of the note, put this author's pretended corrections among my quotations of false syntax.

OBS. 5.—Different verbs always have different subjects, expressed or understood; except when two or more verbs are connected in the same construction, or when the same word is repeated for the sake of emphasis. But let not the reader believe the common doctrine of our grammarians, respecting either the ellipsis of nominatives or the ellipsis of verbs. In the text, "The man was old and crafty," Murray sees no connexion of the ideas of age and craftiness, but thinks the text a compound sentence, containing two nominatives and two verbs; i.e., "The man was old, and the man was crafty." [387] And all his other instances of "the ellipsis of the verb" are equally fanciful! See his Octavo Gram., p. 219; Duodecimo, 175. In the text, "God loves, protects, supports, and rewards the rights," there are four verbs in the same construction, agreeing with the same nominative, and governing the same object; but Buchanan and others expound it, "God loves, and God protects, and God supports, and God rewards the righteous."—English Syntax, p. 76; British Gram., 192. This also is fanciful and inconsistent. If the nominative is here "elegantly understood to each verb," so is the objective, which they do not repeat. "And again," they immediately add, "the verb is often understood to its noun or nouns; as, He dreams of gibbets, halters, racks, daggers, &c. i.e. He dreams of gibbets, and he dreams of halters, &c."—Same works and places. In none of these examples is there any occasion to suppose an ellipsis, if we admit that two or more words can be connected in the same construction!

OBS. 6.—Verbs in the imperative mood commonly agree with the pronoun thou, ye, or you, understood after them; as, "Heal [ye] the sick, cleanse [ye] the lepers, raise [ye] the dead, cast [ye] out devils."—Matt., x, 8. "Trust God and be doing, and leave the rest with him."—Dr. Sibs. When the doer of a thing must first proceed to the place of action, we sometimes use go or come before an other verb, without any conjunction between the two; as, "Son, go work to-day in my vineyard."—Matt., xxi, 28. "Come see a man who [has] told me all things that ever I did."—John, iv, 29. "He ordered his soldiers to go murder every child about Bethlehem, or near it."—Wood's Dict. of Bible, w. Herod. "Take a present in thine hand, and go meet the man of God."—2 Kings, viii, 8. "I will go see if he be at home."—Walker's Particles, p. 169.

OBS. 7.—The place of the verb has reference mainly to that of the subject with which it agrees, and that of the object which it governs; and as the arrangement of these, with the instances in which they come before or after the verb, has already been noticed, the position of the latter seems to require no further explanation. See Obs. 2d under Rule 2d, and Obs. 2d under Rule 5th.

OBS. 8.—The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, (and, according to some authors, the participle in ing, or a phrase beginning with this participle,) is sometimes the proper subject of a verb, being equivalent to a nominative of the third person singular; as, "To play is pleasant."—Lowth's Gram., p. 80. "To write well, is difficult; to speak eloquently, is still more difficult."—Blair's Rhet., p. 81. "To take men off from prayer, tends to irreligiousness, is granted."—Barclay's Works, i, 214. "To educate a child perfectly, requires profounder thought, greater wisdom, than to govern a state."—Channing's Self-Culture, p. 30. "To determine these points, belongs to good sense."—Blair's Rhet., p. 321. "How far the change would contribute to his welfare, comes to be considered."—Id., Sermons. "That too much care does hurt in any of our tasks, is a doctrine so flattering to indolence, that we ought to receive it with extreme caution."—Life of Schiller, p. 148. "That there is no disputing about taste, is a saying so generally received as to have become a proverb."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 360. "For what purpose they embarked, is not yet known."—"To live in sin and yet to believe the forgiveness of sin, is utterly impossible."—Dr. J. Owen.

   "There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,
    But drinking largely sobers us again."—Pope.

OBS. 9.—The same meaning will be expressed, if the pronoun it be placed before the verb, and the infinitive, phrase, or santance, after it; as, "It is pleasant to play,"—"It is difficult to write well;" &c. The construction of the following sentences is rendered defective by the omission of this pronoun: "Why do ye that which [it] is not lawful to do on the sabbath days?"—Luke, vi, 2. "The show-bread, which [it] is not lawful to eat, but for the priests only."—Ib., vi, 4. "We have done that which [it] was our duty to do."—Ib., xvii, 10. Here the relative which ought to be in the objective case, governed by the infinitives; but the omission of the word it makes this relative the nominative to is or was, and leaves to do and to eat without any regimen. This is not ellipsis, but error. It is an accidental gap into which a side piece falls, and leaves a breach elsewhere. The following is somewhat like it, though what falls in, appears to leave no chasm: "From this deduction, [it] may be easily seen how it comes to pass, that personification makes so great a figure."—Blair's Rhet., p. 155. "Whether the author had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, [it] is not easy to determine."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 298. "That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, [it] is very reasonable to believe."—Ib., p. 144. These also need the pronoun, though Murray thought them complete without it.

OBS. 10.—When the infinitive mood is made the subject of a finite verb, it is most commonly used to express action or state in the abstract; as, "To be contents his natural desire."—Pope. Here to be stands for simple existence; or if for the existence of the Indian, of whom the author speaks, that relation is merely implied. "To define ridicule, has puzzled and vexed every critic."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 300. Here "to define" expresses an action quite as distinct from any agent, as would the participial noun; as, "The defining of ridicule," &c. In connexion with the infinitive, a concrete quality may also be taken as an abstract; as, "To be good is to be happy." Here good and happy express the quality of goodness and the state of happiness considered abstractly; and therefore these adjectives do not relate to any particular noun. So also the passive infinitive, or a perfect participle taken in a passive sense; as, "To be satisfied with a little, is the greatest wisdom."—"To appear discouraged, is the way to become so." Here the satisfaction and the discouragement are considered abstractly, and without reference to any particular person. (See Obs. 12th and 13th on Rule 6th.) So too, apparently, the participles doing and suffering, as well as the adjective weak, in the following example:

"Fallen Cherub, to be weak is miserable, Doing or suffering."—Milton's Paradise Lost.

OBS. 11.—When the action or state is to be expressly limited to one class of beings, or to a particular person or thing, without making the verb finite; the noun or pronoun may be introduced before the infinitive by the preposition for: as, "For men to search their own glory, is not glory."—Prov., xxv, 27. "For a prince to be reduced by villany [sic—KTH] to my distressful circumstances, is calamity enough."—Translation of Sallust. "For holy persons to be humble, is as hard, as for a prince to submit himself to be guided by tutors."—TAYLOR: Priestley's Gram., p. 132; Murray's, 184. But such a limitation is sometimes implied, when the expression itself is general; as, "Not to know me, argues thyself unknown."—Milton. That is, "For thee not to know me." The phrase is put far, "Thy ignorance of me;" for an other's ignorance would be no argument in regard to the individual addressed. "I, to bear this, that never knew but better, is some burden."—Beauties of Shak., p. 327. Here the infinitive to bear, which is the subject of the verb is, is limited in sense by the pronoun I, which is put absolute in the nominative, though perhaps improperly; because, "For me to bear this," &c., will convey the same meaning, in a form much more common, and perhaps more grammatical. In the following couplet, there is an ellipsis of the infinitive; for the phrase, "fool with fool," means, "for fool to contend with fool," or, "for one fool to contend with an other:"

   "Blockheads with reason wicked wits abhor,
    But fool with fool is barb'rous civil war."
        —Pope, Dunciad, B. iii, l. 175.

OBS. 12.—The objective noun or pronoun thus introduced by for before the infinitive, was erroneously called by Priestley, "the subject of the affirmation;" (Gram., p. 132;) and Murray, Ingersoll, and others, have blindly copied the blunder. See Murray's Gram., p. 184; Ingersoll's, 244. Again, Ingersoll says, "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes the subject of a verb, and is, therefore, its NOMINATIVE."—Conversations on English Gram., p. 246. To this erroneous deduction, the phraseology used by Murray and others too plainly gives countenance: "The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes put as the nominative case to the verb."—Murray's Gram., p. 144; Fisk's, 123; Kirkham's, 188; Lennie's, 99; Bullions's, 89; and many more. Now the objective before the infinitive may not improperly be called the subject of this form of the verb, as the nominative is, of the finite; but to call it "the subject of the affirmation," is plainly absurd; because no infinitive, in English, ever expresses an affirmation. And again, if a whole phrase or sentence is made the subject of a finite verb, or of an affirmation, no one word contained in it, can singly claim this title. Nor can the whole, by virtue of this relation, be said to be "in the nominative case;" because, in the nature of things, neither phrases nor sentences are capable of being declined by cases.

OBS. 13.—Any phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a finite verb, must be taken in the sense of one thing, and be spoken of as a whole; so that the verb's agreement with it, in the third person singular, is not an exception to Rule 14th, but a construction in which the verb may be parsed by that rule. For any one thing merely spoken of, is of the third person singular, whatever may be the nature of its parts. Not every phrase or sentence, however, is fit to be made the subject of a verb;—that is, if its own import, and not the mere expression, is the thing whereof we affirm. Thus Dr. Ash's example for this very construction, "a sentence made the subject of a verb," is, I think, a palpable solecism: "The King and Queen appearing in public was the cause of my going."—Ash's Gram., p. 52. What is here before the verb was, is no "sentence;" but a mere phrase, and such a one as we should expect to see used independently, if any regard were had to its own import. The Doctor would tell us what "was the cause of his going:" and here he has two nominatives, which are equivalent to the plural they; q.d., "They appearing in public was the cause." But such a construction is not English. It is an other sample of the false illustration which grammar receives from those who invent the proof-texts which they ought to quote.

OBS. 14.—One of Murray's examples of what he erroneously terms "nominative sentences," i.e., "sentences or clauses constituting the subject of an affirmation," is the following: "A desire to excel others in learning and virtue [,] is commendable."—Gram., 8vo, p. 144. Here the verb is agrees regularly with the noun desire, and with that only; the whole text being merely a simple sentence, and totally irrelevant to the doctrine which it accompanies.[388] But the great "Compiler" supposes the adjuncts of this noun to be parts of the nominative, and imagines the verb to agree with all that precedes it. Yet, soon after, he expends upon the ninth rule of Webster's Philosophical Grammar a whole page of useless criticism, to show that the adjuncts of a noun are not to be taken as parts of the nominative; and that, when objectives are thus subjoined, "the assertion grammatically respects the first nouns only."—Ib., p. 148. I say useless, because the truth of the doctrine is so very plain. Some, however, may imagine an example like the following to be an exception to it; but I do not, because I think the true nominative suppressed:

   "By force they could not introduce these gods;
    For ten to one in former days was odds."—Dryden's Poems, p. 38.

OBS. 15.—Dr. Webster's ninth rule is this: "When the nominative consists of several words, and the last of the names is in the plural number, the verb is commonly in the plural also; as, 'A part of the exports consist of raw silk.' 'The number of oysters increase.' GOLDSMITH. 'Such as the train of our ideas have lodged in our memories.' LOCKE. 'The greater part of philosophers have acknowledged the excellence of this government.' ANACHARSIS."—Philos. Gram., p. 146; Impr. Gram., 100. The last of these examples Murray omits; the second he changes thus: "A number of men and women were present." But all of them his reasoning condemns as ungrammatical. He thinks them wrong, upon the principle, that the verbs, being plural, do not agree with the first nouns only. Webster, on the contrary, judges them all to be right; and, upon this same principle, conceives that his rule must be so too. He did not retract or alter the doctrine after he saw the criticism, but republished it verbatim, in his "Improved Grammar," of 1831. Both err, and neither convinces the other.

OBS. 16.—In this instance, as Webster and Murray both teach erroneously, whoever follows either, will be led into many mistakes. The fact is, that some of the foregoing examples, though perhaps not all, are perfectly right; and hundreds more, of a similar character, might be quoted, which no true grammarian would presume to condemn. But what have these to do with the monstrous absurdity of supposing objective adjuncts to be "parts of the actual nominative?" The words, "part," "number," "train" and the like, are collective nouns; and, as such, they often have plural verbs in agreement with them. To say, "A number of men and women were present," is as correct as to say, "A very great number of our words are plainly derived from the Latin."—Blair's Rhet., p. 86. Murray's criticism, therefore, since it does not exempt these examples from the censure justly laid upon Webster's rule, will certainly mislead the learner. And again the rule, being utterly wrong in principle, will justify blunders like these: "The truth of the narratives have never been disputed;"—"The virtue of these men and women are indeed exemplary."—Murray's Gram., p. 148. In one of his notes, Murray suggests, that the article an or a before a collective noun must confine the verb to the singular number; as, "A great number of men and women was collected."—Ib., p. 153. But this doctrine he sometimes forgot or disregarded; as, "But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are thrown into one general group."—Ib., p. 284; Comly, 166; Fisk, 160; Ingersoll, 295.

OBS. 17.—Cobbett, in a long paragraph, (the 245th of his English Grammar,) stoutly denies that any relative pronoun can ever be the nominative to a verb; and, to maintain this absurdity, he will have the relative and its antecedent to be always alike in case, the only thing in which they are always independent of each other. To prove his point, he first frames these examples: "The men who are here, the man who is here; the cocks that crow, the cock that crows;" and then asks, "Now, if the relative be the nominative, why do the verbs change, seeing that here is no change in the relative?" He seems ignorant of the axiom, that two things severally equal to a third, are also equal to each other: and accordingly, to answer his own question, resorts to a new principle: "The verb is continually varying. Why does it vary? Because it disregards the relative and goes and finds the antecedent, and accommodates its number to that."—Ibid. To this wild doctrine, one erratic Irishman yields a full assent; and, in one American grammatist, we find a partial and unintentional concurrence with it.[389] But the fact is, the relative agrees with the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the relative: hence all three of the words are alike in person and number. But between the case of the relative and that of the antededent [sic—KTH], there never is, or can be, in our language, any sort of connexion or interference. The words belong to different clauses; and, if both be nominatives, they must be the subjects of different verbs: or, if the noun be sometimes put absolute in the nominative, the pronoun is still left to its own verb. But Cobbett concludes his observation thus: "You will observe, therefore, that, when I, in the etymology and syntax as relating to relative pronouns, speak of relatives as being in the nominative case, I mean, that they relate to nouns or to personal pronouns, which are in that case. The same observation applies to the other cases."—Ib., ¶ 245. This suggestion betrays in the critic an unaccountable ignorance of his subject.

OBS. 18.—Nothing is more certain, than that the relatives, who, which, what, that, and as, are often nominatives, and the only subjects of the verbs which follow them: as, "The Lord will show who are his, and who is holy."—Numbers, xvi, 5. "Hardly is there any person, but who, on such occasions, is disposed to be serious."—Blair's Rhet., p. 469. "Much of the merit of Mr. Addison's Cato depends upon that moral turn of thought which distinguishes it."—Ib., 469. "Admit not a single word but what is necessary."—Ib., p. 313. "The pleader must say nothing but what is true; and, at the same time, he must avoid saying any thing that will hurt his cause."—Ib., 313. "I proceed to mention such as appear to me most material."—Ib., p. 125. After but or than, there is sometimes an ellipsis of the relative, and perhaps also of the antecedent; as, "There is no heart but must feel them."—Blair's Rhet., p. 469. "There is no one but must be sensible of the extravagance."—Ib., p. 479. "Since we may date from it a more general and a more concerted opposition to France than there had been before."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 213. That is, "than what there had been before;"—or, "than any opposition which there had been before." "John has more fruit than can be gathered in a week."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., pp. 196 and 331. I suppose this sentence to mean, "John has more fruit than what can be gathered in a week." But the author of it denies that it is elliptical, and seems to suppose that can be gathered agrees with John. Part of his comment stands thus: "The above sentence—'John has more fruit than can be gathered in a week'—in every respect full and perfect—must, to be grammatical! according to all the 'old theories,' stand, John has more fruit than that fruit is which, or which fruit can be gathered in a week!!!"—Ib., 331. What shall be done with the headlong critic who thus mistakes exclamation points for arguments, and multiplies his confidence in proportion to his fallacies and errors?

OBS. 19.—In a question, the nominative I or thou put after the verb, controls the agreement, in preference to the interrogative who, which, or what, put before it; as, "Who am I? What am I? Who art thou? What art thou?" And, by analogy, this seems to be the case with all plurals; as, "Who are we? Who are you? Who are they? What are these?" But sometimes the interrogative pronoun is the only nominative used; and then the verb, whether singular or plural, must agree with this nominative, in the third person, and not, as Cobbett avers, with an antecedent understood: as, "Who is in the house? Who are in the house? Who strikes the iron? Who strike the iron? Who was in the street? Who were in the street?"—Cobbett's Gram., ¶ 245. All the interrogative pronouns may be used in either number, but, in examples like the following, I imagine the singular to be more proper than the plural: "What have become of our previous customs?"—Hunt's Byron, p. 121. "And what have become of my resolutions to return to God?"—Young Christian, 2d Ed., p. 91. When two nominatives of different properties come after the verb, the first controls the agreement, and neither the plural number nor the most worthy person is always preferred; as, "Is it I? Is it thou? Is it they?"

OBS. 20.—The verb after a relative sometimes has the appearance of disagreeing with its nominative, because the writer and his reader disagree in their conceptions of its mood. When a relative clause is subjoined to what is itself subjunctive or conditional, some writers suppose that the latter verb should be put in the subjunctive mood; as, "If there be any intrigue which stand separate and independent."—Blair's Rhet., p. 457. "The man also would be of considerable use, who should vigilantly attend to every illegal practice that were beginning to prevail."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 171. But I have elsewhere shown, that relatives, in English, are not compatible with the subjunctive mood; and it is certain, that no other mood than the indicative or the potential is commonly used after them. Say therefore, "If there be any intrigue which stands," &c. In assuming to himself the other text, Murray's says, "That man also would be of considerable use, who should vigilantly attend to every illegal practice that was beginning to prevail."—Octavo Gram., p. 366. But this seems too positive. The potential imperfect would be better: viz., "that might begin to prevail."

OBS. 21.—The termination st or est, with which the second person singular of the verb is formed in the indicative present, and, for the solemn style, in the imperfect also; and the termination s or es, with which the third person singular is formed in the indicative present, and only there; are signs of the mood and tense, as well as of the person and number, of the verb. They are not applicable to a future uncertainty, or to any mere supposition in which we would leave the time indefinite and make the action hypothetical; because they are commonly understood to fix the time of the verb to the present or the past, and to assume the action as either doing or done. For this reason, our best writers have always omitted those terminations, when they intended to represent the action as being doubtful and contingent as well as conditional. And this omission constitutes the whole formal difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood. The essential difference has, by almost all grammarians, been conceived to extend somewhat further; for, if it were confined strictly within the limits of the literal variation, the subjunctive mood would embrace only two or three words in the whole formation of each verb. After the example of Priestley, Dr. Murray, A. Murray, Harrison, Alexander, and others, I have given to it all the persons of the two simple tenses, singular and plural; and, for various reasons, I am decidedly of the opinion, that these are its most proper limits. The perfect and pluperfect tenses, being past, cannot express what is really contingent or uncertain; and since, in expressing conditionally what may or may not happen, we use the subjunctive present as embracing the future indefinitely, there is no need of any formal futures for this mood. The comprehensive brevity of this form of the verb, is what chiefly commends it. It is not an elliptical form of the future, as some affirm it to be; nor equivalent to the indicative present, as others will have it; but a true subjunctive, though its distinctive parts are chiefly confined to the second and third persons singular of the simple verb: as, "Though thou wash thee with nitre."—Jer., ii, 22. "It is just, O great king! that a murderer perish."—Corneille. "This single crime, in my judgment, were sufficient to condemn him."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 82. "Beware that thou bring not my son thither."—BIBLE: Ward's Gram., p. 128. "See [that] thou tell no man."—Id., ib. These examples can hardly be resolved into any thing else than the subjunctive mood.

NOTES TO RULE XIV.

NOTE I.—When the nominative is a relative pronoun, the verb must agree with it in person and number, according to the pronoun's agreement with its true antecedent or antecedents. Example of error: "The second book [of the Æneid] is one of the greatest masterpieces that ever was executed by any hand."—Blair's Rhet., p. 439. Here the true antecedent is masterpieces, and not the word one; but was executed is singular, and "by any hand" implies but one agent. Either say, "It is one of the greatest masterpieces that ever were executed;" or else, "It is the greatest masterpiece that ever was executed by any hand." But these assertions differ much in their import.

NOTE II.—"The adjuncts of the nominative do not control its agreement with the verb; as, Six months' interest was due. The progress of his forces was impeded."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 131. "The ship, with all her furniture, was destroyed."—Murray's Gram., p. 150. "All appearances of modesty are favourable and prepossessing."—Blair's Rhet., p. 308. "The power of relishing natural enjoyments is soon gone."—Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 135. "I, your master, command you (not commands)"— Latham's Hand-Book, p. 330.[390]

NOTE III.—Any phrase, sentence, mere word, or other sign, taken as one whole, and made the subject of an assertion, requires a verb in the third person singular; as, "To lie is base."—Adam's Gram., p. 154. "When, to read and write, was of itself an honorary distinction."—Hazlitt's Lect., p. 40. "To admit a God and then refuse to worship him, is a modern and inconsistent practice."—Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 30. "We is a personal pronoun."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 227. "Th has two sounds."—Ib., p. 161. "The 's is annexed to each."—Bucke's Gram., p. 89. "Ld. stands for lord."—Webster's American Dict., 8vo.

NOTE IV.—The pronominal adjectives, each, one,[391] either, and neither, are always in the third person singular; and, when they are the leading words in their clauses, they require verbs and pronouns to agree with them accordingly: as, "Each of you is entitled to his share."—"Let no one deceive himself."

NOTE V.—A neuter or a passive verb between two nominatives should be made to agree with that which precedes it;[392] as, "Words are wind:" except when the terms are transposed, and the proper subject is put after the verb by question or hyperbaton; as, "His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky."—Bible. "Who art thou?"—Ib. "The wages of sin is death."—Ib. Murray, Comly, and others. But, of this last example, Churchill says, "Wages are the subject, of which it is affirmed, that they are death."—New Gram., p. 314. If so, is ought to be are; unless Dr. Webster is right, who imagines wages to be singular, and cites this example to prove it so. See his Improved Gram., p. 21.

NOTE VI.—When the verb cannot well be made singular, the nominative should be made plural, that they may agree: or, if the verb cannot be plural, let the nominative be singular. Example of error: "For every one of them know their several duties."—Hope of Israel, p. 72. Say, "For all of them know their several duties."

NOTE VII.—When the verb has different forms, that form should be adopted, which is the most consistent with present and reputable usage in the style employed: thus, to say familiarly, "The clock hath stricken;"—"Thou laughedst and talkedst, when thou oughtest to have been silent;"—"He readeth and writeth, but he doth not cipher," would be no better, than to use don't, won't, can't, shan't, and didn't, in preaching.

NOTE VIII.—Every finite verb not in the imperative mood, should have a separate nominative expressed; as, "I came, I saw, I conquered:" except when the verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis, or connected to an other in the same construction, or put after but or than; as, "Not an eminent orator has lived but is an example of it."—Ware. "Where more is meant than meets the ear."—Milton's Allegro. (See Obs. 5th and Obs. 18th above.)

"They bud, blow, wither, fall, and die."—Watts.

    "That evermore his teeth they chatter,
    Chatter, chatter, chatter still."—Wordsworth.

NOTE IX.—A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present; and a mere supposition, with indefinite time, by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect; but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the indicative mood:[393] as, "If thou forsake him, he will cast thee off forever."—Bible. "If it were not so, I would have told you."—Ib. "If thou went, nothing would be gained."—"Though he is poor, he is contented."—"Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor."—2 Cor., viii, 9.

NOTE X.—In general, every such use or extension of the subjunctive mood, as the reader will be likely to mistake for a discord between the verb and its nominative, ought to be avoided as an impropriety: as, "We are not sensible of disproportion, till the difference between the quantities compared become the most striking circumstance."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 341. Say rather, "becomes;" which is indicative. "Till the general preference of certain forms have been declared."—Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. xvii. Say, "has been declared;" for "preference" is here the nominative, and Dr. Priestley himself recognizes no other subjunctive tenses than the present and the imperfect; as, "If thou love, If thou loved."—Ib., p. 16.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIV.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—VERB AFTER THE NOMINATIVE.

"Before you left Sicily, you was reconciled to Verres."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 19.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the passive verb was reconciled is of the singular number, and does not agree with its nominative you, which is of the second person plural. But, according to Rule 14th, "Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number." Therefore, was reconciled should be were reconciled; thus, "Before you left Sicily, you were reconciled to Verres."]

"Knowing that you was my old master's good friend."—Spect., No. 517. "When the judge dare not act, where is the loser's remedy?"—Webster's Essays, p. 131. "Which extends it no farther than the variation of the verb extend."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 211. "They presently dry without hurt, as myself hath often proved."—Roger Williams. "Whose goings forth hath been from of old, from everlasting."—Keith's Evidences. "You was paid to fight against Alexander, not to rail at him."—Porter's Analysis, p. 70. "Where more than one part of speech is almost always concerned."—Churchill's Gram., Pref., p. viii. "Nothing less than murders, rapines, and conflagrations, employ their thoughts."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 175. "I wondered where you was, my dear."—Lloyd's Poems, p. 185. "When thou most sweetly sings."—Drummond of Hawthornden. "Who dare, at the present day, avow himself equal to the task?"—Music of Nature, p. 11. "Every body are very kind to her, and not discourteous to me."—Byron's Letters. "As to what thou says respecting the diversity of opinions."—The Friend, Vol. ix, p. 45. "Thy nature, immortality, who knowest?"—Everest's Gram., p. 38. "The natural distinction of sex in animals gives rise to what, in grammar, is called genders."—Ib., p. 51. "Some pains has likewise been taken."—Scott's Pref. to Bible. "And many a steed in his stables were seen."—Penwarne's Poems, p. 108. "They was forced to eat what never was esteemed food."—Josephus's Jewish War, B. i, Ch. i, §7. "This that yourself hath spoken, I desire that they may take their oaths upon."—Hutchinson's Mass., ii, 435. "By men whose experience best qualify them to judge."—Committee on Literature, N. Y. Legislature. "He dare venture to kill and destroy several other kinds of fish."—Johnson's Dict, w. Perch. "If a gudgeon meet a roach, He dare not venture to approach."—SWIFT: Ib., w. Roach. "Which thou endeavours to establish unto thyself."—Barclay's Works, i, 164. "But they pray together much oftener than thou insinuates."—Ib., i, 215. "Of people of all denominations, over whom thou presideth."—The Friend, Vol. v, p. 198. "I can produce ladies and gentlemen whose progress have been astonishing."—Chazotte, on Teaching Lang., p. 62. "Which of these two kinds of vice are more criminal?"—Brown's Estimate, ii, 115. "Every twenty-four hours affords to us the vicissitudes of day and night."—Smith's New Gram., p. 103. "Every four years adds another day."—Ib. "Every error I could find, Have my busy muse employed."—Swift's Poems, p. 335. "A studious scholar deserve the approbation of his teacher."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 226. "Perfect submission to the rules of a school indicate good breeding."—Ib., p. 37. "A comparison in which more than two is concerned."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 114. "By the facilities which artificial language afford them."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 16. "Now thyself hath lost both lop and top."—SPENSER: Joh. Dict., w. Lop. "Glad tidings is brought to the poor."—Campbell's Gospels: Luke, vii, 23. "Upon which, all that is pleasurable, or affecting in elocution, chiefly depend."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 129. "No pains has been spared to render this work complete."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., Pref., p. iv. "The United States contains more than a twentieth part of the land of this globe."—DE WITT CLINTON: Cobb's N. Amer. Reader, p. 173. "I am mindful that myself is (or am) strong."—Fowler's E. Gram., § 500. "Myself is (not am) weak; thyself is (not art) weak."—Ib., §479.

   "How pale each worshipful and reverend guest
    Rise from a clergy or a city feast!"—Pope, Sat. ii, l. 75.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—VERB BEFORE THE NOMINATIVE.

"Where was you born? In London."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 133. "There is frequent occasions for commas."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 281. "There necessarily follows from thence, these plain and unquestionable consequences."—Priestley's Gram., p. 191. "And to this impression contribute the redoubled effort."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 112. "Or if he was, was there no spiritual men then?"—Barclay's Works, iii, 86. "So by these two also is signified their contrary principles."—Ib., iii, 200. "In the motions made with the hands, consist the chief part of gesture in speaking."—Blair's Rhet., p. 336. "Dare he assume the name of a popular magistrate?"—Duncan's Cicero, p. 140. "There was no damages as in England, and so Scott lost his wager."—Byron. "In fact there exists such resemblances."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 64. "To him giveth all the prophets witness."—Crewdson's Beacon, p. 79. "That there was so many witnesses and actors."—Addison's Evidences, p. 37. "How does this man's definitions stand affected?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 136. "Whence comes all the powers and prerogatives of rational beings?"—Ib., p. 144. "Nor does the Scriptures cited by thee prove thy intent."—Barclay's Works, i, 155. "Nor do the Scripture cited by thee prove the contrary."—Ib., i, 211. "Why then cite thou a Scripture which is so plain and clear for it?"—Ib., i, 163. "But what saith the Scriptures as to respect of persons among Christians?"—Ib., i, 404. "But in the mind of man, while in the savage state, there seems to be hardly any ideas but what enter by the senses."—Robertson's America, i, 289. "What sounds have each of the vowels?"—Griscom's Questions. "Out of this has grown up aristocracies, monarchies, despotisms, tyrannies."—Brownson's Elwood, p. 222. "And there was taken up, of fragments that remained to them, twelve baskets."— Luke, ix, 17. "There seems to be but two general classes."—Day's Gram., p. 3. "Hence arises the six forms of expressing time."—Ib., p. 37. "There seems to be no other words required."—Chandler's Gram., p. 28. "If there is two, the second increment is the syllable next the last."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., 12th Ed., p. 281. "Hence arises the following advantages."—Id., Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 1849, p. 67. "There is no data by which it can be estimated."—J. C. Calhoun's Speech, March 4, 1850. "To this class belong the Chinese [language], in which we have nothing but naked roots."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 27. "There was several other grotesque figures that presented themselves."— Spect., No. 173. "In these consist that sovereign good which ancient sages so much extol."—Percival's Tales, ii, 221. "Here comes those I have done good to against my will."—Shak., Shrew. "Where there is more than one auxiliary."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 80.

   "On me to cast those eyes where shine nobility."
        —SIDNEY: Joh. Dict.

    "Here's half-pence in plenty, for one you'll have twenty."
        —Swift's Poems, p. 347.

    "Ah, Jockey, ill advises thou, I wis,
    To think of songs at such a time as this."
        —Churchill, p. 18.

UNDER NOTE I.—THE RELATIVE AND VERB.

"Thou who loves us, wilt protect us still."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 67. "To use that endearing language, Our Father, who is in heaven"—Bates's Doctrines, p. 103. "Resembling the passions that produceth these actions."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 157. "Except dwarf, grief, hoof, muff, &c. which takes s to make the plural."—Ash's Gram., p. 19. "As the cattle that goeth before me and the children be able to endure."— Gen. xxxiii, 14 "Where is the man who dare affirm that such an action is mad?"—Werter. "The ninth book of Livy affords one of the most beautiful exemplifications of historical painting, that is any where to be met with."—Blair's Rhet., p. 360. "In some studies too, that relate to taste and fine writing, which is our object," &c.—Ib., p. 349. "Of those affecting situations, which makes man's heart feel for man."—Ib., p. 464. "We see very plainly, that it is neither Osmyn, nor Jane Shore, that speak."—Ib., p. 468. "It should assume that briskness and ease, which is suited to the freedom of dialogue."—Ib., p. 469. "Yet they grant, that none ought to be admitted into the ministry, but such as is truly pious."—Barclay's Works, iii, 147. "This letter is one of the best that has been written about Lord Byron."—Hunt's Byron, p. 119. "Thus, besides what was sunk, the Athenians took above two hundred ships."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 102. "To have made and declared such orders as was necessary."—Hutchinson's Hist., i, 470. "The idea of such a collection of men as make an army."—Locke's Essay, p. 217. "I'm not the first that have been wretched."—Southern's In. Ad., Act 2. "And the faint sparks of it, which is in the angels, are concealed from our view."—Calvin's Institutes, B. i, Ch. 11. "The subjects are of such a nature, as allow room for much diversity of taste and sentiment."—Blair's Rhet., Pref., p. 5. "It is in order to propose examples of such perfection, as are not to be found in the real examples of society."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 16. "I do not believe that he would amuse himself with such fooleries as has been attributed to him."—Ib., p. 218. "That shepherd, who first taughtst the chosen seed."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 238. "With respect to the vehemence and warmth which is allowed in popular eloquence."— Blair's Rhet., p. 261. "Ambition is one of those passions that is never to be satisfied."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 36. "Thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in Israel."—2 Samuel, v, 2; and 1 Chron., xi, 2. "Art thou the man of God that camest from Judah?"—1 Kings, xiii, 14.

   "How beauty is excell'd by manly grace
    And wisdom, which alone is truly fair."—Milton, B. iv, l. 490.

    "What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown,
    While others sleep, thus range the camp alone?"—Pope, Il., x, 90.

UNDER NOTE II.—NOMINATIVE WITH ADJUNCTS.

"The literal sense of the words are, that the action had been done."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., i, 65. "The rapidity of his movements were beyond example."—Wells's Hist., p. 161. "Murray's Grammar, together with his Exercises and Key, have nearly superseded every thing else of the kind."—EVAN'S REC.: Murray's Gram., 8vo, ii, 305. "The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown."—HUME: Priestley's Gram., p. 193. "The it, together with the verb to be, express states of being."—Cobbett's Eng. Gram., ¶ 190. "Hence it is, that the profuse variety of objects in some natural landscapes, neither breed confusion nor fatigue."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 266. "Such a clatter of sounds indicate rage and ferocity."—Music of Nature, p. 195. "One of the fields make threescore square yards, and the other only fifty-five."—Duncan's Logic, p. 8. "The happy effects of this fable is worth attending to."—Bailey's Ovid, p. x. "Yet the glorious serenity of its parting rays still linger with us."—Gould's Advocate. "Enough of its form and force are retained to render them uneasy."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 261. "The works of nature, in this respect, is extremely regular."—Dr. Pratt's Werter. "No small addition of exotic and foreign words and phrases have been made by commerce."—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 10. "The dialect of some nouns are taken notice of in the notes."—Milnes, Greek Gram., p. 255. "It has been said, that a discovery of the full resources of the arts, afford the means of debasement, or of perversion."—Rush, on the Voice, p. xxvii. "By which means the Order of the Words are disturbed."—Holmes's Rhet., B. i, p. 57. "The twofold influence of these and the others require the asserter to be in the plural form."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 251. "And each of these afford employment."—Percival's Tales, Vol. ii, p. 175. "The pronunciation of the vowels are best explained under the rules relative to the consonants."—Coar's Gram., p. 7. "The judicial power of these courts extend to all cases in law and equity."—Hall and Baker's School Hist., p. 286. "One of you have stolen my money."—Rational Humorist, p. 45. "Such redundancy of epithets, instead of pleasing, produce satiety and disgust."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 256. "It has been alleged, that a compliance with the rules of Rhetoric, tend to cramp the mind."—Hiley's Gram., 3d Ed., p. 187. "Each of these are presented to us in different relations"—Hendrick's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 34. "The past tense of these verbs, should, would, might, could, are very indefinite with respect to time."—Bullions, E. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 33; 5th Ed., p. 31. "The power of the words, which are said to govern this mood, are distinctly understood."—Chandler's Gram., Ed. of 1821, p. 33.

   "And now, at length, the fated term of years
    The world's desire have brought, and lo! the God appears."
        —Dr. Lowth, on "the Genealogy of Christ."

    "Variety of Numbers still belong
    To the soft Melody of Ode or Song."
        —Brightland's Gram., p. 170.

UNDER NOTE III.—COMPOSITE OR CONVERTED SUBJECTS.

"Many are the works of human industry, which to begin and finish are hardly granted to the same man."—Johnson, Adv. to Dict. "To lay down rules for these are as inefficacious."—Dr. Pratt's Werter, p. 19. "To profess regard, and to act differently, discover a base mind."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 206. See also Bullions's E. Gram., 82 and 112; Lennie's, 58. "To magnify to the height of wonder things great, new, and admirable, extremely please the mind of man."—Fisher's Gram., p. 152. "In this passage, according as are used in a manner which is very common."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 183. "A cause de are called a preposition; a cause que, a conjunction."—DR. WEBSTER: Knickerbocker, 1836. "To these are given to speak in the name of the Lord."—The Friend, vii, 256. "While wheat has no plural, oats have seldom any singular."—Cobbett's E. Gram. ¶ 41. "He cannot assert that ll are inserted in fullness to denote the sound of u."—Cobb's Review of Webster, p. 11. "ch have the power of k."—Gould's Adam's Gram., p. 2. "ti, before a vowel, and unaccented, have the sound of si or ci."—Ibid. "In words derived from the French, as chagrin, chicanery, and chaise, ch are sounded like sh."—Bucke's Gram., p. 10. "But in the word schism, schismatic, &c., the ch are silent."—Ibid. "Ph are always sounded like f, at the beginning of words."—Bucke's Gram. "Ph have the sound of f as in philosophy."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 11. "Sh have one sound only as in shall."—Ib. "Th have two sounds."—Ib. "Sc have the sound of sk, before a, o, u, and r."—Ib. "Aw, have the sound of a in hall."—Bolles's Spelling-Book, p. vi. "Ew, sound like u."—Ib. "Ow, when both sounded, have the sound of ou."—Ib. "Ui, when both pronounced in one syllable sound like wi in languid."—Ib.

   "Ui three several Sorts of Sound express,
    As Guile, rebuild, Bruise and Recruit confess."
        —Brightland's Gram., p. 34.

UNDER NOTE IV.—EACH, ONE, EITHER, AND NEITHER.

"When each of the letters which compose this word, have been learned."—Dr. Weeks, on Orthog., p. 22. "As neither of us deny that both Homer and Virgil have great beauties."—Blair's Rhet., p. 21. "Yet neither of them are remarkable for precision."—Ib., p. 95. "How far each of the three great epic poets have distinguished themselves."—Ib., p. 427. "Each of these produce a separate agreeable sensation."—Ib., p. 48. "On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keep the sabbath."—Tr. of Irenæus. "And each of them bear the image of purity and holiness."—Hope of Israel, p. 81. "Were either of these meetings ever acknowledged or recognized?"—Foster's Report, i, 96. "Whilst neither of these letters exist in the Eugubian inscription."—Knight, on Greek Alph., p. 122. "And neither of them are properly termed indefinite."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 88. "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each their verb."—Lowth's Gram., p. 120. "Sometimes when the word ends in s, neither of the signs are used."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 21. "And as neither of these manners offend the ear."—Walker's Dict., Pref., p. 5. "Neither of these two Tenses are confined to this signification only."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 339. "But neither of these circumstances are intended here."—Tooke's Diversions, ii, 237. "So that all are indebted to each, and each are dependent upon all."—Am. Bible Society's Rep., 1838, p. 89. "And yet neither of them express any more action in this case than they did in the other."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 201. "Each of these expressions denote action."—Hallock's Gram., p. 74. "Neither of these moods seem to be defined by distinct boundaries."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 66. "Neither of these solutions are correct."— Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 236. "Neither bear any sign of case at all."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §217.

"Each in their turn like Banquo's monarchs stalk."—Byron.

"And tell what each of them by th'other lose."—Shak., Cori., iii, 2.

UNDER NOTE V.—VERB BETWEEN TWO NOMINATIVES.

"The quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 156; Alexander's, 49; Gould's, 159; Bullions's, 206. "Two dots, one placed above the other, is called Sheva."—Dr. Wilson's Heb. Gram., p. 43. "A few centuries, more or less, is a matter of small consequence."—Ib. p. 31. "Pictures were the first step towards the art of writing. Hieroglyphicks was the second step."—Parker's English Composition, p. 27. "The comeliness of youth are modesty and frankness; of age, condescension and dignity."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 166. "Merit and good works is the end of man's motion."—Lord Bacon. "Divers philosophers hold that the lips is parcel of the mind."—Shakspeare. "The clothing of the natives were the skins of wild beasts."—Indian Wars, p. 92. "Prepossessions in favor of our nativ town, is not a matter of surprise."—Webster's Essays, p. 217. "Two shillings and six pence is half a crown, but not a half crown."—Priestley's Gram., p. 150; Bicknell's, ii, 53. "Two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and uniting in one sound, is called a dipthong."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 1. "Two or more sentences united together is called a Compound Sentence."—P. E. Day's District School Gram., p. 10. "Two or more words rightly put together, but not completing an entire proposition, is called a Phrase."—Ibid. "But the common Number of Times are five."—The British Grammar, p. 122. "Technical terms, injudiciously introduced, is another source of darkness in composition."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 107. "The United States is the great middle division of North America."—Morse's Geog., p. 44. "A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it."—HUME: Murray's Gram., p. 145; Ingersoll's, 172; Sanborn's, 192; Smith's, 123; and others. "Here two tall ships becomes the victor's prey."—Rowe's Lucan, B. ii, l. 1098. "The expenses incident to an outfit is surely no object."—The Friend, Vol. iii., p. 200.

   "Perhaps their loves, or else their sheep,
    Was all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep."—Milton.

UNDER NOTE VI.—CHANGE THE NOMINATIVE.

"Much pains has been taken to explain all the kinds of words."—Infant School Gram. p. 128. "Not less [time] than three years are spent in attaining this faculty."—Music of Nature, p. 28. "Where this night are met in state Many a friend to gratulate His wish'd presence."—Milton's Comus. l. 948. "Peace! my darling, here's no danger, Here's no oxen near thy bed."—Watts. "But every one of these are mere conjectures, and some of them very unhappy ones."—Coleridge's Introduction, p. 61. "The old theorists, calling the Interrogatives and Repliers, adverbs, is only a part of their regular system of naming words."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 374. "Where a series of sentences occur, place them in the order in which the facts occur."—Ib., p. 264. "And that the whole in conjunction make a regular chain of causes and effects."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 275. "The origin of the Grecian, and Roman republics, though equally involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events, present one remarkable distinction."—Adam's Rhet., i, 95. "In these respects, mankind is left by nature an unformed, unfinished creature."—Butler's Analogy, p. 144. "The scripture are the oracles of God himself."—HOOKER: Joh. Dict., w. Oracle. "And at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits."—Solomon's Song, vii, 13. "The preterit of pluck, look, and toss are, in speech, pronounced pluckt, lookt, tosst."—Fowler's E. Gram., 1850, §68.

   "Severe the doom that length of days impose,
    To stand sad witness of unnumber'd woes!"—Melmoth.

UNDER NOTE VII.—ADAPT FORM TO STYLE.

1. Forms not proper for the Common or Familiar Style.

"Was it thou that buildedst that house?"—Inst., p. 151. "That boy writeth very elegantly."—Ib. "Couldest not thou write without blotting thy book?"—Ib. "Thinkest thou not it will rain to-day?"—Ib. "Doth not your cousin intend to visit you?"—Ib. "That boy hath torn my book."—Ib. "Was it thou that spreadest the hay?"—Ib. "Was it James, or thou, that didst let him in?"—Ib. "He dareth not say a word."—Ib. "Thou stoodest in my way and hinderedst me."—Ib.

"Whom see I?—Whom seest thou now?—Whom sees he?—Whom lovest thou most?—What dost thou to-day?—What person seest thou teaching that boy?—He hath two new knives.—Which road takest thou?—What child teaches he?"—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 66. "Thou, who makest my shoes, sellest many more."—Ib., p. 67.

"The English language hath been much cultivated during the last two hundred years. It hath been considerably polished and refined."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. iii. "This stile is ostentatious, and doth not suit grave writing."—Priestley's Gram., p. 82. "But custom hath now appropriated who to persons, and which to things."—Ib., p. 97. "The indicative mood sheweth or declareth; as, Ego amo, I love: or else asketh a question; as, Amas tu? Dost thou love?"—Paul's Accidence, Ed. of 1793, p. 16. "Though thou canst not do much for the cause, thou mayst and shouldst do something."—Murray's Gram., p. 143. "The support of so many of his relations, was a heavy task; but thou knowest he paid it cheerfully."—Murray's Key, R. 1, p. 180. "It may, and often doth, come short of it."—Campbell's Rhetoric, p. 160.

   "'Twas thou, who, while thou seem'dst to chide,
    To give me all thy pittance tried."—Mitford's Blanch, p. 78.

2. Forms not proper for the Solemn or Biblical Style.

"The Lord has prepaid his throne in the heavens; and his kingdom rules over all."—See Key. "Thou answer'd them, O Lord our God: thou was a God that forgave them, though thou took vengeance of their inventions."—See Key. "Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One, and said, I have laid help upon one that is mighty."—See Key. "So then, it is not of him that wills, nor of him that rules, but of God that shows mercy; who dispenses his blessings, whether temporal or spiritual, as seems good in his sight."—See Key.

   "Thou, the mean while, was blending with my thought;
    Yea, with my life, and life's own secret joy."—Coleridge.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—EXPRESS THE NOMINATIVE.

"Who is here so base, that would be a bondman?"—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 249. "Who is here so rude, that would not be a Roman?"—Ib. "There is not a sparrow falls to the ground without his notice."—Murray's Gram., p. 300. "In order to adjust them so, as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period."—Ib., p. 324; Blair's Rhet., 118. "But, sometimes, there is a verb comest in."—Cobbett's English Gram., ¶248. "Mr. Prince has a genius would prompt him to better things."—Spectator, No. 466. "It is this removes that impenetrable mist."—Harris's Hermes, p. 362. "By the praise is given him for his courage."—Locke, on Education, p. 214. "There is no man would be more welcome here."—Steele, Spect., No. 544. "Between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before, and immediately follows."—Blair's Rhet., p. 141. "And as connected with what goes before and follows."— Ib., p. 354. "There is no man doth a wrong for the wrong's sake."—Lord Bacon. "All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon themselves by negligence and folly, and might have been avoided by proper care, are instances of this."—Butler's Analogy, p. 108. "Ancient philosophers have taught many things in favour of morality, so far at least as respect justice and goodness towards our fellow-creatures."—Gospel its own Witness, p. 56. "Indeed, if there be any such, have been, or appear to be of us, as suppose, there is not a wise man among us all, nor an honest man, that is able to judge betwixt his brethren; we shall not covet to meddle in their matter."—Barclay's Works, i, 504. "There were that drew back; there were that made shipwreck of faith: yea, there were that brought in damnable heresies."—Ib., i, 466. "The nature of the cause rendered this plan altogether proper, and in similar situations is fit to be imitated."—Blair's Rhet., p. 274. "This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, and was formerly very prevalent."— Churchill's Gram., p. 150. "His roots are wrapped about the heap, and seeth the place of stones."—Job, viii, 17.

"New York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823.

"Dear friend, Am sorry to hear of thy loss; but hope it may be retrieved. Should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. Shall call to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. A. B."

"New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823.

"Dear Sir, Have just received the kind note favoured me with this morning; and cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further information, find have not lost so much as at first supposed; and believe shall still be able to meet all my engagements. Should, however, be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D."—See Brown's Institutes, p. 151.

   "Will martial flames forever fire thy mind,
    And never, never be to Heaven resign'd?"—Pope, Odys., xii, 145.

UNDER NOTE IX.—APPLICATION OF MOODS.

First Clause of the Note.—For the Subjunctive Present.

"He will not be pardoned, unless he repents."—Brown's Institutes, p. 191.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb repents, which is here used to express a future contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the first clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, "A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present." Therefore, repents should be repent; thus, "He will not be pardoned, unless he repent."]

"If thou findest any kernelwort in this marshy meadow, bring it to me."—Neef's Method of Teaching, p. 258. "If thou leavest the room, do not forget to shut that drawer."—Ib., p. 246. "If thou graspest it stoutly, thou wilt not be hurt."—Ib., p. 196. "On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay."—Murray's Exerc., p. 74. "If he is but discreet, he will succeed."—Inst., p. 191. "Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob."—Ib. "If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable."— Ib. "Send them to me, if thou pleasest."—Ib. "Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly."—Ib. "Though a liar speaks the truth, he will hardly be believed."—Common School Manual, ii, 124. "I will go unless I should be ill."—Murray's Gram., p. 300. "If the word or words understood are supplied, the true construction will be apparent."— Murray's Exercises in Parsing, p. 21. "Unless thou shalt see the propriety of the measure, we shall not desire thy support."—Murray's Key, p. 209. "Unless thou shouldst make a timely retreat, the danger will be unavoidable."—Ib., p. 209. "We may live happily, though our possessions are small."—Ib., p. 202. "If they are carefully studied, they will enable the student to parse all the exercises."—Ib., Note, p. 165. "If the accent is fairly preserved on the proper syllable, this drawling sound will never be heard."—Murray's Gram., p. 242. "One phrase may, in point of sense, be equivalent to another, though its grammatical nature is essentially different."—Ib., p. 108. "If any man obeyeth not our word by this epistle, note that man."—Dr. Webster's Bible. "Thy skill will be the greater, if thou hittest it."—Putnam's Analytical Reader, p. 204. "Thy skill will be the greater if thou hit'st it."—Cobb's N. A. Reader, p. 321. "We shall overtake him though he should run."—Priestley's Gram., p. 113; Murray's, 207; Smith's, 173. "We shall be disgusted if he gives us too much."—Blair's Rhet., p. 388.

   "What is't to thee, if he neglect thy urn,
    Or without spices lets thy body burn?"—DRYDEN: Joh. Dict., w. What.

Second Clause of Note IX.—For the Subjunctive Imperfect.

"And so would I, if I was he."—Brown's Institutes, p. 191.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb was, which is here used to express a mere supposition, with indefinite time, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the second clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, "A mere supposition, with indefinite time, is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive imperfect." Therefore, was should be were; thus, "And so would I, if I were he."]

"If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism."—Cardell's Elements of Gram., p. 80. "If he was to go, he would attend to your business."—Ib., p. 81. "If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide."—Inst., p. 191. "Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely a fool."—Ib. "If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it."—Ib. "If thou couldst convince him, he would not act accordingly."—Murray's Key, p. 209. "If there was no liberty, there would be no real crime."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 118. "If the house was burnt down, the case would be the same."—Foster's Report, i, 89. "As if the mind was not always in action, when it prefers any thing!"—West, on Agency, p. 38. "Suppose I was to say, 'Light is a body.'"—Harris's Hermes, p. 78. "If either oxygen or azote was omitted, life would be destroyed."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 155. "The verb dare is sometimes used as if it was an auxiliary."—Priestley's Gram., p. 132. "A certain lady, whom I could name, if it was necessary."—Spectator, No. 536. "If the e was dropped, c and g would assume their hard sounds."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 10. "He would no more comprehend it, than if it was the speech of a Hottentot."—Neef's Sketch, p. 112. "If thou knewest the gift of God," &c.—John, iv, 10. "I wish I was at home."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 260. "Fact alone does not constitute right; if it does, general warrants were lawful."—Junius, Let. xliv, p. 205. "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessest it."—Putnam's Analytical Reader, p. 202. "Thou look'st upon thy boy as though thou guessedst it."—Cobb's N. A. Reader, p. 320. "He fought as if he had contended for life."—Hiley's Gram., p. 92. "He fought as if he had been contending for his life."—Ib., 92.

   "The dewdrop glistens on thy leaf,
      As if thou seem'st to shed a tear;
    As if thou knew'st my tale of grief,
      Felt all my sufferings severe."—Alex. Letham.

Last Clause of Note IX.—For the Indicative Mood.

"If he know the way, he does not need a guide."—Brown's Institutes, p. 191.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb know, which is used to express a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive mood. But, according to the last clause of Note 9th to Rule 14th, "A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires the indicative mood." Therefore, know should be knows; thus, "If he knows the way, he does not need a guide."]

"And if there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected."—Murray's Gram., p. 149. "I cannot say that I admire this construction, though it be much used."—Priestley's Gram., p. 172. "We are disappointed, if the verb do not immediately follow it."—Ib., p. 177. "If it were they who acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 223. "If art become apparent, it disgusts the reader."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 80. "Though perspicuity be more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this book."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 238. "Although the efficient cause be obscure, the final cause of those sensations lies open."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29. "Although the barrenness of language, and the want of words be doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes."—Ib., p. 135. "Though it enforce not its instructions, yet it furnishes us with a greater variety."—Ib., p. 353. "In other cases, though the idea be one, the words remain quite separate"—Priestley's Gram., p. 140. "Though the Form of our language be more simple, and has that peculiar Beauty."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. v. "Human works are of no significancy till they be completed."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 245. "Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanish altogether."—Ib., i, 338. "And our relish improves by use, till it arrive at perfection."—Ib., i, 338. "So long as he keep himself in his own proper element."—COKE: ib., i, 233. "Whether this translation were ever published or not I am wholly ignorant."—Sale's Koran, i, 13. "It is false to affirm, 'As it is day, it is light,' unless it actually be day."—Harris's Hermes, p. 246. "But we may at midnight affirm, 'If it be day, it is light.'"—Ibid. "If the Bible be true, it is a volume of unspeakable interest."—Dickinson. "Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered."—Heb., v, 8. "If David then call him Lord, how is he his son?"—Matt., xxii, 45.

   "'Tis hard to say, if greater want of skill
    Appear in writing or in judging ill."—Pope, Ess. on Crit.

UNDER NOTE X.—FALSE SUBJUNCTIVES.

"If a man have built a house, the house is his."—Wayland's Moral
Science, p. 286.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb have built, which extends the subjunctive mood into the perfect tense, has the appearance of disagreeing with its nominative man. But, according to Note 10th to Rule 14th, "Every such use or extension of the subjunctive mood, as the reader will be likely to mistake for a discord between the verb and its nominative, ought to be avoided as an impropriety." Therefore, have built should be has built; thus, "If a man has built a house, the house is his."]

"If God have required them of him, as is the fact, he has time."—Ib., p. 351. "Unless a previous understanding to the contrary have been had with the Principal."—Berrian's Circular, p. 5. "O if thou have Hid them in some flowery cave."—Milton's Comus, l. 239. "O if Jove's will Have linked that amorous power to thy soft lay."—Milton, Sonnet 1. "SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: If thou love, If thou loved, If thou have loved, If thou had loved, If thou shall or will love, If thou shall or will have loved."—L. Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 71; Cooper's Murray, 58; D. Adams's Gram., 48; and others. "Till religion, the pilot of the soul, have lent thee her unfathomable coil."—Tupper's Thoughts, p. 170. "Whether nature or art contribute most to form an orator, is a trifling inquiry."—Blair's Rhet., p. 338. "Year after year steals something from us; till the decaying fabric totter of itself, and crumble at length into dust."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 225. "If spiritual pride have not entirely vanquished humility."—West's Letters, p. 184. "Whether he have gored a son, or have gored a daughter."—Exodus, xxi, 31. "It is doubtful whether the object introduced by way of simile, relate to what goes before, or to what follows."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 45.

   "And bridle in thy headlong wave,
    Till thou our summons answer'd have."—Milt., Comus, l. 887.

RULE XV.—FINITE VERBS.

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number: as, "The council were divided."—"The college of cardinals are the electors of the pope."—Murray's Key, p. 176. "Quintus Curtius relates, that a number of them were drowned in the river Lycus."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 125.

   "Yon host come learn'd in academic rules."
        —Rowe's Lucan, vii, 401.

    "While heaven's high host on hallelujahs live."
        —Young's N. Th., iv, 378.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XV.

OBS. 1.—To this rule there are no exceptions; because, the collective noun being a name which even in the singular number "signifies many," the verb which agrees with it, can never properly be singular, unless the collection be taken literally as one aggregate, and not as "conveying the idea of plurality." Thus, the collective noun singular being in general susceptible of two senses, and consequently admitting two modes of concord, the form of the verb, whether singular or plural, becomes the principal index to the particular sense in which the nominative is taken. After such a noun, we can use either a singular verb, agreeing with it literally, strictly, formally, according to Rule 14th; as, "The whole number WAS two thousand and six hundred;" or a plural one, agreeing with it figuratively, virtually, ideally, according to Rule 15th; as, "The whole number WERE two thousand and six hundred."—2 Chron., xxvi, 12. So, when the collective noun is an antecedent, the relative having in itself no distinction of the numbers, its verb becomes the index to the sense of all three; as, "Wherefore lift up thy prayer for the remnant that IS left."—Isaiah, xxxvii, 4. "Wherefore lift up thy prayer for the remnant that ARE left."—2 Kings, xix, 4. Ordinarily the word remnant conveys no idea of plurality; but, it being here applied to persons, and having a meaning to which the mere singular neuter noun is not well adapted, the latter construction is preferable to the former. The Greek version varies more in the two places here cited; being plural in Isaiah, and singular in Kings. The Latin Vulgate, in both, is, "pro reliquiis quæ repertæ sunt:" i.e., "for the remains, or remnants, that are found."

OBS. 2.—Dr. Adam's rule is this: "A collective noun may be joined with a verb either of the singular or of the plural number; as, Multitudo stat, or stant; the multitude stands, or stand."—Latin and English Gram. To this doctrine, Lowth, Murray, and others, add: "Yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea."—Lowth, p. 74; Murray, 152. If these latter authors mean, that collective nouns are permanently divided in import, so that some are invariably determined to the idea of unity, and others to that of plurality, they are wrong in principle; for, as Dr. Adam remarks, "A collective noun, when joined with a verb singular, expresses many considered as one whole; but when joined with a verb plural, it signifies many separately, or as individuals."—Adam's Gram., p. 154. And if this alone is what their addition means, it is entirely useless; and so, for all the purposes of parsing, is the singular half of the rule itself. Kirkham divides this rule into two, one for "unity of idea," and the other for "plurality of idea," shows how each is to be applied in parsing, according to his "systematick order;" and then, turning round with a gallant tilt at his own work, condemns both, as idle fabrications, which it were better to reject than to retain; alleging that, "The existence of such a thing as 'unity or plurality of idea,' as applicable to nouns of this class, is doubtful."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 59.[394] How then shall a plural verb or pronoun, after a collective noun, be parsed, seeing it does not agree with the noun by the ordinary rule of agreement? Will any one say, that every such construction is bad English? If this cannot be maintained, rules eleventh and fifteenth of this series are necessary. But when the noun conveys the idea of unity or takes the plural form, the verb or pronoun has no other than a literal agreement by the common rule; as,

   "A priesthood, such as Baal's was of old,
    A people, such as never was till now."—Cowper.

OBS. 3.—Of the construction of the verb and collective noun, a late British author gives the following account: "Collective nouns are substantives which signify many in the singular number. Collective nouns are of two sorts: 1. Those which cannot become plural like other substantives; as, nobility, mankind, &c. 2. Those which can be made plural by the usual rules for a substantive; as, 'A multitude, multitudes; a crowd, crowds;' &c. Substantives which imply plurality in the singular number, and consequently have no other plural, generally require a plural verb. They are cattle, cavalry, clergy, commonalty, gentry, laity, mankind, nobility, peasantry people, populace, public, rabble, &c. [;] as, 'The public are informed.' Collective nouns which form a regular plural, such as, number, numbers; multitude, multitudes; have, like all other substantives, a singular verb, when they are in the singular number; and a plural verb, when they are in the plural number; as, 'A number of people is assembled; Numbers are assembled.'—'The fleet was dispersed; a part of it was injured; the several parts are now collected.'"— Nixon's Parser, p. 120. To this, his main text, the author appends a note, from which the following passages are extracted: "There are few persons acquainted with Grammar, who may not have noticed, in many authors as well as speakers, an irregularity in supposing collective nouns to have, at one time, a singular meaning, and consequently to require a singular verb; and, at an other time, to have a plural meaning, and therefore to require a plural verb. This irregularity appears to have arisen from the want of a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun. This defect the author has endeavoured to supply; and, upon his definition, he has founded the two rules above. It is allowed on all sides that, hitherto, no satisfactory rules have been produced to enable the pupil to ascertain, with any degree of certainty, when a collective noun should have a singular verb, and when a plural one. A rule that simply tells its examiner, that when a collective noun in the nominative case conveys the idea of unity, its verb should be singular; and when it implies plurality, its verb should be plural, is of very little value; for such a rule will prove the pupil's being in the right, whether he should put the verb in the singular or the plural."—Ibid.

OBS. 4.—The foregoing explanation has many faults; and whoever trusts to it, or to any thing like it, will certainly be very much misled. In the first place, it is remarkable that an author who could suspect in others "the want of a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun," should have hoped to supply the defect by a definition so ambiguous and ill-written as is the one above. Secondly, his subdivision of this class of nouns into two sorts, is both baseless and nugatory; for that plurality which has reference to the individuals of an assemblage, has no manner of connexion or affinity with that which refers to more than one such aggregate; nor is there any interference of the one with the other, or any ground at all for supposing that the absence of the latter is, has been, or ought to be, the occasion for adopting the former. Hence, thirdly, his two rules, (though, so far as they go, they seem not untrue in themselves,) by their limitation under this false division, exclude and deny the true construction of the verb with the greater part of our collective nouns. For, fourthly, the first of these rules rashly presumes that any collective noun which in the singular number implies a plurality of individuals, is consequently destitute of any other plural; and the second accordingly supposes that no such nouns as, council, committee, jury, meeting, society, assembly, court, college, company, army, host, band, retinue, train, multitude, number, part, half, portion, majority, minority, remainder, set, sort, kind, class, nation, tribe, family, race, and a hundred more, can ever be properly used with a plural verb, except when they assume the plural form. To prove the falsity of this supposition, is needless. And, finally, the objection which this author advances against the common rules, is very far from proving them useless, or not greatly preferable to his own. If they do not in every instance enable the student to ascertain with certainty which form of concord he ought to prefer, it is only because no rules can possibly tell a man precisely when he ought to entertain the idea of unity, and when that of plurality. In some instances, these ideas are unavoidably mixed or associated, so that it is of little or no consequence which form of the verb we prefer; as, "Behold, the people IS one, and they have all one language."—Gen., xi, 6.

   "Well, if a king's a lion, at the least
    The people ARE a many-headed beast."—Pope, Epist. i, l. 120.

OBS. 5.—Lindley Murray says, "On many occasions, where a noun of multitude is used, it is very difficult to decide, whether the verb should be in the singular, or in the plural number; and this difficulty has induced some grammarians to cut the knot at once, and to assert that every noun of multitude must always be considered as conveying the idea of unity."—Octavo Gram., p. 153. What these occasions, or who these grammarians, are, I know not; but it is certain that the difficulty here imagined does not concern the application of such rules as require the verb and pronoun to conform to the sense intended; and, where there is no apparent impropriety in adopting either number, there is no occasion to raise a scruple as to which is right. To cut knots by dogmatism, and to tie them by sophistry, are employments equally vain. It cannot be denied that there are in every multitude both a unity and a plurality, one or the other of which must be preferred as the principle of concord for the verb or the pronoun, or for both. Nor is the number of nouns small, or their use unfrequent, which, according to our best authors, admit of either construction: though Kirkham assails and repudiates his own rules, because, "Their application is quite limited."—Grammar in Familiar Lectures, p. 59.

OBS. 6.—Murray's doctrine seems to be, not that collective nouns are generally susceptible of two senses in respect to number, but that some naturally convey the idea of unity, others, that of plurality, and a few, either of these senses. The last, which are probably ten times more numerous than all the rest, he somehow merges or forgets, so as to speak of two classes only: saying, "Some nouns of multitude certainly convey to the mind an idea of plurality, others, that of a whole as one thing, and others again, sometimes that of unity, and sometimes that of plurality. On this ground, it is warrantable, and consistent with the nature of things, to apply a plural verb and pronoun to the one class, and a singular verb and pronoun to the other. We shall immediately perceive the impropriety of the following constructions: 'The clergy has withdrawn itself from the temporal courts;' 'The assembly was divided in its opinion;' &c."—Octavo Gram., p. 153. The simple fact is, that clergy, assembly, and perhaps every other collective noun, may sometimes convey the idea of unity, and sometimes that of plurality; but an "opinion" or a voluntary "withdrawing" is a personal act or quality; wherefore it is here more consistent to adopt the plural sense and construction, in which alone we take the collection as individuals, or persons.

OBS. 7.—Although a uniformity of number is generally preferable to diversity, in the construction of words that refer to the same collective noun: and although many grammarians deny that any departure from such uniformity is allowable; yet, if the singular be put first, a plural pronoun may sometimes follow without obvious impropriety: as, "So Judah was carried away out of their land."—2 Kings, xxv, 21. "Israel is reproved and threatened for their impiety and idolatry."—Friends' Bible, Hosea, x. "There is the enemy who wait to give us battle."—Murray's Introductory Reader, p. 36. When the idea of plurality predominates in the author's mind, a plural verb is sometimes used before a collective noun that has the singular article an or a; as, "There are a sort of authors, who seem to take up with appearances."— Addison. "Here are a number of facts or incidents leading to the end in view."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 296. "There are a great number of exceedingly good writers among the French."—Maunder's Gram., p. 11.

   "There in the forum swarm a numerous train,
    The subject of debate a townsman slain."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. xviii, l. 578.

OBS. 8.—Collective nouns, when they are merely partitive of the plural, like the words sort and number above, are usually connected with a plural verb, even though they have a singular definitive; as, "And this sort of adverbs commonly admit of Comparison."—Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 64. Here, perhaps, it would be better to say, "Adverbs of this sort commonly admit of comparison." "A part of the exports consist of raw silk."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 100. This construction is censured by Murray, in his octavo Gram., p. 148; where we are told, that the verb should agree with the first noun only. Dr. Webster alludes to this circumstance, in improving his grammar, and admits that, "A part of the exports consists, seems to be more correct."—Improved Gram., p. 100. Yet he retains his original text, and obviously thinks it a light thing, that, "in some cases," his rules or examples "may not be vindicable." (See Obs. 14th, 15th, and 16th, on Rule 14th, of this code.) It would, I think, be better to say, "The exports consist partly of raw silk." Again: "A multitude of Latin words have, of late, been poured in upon us."—Blair's Rhet., p. 94. Better, perhaps: "Latin words, in great multitude, have, of late, been poured in upon us." So: "For the bulk of writers are very apt to confound them with each other."—Ib., p. 97. Better: "For most writers are very apt to confound them with each other." In the following example, (here cited as Kames has it, El. of Crit., ii, 247,) either the verb is, or the phrase, "There are some moveless men" might as well have been used:

   "There are a sort of men, whose visages
    Do cream and mantle like a standing pond."—Shak.

OBS. 9.—Collections of things are much less frequently and less properly regarded as individuals, or under the idea of plurality, than collections of persons. This distinction may account for the difference of construction in the two clauses of the following example; though I rather doubt whether a plural verb ought to be used in the former: "The number of commissioned officers in the guards are to the marching regiments as one to eleven: the number of regiments given to the guards, compared with those given to the line, is about three to one."—Junius, p. 147. Whenever the multitude is spoken of with reference to a personal act or quality, the verb ought, as I before suggested, to be in the plural number; as, "The public are informed."—"The plaintiff's counsel have assumed a difficult task."—"The committee were instructed to prepare a remonstrance." "The English nation declare they are grossly injured by their representatives."—Junius, p. 147. "One particular class of men are permitted to call themselves the King's friends."—Id., p. 176. "The Ministry have realized the compendious ideas of Caligula."—Id., p. 177. It is in accordance with this principle, that the following sentences have plural verbs and pronouns, though their definitives are singular, and perhaps ought to be singular: "So depraved were that people whom in their history we so much admire."—HUME: M'Ilvaine's Lect., p. 400. "Oh, this people have sinned a great sin, and have made them gods of gold."—Exodus, xxxii, 31. "This people thus gathered have not wanted those trials."—Barclay's Works, i, 460. The following examples, among others, are censured by Priestley, Murray, and the copyists of the latter, without sufficient discrimination, and for a reason which I think fallacious; namely, "because the ideas they represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind:"—"The court of Rome were not without solicitude."—Hume. "The house of Lords were so much influenced by these reasons."—Id. See Priestley's Gram., p. 188; Murray's, 152; R. C. Smith's, 129; Ingersoll's, 248; and others.

OBS. 10.—In general, a collective noun, unless it be made plural in form, no more admits a plural adjective before it, than any other singular noun. Hence the impropriety of putting these or those before kind or sort; as, "These kind of knaves I know."—Shakspeare. Hence, too, I infer that cattle is not a collective noun, as Nixon would have it to be, but an irregular plural which has no singular; because we can say these cattle or those cattle, but neither a bullock nor a herd is ever called a cattle, this cattle, or that cattle. And if "cavalry, clergy, commonalty," &c., were like this word, they would all be plurals also, and not "substantives which imply plurality in the singular number, and consequently have no other plural." Whence it appears, that the writer who most broadly charges others with not understanding the nature of a collective noun, has most of all misconceived it himself. If there are not many clergies, it is because the clergy is one body, with one Head, and not because it is in a particular sense many. And, since the forms of words are not necessarily confined to things that exist, who shall say that the plural word clergies, as I have just used it, is not good English?

OBS. 11.—If we say, "these people," "these gentry," "these folk," we make people, gentry, and folk, not only irregular plurals, but plurals to which there are no correspondent singulars; but by these phrases, we must mean certain individuals, and not more than one people, gentry, or folk. But these names are sometimes collective nouns singular; and, as such, they may have verbs of either number, according to the sense; and may also form regular plurals, as peoples, and folks; though we seldom, if ever, speak of gentries; and folks is now often irregularly applied to persons, as if one person were a folk. So troops is sometimes irregularly, if not improperly, put for soldiers, as if a soldier were a troop; as, "While those gallant troops, by whom every hazardous, every laborious service is performed, are left to perish."—Junius, p. 147. In Genesis, xxvii, 29th, we read, "Let people serve thee, and nations bow down to thee." But, according to the Vulgate, it ought to be, "Let peoples serve thee, and nations bow down to thee;" according to the Septuagint, "Let nations serve thee, and rulers bow down to thee." Among Murray's "instances of false syntax," we find the text, "This people draweth near to me with their mouth," &c.—Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 49. This is corrected in his Key, thus: "These people draw near to me with their mouth."—Ib., ii, 185. The Bible has it: "This people draw near me with their mouth."—Isaiah, xxix, 13. And again: "This people draweth nigh unto me with their mouth.,"—Matt., xv, 8. Dr. Priestley thought it ought to be, "This people draws nigh unto me with their mouths."—Priestley's Gram., p. 63. The second evangelist omits some words: "This people honoureth me with their lips, but their heart is far from me."—Mark, vii, 6. In my opinion, the plural verb is here to be preferred; because the pronoun their is plural, and the worship spoken of was a personal rather than a national act. Yet the adjective this must be retained, if the text specify the Jews as a people. As to the words mouth and heart, they are to be understood figuratively of speech and love; and I agree not with Priestley, that the plural number must necessarily be used. See Note 4th to Rule 4th.

OBS. 12.—In making an assertion concerning a number or quantity with some indefinite excess or allowance, we seem sometimes to take for the subject of the verb what is really the object of a preposition; as, "In a sermon, there may be from three to five, or six heads."—Blair's Rhet., p. 313. "In those of Germany, there are from eight to twelve professors."— Dwight, Lit. Convention, p. 138. "About a million and a half was subscribed in a few days."—N. Y. Daily Advertiser. "About one hundred feet of the Muncy dam has been swept off."—N. Y. Observer. "Upwards of one hundred thousand dollars have been appropriated."—Newspaper. "But I fear there are between twenty and thirty of them."—Tooke's Diversions, ii, 441. "Besides which, there are upwards of fifty smaller islands."—Balbi's Geog., p. 30. "On board of which embarked upwards of three hundred passengers."—Robertson's Amer., ii, 419. The propriety of using above or upwards of for more than, is questionable, but the practice is not uncommon. When there is a preposition before what seems at first to be the subject of the verb, as in the foregoing instances, I imagine there is an ellipsis of the word number, amount, sum or quantity; the first of which words is a collective noun and may have a verb either singular or plural: as, "In a sermon, there may be any number from three to five or six heads." This is awkward, to be sure; but what does the Doctor's sentence mean, unless it is, that there may be an optional number of heads, varying from three to six?

OBS. 13.—Dr. Webster says, "When an aggregate amount is expressed by the plural names of the particulars composing that amount, the verb may be in the singular number; as, 'There was more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling.' Mavor's Voyages." To this he adds, "However repugnant to the principles of grammar this may seem at first view, the practice is correct; for the affirmation is not made of the individual parts or divisions named, the pounds, but of the entire sum or amount."—Philosophical Gram., p. 146; Improved Gram., p. 100. The fact is, that the Doctor here, as in some other instances, deduces a false rule from a correct usage. It is plain that either the word more, taken substantively, or the noun to which it relates as an adjective, is the only nominative to the verb was. Mavor does not affirm that there were a hundred and fitly thousand pounds; but that there was more—i.e., more money than so many pounds are, or amount to. Oliver B. Peirce, too. falls into a multitude of strange errors respecting the nature of more than, and the construction of other words that accompany these. See his "Analytical Rules," and the manner in which he applies them, in "The Grammar," p. 195 et seq.

OBS. 14.—Among certain educationists,—grammarians, arithmeticians, schoolmasters, and others,—there has been of late not a little dispute concerning the syntax of the phraseology which we use, or should use, in expressing multiplication, or in speaking of abstract numbers. For example: is it better to say, "Twice one is two," or, "Twice one are two?"—"Two times one is two," or, "Two times one are two?"—"Twice two is four," or, "Twice two are four?"—"Thrice one is or are, three?"—"Three times one is, or are, three?"—"Three times naught is, or are, naught?"—"Thrice three is, or are, nine?"—"Three times four is, or are, twelve?"—"Seven times three make, or makes, twenty-one?"—"Three times his age do not, or does not, equal mine?"—"Three times the quantity is not, or are not, sufficient?"—"Three quarters of the men were discharged; and three quarters of the money was, or were, sent back?"—"As 2 is to 4, so is 6 to 12;" or, "As two are to four, so are six to twelve?"

OBS. 15.—Most of the foregoing expressions, though all are perhaps intelligible enough in common practice, are, in some respect, difficult of analysis, or grammatical resolution. I think it possible, however, to frame an argument of some plausibility in favour of every one of them. Yet it is hardly to be supposed, that any teacher will judge them all to be alike justifiable, or feel no interest in the questions which have been raised about them. That the language of arithmetic is often defective or questionable in respect to grammar, may be seen not only in many an ill choice between the foregoing variant and contrasted modes of expression, but in sundry other examples, of a somewhat similar character, for which it may be less easy to find advocates and published arguments. What critic will not judge the following phraseology to be faulty? "4 times two units is 8 units, and 4 times 5 tens is twenty tens."—Chase's Common School Arithmetic, 1848, p. 42. Or this? "1 time 1 is l. 2 times 1 are 2; 1 time 4 is 4, 2 times 4 are 8."—Ray's Arithmetic, 1853. Or this? "8 and 7 is 15, 9's out leaves 6; 3 and 8 is 11, 9's out leaves 2."—Babcock's Practical Arithmetic, 1829, p. 22. Or this again? "3 times 3 is 9, and 2 we had to carry is 11."—Ib., p. 20.

OBS. 16.—There are several different opinions as to what constitutes the grammatical subject of the verb in any ordinary English expression of multiplication. Besides this, we have some variety in the phraseology which precedes the verb; so that it is by no means certain, either that the multiplying terms are always of the same part of speech, or that the true nominative to the verb is not essentially different in different examples. Some absurdly teach, that an abstract number is necessarily expressed by "a singular noun," with only a singular meaning; that such a number, when multiplied, is always, of itself the subject of the assertion; and, consequently, that the verb must be singular, as agreeing only with this "singular noun." Others, not knowing how to parse separately the multiplying word or words and the number multiplied, take them both or all together as "the grammatical subject" with which the verb must agree. But, among these latter expounders, there are two opposite opinions on the very essential point, whether this "entire expression" requires a singular verb or a plural one:—as, whether we ought to say, "Twice one is two," or, "Twice one are two;"—"Twice two is four," or, "Twice two are four;"—"Three times one is three," or, "Three times one are three;"—"Three times three is nine," or, "Three times three are nine." Others, again, according to Dr. Bullions, and possibly according to their own notion, find the grammatical subject, sometimes, if not generally, in the multiplying term only; as, perhaps, is the case with those who write or speak as follows: "If we say, 'Three times one are three,' we make 'times' the subject of the verb."—Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 1849, p. 39. "Thus, 2 times 1 are 2; 2 times 2 are four; 2 times 3 are 6."—Chase's C. S. Arith., p. 43. "Say, 2 times O are O; 2 times 1 are 2."—Robinson's American Arith., 1825, p. 24.

OBS. 17.—Dr. Bullions, with a strange blunder of some sort in almost every sentence, propounds and defends his opinion on this subject thus: "Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, are often used as nouns, and so have the inflection and construction of nouns: thus, by twos, by tens, by fifties. Two is an even number. Twice two is four. Four is equal to twice two. In some arithmetics the language employed in the operation of multiplying—such as 'Twice two are four, twice three are six'—is incorrect. It should be, 'Twice two is four,' &c.; for the word two is used as a singular noun—the name of a number. The adverb 'twice' is not in construction with it, and consequently does not make it plural. The meaning is, 'The number two taken twice is equal to four.' For the same reason we should say, 'Three times two is six,' because the meaning is, 'Two taken three times is six.' If we say, 'Three times one are three,' we make 'times' the subject of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb really is 'one,' and 'times' is in the objective of number (§828). 2:4:: 6:12, should be read, 'As 2 is to 4, so is 6 to 12;' not 'As two are to four, so are six to twelve.' But when numerals denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substantive expressed or understood, they must have a plural construction."—Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 1849, p. 39.

OBS. 18.—Since nouns and adjectives are different parts of speech, the suggestion, that, "Numeral adjectives are also names, or nouns," is, upon the very face of it, a flat absurdity; and the notion that "the name of a number" above unity, conveys only and always the idea of unity, like an ordinary "singular noun," is an other. A number in arithmetic is most commonly an adjective in grammar; and it is always, in form, an expression that tells how many, or—"denotes how many things are spoken of."—Chase, p. 11. But the name of a number is also a number, whenever it is not made plural in form. Thus four is a number, but fours is not; so ten is a number, but tens is not. Arithmetical numbers, which run on to infinity, severally consist of a definite idea of how many; each is a precise count by the unit; one being the beginning of the series, and the measure of every successive step. Grammatical numbers are only the verbal forms which distinguish one thing from more of the same sort. Thus the word fours or tens, unless some arithmetical number be prefixed to it, signifies nothing but a mere plurality which repeats indefinitely the collective idea of four or ten.

OBS. 19.—All actual names of numbers calculative, except one, (for naught, though it fills a place among numbers, is, in itself, a mere negation of number; and such terms as oneness, unity, duality, are not used in calculation,) are collective nouns—a circumstance which seems to make the discussion of the present topic appropriate to the location which is here given it under Rule 15th. Each of them denotes a particular aggregate of units. And if each, as signifying one whole, may convey the idea of unity, and take a singular verb; each, again, as denoting so many units, may quite as naturally take a plural verb, and be made to convey the idea of plurality. For the mere abstractness of numbers, or their separation from all "particular objects," by no means obliges us to limit them always to the construction with verbs singular. If it is right to say, "Two is an even number;" it is certainly no error to say, "Two are an even number." If it is allowable to say, "As 2 is to 4, so is 6 to 12;" it is as well, if not better, to say, "As two are to four, so are six to twelve." If it is correct to say, "Four is equal to twice two;" it is quite as grammatical to say, "Four are equal to twice two." Bullions bids say, "Twice two is four," and, "Three times two is six;" but I very much prefer to say, "Twice two are four," and, "Three times two are six." The Doctor's reasoning, whereby he condemns the latter phraseology, is founded only upon false assumptions. This I expect to show; and more—that the word which he prefers, is wrong.

OBS. 20.—As to what constitutes the subject of the verb in multiplication, I have already noticed three different opinions. There are yet three or four more, which must not be overlooked in a general examination of this grammatical dispute. Dr. Bullions's notion on this point, is stated with so little consistency, that one can hardly say what it is. At first, he seems to find his nominative in the multiplicand, "used as a singular noun;" but, when he ponders a little on the text, "Twice two is four," he finds the leading term not to be the word "two," but the word "number," understood. He resolves, indeed, that no one of the four words used, "is in construction with" any of the rest; for he thinks, "The meaning is, 'The number two taken twice is equal to four.'" Here, then, is a fourth opinion in relation to the subject of the verb: it must be "number" understood. Again, it is conceded by the same hand, that, "When numerals denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substantive expressed or understood, they must have a plural construction." Now who can show that this is not the case in general with the numerals of multiplication? To explain the syntax of "Twice two are four," what can be more rational than to say, "The sense is, 'Twice two units, or things, are four?'" Is it not plain, that twice two things, of any sort, are four things of that same sort, and only so? Twice two duads are how many? Answer: Four duads, or eight units. Here, then, is a fifth opinion,—and a very fair one too,—according to which we have for the subject of the verb, not "two" nor "twice" nor "twice two," nor "number," understood before "two," but the plural noun "units" or "things" implied in or after the multiplicand.

OBS. 21.—It is a doctrine taught by sundry grammarians, and to some extent true, that a neuter verb between two nominatives "may agree with either of them." (See Note 5th to Rule 14th, and the footnote.) When, therefore, a person who knows this, meets with such examples as, "Twice one are two;"—"Twice one unit are two units;"—"Thrice one are three;"—he will of course be apt to refer the verb to the nominative which follows it, rather than to that which precedes it; taking the meaning to be, "Two are twice one;"—"Two units are twice one unit;"—"Three are thrice one." Now, if such is the sense, the construction in each of these instances is right, because it accords with such sense; the interpretation is right also, because it is the only one adapted to such a construction; and we have, concerning the subject of the verb, a sixth opinion,—a very proper one too,—that it is found, not where it is most natural to look for it, in the expression of the factors, but in a noun which is either uttered or implied in the product. But, no doubt, it is better to avoid this construction, by using such a verb as may be said to agree with the number multiplied. Again, and lastly, there may be, touching all such cases as, "Twice one are two," a seventh opinion, that the subject of the verb is the product taken substantively, and not as a numeral adjective. This idea, or the more comprehensive one, that all abstract numbers are nouns substantive, settles nothing concerning the main question, What form of the verb is required by an abstract number above unity? If the number be supposed an adjective, referring to the implied term units, or things, the verb must of course be plural; but if it be called a collective noun, the verb only follows and fixes "the idea of plurality," or "the idea of unity," as the writer or speaker chooses to adopt the one or the other.

OBS. 22.—It is marvellous, that four or five monosyllables, uttered together in a common simple sentence, could give rise to all this diversity of opinion concerning the subject of the verb; but, after all, the chief difficulty presented by the phraseology of multiplication, is that of ascertaining, not "the grammatical subject of the verb," but the grammatical relation between the multiplier and the multiplicand—the true way of parsing the terms once, twice, three times, &c., but especially the word times. That there must be some such relation, is obvious; but what is it? and how is it to be known? To most persons, undoubtedly, "Twice two," and, "Three times two," seem to be regular phrases, in which the words cannot lack syntactical connexion; yet Dr. Bullions, who is great authority with some thinkers, denies all immediate or direct relation between the word "two," and the term before it, preferring to parse both "twice" and "three times" as adjuncts to the participle "taken," understood. He says, "The adverb 'twice' is not in construction with 'two,' and consequently does not make it plural." His first assertion here is, in my opinion, untrue; and the second implies the very erroneous doctrine, that the word twice, if it relate to a singular term, will "make it plural." From a misconception like this, it probably is, that some who ought to be very accurate in speech, are afraid to say, "Twice one is two," or, "Thrice one is three," judging the singular verb to be wrong; and some there are who think, that "usage will not permit" a careful scholar so to speak. Now, analysis favours the singular form here; and it is contrary to a plain principle of General Grammar, to suppose that a plural verb can be demanded by any phrase which is made collectively the subject of the assertion. (See Note 3d, and Obs. 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th, under Rule 14th.) Are is, therefore, not required here; and, if allowable, it is so only on the supposition that the leading nominative is put after it.

OBS. 23.—In Blanchard's small Arithmetic, published in 1854, the following inculcations occur: "When we say, 3 times 4 trees are 12 trees, we have reference to the objects counted; but in saying 3 times 4 is twelve, we mean, that 3 times the number 4, is the number 12. Here we use 4 and 12, not as numeral adjectives, but as nouns, the names of particular numbers, and as such, each conveys the idea of unity, and the entire expression is the subject of is, and conveys the idea of unity."—P. iv. Here we have, with an additional error concerning "the entire expression," a repetition of Dr. Bullions's erroneous assumption, that the name of a particular number, as being "a singular noun," must "convey the idea of unity," though the number itself be a distinct plurality. These men talk as if there were an absurdity in affirming that "the number 4" is plural! But, if four be taken as only one thing, how can three multiply this one thing into twelve? It is by no means proper to affirm, that, "Every four, taken three times, is, or are, twelve;" for three instances, or "times," of the figure 4, or of the word four, are only three 4's, or three verbal fours. And is it not because "the number 4" is plural—is in itself four units—and because the word four, or the figure 4, conveys explicitly the idea of this plurality, that the multiplication table is true, where it says, "3 times 4 are 12?" It is not right to say, "Three times one quaternion is twelve;" nor is it quite unobjectionable to say, with Blanchard "3 times the number 4, is the number 12." Besides, this pretended interpretation explains nothing. The syntax of the shorter text, "3 times 4 is 12," is in no way justified or illustrated by it. Who does not perceive that the four here spoken of must be four units, or four things of some sort; and that no such "four," multiplied by 3, or till "3 times," can "convey the idea of unity," or match a singular verb? Dr. Webster did not so conceive of this "abstract number," or of "the entire expression" in which it is multiplied; for he says, "Four times four amount to sixteen."—American Dict., w. Time.

OBS. 24.—In fact no phrase of multiplication is of such a nature that it can, with any plausibility be reckoned a composite subject of the verb. Once, twice, and thrice, are adverbs; and each of them may, in general, be parsed as relating directly to the multiplicand. Their construction, as well as that of the plural verb, is agreeable to the Latin norm; as, when Cicero says of somebody, "Si, bis bina quot essent, didicisset,"—"If he had learned how many twice two are."—See Ainsworth's Dict., w. Binus. The phrases, "one time," for once, and "two times" for twice, seem puerile expressions: they are not often used by competent teachers. Thrice is a good word, but more elegant than popular. Above twice, we use the phrases, three times, four times, and the like, which are severally composed of a numeral adjective and the noun times. If these words were united, as some think they ought to be, the compounds would be adverbs of time repeated; as, threetimes, fourtimes, &c., analogous to sometimes. Each word would answer, as each phrase now does, to the question, How often? These expressions are taken by some as having a direct adverbial relation to the terms which they qualify; but they are perhaps most commonly explained as being dependent on some preposition understood. See Obs. 1st on Rule 5th, and Obs. 6th on Rule 7th.

OBS. 25.—In multiplying one only, it is evidently best to use a singular verb: as, "Twice naught is naught;"—"Three times one is three." And, in multiplying any number above one, I judge a plural verb to be necessary: as, "Twice two are four;"—"Three times two are six;" because this number must be just so many in order to give the product. Dr. Bullions says, "We should say, 'Three times two is six,' because the meaning is, 'Two taken three times is six.'" This is neither reasoning, nor explanation, nor good grammar. The relation between "two" and "three," or the syntax of the word "times," or the propriety of the singular verb, is no more apparent in the latter expression than in the former. It would be better logic to affirm, "We should say, 'Three times two are six;' because the meaning is, 'Two (units), taken for, to, or till three times, are six.'" The preposition till, or until, is sometimes found in use before an expression of times numbered; as, "How oft shall I forgive? till seven times? I say not unto thee, Until seven times; but, Until seventy times seven."—Matt., xviii, 21. But here is still a difficulty with repect to the multiplying term, or the word "times." For, unless, by an unallowable ellipsis, "seventy times seven," is presumed to mean, "seventy times of seven," the preposition Until must govern, not this noun "times." expressed, but an other, understood after "seven;" and the meaning must be, "Thou shalt forgive him until seventy-times seven times;" or—"until seven times taken for, to, or till, seventy times."

OBS. 26.—With too little regard to consistency. Dr. Bullions suggests that when "we make 'times' the subject of the verb," it is not "really" such, but "is in the objective of number." He is, doubtless, right in preferring to parse this word as an objective case, rather than as a nominative, in the construction to which he alludes; but to call it an "objective of number," is an uncouth error, a very strange mistake for so great a grammarian to utter: there being in grammar no such thing as "the objective of number:" nothing of the sort, even under his own "Special Rule," to which he refers us for it! And, if such a thing there were, so that a number could be "put in the objective case without a governing word," (see his §828,) the plural word times, since it denotes no particular aggregate of units, could never be an example of it. It is true that times, like days, weeks, and other nouns of time, may be, and often is, in the objective case without a governing word expressed; and, in such instances, it may be called the objective of repetition, or of time repeated. But the construction of the word appears to be such as is common to many nouns of time, of value, or of measure; which, in their relation to other words, seem to resemble adverbs, but which are usually said to be governed by prepositions understood: as, "Three days later;" i.e., "Later by three days."—"Three shillings cheaper;" i.e., "Cheaper by three shillings."—"Seven times hotter;" i.e., "Hotter by seven times."—"Four feet high;" i.e., "High to four feet."—"Ten years old;" i.e., "Old to ten years."—"Five times ten;" i.e., "Ten by five times;" or, perhaps, "Ten taken till five times."

NOTE TO RULE XV.

A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a verb in the third person, singular; and generally admits also the regular plural construction: as, "His army was defeated."—"His armies were defeated."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XV.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE IDEA OF PLURALITY.

"The gentry is punctilious in their etiquette."

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb is is of the singular number, and does not correctly agree with its nominative gentry, which is a collective noun conveying rather the idea of plurality. But, according to Rule 15th, "When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number." Therefore, is should be are; thus, "The gentry are punctilious in their etiquette."]

"In France the peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes."—HARVEY: Priestley's Gram., p. 188. "The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow."—See Murray's Exercises, p. 49. "My people is foolish, they have not known me."—Jer., iv, 22; Lowth's Gram., p. 75. "For the people speaks, but does not write."—Philological Museum, i, 646. "So that all the people that was in the camp, trembled."—Exodus, xix, 16. "No company likes to confess that they are ignorant."—Student's Manual, p. 217. "Far the greater part of their captives was anciently sacrificed."—Robertson's America, i, 339. "Above one half of them was cut off before the return of spring."—Ib., ii, 419. "The other class, termed Figures of Thought, supposes the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning."—Blair's Rhet., p. 133; Murray's Gram., 337. "A multitude of words in their dialect approaches to the Teutonic form, and therefore afford excellent assistance."—Dr. Murray's Hist of Lang., i, 148. "A great majority of our authors is defective in manner."—James Brown's Crit. "The greater part of these new-coined words has been rejected."—Tooke's Diversions, ii, 445. "The greater part of the words it contains is subject to certain modifications and inflections."—The Friend, ii, 123. "While all our youth prefers her to the rest."—Waller's Poems, p. 17. "Mankind is appointed to live in a future state."—Butler's Analogy, p. 57. "The greater part of human kind speaks and acts wholly by imitation."—Wright's Gram., p. 169. "The greatest part of human gratifications approaches so nearly to vice."—Ibid.

   "While still the busy world is treading o'er
    The paths they trod five thousand years before."—Young.

UNDER THE NOTE.—THE IDEA OF UNITY.

"In old English this species of words were numerous."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., ii, 6. "And a series of exercises in false grammar are introduced towards the end."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. iv. "And a jury, in conformity with the same idea, were anciently called homagium, the homage, or manhood."—Webster's Essays, p. 296. "With respect to the former, there are indeed plenty of means."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 319. "The number of school districts have increased since the last year."—Governor Throop, 1832. "The Yearly Meeting have purchased with its funds these publications."—Foster's Reports, i, 76. "Have the legislature power to prohibit assemblies?"—Wm. Sullivan. "So that the whole number of the streets were fifty."—Rollin's Ancient Hist., ii, 8. "The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions."—SMOLLETT: see Priestley's Gram., p. 193. "The House of Commons were of small weight."—HUME: Ib., p. 188. "The assembly of the wicked have enclosed me."—Psal. xxii, 16; Lowth's Gram., p. 75. "Every kind of convenience and comfort are provided."—Com. School Journal, i, 24. "Amidst the great decrease of the inhabitants of Spain, the body of the clergy have suffered no diminution; but has rather been gradually increasing."—Payne's Geog., ii, 418. "Small as the number of inhabitants are, yet their poverty is extreme."—Ib., ii, 417. "The number of the names were about one hundred and twenty."—Ware's Gram., p. 12; see Acts, i, 15.

RULE XVI.—FINITE VERBS.

When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as, "True rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly allied."—Blair's Rhet., p. 11. "Aggression and injury in no case justify retaliation."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 406.

   "Judges and senates have been bought for gold,
    Esteem and love were never to be sold."—Pope.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

When two nominatives connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural verb; as, "Immediately comes a hue and cry after a gang of thieves."—L'Estrange. "The hue and cry of the country pursues him."—Junius, Letter xxiii. "Flesh and blood [i. e. man, or man's nature,] hath not revealed it unto thee."—Matt., xvi, 17." Descent and fall to us is adverse."—Milton, P. L., ii, 76. "This philosopher and poet was banished from his country."—"Such a Saviour and Redeemer is actually provided for us."—Gurney's Essays, p. 386. "Let us then declare what great things our God and Saviour has done for us."—Dr. Scott, on Luke viii. "Toll, tribute, and custom, was paid unto them."—Ezra, iv, 20.

   "Whose icy current and compulsive course
    Ne'er feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on."—Shakspeare.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

When two nominatives connected by and, are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural verb; as, "Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned."—Goldsmith. "Consanguinity, and not affinity, is the ground of the prohibition."—Webster's Essays, p. 324. "But a modification, and oftentimes a total change, takes place."—Maunder. "Somewhat, and, in many circumstances, a great deal too, is put upon us."—Butler's Analogy, p. 108. "Disgrace, and perhaps ruin, was the certain consequence of attempting the latter."—Robertson's America, i, 434.

"Ay, and no too, was no good divinity."—_Shakespeare.

"Love_, and love only, is the loan for love."—Young.

EXCEPTION THIRD.

When two or more nominatives connected by and are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural verb; as, "When no part of their substance, and no one of their properties, is the same."—Bp. Butler. "Every limb and feature appears with its respective grace."—Steele. "Every person, and every occurrence, is beheld in the most favourable light."—Murray's Key, p. 190. "Each worm, and each insect, is a marvel of creative power."

   "Whose every look and gesture was a joke
    To clapping theatres and shouting crowds."—Young.

EXCEPTION FOURTH.

When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it, and is understood to the rest; as, "The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof."—Murray's Exercises, p. 36.

"Disdain forbids me, and my dread of shame."—Milton.

    "———Forth in the pleasing spring,
    Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love."—Thomson.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVI.

OBS. 1.—According to Lindley Murray, (who, in all his compilation, from whatever learned authorities, refers us to no places in any book but his own.) "Dr. Blair observes, that 'two or more substantives, joined by a copulative, must always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be placed in the plural number:' and this," continues the great Compiler, "is the general sentiment of English grammarians."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 150. The same thing is stated in many other grammars: thus, Ingersoll has the very same words, on the 238th page of his book; and R. C. Smith says, "Dr. Blair very justly observes," &c.—Productive Gram., p. 126. I therefore doubt not, the learned rhetorician has somewhere made some such remark: though I can neither supply the reference which these gentlemen omit, nor vouch for the accuracy of their quotation. But I trust to make it very clear, that so many grammarians as hold this sentiment, are no great readers, to say the least of them. Murray himself acknowledges one exception to this principle, and unconsciously furnishes examples of one or two more; but, in stead of placing the former in his Grammar, and under the rule, where the learner would be likely to notice it, he makes it an obscure and almost unintelligible note, in the margin of his Key, referring by an asterisk to the following correction: "Every man and every woman was numbered."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii. p. 190. To justify this phraseology, he talks thus: "Whatever number of nouns may be connected by a conjunction with the pronoun EVERY, this pronoun is as applicable to the whole mass of them, as to any one of the nouns; and therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and refers to the whole separately and individually considered."—Ib. So much, then, for "the pronoun EVERY!" But, without other exceptions, what shall be done with the following texts from Murray himself? "The flock, and not the fleece, is, or ought to be the object of the shepherd's care."—Ib., ii, 184. "This prodigy of learning, this scholar, critic, and antiquary, was entirely destitute of breeding and civility."—Ib., ii, 217. And, in the following line, what conjunction appears, or what is the difference between "horror" and "black despair." that the verb should be made plural?

"What black despair, what horror, fill his mind!"—Ib., ii, 183.

"What black despair, what horror fills his heart!"—Thomson.[395]

OBS. 2.—Besides the many examples which may justly come under the four exceptions above specified, there are several questionable but customary expressions, which have some appearance of being deviations from this rule, but which may perhaps be reasonably explained on the principle of ellipsis: as, "All work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy."—"Slow and steady often outtravels haste."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 23. "Little and often fills the purse."—Treasury of Knowledge, Part i, p. 446. "Fair and softly goes far." These maxims, by universal custom, lay claim to a singular verb; and, for my part, I know not how they can well be considered either real exceptions to the foregoing rule, or real inaccuracies under it; for, in most of them, the words connected are not nouns; and those which are so, may not be nominatives. And it is clear, that every exception must have some specific character by which it may be distinguished; else it destroys the rule, in stead of confirming it, as known exceptions are said to do. Murray appears to have thought the singular verb wrong; for, among his examples for parsing, he has, "Fair and softly go far," which instance is no more entitled to a plural verb than the rest. See his Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 5. Why not suppose them all to be elliptical? Their meaning may be as follows: "To have all work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy."—"What is slow and steady, often outtravels haste."—"To put in little and often, fills the purse."—"What proceeds fair and softly, goes far." The following line from Shakspeare appears to be still more elliptical:

"Poor and content is rich, and rich enough."—Othello.

This may be supposed to mean, "He who is poor and content," &c. In the following sentence again, we may suppose an ellipsis of the phrase To have, at the beginning; though here, perhaps, to have pluralized the verb, would have been as well:

"One eye on death and one full fix'd on heaven, Becomes a mortal and immortal man."—Young.

OBS. 3.—The names of two persons are not unfrequently used jointly as the name of their story; in which sense, they must have a singular verb, if they have any; as, "Prior's Henry and Emma contains an other beautiful example."—Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 179. I somewhat hesitate to call this an exception to the foregoing rule, because here too the phraseology may be supposed elliptical. The meaning is, "Prior's little poem, entitled, 'Henry and Emma,' contains," &c.;—or, "Prior's story of Henry and Emma contains," &c. And, if the first expression is only an abbreviation of one of these, the construction of the verb contains may be referred to Rule 14th. See Exception 1st to Rule 12th, and Obs. 2d on Rule 14th.

OBS. 4.—The conjunction and, by which alone we can with propriety connect different words to make them joint nominatives or joint antecedents, is sometimes suppressed and understood; but then its effect is the same, as if it were inserted; though a singular verb might sometimes be quite as proper in the same sentences, because it would merely imply a disjunctive conjunction or none at all: as, "The high breach of trust, the notorious corruption, are stated in the strongest terms."—Junius, Let. xx. "Envy, self-will, jealousy, pride, often reign there."—Abbott's Corner Stone, p. 111. (See Obs. 4th on Rule 12th.)

"Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed."—Beattie.

"Her heart, her mind, her love, is his alone."—Cowley.

In all the foregoing examples, a singular verb might have been used without impropriety; or the last, which is singular, might have been plural. But the following couplet evidently requires a plural verb, and is therefore correct as the poet wrote it; both because the latter noun is plural, and because the conjunction and is understood between the two. Yet a late grammarian, perceiving no difference between the joys of sense and the pleasure of reason, not only changes "lie" to "lies," but uses the perversion for a proof text, under a rule which refers the verb to the first noun only, and requires it to be singular. See Oliver B. Peirce's Gram., p. 250.

   "Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense.
    Lie in three words—health, peace, and competence."
        —Pope's Ess., Ep. iv, l. 80.

OBS. 5.—When the speaker changes his nominative to take a stronger expression, he commonly uses no conjunction; but, putting the verb in agreement with the noun which is next to it, he leaves the other to an implied concord with its proper form of the same verb: as, "The man whose designs, whose whole conduct, tends to reduce me to subjection, that man is at war with me, though not a blow has yet been given, nor a sword drawn."—Blair's Rhet., p. 265. "All Greece, all the barbarian world, is too narrow for this man's ambition."—Ibid. "This self-command, this exertion of reason in the midst of passion, has a wonderful effect both to please and to persuade."—Ib., p. 260. "In the mutual influence of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 150. If the principle here stated is just, Murray has written the following models erroneously: "Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure."—Ib., p. 150. "Patriotism, morality, every public and private consideration, demand our submission to just and lawful government."—Ibid. In this latter instance, I should prefer the singular verb demands; and in the former, the expression ought to be otherwise altered, thus. "Virtue, honour, and interest, all conspire to recommend the measure." Or thus: "Virtue, honour—nay, even self-interest, recommends the measure." On this principle, too, Thomson was right, and this critic wrong, in the example cited at the close of the first observation above. This construction is again recurred to by Murray, in the second chapter of his Exercises; where he explicitly condemns the following sentence because the verb is singular: "Prudence, policy, nay, his own true interest, strongly recommends the line of conduct proposed to him."—Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 22.

OBS. 6.—When two or more nominatives are in apposition with a preceding one which they explain, the verb must agree with the first word only, because the others are adjuncts to this, and not joint subjects to the verb; as, "Loudd, the ancient Lydda and Diospolis, appears like a place lately ravaged by fire and sword."—Keith's Evidences, p. 93. "Beattie, James,—a philosopher and poet,—was born in Scotland, in the year 1735."—Murray's Sequel, p. 306. "For, the quantity, the length, and shortness of our syllables, is not, by any means, so fixed."—Blair's Rhet., p. 124. This principle, like the preceding one, persuades me again to dissent from Murray, who corrects or perverts the following sentence, by changing originates to originate: "All that makes a figure on the great theatre of the world; the employments of the busy, the enterprises of the ambitious, and the exploits of the warlike; the virtues which form the happiness, and the crimes which occasion the misery of mankind; originates in that silent and secret recess of thought, which is hidden from every human eye."—See Murray's Octavo Gram., Vol. ii, p. 181; or his Duodecimo Key, p. 21. The true subject of this proposition is the noun all, which is singular; and the other nominatives are subordinate to this, and merely explanatory of it.

OBS. 7.—Dr. Webster says, "Enumeration and addition of numbers are usually expressed in the singular number; [as,] two and two is four; seven and nine is sixteen; that is, the sum of seven and nine is sixteen. But modern usage inclines to reject the use of the verb in the singular number, in these and similar phrases."—Improved Gram., p. 106. Among its many faults, this passage exhibits a virtual contradiction. For what "modern usage inclines to reject," can hardly be the fashion in which any ideas "are usually expressed." Besides, I may safely aver, that this is a kind of phraseology which all correct usage always did reject. It is not only a gross vulgarism, but a plain and palpable violation of the foregoing rule of syntax; and, as such it must be reputed, if the rule has any propriety at all. What "enumeration" has to do with it, is more than I can tell. But Dr. Webster once admired and commended this mode of speech, as one of the "wonderful proofs of ingenuity in the framers of language;" and laboured to defend it as being "correct upon principle;" that is, upon the principle that "the sum of" is understood to be the subject of the affirmation, when one says, "Two and two is four," in stead of, "Two and two are four."—See Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 153. This seems to me a "wonderful proof" of ignorance in a very learned man. OBS. 8.—In Greek and Latin, the verb frequently agrees with the nearest nominative, and is understood to the rest; and this construction is sometimes imitated in English, especially if the nouns follow the verb: as, "[Greek: Nuni do MENEI pistis, elpis agape, ta tria tanta]."—"Nunc vero manet fides, spes, charitas; tria hæc."—"Now abideth faith, hope, charity; these three."—1 Cor., xiii, 13. "And now abideth confession, prayer, and praise, these three; but the greatest of these is praise."—ATTERBURY: Blair's Rhet., p. 300. The propriety of this usage, so far as our language is concerned, I doubt. It seems to open a door for numerous deviations from the foregoing rule, and deviations of such a sort, that if they are to be considered exceptions, one can hardly tell why. The practice, however, is not uncommon, especially if there are more nouns than two, and each is emphatic; as, "Wonderful was the patience, fortitude, self-denial, and bravery of our ancestors."—Webster's Hist. of U. S., p. 118. "It is the very thing I would have you make out: for therein consists the form, and use, and nature of language."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 161. "There is the proper noun, and the common noun. There is the singular noun, and the plural noun."—Emmons's Gram., p. 11. "From him proceeds power, sanctification, truth, grace, and every other blessing we can conceive."—Calvin's Institutes, B. i, Ch. 13. "To what purpose cometh there to me incense from Sheba, and the sweet cane from a far country?"—Jer., vi, 20. "For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever."—Matt., vi, 13. In all these instances, the plural verb might have been used; and yet perhaps the singular may be justified on the ground that there is a distinct and emphatic enumeration of the nouns. Thus, it would be proper to say, "Thine are the kingdom, the power, and the glory;" but this construction seems less emphatic than the preceding, which means, "For thine is the kingdom, thine is the power, and thine is the glory, forever;" and this repetition is still more emphatic, and perhaps more proper, than the elliptical form. The repetition of the conjunction "and," in the original text as above, adds time and emphasis to the reading, and makes the singular verb more proper than it would otherwise be; for which reason, the following form, in which the Rev. Dr. Bullions has set the sentence down for bad English, is in some sort a perversion of the Scripture: "Thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 141.

OBS. 9.—When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb agrees with the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the third; for thou and I, or he, thou, and I, are equivalent to we; and thou and he are equivalent to you: as, "Why speakest thou any more of thy matters? I have said, thou and Ziba divide the land."—2 Sam., xix. 29. That is, "divide ye the land." "And live thou and thy children of the rest."—2 Kings, iv, 7. "That I and thy people have found grace in thy sight."—Exodus, xxxiii, 16. "I and my kingdom are guiltless."—2 Sam., iii, 28. "I, and you, and Piso perhaps too, are in a state of dissatisfaction."—Zenobia, i, 114.

   "Then I, and you, and all of us, fell down,
    Whilst bloody treason flourish'd over us."—Shak., J. Cæsar.

OBS. 10.—When two or more nominatives connected by and are of the same form but distinguished by adjectives or possessives, one or more of them may be omitted by ellipsis, but the verb must be plural, and agree with them all; as, "A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man, were assembled in one room."—Peirce's Gram., p. 263. Here four different men are clearly spoken of. "Else the rising and the falling emphasis are the same."—Knowles's Elocutionist, p. 33. Here the noun emphasis is understood after rising. "The singular and [the] plural form seem to be confounded."—Lowth's Gram., p. 22. Here the noun form is presented to the mind twice; and therefore the article should have been repeated. See Obs. 15th on Rule 1st. "My farm and William's are adjacent to each other."—Peirce's Gram., p. 220. Here the noun farm is understood after the possessive William's, though the author of the sentence foolishly attempts to explain it otherwise. "Seth's, Richard's and Edmund's farms are those which their fathers left them."—Ib., p. 257. Here the noun farms is understood after Seth's, and again after Richard's; so that the sentence is written wrong, unless each man has more than one farm. "Was not Demosthenes's style, and his master Plato's, perfectly Attic; and yet none more lofty?"—Milnes's Greek Gram., p. 241. Here style is understood after Plato's; wherefore was should rather be were, or else and should be changed to as well as. But the text, as it stands, is not much unlike some of the exceptions noticed above. "The character of a fop, and of a rough warrior, are no where more successfully contrasted."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 236. Here the ellipsis is not very proper. Say, "the character of a fop, and that of a rough warrior," &c. Again: "We may observe, that the eloquence of the bar, of the legislature, and of public assemblies, are seldom or ever found united to high perfection in the same person."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 256. Here the ellipsis cannot so well be avoided by means of the pronominal adjective that, and therefore it may be thought more excusable; but I should prefer a repetition of the nominative: as, "We may observe, that the eloquence of the bar, the eloquence of the legislature, and the eloquence of public assemblies, are seldom if ever found united, in any high degree, in the same person."

OBS. 11.—The conjunction as, when it connects nominatives that are in apposition, or significant of the same person or thing, is commonly placed at the beginning of a sentence, so that the verb agrees with its proper nominative following the explanatory word: thus, "As a poet, he holds a high rank."—Murray's Sequel, p. 355. "As a poet, Addison claims a high praise."—Ib., p. 304. "As a model of English prose, his writings merit the greatest praise."—Ib., p. 305. But when this conjunction denotes a comparison between different persons or things signified by two nominatives, there must be two verbs expressed or understood, each agreeing with its own subject; as, "Such writers as he [is,] have no reputation worth any man's envy." [396]

   "Such men as he [is] be never at heart's ease
    Whiles they behold a greater than themselves."—Shakspeare.

OBS. 12.—When two nominatives are connected by as well as, but, or save, they must in fact have two verbs, though in most instances only one is expressed; as, "Such is the mutual dependence of words in sentences, that several others, as well as [is] the adjective, are not to be used alone."—Dr. Wilson's Essay, p. 99. "The Constitution was to be the one fundamental law of the land, to which all, as well States as people, should submit."—W. I. BOWDITCH: Liberator, No. 984. "As well those which history, as those which experience offers to our reflection."— Bolingbroke, on History, p. 85. Here the words "offers to our reflection" are understood after "history." "None but He who discerns futurity, could have foretold and described all these things."—Keith's Evidences, p. 62. "That there was in those times no other writer, of any degree of eminence, save he himself."—Pope's Works, Vol. iii, p. 43.

   "I do entreat you not a man depart,
    Save I alone, till Antony have spoke."—Shak., J. Cæsar.

OBS. 13.—Some grammarians say, that but and save, when they denote exception, should govern the objective case as prepositions. But this idea is, without doubt, contrary to the current usage of the best authors, either ancient or modern. Wherefore I think it evident that these grammarians err. The objective case of nouns being like the nominative, the point can be proved only by the pronouns; as, "There is none but he alone."—Perkins's Theology, 1608. "There is none other but he."—Mark, xii, 32. (This text is good authority as regards the case, though it is incorrect in an other respect: it should have been, "There is none but he," or else, "There is no other than he.") "No man hath ascended up to heaven, but he that came down from heaven."—John, iii, 13. "Not that any man hath seen the father, save he which is of God."—John, vi, 46. "Few can, save he and I."—Byron's Werner. "There is none justified, but he that is in measure sanctified."—Isaac Penington. Save, as a conjunction, is nearly obsolete.

OBS. 14.—In Rev., ii, 17th, we read, "Which no man knoweth, saving he that receiveth it;" and again, xiii, 17th, "That no man might buy or sell, save he that had the mark." The following text is inaccurate, but not in the construction of the nominative they: "All men cannot receive this saying, save they to whom it is given."—Matt., xix, 11. The version ought to have been, "Not all men can receive this saying, but they only to whom it is given:" i.e., "they only can receive it, to whom there is given power to receive it." Of but with a nominative, examples may be multiplied indefinitely. The following are as good as any: "There is no God but He."—Sale's Koran, p. 27. "The former none but He could execute."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 317. "There was nobody at home but I."—Walker's Particles, p. 95. "A fact, of which as none but he could be conscious, [so] none but he could be the publisher of it."—Pope's Works, Vol. iii, p. 117. "Few but they who are involved in the vices, are involved in the irreligion of the times."—Brown's Estimate, i, 101.

   "I claim my right. No Grecian prince but I
    Has power this bow to grant, or to deny."
        —Pope, Odys., B. xxi, l. 272.

    "Thus she, and none but she, the insulting rage
    Of heretics oppos'd from age to age."
        —Dryden's Poems, p. 98.

In opposition to all these authorities, and many more that might be added, we have, with now and then a text of false syntax, the absurd opinion of perhaps a score or two of our grammarians; one of whom imagines he has found in the following couplet from Swift, an example to the purpose; but he forgets that the verb let governs the objective case:

   "Let none but him who rules the thunder,
    Attempt to part these twain asunder."
        —Perley's Gram., p. 62.

OBS. 15.—It is truly a wonder, that so many professed critics should not see the absurdity of taking but and save for "prepositions," when this can be done only by condemning the current usage of nearly all good authors, as well as the common opinion of most grammarians; and the greater is the wonder, because they seem to do it innocently, or to teach it childishly, as not knowing that they cannot justify both sides, when the question lies between opposite and contradictory principles. By this sort of simplicity, which approves of errors, if much practised, and of opposites, or essential contraries, when authorities may be found for them, no work, perhaps, is more strikingly characterized, than the popular School Grammar of W. H. Wells. This author says, "The use of but as a preposition is approved by J. E. Worcester, John Walker, R. C. Smith, Picket, Hiley, Angus, Lynde, Hull, Powers, Spear, Farnum, Fowle, Goldsbury, Perley, Cobb, Badgley, Cooper, Jones, Davis, Beall, Hendrick, Hazen, and Goodenow."—School Gram., 1850, p. 178. But what if all these authors do prefer, "but him," and "save him," where ten times as many would say, "but he," "save he?" Is it therefore difficult to determine which party is right? Or is it proper for a grammarian to name sundry authorities on both sides, excite doubt in the mind of his reader, and leave the matter unsettled? "The use of but as a preposition," he also states, "is discountenanced by G. Brown, Sanborn, Murray, S. Oliver, and several other grammarians. (See also an able article in the Mass. Common School Journal, Vol. ii, p. 19.)"—School Gram., p. 178.

OBS. 16.—Wells passes no censure on the use of nominatives after but and save; does not intimate which case is fittest to follow these words; gives no false syntax under his rule for the regimen of prepositions; but inserts there the following brief remarks and examples:

"REM. 3.—The word save is frequently used to perform the office of a preposition; as, 'And all desisted, all save him alone.'—Wordsworth."

"REM. 4.—But is sometimes employed as a preposition, in the sense of except; as, 'The boy stood on the burning deck, Whence all but him had fled.'—Hemans."—Ib., p. 167.

Now, "BUT," says Worcester, as well as Tooke and others, was "originally bot, contracted from be out;" and, if this notion of its etymology is just, it must certainly be followed by the nominative case, rather than by the objective; for the imperative be or be out governs no case, admits no additional term but a nominative—an obvious and important fact, quite overlooked by those who call but a preposition. According to Allen H. Weld, but and save "are commonly considered prepositions," but "are more commonly termed conjunctions!" This author repeats Wells's examples of "save him," and "but him," as being right; and mixes them with opposite examples of "save he," "but he," "save I," which he thinks to be more right!—Weld's Gram., p. 187.

OBS. 17.—Professor Fowler, too, an other author remarkable for a facility of embracing incompatibles, contraries, or dubieties, not only condemns as "false syntax" the use of save for an exceptive conjunction. (§587. ¶28,) but cites approvingly from Latham the following very strange absurdity: "One and the same word, in one and the same sentence, may be a Conjunction or [a] Preposition, as the case may be: [as] All fled but John."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, § 555. This is equivalent to saying, that "one and the same sentence" may be two different sentences; may, without error, be understood in two different senses; may be rightly taken, resolved, and parsed in two different ways! Nay, it is equivalent to a denial of the old logical position, that "It is impossible for a thing to be and not be at the same time;" for it supposes "but," in the instance given, to be at once both a conjunction and not a conjunction, both a preposition and not a preposition, "as the case may be!" It is true, that "one and the same word" may sometimes be differently parsed by different grammarians, and possibly even an adept may doubt who or what is right. But what ambiguity of construction, or what diversity of interpretation, proceeding from the same hand, can these admissions be supposed to warrant? The foregoing citation is a boyish attempt to justify different modes of parsing the same expression, on the ground that the expression itself is equivocal. "All fled but John," is thought to mean equally well, "All fled but he," and, "All fled but him;" while these latter expressions are erroneously presumed to be alike good English, and to have a difference of meaning corresponding to their difference of construction. Now, what is equivocal, or ambiguous, being therefore erroneous, is to be corrected, rather than parsed in any way. But I deny both the ambiguity and the difference of meaning which these critics profess to find among the said phrases. "John fled not, but all the rest fled," is virtually what is told us in each of them; but, in the form, "All fled but him," it is told ungrammatically; in the other two, correctly.

OBS. 18.—In Latin, cum with an ablative, sometimes has, or is supposed to have, the force of the conjunction et with a nominative; as, "Dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur."—LIVY: W. Allen's Gram., p. 131. In imitation of this construction, some English writers have substituted with for and, and varied the verb accordingly; as, "A long course of time, with a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions."—HUME: Allen's Gram., p. 131; Ware's, 12; Priestley's, 186. This phraseology, though censured by Allen, was expressly approved by Priestley, who introduced the present example, as his proof text under the following observation: "It is not necessary that the two subjects of an affirmation should stand in the very same construction, to require the verb to be in the plural number. If one of them be made to depend upon the other by a connecting particle, it may, in some cases, have the same force, as if it were independent of it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 186. Lindley Murray, on the contrary, condemns this doctrine, and after citing the same example with others, says: "It is however, proper to observe that these modes of expression do not appear to be warranted by the just principles of construction."— Octavo Gram., p. 150. He then proceeds to prove his point, by alleging that the preposition governs the objective case in English, and the ablative in Latin, and that what is so governed, cannot be the nominative, or any part of it. All this is true enough, but still some men who know it perfectly well, will now and then write as if they did not believe it. And so it was with the writers of Latin and Greek. They sometimes wrote bad syntax; and the grammarians have not always seen and censured their errors as they ought. Since the preposition makes its object only an adjunct of the preceding noun, or of something else, I imagine that any construction which thus assumes two different cases as joint nominatives or joint antecedents, must needs be inherently faulty.

OBS. 19.—Dr. Adam simply remarks, "The plural is sometimes used after the preposition cum put for et; as, Remo cum fratre Quirinus jura dabunt. Virg."—Latin and English Gram., p. 207; Gould's Adam's Latin Gram., p. 204; W. Allen's English Gram., 131. This example is not fairly cited; though many have adopted the perversion, as if they knew no better. Alexander has it in a worse form still: "Quirinus, cum fratre, jura dabunt."—Latin Gram., p. 47. Virgil's words are, "Cana FIDES, et VESTA, Remo cum fratre Quirinus, Jura dabunt."—Æneid, B. i, l. 296. Nor is cum here "put for et," unless we suppose also an antiptosis of Remo fratre for Remus frater; and then what shall the literal meaning be, and how shall the rules of syntax be accommodated to such changes? Fair examples, that bear upon the point, may, however, be adduced from good authors, and in various languages; but the question is, are they correct in syntax? Thus Dr. Robertson: "The palace of Pizarro, together with the houses of several of his adherents, were pillaged by the soldiers."— Hist. of Amer., Vol. ii, p. 133. To me, this appears plainly ungrammatical; and, certainly, there are ways enough in which it may be corrected. First, with the present connective retained, "were" ought to be was. Secondly, if were be retained, "together with" ought to be changed to and, or and also. Thirdly, we may well change both, and say, "The palace of Pizarro, as well as the houses of several of his adherents, was pillaged by the soldiers." Again, in Mark, ix, 4th, we read: "And there appeared unto them Elias, with Moses; and they were talking with Jesus." If this text meant that the three disciples were talking with Jesus, it would be right as it stands; but St. Matthew has it, "And, behold, there appeared unto them Moses and Elias, talking with him;" and our version in Luke is, "And, behold, there talked with him two men, which were Moses and Elias."—Chap. ix, 30. By these corresponding texts, then, we learn, that the pronoun they, which our translators inserted, was meant for "Elias with Moses;" but the Greek verb for "appeared," as used by Mark, is singular, and agrees only with Elias. "[Greek: Kai ophthæ autois Aelias sun Mosei, kai hæsan syllalountes to Iæsoy.]"—"Et apparuit illis Elias cum Mose, et erant colloquentes Jesu."—Montanus. "Et visus est eis Elias cum Mose, qui colloquebantur cum Jesu."—Beza. This is as discrepant as our version, though not so ambiguous. The French Bible avoids the incongruity: "Et iis virent paroître Moyse et Elie, qui s'entretenoient avec Jésus." That is, "And there appeared to them Moses and Elias, who were talking with Jesus." Perhaps the closest and best version of the Greek would be, "And there appeared to them Elias, with Moses;[397] and these two were talking with Jesus." There is, in our Bible, an other instance of the construction now in question; but it has no support from the Septuagint, the Vulgate, or the French: to wit, "The second [lot came forth] to Gedaliah, who with his brethren and sons were twelve."—1 Chron., xxv, 9. Better: "and he, his brethren, and his sons, were twelve."

OBS. 20.—Cobbett, who, though he wrote several grammars, was but a very superficial grammarian, seems never to have doubted the propriety of putting with for and; and yet he was confessedly not a little puzzled to find out when to use a singular, and when a plural verb, after a nominative with such "a sort of addition made to it." The 246th paragraph of his English Grammar is a long and fruitless attempt to fix a rule for the guidance of the learner in this matter. After dashing off a culpable example, "Sidmouth, with Oliver the spye, have brought Brandreth to the block;" or, as his late editions have it, "The Tyrant, with the Spy, have brought Peter to the block." He adds: "We hesitate which to employ, the singular or the plural verb; that is to say, has or have. The meaning must be our guide. If we mean, that the act has been done by the Tyrant himself, and that the spy has been a mere involuntary agent, then we ought to use the singular; but if we believe that the spy has been a co-operator, an associate, an accomplice, then we must use the plural verb." Ay, truly; but must we not also, in the latter case, use and, and not with? After some further illustrations, he says: "When with means along with, together with, in Company with, and the like, it is nearly the same as and; and then the plural verb must be used: [as,] 'He, with his brothers, are able to do much.' Not, 'is able to do much.' If the pronoun be used instead of brothers, it will be in the objective case: 'He, with them, are able to do much.' But this is no impediment to the including of the noun (represented by them) in the nominative." I wonder what would be an impediment to the absurdities of such a dogmatist! The following is his last example: "'Zeal, with discretion, do much;' and not 'does much;' for we mean, on the contrary, that it does nothing. It is the meaning that must determine which of the numbers we ought to employ." This author's examples are all fictions of his own, and such of them as here have a plural verb, are wrong. His rule is also wrong, and contrary to the best authority. St. Paul says to Timothy, "Godliness with contentment is great gain:"—1 Tim., vi, 6. This text is right; but Cobbett's principle would go to prove it erroneous. Is he the only man who has ever had a right notion of its meaning? or is he not rather at fault in his interpretations?

OBS. 21.—There is one other apparent exception to Rule 16th, (or perhaps a real one,) in which there is either an ellipsis of the preposition with, or else the verb is made singular because the first noun only is its true subject, and the others are explanatory nominatives to which the same verb must be understood in the plural number; as, "A torch, snuff and all, goes out in a moment, when dipped in the vapour."—ADDISON: in Johnson's Dict., w. All. "Down comes the tree, nest, eagles, and all."—See All, ibidem. Here goes and comes are necessarily made singular, the former agreeing with torch and the latter with tree; and, if the other nouns, which are like an explanatory parenthesis, are nominatives, as they appear to me to be, they must be subjects of go and come understood. Cobbett teaches us to say, "The bag, with the guineas and dollars in it, were stolen," and not, was stolen. "For," says he, "if we say was stolen, it is possible for us to mean, that the bag only was stolen,"—English Gram., ¶ 246. And I suppose he would say, "The bag, guineas, dollars, and all, were stolen," and not, "was stolen;" for here a rule of syntax might be urged, in addition to his false argument from the sense. But the meaning of the former sentence is, "The bag was stolen, with the guineas and dollars in it;" and the meaning of the latter is, "The bag was stolen, guineas, dollars, and all." Nor can there be any doubt about the meaning, place the words which way you will; and whatever, in either case, may be the true construction of the words in the parenthetical or explanatory phrase, they should not, I think, prevent the verb from agreeing with the first noun only. But if the other nouns intervene without affecting this concord, and without a preposition to govern them, it may be well to distinguish them in the punctuation; as, "The bag, (guineas, dollars, and all,) was stolen."

NOTES TO RULE XVI.

NOTE I.—When the conjunction and between two nominatives appears to require a plural verb, but such form of the verb is not agreeable, it is better to reject or change the connective, that the verb may stand correctly in the singular number; as, "There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 224. Better: "There is a peculiar force, as well as a peculiar beauty, in this figure." "What means this restless stir and commotion of mind?"—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 242. Better: "What means this restless stir, this commotion of mind?"

NOTE II.—When two subjects or antecedents are connected, one of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, they belong to different propositions; and the verb or pronoun must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to the other: as "Diligent industry, and not mean savings, produces honourable competence."—"Not a loud voice but strong proofs bring conviction."—"My poverty, but not my will, consents."—Shakespeare.

NOTE III.—When two subjects or antecedents are connected by as well as, but, or save, they belong to different propositions; and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb not,) the verb and pronoun must agree with the former and be understood to the latter: as, "Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule of life."—Butler's Analogy, p. 283. "The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, may boast that thousands of his fellow-creatures are employed for him."—Percival's Tales, ii, 177. "These principles, as well as every just rule of criticism, are founded upon the sensitive part of our nature."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. xxvi. "Nothing but wailings was heard."—"None but thou can aid us."—"No mortal man, save he," &c., "had e'er survived to say he saw."—Sir W. Scott.

NOTE IV.—When two or more subjects or antecedents are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately; and, (except no be followed by a plural noun,) they require the verb and pronoun to be in the singular number: as, "No rank, no honour, no fortune, no condition in life, makes the guilty mind happy."—"Every phrase and every figure which he uses, tends to render the picture more lively and complete."—Blair's Rhet., p. 179.

"And every sense, and every heart, is joy."—Thomson.

"Each beast, each insect, happy in its own."—Pope.

NOTE V.—When any words or terms are to be taken conjointly as subjects or antecedents, the conjunction and, (in preference to with, or, nor, or any thing else,) must connect them. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate; with should be and; or else were should be was: "One of them, [the] wife of Thomas Cole, with her husband, were shot down, the others escaped."—Hutchinson's Hist., Vol. ii, p. 86. So, in the following couplet, or should be and, or else engines should be engine:

   "What if the head, the eye, or ear repined,
    To serve mere engines to the ruling mind?"—Pope.

NOTE VI.—Improper omissions must be supplied; but when there occurs a true ellipsis in the construction of joint nominatives or joint antecedents, the verb or pronoun must agree with them in the plural, just as if all the words were expressed: as, "The second and the third Epistle of John are each but one short chapter."—"The metaphorical and the literal meaning are improperly mixed."—Murray's Gram., p. 339. "The Doctrine of Words, separately consider'd, and in a Sentence, are Things distinct enough."—Brightland's Gram., Pref., p. iv. Better perhaps: "The doctrine of words separately considered, and that of words in a sentence, are things distinct enough."

   "The Curii's and the Camilli's little field,
    To vast extended territories yield."—Rowe's Lucan, B. i, l. 320.

NOTE VII.—Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by and, require a plural verb, and generally a plural noun too, if a nominative follow the verb; as, "To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to coincide."—Blair. "'This picture of my friend,' and 'This picture of my friend's,' suggest very different ideas."—Priestley's Gram., p. 71; Murray's, i, 178.

   "Read of this burgess—on the stone appear,
    How worthy he! how virtuous! and how dear!"—Crabbe.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVI.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE VERB AFTER JOINT NOMINATIVES.

"So much ability and merit is seldom found."—Murray's Key, 12mo, p. 18; Merchant's School Gram., p. 190.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb is is in the singular number, and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, ability and merit, which are connected by and, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 16th, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together." Therefore, is should be are; thus, "So much ability and merit are seldom found." Or: "So much ability and so much merit are seldom found."]

"The syntax and etymology of the language is thus spread before the learner."—Bullions's English Gram., 2d Edition, Rec., p. iii. "Dr. Johnson tells us, that in English poetry the accent and the quantity of syllables is the same thing."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., ii, 213. "Their general scope and tendency, having never been clearly apprehended, is not remembered at all."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 126. "The soil and sovereignty was not purchased of the natives."—Knapp's Lect. on Amer. Lit., p. 55. "The boldness, freedom, and variety of our blank verse, is infinitely more favourable than rhyme, to all kinds of sublime poetry."—Blair's Rhet., p. 40. "The vivacity and sensibility of the Greeks seems to have been much greater than ours."—Ib., p. 253. "For sometimes the Mood and Tense is signified by the Verb, sometimes they are signified of the Verb by something else.'"—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 254. "The Verb and the Noun making a complete Sense, which the Participle and the Noun does not."—Ib., p. 255. "The growth and decay of passions and emotions, traced through all their mazes, is a subject too extensive for an undertaking like the present."—Kames El. of Crit., i, 108. "The true meaning and etymology of some of his words was lost."—Knight, on the Greek Alph., p. 37. "When the force and direction of personal satire is no longer understood."—Junius, p. 5. "The frame and condition of man admits of no other principle."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 54. "Some considerable time and care was necessary."—Ib., ii 150. "In consequence of this idea, much ridicule and censure has been thrown upon Milton."—Blair's Rhet., p. 428. "With rational beings, nature and reason is the same thing."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 111. "And the flax and the barley was smitten."—Exod., ix, 31. "The colon, and semicolon, divides a period, this with, and that without a connective."—J. Ware's Gram., p. 27. "Consequently wherever space and time is found, there God must also be."—Sir Isaac Newton. "As the past tense and perfect participle of love ends in ed, it is regular."—Chandler's Gram., p. 40; New Edition, p. 66. "But the usual arrangement and nomenclature prevents this from being readily seen."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 3. "Do and did simply implies opposition or emphasis."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 41. "I and another make we, plural: Thou and another is as much as ye: He, she, or it and another make they"—Ib., p. 124. "I and another, is as much as (we) the first Person Plural; Thou and another, is as much as (ye) the second Person Plural; He, she, or it, and another, is as much as (they) the third Person Plural."—British Gram., p. 193; Buchanan's Syntax, p. 76. "God and thou art two, and thou and thy neighbour are two."—The Love Conquest, p. 25. "Just as an and a has arisen out of the numeral one."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo. 1850, §200. "The tone and style of each of them, particularly the first and the last, is very different."—Blair's Rhet., p. 246. "Even as the roebuck and the hart is eaten."—Deut., xiii, 22. "Then I may conclude that two and three makes not five."—Barclay's Works, iii, 354. "Which at sundry times thou and thy brethren hast received from us."—Ib., i, 165. "Two and two is four, and one is five."—POPE: Lives of the Poets, p. 490. "Humility and knowledge with poor apparel, excels pride and ignorance under costly array."—Day's Gram., Parsing Lesson, p. 100. "A page and a half has been added to the section on composition."—Bullions's E. Gram., 5th Ed., Pref., p. vii. "Accuracy and expertness in this exercise is an important acquisition."—Ib., p. 71.

   "Woods and groves are of thy dressing,
    Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing."—Milton's Poems, p. 139.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE VERB BEFORE JOINT NOMINATIVES.

"There is a good and a bad, a right and a wrong in taste, as in other things."—Blair's Rhet., p. 21. "Whence has arisen much stiffness and affectation."—Ib., p. 133. "To this error is owing, in a great measure, that intricacy and harshness, in his figurative language, which I before remarked."—Ib., p. 150; Jamieson's Rhet., 157. "Hence, in his Night Thoughts, there prevails an obscurity and hardness in his style."—Blair's Rhet., p. 150. "There is, however, in that work much good sense, and excellent criticism."—Ib., p. 401. "There is too much low wit and scurrility in Plautus."—Ib., p. 481. "There is too much reasoning and refinement; too much pomp and studied beauty in them."—Ib., p. 468. "Hence arises the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation."—Rush on the Voice, p. 229. "And such pilots is he and his brethren, according to their own confession."—Barclay's Works, iii, 314. "Of whom is Hymeneus and Philetus: who concerning the truth have erred."—2 Tim., ii, 17. "Of whom is Hymeneus and Alexander; whom I have delivered unto Satan."—1 Tim., i, 20. "And so was James and John, the sons of Zebedee."—Luke, v, 10. "Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing."—James, iii, 10. "Out of the mouth of the Most High proceedeth not evil and good."—Lam., iii, 38. "In which there is most plainly a right and a wrong."—Butler's Analogy, p. 215. "In this sentence there is both an actor and an object."—Smith's Inductive Gram., p. 14. "In the breast-plate was placed the mysterious Urim and Thummim."—Milman's Jews, i, 88. "What is the gender, number, and person of those in the first?"—Smith's Productive Gram., p. 19. "There seems to be a familiarity and want of dignity in it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 150. "It has been often asked, what is Latin and Greek?"—Literary Convention, p. 209. "For where does beauty and high wit But in your constellation meet?"—Hudibras, p. 134. "Thence to the land where flows Ganges and Indus."—Paradise Lost, B. ix, l. 81. "On these foundations seems to rest the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 46. "But what has disease, deformity, and filth, upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell?"—Johnson's Life of Swift, p. 492. "How is the gender and number of the relative known?"—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 32.

   "High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust,
    And feebler speeds the blow and thrust."—Sir W. Scott.

UNDER NOTE I.—CHANGE THE CONNECTIVE.

"In every language there prevails a certain structure and analogy of parts, which is understood to give foundation to the most reputable usage."—Blair's Rhet., p. 90. "There runs through his whole manner, a stiffness and affectation, which renders him very unfit to be considered a general model."—Ib., p. 102. "But where declamation and improvement in speech is the sole aim"—Ib., p. 257. "For it is by these chiefly, that the train of thought, the course of reasoning, and the whole progress of the mind, in continued discourse of all kinds, is laid open."—Lowth's Gram., p. 103. "In all writing and discourse, the proper composition and structure of sentnences is of the highest importance."—Blair's Rhet., p. 101. "Here the wishful look and expectation of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 386. "Who say, that the outward naming of Christ, and signing of the cross, puts away devils."—Barclay's Works, i, 146. "By which an oath and penalty was to be imposed upon the members."—Junius, p. 6. "Light and knowledge, in what manner soever afforded us, is equally from God."—Butler's Analogy, p. 264. "For instance, sickness and untimely death is the consequence of intemperance."—Ib., p. 78. "When grief, and blood ill-tempered vexeth him."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 256. "Does continuity and connexion create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 111. "His greatest concern, and highest enjoyment, was to be approved in the sight of his Creator."—Murray's Key, p. 224. "Know ye not that there is a prince and a great man fallen this day in Israel?"—2 Sam, iii, 38. "What is vice and wickedness? No rarity, you may depend on it."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 107. "There is also the fear and apprehension of it."—Butler's Analogy, p. 87. "The apostrophe and s, ('s,) is an abbreviation for is, the termination of the old English genitive."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 17. "Ti, ce, and ci, when followed by a vowel, usually has the sound of sh; as in partial, special, ocean."—Weld's Gram., p. 15.

   "Bitter constraint and sad occasion dear
    Compels me to disturb your season due."—Milton's Lycidas.

    "Debauches and excess, though with less noise,
    As great a portion of mankind destroys."—Waller, p. 55.

UNDER NOTE II.—AFFIRMATION WITH NEGATION.

"Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem."—Brown's Inst., p. 156. "Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame."—Ib. "Not fear, but labour have overcome him."—Ib. "The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference."—Ib. "Not her beauty, but her talents attracts attention."—Ib. "It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attracts attention."—Ib. "It is her beauty, and not her talents that attract attention."—Ib.

   "His belly, not his brains, this impulse give:
    He'll grow immortal; for he cannot live."—Young, to Pope.

UNDER NOTE III.—AS WELL AS, BUT, OR SAVE.

"Common sense as well as piety tell us these are proper."—Family Commentary, p. 64. "For without it the critic, as well as the undertaker, ignorant of any rule, have nothing left but to abandon themselves to chance."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 42. "And accordingly hatred as well as love are extinguished by long absence."—Ib., i, 113. "But at every turn the richest melody as well as the sublimest sentiments are conspicuous."—Ib., ii, 121. "But it, as well as the lines immediately subsequent, defy all translation."—Coleridge's Introduction, p. 96. "But their religion, as well as their customs, and manners, were strangely misrepresented."—BOLINGBROKE, ON HISTORY, p. 123; Priestley's Gram., p. 192; Murray's Exercises, p. 47. "But his jealous policy, as well as the fatal antipathy of Fonseca, were conspicuous."—Robertson's America, i, 191. "When their extent as well as their value were unknown."—Ib., ii, 138. "The Etymology, as well as the Syntax, of the more difficult parts of speech are reserved for his attention [at a later period]."—Parker and Fox's E. Gram., Part i, p. 3. "What I myself owe to him, no one but myself know."—See Wright's Athens, p. 96. "None, but thou, O mighty prince! canst avert the blow."—Inst., p. 156. "Nothing, but frivolous amusements, please the indolent."—Ib.

"Nought, save the gurglings of the rill, were heard."—G. B.

"All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute."—G. B.

UNDER NOTE IV.—EACH, EVERY, OR NO.

"Give every word, and every member, their due weight and force."—Blair's Rhet., p. 110. "And to one of these belong every noun, and every third person of every verb."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 74. "No law, no restraint, no regulation, are required to keep him in bounds."—Literary Convention, p. 260. "By that time, every window and every door in the street were full of heads."—N. Y. Observer, No. 503. "Every system of religion, and every school of philosophy, stand back from this field, and leave Jesus Christ alone, the solitary example"—The Corner Stone, p. 17. "Each day, and each hour, bring their portion of duty."—Inst., p. 156. "And every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented, gathered themselves unto him."—1 Sam., xxii, 2. "Every private Christian and member of the church ought to read and peruse the Scriptures, that they may know their faith and belief founded upon them."—Barclay's Works, i, 340. "And every mountain and island were moved out of their places."—Rev., vi, 14.

   "No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride,
    No cavern'd hermit rest self-satisfied."

UNDER NOTE V.—WITH, OR, &c. FOR AND.

"The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle."—Tobitt's Gram., p. 48; Felch's, 69; Ware's, 12. "The stream, the rock, or the tree, must each of them stand forth, so as to make a figure in the imagination."—Blair's Rhet., p. 390. "While this, with euphony, constitute, finally, the whole."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 293. "The bag, with the guineas and dollars in it, were stolen."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶246. "Sobriety, with great industry and talent, enable a man to perform great deeds."—Ib., ¶245. "The it, together with the verb to be, express states of being."—Ib., ¶190. "Where Leonidas the Spartan king, with his chosen band, fighting for their country, were cut off to the last man."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 203. "And Leah also, with her children, came near and bowed themselves."—Gen., xxxiii, 7. "The First or Second will, either of them, by themselves coalesce with the Third, but not with each other."—Harris's Hermes, p. 74. "The whole must centre in the query, whether Tragedy or Comedy are hurtful and dangerous representations?"—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 215. "Grief as well as joy are infectious: the emotions they raise in the spectator resemble them perfectly."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 157. "But in all other words the Qu are both sounded."—Ensell's Gram., p. 16. "Qu (which are always together) have the sound of ku or k, as in queen, opaque."— Goodenow's Gram., p. 45. "In this selection the ai form distinct syllables."—Walker's Key, p. 290. "And a considerable village, with gardens, fields, &c., extend around on each side of the square."— Liberator, Vol. ix, p. 140. "Affection, or interest, guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life; imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 171. "She heard none of those intimations of her defects, which envy, petulance, or anger, produce among children."—Rambler, No. 189. "The King, with the Lords and Commons, constitute an excellent form of government."—Crombie's Treatise, p. 242. "If we say, 'I am the man, who commands you,' the relative clause, with the antecedent man, form the predicate."—Ib., p. 266.

   "The spacious firmament on high,
    With all the blue ethereal sky,
    And spangled heav'ns, a shining frame,
    Their great Original proclaim."
        —ADDISON. Murray's Key, p. 174; Day's Gram., p. 92;
           Farnum's, 106.

UNDER NOTE VI.—ELLIPTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.

"There is a reputable and a disreputable practice."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 350. "This and this man was born in her."—Milton's Psalms, lxxxvii. "This and that man was born in her."—Psal. lxxxvii, 5. "This and that man was born there."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 94. "Thus le in l~ego and l~egi seem to be sounded equally long."—Adam's Gram., p. 253; Gould's, 243. "A distinct and an accurate articulation forms the groundwork of good delivery."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 25. "How is vocal and written language understood?"—C. W. Sanders, Spelling-Book, p. 7. "The good, the wise, and the learned man is an ornament to human society."—Bartlett's Reader. "On some points, the expression of song and speech is identical."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 425. "To every room there was an open and secret passage."—Johnson's Rasselas, p. 13. "There iz such a thing az tru and false taste, and the latter az often directs fashion, az the former."—Webster's Essays, p. 401. "There is such a thing as a prudent and imprudent institution of life, with regard to our health and our affairs"—Butler's Analogy, p. 210. "The lot of the outcasts of Israel and the dispersed of Judah, however different in one respect, have in another corresponded with wonderful exactness."—Hope of Israel, p. 301. "On these final syllables the radical and vanishing movement is performed."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 64. "To be young or old, good, just, or the contrary, are physical or moral events."—SPURZHEIM: Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 29. "The eloquence of George Whitfield and of John Wesley was of a very different character each from the other."—Dr. Sharp. "The affinity of m for the series b, and of n for the series t, give occasion for other Euphonic changes."—Fowler's E. Gram., §77.

   "Pylades' soul and mad Orestes', was
    In these, if we believe Pythagoras"—Cowley's Poems, p. 3.

UNDER NOTE VII.—DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES.

"To be moderate in our views, and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them, is the best way to ensure success."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 206. "To be of any species, and to have a right to the name of that species, is all one."—Locke's Essay, p. 300. "With whom to will and to do is the same."—Jamieson's Sacred History, Vol. ii, p. 22. "To profess, and to possess, is very different things."—Inst., p. 156. "To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, is duties of universal obligation."—Ib. "To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is all equally alien from the nature of thought."—Ib. "The resolving of a sentence into its elements or parts of speech and stating the Accidents which belong to these, is called PARSING."—Bullion's Pract. Lessons, p. 9. "To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, was once a girl's employment; but now to dress and catch a beau, is all she calls enjoyment."—Lynn News, Vol. 8, No. 1.

RULE XVII.—FINITE VERBS.

When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as, "Fear or jealousy affects him."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 133. "Nor eye, nor listening ear, an object finds: creation sleeps."—Young. "Neither character nor dialogue was yet understood."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 151.

   "The wife, where danger or dishonour lurks,
    Safest and seemliest by her husband stays."—Milton, P. L., ix, 267.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVII.

OBS. 1.—To this rule, so far as its application is practicable, there are properly no exceptions; for, or and nor being disjunctive conjunctions, the nominatives are of course to assume the verb separately, and as agreeing with each. Such agreement seems to be positively required by the alternativeness of the expression. Yet the ancient grammarians seldom, if at all, insisted on it. In Latin and Greek, a plural verb is often employed with singular nominatives thus connected; as,

   "Tunc nec mens mini, nec color
    Certa sede manent."—HORACE. See W. Allen's Gram., p. 133.

[Greek: "Ean de adelphos æ adelphæ lumnoi huparchosi, kai leipomenoi osi tæs ephæmerou trophæs."]—James, ii. 15. And the best scholars have sometimes improperly imitated this construction in English; as, "Neither Virgil nor Homer were deficient in any of the former beauties."—DRYDEN'S PREFACE: Brit. Poets, Vol. iii, p. 168. "Neither Saxon nor Roman have availed to add any idea to his [Plato's] categories."—R. W. EMERSON: Liberator, No. 996.

   "He comes—nor want nor cold his course delay:
    Hide, blushing Glory! hide Pultowa's day."—Dr. Johnson.

    "No monstrous height, or breadth, or length, appear;
    The whole at once is bold and regular."—Pope, on Crit., l. 250.

OBS. 2.—When two collective nouns of the singular form are connected by or or nor, the verb may agree with them in the plural number, because such agreement is adapted to each of them, according to Rule 15th; as, "Why mankind, or such a part of mankind, are placed in this condition."—Butler's Analogy, p. 213. "But neither the Board of Control nor the Court of Directors have any scruples about sanctioning the abuses of which I have spoken."—Glory and Shame of England, Vol. ii, p. 70.

OBS. 3.—When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers, connected by or or nor, an explicit concord with each is impossible; because the verb cannot be of different persons or numbers at the same time; nor is it so, even when its form is made the same in all the persons and numbers: thus, "I, thou, [or] he, may affirm; we, ye, or they, may affirm."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 36. Respecting the proper management of the verb when its nominatives thus disagree, the views of our grammarians are not exactly coincident. Few however are ignorant enough, or rash enough, to deny that there may be an implicit or implied concord in such cases,—a zeugma of the verb in English, as well as of the verb or of the adjective in Latin or Greek. Of this, the following is a brief example: "But he nor I feel more."—Dr. Young, Night iii, p. 35. And I shall by-and-by add others—enough, I hope, to confute those false critics who condemn all such phraseology.

OBS. 4.—W. Allen's rule is this: "If the nominatives are of different numbers or persons, the verb agrees with the last; as, he or his brothers were there; neither you nor I am concerned."—English Gram., p. 133. Lindley Murray, and others, say: (1.) "When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person which is placed nearest to it: as, 'I or thou art to blame;' 'Thou or I am in fault;' 'I, or thou, or he, is the author of it;' 'George or I am the person.' But it would be better to say; 'Either I am to blame, or thou art,' &c. (2.) When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun: as, 'Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him;' 'I or they were offended by it.' But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently be done, should be placed next to the verb."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 151; Smith's New Gram., 128; Alger's Gram., 54; Comly's, 78 and 79; Merchant's, 86; Picket's, 175; and many more. There are other grammarians who teach, that the verb must agree with the nominative which is placed next to it, whether this be singular or plural; as, "Neither the servants nor the master is respected;"—"Neither the master nor the servants are respected."—Alexander Murray's Gram., p. 65. "But if neither the writings nor the author is in existence, the Imperfect should be used."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 107.

OBS. 5.—On this point, a new author has just given us the following precept and criticism: "Never connect by or, or nor, two or more names or substitutes that have the same asserter [i.e. verb] depending on them for sense, if when taken separately, they require different forms of the asserters. Examples. 'Neither you nor I am concerned. Either he or thou wast there. Either they or he is faulty.' These examples are as erroneous as it would be to say, 'Neither you am concerned, nor am I.' 'Either he wast there, or thou wast.' 'Either they is faulty, or he is.' The sentences should stand thus—'Neither of us is concerned,' or, 'neither are you concerned, nor am I.' 'Either he was there, or thou wast.' 'Either they are faulty, or he is. They are, however, in all their impropriety, writen [sic—KTH] according to the principles of Goold Brown's grammar! and the theories of most of the former writers."—Oliver B. Peirce's Gram., p. 252. We shall see by-and-by who is right.

OBS. 6.—Cobbett also—while he approves of such English as, "He, with them, are able to do much," for, "He and they are able to do much"—condemns expressly every possible example in which the verb has not a full and explicit concord with each of its nominatives, if they are connected by or or nor. His doctrine is this: "If nominatives of different numbers present themselves, we must not give them a verb which disagrees with either the one or the other. We must not say: 'Neither the halter nor the bayonets are sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights.' We must avoid this bad grammar by using a different form of words: as, 'We are to be prevented from obtaining our rights by neither the halter nor the bayonets.' And, why should we wish to write bad grammar, if we can express our meaning in good grammar?"—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 242. This question would have more force, if the correction here offered did not convey a meaning widely different from that of the sentence corrected. But he goes on: "We cannot say, 'They or I am in fault; I, or they, or he, is the author of it; George or I am the person.' Mr. Lindley Murray says, that we may use these phrases; and that we have only to take care that the verb agree with that person which is placed nearest to it; but, he says also, that it would be better to avoid such phrases by giving a different turn to our words. I do not like to leave any thing to chance or to discretion, when we have a clear principle for our guide."—Ib., ¶ 243. This author's "clear principle" is merely his own confident assumption, that every form of figurative or implied agreement, every thing which the old grammarians denominated zeugma, is at once to be condemned as a solecism. He is however supported by an other late writer of much greater merit. See Churchill's New Gram., pp. 142 and 312.

OBS. 7.—If, in lieu of their fictitious examples, our grammarians would give us actual quotations from reputable authors, their instructions would doubtless gain something in accuracy, and still more in authority. "I or they were offended by it," and, "I, or thou, or he, is the author of it," are expressions that I shall not defend. They imply an egotistical speaker, who either does not know, or will not tell, whether he is offended or not,—whether he is the author or not! Again, there are expressions that are unobjectionable, and yet not conformable to any of the rules just quoted. That nominatives may be correctly connected by or or nor without an express agreement of the verb with each of them, is a point which can be proved to as full certainty as almost any other in grammar; Churchill, Cobbett, and Peirce to the contrary notwithstanding. But with which of the nominatives the verb shall expressly agree, or to which of them it may most properly be understood, is a matter not easy to be settled by any sure general rule. Nor is the lack of such a rule a very important defect, though the inculcation of a false or imperfect one may be. So judged at least the ancient grammarians, who noticed and named almost every possible form of the zeugma, without censuring any as being ungrammatical. In the Institutes of English Grammar, I noted first the usual form of this concord, and then the allowable exceptions; but a few late writers, we see, denounce every form of it, exceptions and all: and, standing alone in their notions of the figure, value their own authority more than that of all other critics together.

OBS. 8.—In English, as in other languages, when a verb has discordant nominatives connected disjunctively, it most commonly agrees expressly with that which is nearest, and only by implication, with the more remote; as, "When some word or words are dependent on the attribute."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 153. "To the first of these qualities, dulness or refinements are dangerous enemies."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 15. "He hazards his own life with that of his enemy, and one or both are very honorably murdered."—Webster's Essays, p. 235. "The consequence is, that they frown upon everyone whose faults or negligence interrupts or retards their lessons."—W. C. Woodbridge: Lit. Conv., p. 114. "Good intentions, or at least sincerity of purpose, was never denied her."—West's Letters, p. 43. "Yet this proves not that either he or we judge them to be the rule."—Barclay's Works, i, 157. "First clear yourselves of popery before you or thou dost throw it upon us."—Ib., i, 169. "Is the gospel or glad tidings of this salvation brought nigh unto all?"—Ib., i, 362. "Being persuaded, that either they, or their cause, is naught."—Ib., i, 504. "And the reader may judge whether he or I do most fully acknowledge man's fall."—Ib., iii, 332. "To do justice to the Ministry, they have not yet pretended that any one, or any two, of the three Estates, have power to make a new law, without the concurrence of the third."—Junius, Letter xvii. "The forest, or hunting-grounds, are deemed the property of the tribe."—Robertson's America, i, 313. "Birth or titles confer no preëminence."—Ib., ii, 184. "Neither tobacco nor hides were imported from Caraccas into Spain."—Ib., ii, 507. "The keys or seed-vessel of the maple has two large side-wings."—The Friend, vii, 97. "An example or two are sufficient to illustrate the general observation."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., i, 58.

"Not thou, nor those thy factious arts engage, Shall reap that harvest of rebellious rage."—Dryden, p. 60.

OBS. 9.—But when the remoter nominative is the principal word, and the nearer one is expressed parenthetically, the verb agrees literally with the former, and only by implication, with the latter; as, "One example, (or ten,) says nothing against it."—Leigh Hunt. "And we, (or future ages,) may possibly have a proof of it."—Bp. Butler. So, when the alternative is merely in the words, not in the thought, the former term is sometimes considered the principal one, and is therefore allowed to control the verb; but there is always a harshness in this mixture of different numbers, and, to render such a construction tolerable, it is necessary to read the latter term like a parenthesis, and make the former emphatic: as, "A parenthesis, or brackets, consists of two angular strokes, or hooks, enclosing one or more words."—Whiting's Reader, p. 28. "To show us that our own schemes, or prudence, have no share in our advancements."—Addison. "The Mexican figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words; they exhibit images to the eye, not ideas to the understanding."—Murray's Gram., p. 243; English Reader, p. xiii. "At Travancore, Koprah, or dried cocoa-nut kernels, is monopolized by government."—Maunder's Gram., p. 12. "The Scriptures, or Bible, are the only authentic source."—Bp. Tomline's Evidences.

   "Nor foes nor fortune take this power away;
    And is my Abelard less kind than they?"—Pope, p. 334.

OBS. 10.—The English adjective being indeclinable, we have no examples of some of the forms of zeugma which occur in Latin and Greek. But adjectives differing in number, are sometimes connected without a repetition of the noun; and, in the agreement of the verb, the noun which is understood, is less apt to be regarded than that which is expressed, though the latter be more remote; as, "There are one or two small irregularities to be noted."—Lowth's Gram., p. 63. "There are one or two persons, and but one or two."—Hazlitt's Lectures. "There are one or two others."—Crombie's Treatise, p. 206. "There are one or two."—Blair's Rhet., p. 319. "There are one or more seminaries in every province."—H. E. Dwight: Lit. Conv., p. 133. "Whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered the nominative case."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 150. "So that, I believe, there is not more than one genuine example extant."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 10. "There is, properly, no more than one pause or rest in the sentence."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 329; Blair's Rhet., p. 125. "Sometimes a small letter or two is added to the capital."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 223; Gould's, 283. Among the examples in the seventh paragraph above, there is one like this last, but with a plural verb; and if either is objectionable, is should here be are. The preceding example, too, is such as I would not imitate. To L. Murray, the following sentence seemed false syntax, because one does not agree with persons: "He saw one or more persons enter the garden."—Murray's Exercises, Rule 8th, p. 54. In his Key, he has it thus: "He saw one person, or more than one, enter the garden."—Oct. Gram., Vol. ii, p. 189. To me, this stiff correction, which many later grammarians have copied, seems worse than none. And the effect of the principle may be noticed in Murray's style elsewhere; as, "When a semicolon, or more than one, have preceded."—Octavo Gram., i, p. 277; Ingersoll's Gram., p. 288. Here a ready writer would be very apt to prefer one of the following phrases: "When a semicolon or two have preceded,"—"When one or two semicolons have preceded,"—"When one or more semicolons have preceded." It is better to write by guess, than to become systematically awkward in expression.

OBS. 11.—In Greek and Latin, the pronoun of the first person, according to our critics, is generally[398] placed first; as, "[Greek: Ego kai su ta dikaia poiæsomen]. Xen."—Milnes's Gr. Gram., p. 120. That is, "Ego et tu justa faciemus." Again: "Ego et Cicero valemus. Cic."—Buchanan's Pref., p. x; Adam's Gram., 206; Gould's, 203. "I and Cicero are well."—Ib. But, in English, a modest speaker usually gives to others the precedence, and mentions himself last; as, "He, or thou, or I, must go."—"Thou and I will do what is right."—"Cicero and I are well."—Dr. Adam.[399] Yet, in speaking of himself and his dependants, a person most commonly takes rank before them; as, "Your inestimable letters supported myself, my wife, and children, in adversity."—Lucien Bonaparte, Charlemagne, p. v. "And I shall be destroyed, I and my house."—Gen., xxxiv, 30. And in acknowledging a fault, misfortune, or censure, any speaker may assume the first place; as, "Both I and thou are in the fault."—Adam's Gram., p. 207. "Both I and you are in fault."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. ix. "Trusty did not do it; I and Robert did it."—Edgeworth's Stories.

   "With critic scales, weighs out the partial wit,
    What I, or you, or he, or no one writ."
        —Lloyd's Poems, p. 162.

OBS. 12.—According to the theory of this work, verbs themselves are not unfrequently connected, one to an other, by and, or, or nor; so that two or more of them, being properly in the same construction, may be parsed as agreeing with the same nominative: as, "So that the blind and dumb [man] both spake and saw."—Matt., xii, 22. "That no one might buy or sell."—Rev., xiii, 17. "Which see not, nor hear, nor know."—Dan., v, 23. We have certainly very many examples like these, in which it is neither convenient nor necessary to suppose an ellipsis of the nominative before the latter verb, or before all but the first, as most of our grammarians do, whenever they find two or more finite verbs connected in this manner. It is true, the nominative may, in most instances, be repeated without injury to the sense; but this fact is no proof of such an ellipsis; because many a sentence which is not incomplete, may possibly take additional words without change of meaning. But these authors, (as I have already suggested under the head of conjunctions,) have not been very careful of their own consistency. If they teach, that, "Every finite verb has its own separate nominative, either expressed or implied," which idea Murray and others seem to have gathered from Lowth; or if they say, that, "Conjunctions really unite sentences, when they appear to unite only words," which notion they may have acquired from Harris; what room is there for that common assertion, that, "Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs," which is a part of Murray's eighteenth rule, and found in most of our grammars? For no agreement is usually required between verbs that have separate nominatives; and if we supply a nominative wherever we do not find one for each verb, then in fact no two verbs will ever be connected by any conjunction.

OBS. 13.—What agreement there must be, between verbs that are in the same construction, it is not easy to determine with certainty. Some of the Latin grammarians tell us, that certain conjunctions connect "sometimes similar moods and tenses, and sometimes similar moods but different tenses." See Prat's Grammatica Latina, Octavo, Part ii, p. 95. Ruddiman, Adam, and Grant, omit the concord of tenses, and enumerate certain conjunctions which "couple like cases and moods." But all of them acknowledge some exceptions to their rules. The instructions of Lindley Murray and others, on this point, may be summed up in the following canon: "When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have separate nominatives expressed." This rule, (with a considerable exception to it, which other authors had not noticed.) was adopted by myself in the Institutes of English Grammar, and also retained in the Brief Abstract of that work, entitled, The First Lines of English Grammar. It there stands as the thirteenth in the series of principal rules; but, as there is no occasion to refer to it in the exercise of parsing, I now think, a less prominent place may suit it as well or better. The principle may be considered as being less certain and less important than most of the usual rules of syntax: I shall therefore both modify the expression of it, and place it among the notes of the present code. See Notes 5th and 6th below.

OBS. 14.—By the agreement of verbs with each other in form, it is meant, that the simple form and the compound, the familiar form and the solemn, the affirmative form and the negative, or the active form and the passive, are not to be connected without a repetition of the nominative. With respect to our language, this part of the rule is doubtless as important, and as true, as any other. A thorough agreement, then, in mood, tense, and form, is generally required, when verbs are connected by and, or, or nor; and, under each part of this concord, there may be cited certain errors which ought to be avoided, as will by-and-by be shown. But, at the same time, there seem to be many allowable violations of the rule, some or other of which may perhaps form exceptions to every part of it. For example, the tense may be varied, as it often is in Latin; thus, "As the general state of religion has been, is, or shall be, affected by them."—Butlers Analogy, p. 241. "Thou art righteous, O Lord, which art, and wast, and shall be, because thou hast judged thus."—Rev., xvi, 5. In the former of these examples, a repetition of the nominative would not be agreeable; in the latter, it would perhaps be an improvement: as, "who art, and who wast, and who shalt be." (I here change the pronoun, because the relative which is not now applied as above.) "This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has been, or shall be published."—Campbell's Rhet. p. 207; Murray's Gram., p. 222. "It ought to be, 'has been, is, or shall be, published.'"—Crombie's Treatise, p. 383. "Truth and good sense are firm, and will establish themselves."—Blair's Rhet. p. 286. "Whereas Milton followed a different plan, and has given a tragic conclusion to a poem otherwise epic in its form."—Ib., p. 428. "I am certain, that such are not, nor ever were, the tenets of the church of England."—West's Letters, p. 148. "They deserve, and will meet with, no regard."—Blair's Rhet., p. 109.

   "Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see,
    Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be."
        —Pope, on Crit.

OBS. 15.—So verbs differing in mood or form may sometimes agree with the same nominative, if the simplest verb be placed first—rarely, I think, if the words stand in any other order: as, "One may be free from affectation and not have merit"—Blair's Rhet., p. 189. "There is, and can be, no other person."—Murray's Key. 8vo. p. 224. "To see what is, and is allowed to be, the plain natural rule."—Butler's Analogy, p. 284. "This great experiment has worked, and is working, well, every way well"—BRADBURN: Liberator, ix. 162. "This edition of Mr. Murray's works on English Grammar, deserves a place in Libraries, and will not fail to obtain it."—BRITISH CRITIC: Murray's Gram., 8vo, ii, 299.

"What nothing earthly gives, or can destroy."—Pope.

"Some are, and must be, greater than the rest."—Id.

OBS. 16.—Since most of the tenses of an English verb are composed of two or more words, to prevent a needless or disagreeable repetition of auxiliaries, participles, and principal verbs, those parts which are common to two or more verbs in the same sentence, are generally expressed to the first, and understood to the rest; or reserved, and put last, as the common supplement of each; as, "To which they do or can extend."—Butler's Analogy, p. 77. "He may, as any one may, if he will, incur an infamous execution from the hands of civil justice."—Ib., p. 82. "All that has usurped the name of virtue, and [has] deceived us by its semblance, must be a mockery and a delusion."—Dr. Chalmers. "Human praise, and human eloquence, may acknowledge it, but the Discerner of the heart never will" [acknowledge it].—Id. "We use thee not so hardly, as prouder livers do" [use thee].—Shak. "Which they might have foreseen and [might have] avoided."—Butler. "Every sincere endeavour to amend, shall be assisted, [shall be] accepted, and [shall be] rewarded."—Carter. "Behold, I thought, He will surely come out to me, and [will] stand and [will] call on the name of the Lord his God, and [will] strike his hand over the place, and [will] recover the leper."—2 Kings, v, 11. "They mean to, and will, hear patiently."—Salem Register. That is, "They mean to hear patiently, and they will hear patiently." "He can create, and he destroy."—Bible. That is,—"and he can destroy."

   "Virtue may be assail'd, but never hurt,
    Surpris'd by unjust force, but not inthrall'd."—Milton.

    "Mortals whose pleasures are their only care,
    First wish to be imposed on, and then are."—Cowper.

OBS. 17.—From the foregoing examples, it may be seen, that the complex and divisible structure of the English moods and tenses, produces, when verbs are connected together, a striking peculiarity of construction in our language, as compared with the nearest corresponding construction in Latin or Greek. For we can connect different auxiliaries, participles, or principal verbs, without repeating, and apparently without connecting, the other parts of the mood or tense. And although it is commonly supposed that these parts are necessarily understood wherever they are not repeated, there are sentences, and those not a few, in which we cannot express them, without inserting also an additional nominative, and producing distinct clauses; as, "Should it not be taken up and pursued?"—Dr. Chalmers. "Where thieves do not break through nor steal."—Matt., vi, 20. "None present could either read or explain the writing-."—Wood's Dict., Vol. i, p. 159. Thus we sometimes make a single auxiliary an index to the mood and tense of more than one verb.

OBS. 18.—The verb do, which is sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb, is thought by some grammarians to be also fitly made a substitute for other verbs, as a pronoun is for nouns; but this doctrine has not been taught with accuracy, and the practice under it will in many instances be found to involve a solecism. In this kind of substitution, there must either be a true ellipsis of the principal verb, so that do is only an auxiliary; or else the verb do, with its object or adverb, if it need one, must exactly correspond to an action described before; so that to speak of doing this or thus, is merely the shortest way of repeating the idea: as, "He loves not plays, as thou dost. Antony."—Shak. That is, "as thou dost love plays." "This fellow is wise enough to play the fool; and, to do that well, craves a kind of wit."—Id. Here, "to do that," is, "to play the fool." "I will not do it, if I find thirty there."—Gen., xviii, 30. Do what? Destroy the city, as had been threatened. Where do is an auxiliary, there is no real substitution; and, in the other instances, it is not properly the verb do, that is the substitute, but rather the word that follows it—or perhaps, both. For, since every action consists in doing something or in doing somehow, this general verb do, with this, that, it, thus, or so, to identify the action, may assume the import of many a longer phrase. But care must be taken not to substitute this verb for any term to which it is not equivalent; as, "The a is certainly to be sounded as the English do."—Walker's Dict., w. A. Say, "as the English sound it;" for do is here absurd, and grossly solecistical. "The duke had not behaved with that loyalty with which he ought to have done."—Lowth's Gram., p. 111; Murray's, i, 212; Churchill's, 355; Fisk's, 137; Ingersoll's, 269. Say, "with which he ought to have behaved;" for, to have done with loyalty is not what was meant—far from it. Clarendon wrote the text thus: "The Duke had not behaved with that loyalty, as he ought to have done." This should have been corrected, not by changing "as" to "with which", but by saying—"with that loyalty which he ought to have observed;" or, "which would have become him".

OBS. 19.—It is little to the credit of our grammarians, to find so many of them thus concurring in the same obvious error, and even making bad English worse. The very examples which have hitherto been given to prove that do may be a substitute for other verbs, are none of them in point, and all of them have been constantly and shamefully misinterpreted. Thus: "They [do and did] sometimes also supply the place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in the same or a subsequent sentence, unnecessary: as, 'You attend not to your studies as he does;' (i. e. as he attends, &c.) 'I shall come if I can; but if I do not, please to excuse me;' (i. e. if I come not.)"—L. Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 88; R. C. Smith's, 88; Ingersoll's, 135; Fisk's, 78; A. Flint's, 41; Hiley's, 30. This remark, but not the examples, was taken from Lowths Gram., p. 41. Churchill varies it thus, and retains Lowth's example: "It [i. e., do] is used also, to supply the place of another verb, in order to avoid the repetition of it: as, 'He loves not plays, As thou dost, Antony.' SHAKS."—New Gram., p. 96. Greenleaf says, "To prevent the repetition of one or more verbs, in the same, or [a] following sentence, we frequently make use of do AND did; as, 'Jack learns the English language as fast as Henry does;' that is, 'as fast as Henry learns.' 'I shall come if I can; but if I do not, please to excuse me;' that is, 'if I come not.'"—Gram. Simplified, p. 27. Sanborn says, "Do is also used instead of another verb, and not unfrequently instead of both the verb and its object; as, 'he loves work as well as you do;' that is, as well as you love work."—Analyt. Gram., p. 112. Now all these interpretations are wrong; the word do, dost, or does, being simply an auxiliary, after which the principal verb (with its object where it has one) is understood. But the first example is bad English, and its explanation is still worse. For, "As he attends, &c.," means, "As he attends to your studies!" And what good sense is there in this? The sentence ought to have been, "You do not attend to your studies, as he does to his." That is—"as he does attend to his studies." This plainly shows that there is, in the text, no real substitution of does for attends. So of all other examples exhibited in our grammars, under this head: there is nothing to the purpose, in any of them; the common principle of ellipsis resolves them all. Yet, strange to say, in the latest and most learned of this sort of text-books, we find the same sham example, fictitious and solecistical as it is, still blindly repeated, to show that "does" is not in its own place, as an auxiliary, but "supplies the place of another verb."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo. 1850. p. 265.

NOTES TO RULE XVII.

NOTE I.—When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers,[400] connected by or or nor, it must agree with the nearest, (unless an other be the principal term,) and must be understood to the rest, in the person and number required; as, "Neither you nor I am concerned."—W. Allen. "That neither they nor ye also die."—Numb., xviii, 3.

   "But neither god, nor shrine, nor mystic rite,
    Their city, nor her walls, his soul delight."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. x, l. 26.

NOTE II.—But, since all nominatives that require different forms of the verb, virtually produce separate clauses or propositions, it is better to complete the concord whenever we conveniently can, by expressing the verb or its auxiliary in connexion with each of them; as, "Either thou art to blame, or I am."—Comly's Gram., p. 78. "Neither were their numbers, nor was their destination, known."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 134. So in clauses connected by and: as, "But declamation is idle, and murmurs fruitless."—Webster's Essays, p. 82. Say,—"and murmurs are fruitless."

NOTE III.—In English, the speaker should always mention himself last; unless his own superior dignity, or the confessional nature of the expression, warrant him in taking the precedence: as, "Thou or I must go."—"He then addressed his discourse to my father and me."—"Ellen and I will seek, apart, the refuge of some forest cell."—Scott. See Obs. 11th above.

NOTE IV.—Two or more distinct subject phrases connected by or or nor, require a singular verb; and, if a nominative come after the verb, that must be singular also: as, "That a drunkard should be poor, or that a fop should be ignorant, is not strange."—"To give an affront, or to take one tamely, is no mark of a great mind." So, when the phrases are unconnected: as, "To spread suspicion, to invent calumnies, to propagate scandal, requires neither labour nor courage."—Rambler, No. 183.

NOTE V.—In general, when verbs are connected by and, or, or nor, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or the simplest in form must be placed first; as, "So Sennacherib king of Assyria departed, and went and returned, and dwelt at Nineveh."—Isaiah, xxxvii, 37. "For if I be an offender, or have committed any thing worthy of death, I refuse not to die."—Acts, xxv, 11.

NOTE VI.—In stead of conjoining discordant verbs, it is in general better to repeat the nominative or insert a new one; as, "He was greatly heated, and [he] drank with avidity."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 201. "A person may be great or rich by chance; but cannot be wise or good, without taking pains for it."—Ib., p. 200. Say,—"but no one can be wise or good, without taking pains for it."

NOTE VII.—A mixture of the forms of the solemn style and the familiar, is inelegant, whether the verbs refer to the same nominative or have different ones expressed; as, "What appears tottering and in hazard of tumbling, produceth in the spectator the painful emotion of fear."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 356. "And the milkmaid singeth blithe, And the mower whets his sithe."—Milton's Allegro, l. 65 and 66.

NOTE VIII.—To use different moods under precisely the same circumstances, is improper, even if the verbs have separate nominatives; as, "Bating that one speak and an other answers, it is quite the same."—Blair's Rhet., p. 368. Say,—"that one speaks;" for both the speaking and the answering are assumed as facts.

NOTE IX.—When two terms are connected, which involve different forms of the same verb, such parts of the compound tenses as are not common to both forms, should be inserted in full: except sometimes after the auxiliary do; as, "And then he falls, as I do."—Shak. That is, "as I do fall." The following sentences are therefore faulty: "I think myself highly obliged to make his fortune, as he has mine."—Spect., No. 474. Say,—"as he has made mine." "Every attempt to remove them, has, and likely will prove unsuccessful."—Gay's Prosodical Gram., p. 4. Say,—"has proved, and likely will prove, unsuccessful."

NOTE X.—The verb do must never be substituted for any term to which its own meaning is not adapted; nor is there any use in putting it for a preceding verb that is equally short: as, "When we see how confidently men rest on groundless surmises in reference to their own souls, we cannot wonder that they do it in reference to others."—Simeon. Better:—"that they so rest in reference to the souls of others;" for this repeats the idea with more exactness. NOTE XI.—The preterit should not be employed to form the compound tenses of the verb; nor should the perfect participle be used for the preterit or confounded with the present. Thus: say, "To have gone," not, "To have went;" and, "I did so," not, "I done so;" or, "He saw them," not, "He seen them." Again: say not, "It was lift or hoist up;" but, "It was lifted or hoisted up."

NOTE XII.—Care should be taken, to give every verb or participle its appropriate form, and not to confound those which resemble each other; as, to flee and to fly, to lay and to lie, to sit and to set, to fall and to fell, &c. Thus: say, "He lay by the fire;" not, "He laid by the fire;"—"He has become rich;" not, "He is become rich;"—"I would rather stay;" not, "I had rather stay."

NOTE XIII.—In the syntax of words that express time, whether they be verbs, adverbs, or nouns, the order and fitness of time should be observed, that the tenses may be used according to their import. Thus: in stead of, "I have seen him last week;" say, "I saw him last week;"—and, in stead of, "I saw him this week;" say, "I have seen him this week." So, in stead of, "I told you already;" or, "I have told you before;" say, "I have told you already;"—"I told you before."

NOTE XIV.—Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, permitting, and some others, in all their tenses, refer to actions or events, relatively present or future: one should therefore say, "I hoped you would come;" not, "I hoped you would have come;"—and, "I intended to do it;" not, "I intended to have done it;"—&c.

NOTE XV.—Propositions that are as true now as they ever were or will be, should generally be expressed in the present tense: as, "He seemed hardly to know, that two and two make four;" not, "made."—Blair's Gram., p. 65. "He will tell you, that whatever is, is right." Sometimes the present tense is improper with the conjunction that, though it would be quite proper without it; as, "Others said, That it is Elias. And others said, That it is a prophet."—Mark, vi, 15. Here That should be omitted, or else is should be was. The capital T is also improper.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVII.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY OR.

"We do not know in what either reason or instinct consist."—Rambler, No. 41.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the verb consist is of the plural number, and does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, reason and instinct, which are connected by or, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 17th, "When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together." Therefore, consist should be consists; thus, "We do not know in what either reason or instinct consists."]

"A noun or a pronoun joined with a participle, constitute a nominative case absolute."—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 50. "The relative will be of that case, which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, use to govern."—Dr. Adam's Gram., p. 203. "Which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, usually govern."—Gould's Adam's Gram., p. 200.[401] "In the different modes of pronunciation which habit or caprice give rise to."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 14. "By which he, or his deputy, were authorized to cut down any trees in Whittlebury forest."—Junius, p. 251. "Wherever objects were to be named, in which sound, noise, or motion were concerned, the imitation by words was abundantly obvious."—Blair's Rhet., p. 55. "The pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances, are a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 262. "Because their foolish vanity or their criminal ambition represent the principles by which they are influenced, as absolutely perfect."—Life of Madame De Stael, p. 2. "Hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the parties."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 37. "A penitent unbeliever, or an impenitent believer, are characters no where to be found."—Tract, No. 183. "Copying whatever is peculiar in the talk of all those whose birth or fortune entitle them to imitation."—Rambler, No. 194. "Where love, hatred, fear, or contempt, are often of decisive influence."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 119. "A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening tale relieve the folio page."—D'Israeli's Curiosities, Vol. i, p. 15. "For outward matter or event, fashion not the character within."—Book of Thoughts, p. 37. "Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, have warmed cold brains."—Dryden's Poems, p. 76. "Motion is a Genus; Flight, a Species; this Flight or that Flight are Individuals."—Harris's Hermes, p. 38. "When et, aut, vel, sine, or nec, are joined to different members of the same sentence."—Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 206; Gould's Lat. Gram., 203; Grant's, 266. "Wisdom or folly govern us."—Fisk's English Gram., 84. "A or an are styled indefinite articles."—Folker's Gram., p. 4. "A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, shoot up into prodigies."—Spectator, No. 7. "Are either the subject or the predicate in the second sentence modified?"—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 578, §589.

   "Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe,
    Are lost on hearers that our merits know."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. x, l. 293.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY NOR.

"Neither he nor she have spoken to him."—Perrin's Gram., p. 237. "For want of a process of events, neither knowledge nor elegance preserve the reader from weariness."—JOHNSON: in Crabb's Syn., p. 511. "Neither history nor tradition furnish such information."—Robertson's Amer., Vol. i, p. 2. "Neither the form nor power of the liquids have varied materially."—Knight, on the Greek Alph., p. 16. "Where neither noise nor motion are concerned."—Blair's Rhet., p. 55. "Neither Charles nor his brother were qualified to support such a system."—Junius, p. 250. "When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor the warmth of passion, serve, as it were, to cover the trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 381. "In many countries called Christian, neither Christianity, nor its evidence, are fairly laid before men."—Butler's Analogy, p. 269. "Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 20. "Throughout this hymn, neither Apollo nor Diana are in any way connected with the Sun or Moon."—Coleridge's Introd., p. 199. "Of which, neither he, nor this Grammar, take any notice."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 346. "Neither their solicitude nor their foresight extend so far."—Robertson's Amer., Vol. i, p. 287. "Neither Gomara, nor Oviedo, nor Herrera, consider Ojeda, or his companion Vespucci, as the first discoverers of the continent of America."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 471. "Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up arms, have been thought worthy of a moment's consideration."—Junius, p. 174.

   "Nor War nor Wisdom yield our Jews delight,
    They will not study, and they dare not fight."
        —Crabbe's Borough, p. 50.

    "Nor time nor chance breed such confusions yet,
    Nor are the mean so rais'd, nor sunk the great."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. iii, l. 213.

UNDER NOTE I.—NOMINATIVES THAT DISAGREE.

"The definite article the, designates what particular thing or things is meant."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 23 and p. 33. "Sometimes a word or words necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence, is not expressed, but omitted by ellipsis."—Burr's Gram., p. 26. "Ellipsis, or abbreviations, is the wheels of language."—Maunder's Gram., p. 12. "The conditions or tenor of none of them appear at this day."—Hutchinson's Hist. of Mass., Vol. i, p. 16. "Neither men nor money were wanting for the service."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 279. "Either our own feelings, or the representation of those of others, require frequent emphatic distinction."—Barber's Exercises, p. 13. "Either Atoms and Chance, or Nature are uppermost: now I am for the latter part of the disjunction,"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 181. "Their riches or poverty are generally proportioned to their activity or indolence."—Ross Cox's Narrative. "Concerning the other part of him, neither you nor he seem to have entertained an idea."—Bp. Horne. "Whose earnings or income are so small."—N. E. Discipline, p. 130. "Neither riches nor fame render a man happy."—Day's Gram., p. 71. "The references to the pages, always point to the first volume, unless the Exercises or Key are mentioned."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 283.

UNDER NOTE II.—COMPLETE THE CONCORD.

"My lord, you wrong my father; nor he nor I are capable of harbouring a thought against your peace."—Walpole. "There was no division of acts; no pauses or interval between them; but the stage was continually full; occupied either by the actors, or the chorus."—Blair's Rhet., p. 463. "Every word ending in B, P, F, as also many in V, are of this order."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., i, 73. "As proud as we are of human reason, nothing can be more absurd than the general system of human life and human knowledge."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 347. "By which the body of sin and death is done away, and we cleansed."—Barclay's Works, i, 165. "And those were already converted, and regeneration begun in them."—Ib., iii, 433. "For I am an old man, and my wife well stricken in years."—Luke, i, 18. "Who is my mother, or my brethren?"—Mark, iii, 33. "Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering."—Isaiah, xl, 16. "Information has been obtained, and some trials made."—Society in America, i, 308. "It is as obvious, and its causes more easily understood."—Webster's Essays, p. 84. "All languages furnish examples of this kind, and the English as many as any other."—Priestley's Gram., p. 157. "The winters are long, and the cold intense."—Morse's Geog., p. 39. "How have I hated instruction, and my heart despised reproof!"—Prov., v, 12. "The vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, and the fire of Vesta extinguished."—Lempriere, w. Vestales. "Riches beget pride; pride, impatience."—Bullions's Practical Lessons, p. 89. "Grammar is not reasoning, any more than organization is thought, or letters sounds."—Enclytica, p. 90. "Words are implements, and grammar a machine."—Ib., p. 91.

UNDER NOTE III.—PLACE OF THE FIRST PERSON.

"I or thou art the person who must undertake the business proposed."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 184. "I and he were there."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 51. "And we dreamed a dream in one night, I and he."—Gen., xli, 11. "If my views remain the same as mine and his were in 1833."—GOODELL: Liberator, ix, 148. "I and my father were riding out."—Inst., p. 158. "The premiums were given to me and George."—Ib. "I and Jane are invited."—Ib. "They ought to invite me and my sister."—Ib. "I and you intend going."—Guy's Gram., p. 55. "I and John are going to Town."—British Gram., p. 193. "I, and he are sick. I, and thou are well."—James Brown's American Gram., Boston Edition of 1841, p. 123. "I, and he is. I, and thou art. I, and he writes."—Ib., p. 126. "I, and they are well. I, thou, and she were walking."—Ib., p. 127.

UNDER NOTE IV.—DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES.

"To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are great injustice."—Brown's Inst., p. 159. "To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible perfidy."—Ib. "To write all substantives with capital letters, or to exclude them from adjectives derived from proper names, may perhaps be thought offences too small for animadversion; but the evil of innovation is always something."—Dr. Barrow's Essays, p. 88. "To live in such families, or to have such servants, are blessings from God."—Family Commentary, p. 64. "How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, or what wars they maintained, are utterly unknown."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 4. "To speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably, are attainments of the utmost consequence to all who purpose, either by speech or writing, to address the public."—Blair's Rhet., p. 11.

UNDER NOTE V.—MAKE THE VERBS AGREE.

"Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray?"—Matt., xviii, 12. "Did he not fear the Lord, and besought the Lord, and the Lord repented him of the evil which he had pronounced?"—Jer., xxvi, 19. "And dost thou open thine eyes upon such an one, and bringest me into judgement with thee?"—Job, xiv, 3. "If any man among you seem to be religious, and bridleth not his tongue, but deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain."—James, i, 26. "If thou sell aught unto thy neighbour, or buyest aught of thy neighbour's hand, ye shall not oppress one an other."—Leviticus, xxv, 14. "And if thy brother that dwelleth by thee, shall have become poor, and be sold to thee, thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond servant."—WEBSTER'S BIBLE: Lev., xxv, 39. "If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee," &c.—Matt., v, 23. "Anthea was content to call a coach, and crossed the brook."—Rambler, No. 34. "It is either totally suppressed, or appears in its lowest and most imperfect form."—Blair's Rhet., p. 23. "But if any man be a worshiper of God, and doeth his will, him he heareth."—John, ix, 31. "Whereby his righteousness and obedience, death and sufferings without, become profitable unto us, and is made ours."—Barclay's Works, i, 164. "Who ought to have been here before thee, and object, if they had aught against me."—Acts, xxiv, 19.

   "Yes! thy proud lords, unpitied land, shall see
    That man hath yet a soul, and dare be free."—Campbell.

UNDER NOTE VI.—USE SEPARATE NOMINATIVES.

"H is only an aspiration or breathing; and sometimes at the beginning of a word is not sounded at all."—Lowth's Gram., p. 4. "Man was made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men."—Ib., p. 12; Murray's, i, 170. "There is, and must be, a supreme being, of infinite goodness, power, and wisdom, who created and supports them."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 201. "Were you not affrighted, and mistook a spirit for a body?"—Watson's Apology, p. 122. "The latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or understood."— Murray's Gram., p. 214; Russell's, 103; Bacon's, 51; Alger's, 71; R. C. Smith's, 179. "He had mistaken his true interests, and found himself forsaken."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 201. "The amputation was exceedingly well performed, and saved the patient's life."—Ib., p. 191. "The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of many [,] might have been, and probably were good."—Ib., p. 216. "This may be true, and yet will not justify the practice."—Webster's Essays, p. 33. "From the practice of those who have had a liberal education, and are therefore presumed to be best acquainted with men and things."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 161. "For those energies and bounties which created and preserve the universe."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., i, 327. "I shall make it once for all and hope it will be afterwards remembered."—Blair's Lect., p. 45. "This consequence is drawn too abruptly, and needed more explanation."—Ib., p. 229. "They must be used with more caution, and require more preparation."— Ib., p. 153. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an i, which was formerly inserted, and made an addition of a syllable to the word."— Priestley's Gram., p. 67. "The succession may be rendered more various or more uniform, but in one shape or an other is unavoidable."—Kames, El. of Crit., i. 253. "It excites neither terror nor compassion, nor is agreeable in any respect."—Ib., ii, 277.

   "Cheap vulgar arts, whose narrowness affords
    No flight for thoughts, but poorly stick at words."—Denham.

UNDER NOTE VII.—MIXTURE OF DIFFERENT STYLES.

"Let us read the living page, whose every character delighteth and instructs us."—Maunder's Gram., p. 5. "For if it be in any degree obscure, it puzzles, and doth not please."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 357. "When a speaker addresseth himself to the understanding, he proposes the instruction of his hearers."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 13. "As the wine which strengthens and refresheth the heart."—H. Adams's View, p. 221. "This truth he wrappeth in an allegory, and feigns that one of the goddesses had taken up her abode with the other."—Pope's Works, iii, 46. "God searcheth and understands the heart."—Thomas à Kempis. "The grace of God, that brings salvation hath appeared to all men."—Barclays Works, i, 366. "Also we speak not in the words, which man's wisdom teaches; but which the Holy Ghost teacheth."—Ib., i, 388. "But he hath an objection, which he urgeth, and by which he thinks to overturn all."—Ib., iii, 327. "In that it gives them not that comfort and joy which it giveth unto them who love it."—Ib., i, 142. "Thou here misunderstood the place and misappliedst it."—Ib., iii, 38. "Like the barren heath in the desert, which knoweth not when good comes."—Friends' Extracts, p. 128; N. E. Discip., p. 75. "It speaketh of the time past, but shews that something was then doing, but not quite finished."—E. Devis's Gram., p. 42. "It subsists in spite of them; it advanceth unobserved."—PASCAL: Addison's Evidences, p. 17.

   "But where is he, the Pilgrim of my song?—
    Methinks he cometh late and tarries long."—Byron, Cant. iv, St. 164.

UNDER NOTE VII.—CONFUSION OF MOODS.

"If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray, &c."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 227 with 197. "As a speaker advances in his discourse, especially if it be somewhat impassioned, and increases in energy and earnestness, a higher and louder tone will naturally steal upon him."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 68. "If one man esteem a day above another, and another esteemeth every day alike; let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind."—Barclay's Works, i, 439. "If there be but one body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny; if there are only two, there will want a casting voice."—Addison, Spect., No. 287. "Should you come up this way, and I am still here, you need not be assured how glad I shall be to see you."—Ld. Byron. "If he repent and becomes holy, let him enjoy God and heaven."—Brownson's Elwood, p. 248. "If thy fellow approach thee, naked and destitute, and thou shouldst say unto him, 'Depart in peace; be you warmed and filled;' and yet shouldst give him not those things that are needful to him, what benevolence is there in thy conduct?"—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 108.

   "Get on your nightgown, lost occasion calls us.
    And show us to be watchers."
        —Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 278.

    "But if it climb, with your assisting hands,
    The Trojan walls, and in the city stands."
        —Dryden's Virgil, ii, 145.

    —————————————"Though Heaven's king
    Ride on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers,
    Us'd to the yoke, draw'st his triumphant wheels."
        —Milton, P. L., iv, l. 973.

    "Us'd to the yoke, draw'dst his triumphant wheels."
        —Lowth's Gram., p. 106.

UNDER NOTE IX.—IMPROPER ELLIPSES.

"Indeed we have seriously wondered that Murray should leave some things as he has."—Education Reporter. "Which they neither have nor can do."—Barclay's Works, iii, 73. "The Lord hath, and doth, and will reveal his will to his people, and hath and doth raise up members of his body," &c.—Ib., i, 484. "We see then, that the Lord hath, and doth give such."—Ib., i, 484. "Towards those that have or do declare themselves members."—Ib., i, 494. "For which we can, and have given our sufficient reasons."—Ib., i, 507. "When we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences, in the same manner as we have those of William's, above, what is the exercise called?"—Smith's New Gram., p. 12. "It is, however to be doubted whether this peculiarity of the Greek idiom, ever has or will obtain extensively in the English."—Nutting's Gram., p. 47. "Why did not the Greeks and Romans abound in auxiliary words as much as we?"—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 111. "Who delivers his sentiments in earnest, as they ought to be in order to move and persuade."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 151.

UNDER NOTE X.—DO, USED AS A SUBSTITUTE.

"And I would avoid it altogether, if it could be done."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 36. "Such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds, is truly heroic, and must elevate the mind to the greatest height that can be done by a single expression."—Ib., i, 204. "Successive images making thus deeper and deeper impressions, must elevate more than any single image can do."—Ib., i, 205. "Besides making a deeper impression than can be done by cool reasoning."—Ib., ii, 273. "Yet a poet, by the force of genius alone, can rise higher than a public speaker can do."—Blair's Rhet., p. 338. "And the very same reason that has induced several grammarians to go so far as they have done, should have induced them to go farther."—Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. vii. "The pupil should commit the first section perfectly, before he does the second part of grammar."— Bradley's Gram., p. 77. "The Greek ch was pronounced hard, as we now do in chord."—Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 61. "They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times."— Murray's Eng. Reader, p. xi. "And give him the formal cool reception that Simon had done."—Dr. Scott, on Luke, vii. "I do not say, as some have done."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 271. "If he suppose the first, he may do the last."—Barclay's Works, ii, 406. "Who are now despising Christ in his inward appearance, as the Jews of old did him in his outward."—Ib., i, 506. "That text of Revelations must not be understood, as he doth it."— Ib., iii, 309. "Till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him, that he can do it readily."—Smith's New Gram., p. 13. "Perhaps it is running the same course which Rome had done before."—Middleton's Life of Cicero. "It ought even on this ground to be avoided; which may easily be done by a different construction."—Churchill's Gram., p. 312. "These two languages are now pronounced in England as no other nation in Europe does besides."—Creighton's Dict., p. xi. "Germany ran the same risk that Italy had done."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211: see Priestley's Gram., p. 196.

UNDER NOTE XI.—PRETERITS AND PARTICIPLES.

"The Beggars themselves will be broke in a trice."—Swift's Poems, p. 347. "The hoop is hoist above his nose."—Ib., p. 404. "My heart was lift up in the ways of the Lord. 2 CHRON."—Joh. Dict., w. Lift. "Who sin so oft have mourned, Yet to temptation ran."—Burns. "Who would not have let them appeared."—Steele. "He would have had you sought for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality."—Pilgrim's Progress, p. 31. "From me his madding mind is start, And wooes the widow's daughter of the glen."—SPENSER: Joh. Dict., w. Glen. "The man has spoke, and still speaks."—Ash's Gram., p. 54. "For you have but mistook me all this while."—Beauties of Shak., p. 114. "And will you rent our ancient love asunder."—Ib., p. 52. "Mr. Birney has plead the inexpediency of passing such resolutions."— Liberator, Vol. xiii, p. 194. "Who have wore out their years in such most painful Labours."—Littleton's Dict., Pref. "And in the conclusion you were chose probationer."—Spectator, No. 32.

   "How she was lost, took captive, made a slave;
    And how against him set that should her save."—Bunyan.

UNDER NOTE XII.—VERBS CONFOUNDED.

"But Moses preferred to wile away his time."—Parker's English Composition, p. 15. "His face shown with the rays of the sun."—Calvin's Inst., 4to, p. 76. "Whom they had sat at defiance so lately."— Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 320. "And when he was set, his disciples came unto him."—Matt., v, 1. "When he was set down on the judgement-seat."— Ib., xxvii, 19. "And when they had kindled a fire in the midst of the hall, and were set down together, Peter sat down among them."—Luke, xxii, 55. "So after he had washed their feet, and had taken his garments, and was set down again, he said unto them, Know ye what I have done to you?"—John, xiii, 12. "Even as I also overcame, and am set down with my Father in his throne."—Rev., iii, 21. "We have such an high priest, who is set on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens."— Heb., viii, 1. "And is set down at the right hand of the throne of God."—Ib., xii, 2.[402] "He sat on foot a furious persecution."— Payne's Geog., ii, 418. "There layeth an obligation upon the saints, to help such."—Barclay's Works, i, 389. "There let him lay."—Byron's Pilgrimage, C. iv, st. 180. "Nothing but moss, and shrubs, and stinted trees, can grow upon it."—Morse's Geog., p. 43. "Who had lain out considerable sums purely to distinguish themselves."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 132. "Whereunto the righteous fly and are safe."—Barclay's Works, i, 146. "He raiseth from supper, and laid aside his garments."—Ib., i, 438. "Whither—Oh! whither shall I fly?"—Murray's English Reader, p. 123. "Flying from an adopted murderer."—Ib., p. 122. "To you I fly for refuge."—Ib., p. 124. "The sign that should warn his disciples to fly from approaching ruin."—Keith's Evidences, p. 62. "In one she sets as a prototype for exact imitation."—Rush, on the Voice, p. xxiii. "In which some only bleat, bark, mew, winnow, and bray, a little better than others."—Ib., p. 90. "Who represented to him the unreasonableness of being effected with such unmanly fears."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 106. "Thou sawedst every action."—Guy's School Gram., p. 46. "I taught, thou taughtedst, he or she taught."—Coar's Gram., p. 79. "Valerian is taken by Sapor and flead alive, A. D. 260."—Lempriere's Chron. Table, Dict., p. xix. "What a fine vehicle is it now become for all conceptions of the mind!"—Blair's Rhet., p. 139. "What are become of so many productions?" —Volney's Ruins, p. 8. "What are become of those ages of abundance and of life?"—Keith's Evidences, p. 107. "The Spartan admiral was sailed to the Hellespont."—Goldsmiths Greece, i, 150. "As soon as he was landed, the multitude thronged about him."—Ib., i, 160. "Cyrus was arrived at Sardis."—Ib., i, 161. "Whose year was expired."—Ib., i, 162. "It had better have been, 'that faction which.'"—Priestley's Gram., p. 97. "This people is become a great nation."—Murray's Gram., p. 153; Ingersoll's, 249. "And here we are got into the region of ornament."—Blair's Rhet., p. 181. "The ungraceful parenthesis which follows, had far better have been avoided."—Ib., p. 215. "Who forced him under water, and there held him until drounded."—Indian Wars, p. 55.

   "I had much rather be myself the slave,
    And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him."—Cowper.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—WORDS THAT EXPRESS TIME.

"I had finished my letter before my brother arrived."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 139. "I had written before I received his letter."—Blair's Rhet., p. 82. "From what has been formerly delivered."—Ib., p. 182. "Arts were of late introduced among them."—Ib., p. 245. "I am not of opinion that such rules can be of much use, unless persons saw them exemplified."—Ib., p. 336. "If we use the noun itself, we should say, 'This composition is John's.' "—Murray's Gram., p. 174. "But if the assertion referred to something, that is not always the same, or supposed to be so, the past tense must be applied."—Ib., p. 191. "They told him, that Jesus of Nazareth passeth by."—Luke, xviii, 37. "There is no particular intimation but that I continued to work, even to the present moment."—R. W. Green's Gram., p. 39. "Generally, as was observed already, it is but hinted in a single word or phrase."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 36. "The wittiness of the passage was already illustrated."—Ib., p. 36. "As was observed already."—Ib., p. 56. "It was said already in general."—Ib., p. 95. "As I hinted already."—Ib., p. 134. "What I believe was hinted once already."—Ib., p. 148. "It is obvious, as hath been hinted formerly, that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion."—Ib., p. 282. "They have done anciently a great deal of hurt."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 109. "Then said Paul, I knew not, brethren, that he is the High Priest."—Dr. Webster's Bible: Acts, xxiii, 5. "Most prepositions originally denote the relation of place, and have been thence transferred to denote by similitude other relations."—Lowth's Gram., p. 65; Churchill's, 116. "His gift was but a poor offering, when we consider his estate."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 194. "If he should succeed, and should obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 207. "These are torrents that swell to-day, and have spent themselves by to-morrow."—Blair's Rhet., p. 286. "Who have called that wheat to-day, which they have called tares to-morrow."—Barclay's Works, iii. 168. "He thought it had been one of his tenants."—Ib., i, 11. "But if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent."—Luke, xvi, 30. "Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead."—Ib., verse 31. "But it is while men slept that the archenemy has always sown his tares."—The Friend, x, 351. "Crescens would not fail to have exposed him."—Addison's Evidences, p. 30.

   "Bent was his bow, the Grecian hearts to wound;
    Fierce as he mov'd, his silver shafts resound."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. i, l. 64.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—VERBS OF COMMANDING, &c.

"Had I commanded you to have done this, you would have thought hard of it."—G. B. "I found him better than I expected to have found him."—Priestley's Gram., p. 126. "There are several smaller faults, which I at first intended to have enumerated."—Webster's Essays, p. 246. "Antithesis, therefore, may, on many occasions, be employed to advantage, in order to strengthen the impression which we intend that any object should make."—Blair's Rhet., p. 168. "The girl said, if her master would but have let her had money, she might have been well long ago."—See Priestley's Gram., p. 127. "Nor is there the least ground to fear, that we should be cramped here within too narrow limits."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 163; Murray's Gram., i, 360. "The Romans, flushed with success, expected to have retaken it."—Hooke's Hist., p. 37. "I would not have let fallen an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of Misery, to be entitled to all the wit that ever Rabelais scattered."—STERNE: Enfield's Speaker, p. 54. "We expected that he would have arrived last night."—Inst. p. 192. "Our friends intended to have met us."—Ib. "We hoped to have seen you."—Ib. "He would not have been allowed to have entered."—Ib.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PERMANENT PROPOSITIONS.

"Cicero maintained that whatsoever was useful was good."—"I observed that love constituted the whole moral character of God."—Dwight. "Thinking that one gained nothing by being a good man."—Voltaire. "I have already told you that I was a gentleman."—Fontaine. "If I should ask, whether ice and water were two distinct species of things."—Locke. "A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse."—Murray's Gram., 12mo, p. 260. "The doctor affirmed, that fever always produced thirst."—Inst., p. 192. "The ancients asserted, that virtue was its own reward."—Ib. "They should not have repeated the error, of insisting that the infinitive was a mere noun."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 288. "It was observed in Chap. III. that the distinctive or had a double use."—Churchill's Gram., p. 154. "Two young gentlemen, who have made a discovery that there was no God."—Swift.

RULE XVIII.—INFINITIVES.

The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb: as, "I desire TO learn."—Dr. Adam. "Of me the Roman people have many pledges, which I must strive, with my utmost endeavours, TO preserve, TO defend, TO confirm, and TO redeem."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 41.

   "What if the foot, ordain'd the dust TO tread,
    Or hand TO toil, aspir'd TO be the head?"—Pope.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVIII.

OBS. 1.—No word is more variously explained by grammarians, than this word TO, which is put before the verb in the infinitive mood. Johnson, Walker, Scott, Todd, and some other lexicographers, call it an adverb; but, in explaining its use, they say it denotes certain relations, which it is not the office of an adverb to express. (See the word in Johnson's Quarto Dictionary.) D. St. Quentin, in his Rudiments of General Grammar, says, "To, before a verb, is an adverb;" and yet his "Adverbs are words that are joined to verbs or adjectives, and express some circumstance or quality." See pp. 33 and 39. Lowth, Priestley, Fisher, L. Murray, Webster, Wilson, S. W. Clark, Coar, Comly, Blair, Felch, Fisk, Greenleaf, Hart, Weld, Webber, and others, call it a preposition; and some of these ascribe to it the government of the verb, while others do not. Lowth says, "The preposition TO, placed before the verb, makes the infinitive mood."—Short Gram., p. 42. "Now this," says Horne Tooke, "is manifestly not so: for TO placed before the verb loveth, will not make the infinitive mood. He would have said more truly, that TO placed before some nouns, makes verbs."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 287.

OBS. 2.—Skinner, in his Canones Etymologici, calls this TO "an equivocal article,"—Tooke, ib., i, 288. Nutting, a late American grammarian, says: "The sign TO is no other than the Greek article to; as, to agapan [, to love]; or, as some say, it is the Saxon do"—Practical Gram., p. 66. Thus, by suggesting two false and inconsistent derivations, though he uses not the name equivocal article, he first makes the word an article, and then equivocal—equivocal in etymology, and of course in meaning.[403] Nixon, in his English Parser, supposes it to be, unequivocally, the Greek article [Greek: to], the. See the work, p. 83. D. Booth says, "To is, by us, applied to Verbs; but it was the neuter Article (the) among the Greeks."—Introd. to Analyt. Dict., p. 60. According to Horne Tooke, "Minshew also distinguishes between the preposition TO, and the sign of the infinitive TO. Of the former he is silent, and of the latter he says: 'To, as to make, to walk, to do, a Græco articulo [Greek: to].' But Dr. Gregory Sharpe is persuaded, that our language has taken it from the Hebrew. And Vossius derives the correspondent Latin preposition AD from the same source."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 293.

OBS. 3.—Tooke also says, "I observe, that Junius and Skinner and Johnson, have not chosen to give the slightest hint concerning the derivation of TO."—Ibid. But, certainly, of his adverb TO, Johnson gives this hint: "TO, Saxon; te, Dutch." And Webster, who calls it not an adverb, but a preposition, gives the same hint of the source from which it comes to us. This is as much as to say, it is etymologically the old Saxon preposition to—which, truly, it is—the very same word that, for a thousand years or more, has been used before nouns and pronouns to govern the objective case. Tooke himself does not deny this; but, conceiving that almost all particles, whether English or any other, can be traced back to ancient verbs or nouns, he hunts for the root of this, in a remoter region, where he pretends to find that to has the same origin as do; and though he detects the former in a Gothic noun, he scruples not to identify it with an auxiliary verb! Yet he elsewhere expressly denies, "that any words change their nature by use, so as to belong sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another."—Div. of Pur., Vol. i, p. 68.

OBS 4.—From this, the fair inference is, that he will have both to and do to be "nouns substantive" still! "Do (the auxiliary verb, as it has been called) is derived from the same root, and is indeed the same word as TO."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 290. "Since FROM means commencement or beginning, TO must mean end or termination."—Ib., i, 283. "The preposition TO (in Dutch written TOE and TOT, a little nearer to the original) is the Gothic substantive [Gothic: taui] or [Gothic: tauhts], i. e. act, effect, result, consummation. Which Gothic substantive is indeed itself no other than the past participle of the verb [Gothic: taujan], agere. And what is done, is terminated, ended, finished."—Ib., i, 285. No wonder that Johnson, Skinner, and Junius, gave no hint of this derivation: it is not worth the ink it takes, if it cannot be made more sure. But in showing its bearing on the verb, the author not unjustly complains of our grammarians, that: "Of all the points which they endeavour to shuffle over, there is none in which they do it more grossly than in this of the infinitive."—Ib., i, 287.

OBS. 5.—Many are content to call the word TO a prefix, a particle, a little word, a sign of the infinitive, a part of the infinitive, a part of the verb, and the like, without telling us whence it comes, how it differs from the preposition to, or to what part of speech it belongs. It certainly is not what we usually call a prefix, because we never join it to the verb; yet there are three instances in which it becomes such, before a noun: viz., to-day, to-night, to-morrow. If it is a "particle," so is any other preposition, as well as every small and invariable word. If it is a "little word," the whole bigness of a preposition is unquestionably found in it; and no "word" is so small but that it must belong to some one of the ten classes called parts of speech. If it is a "sign of the infinitive," because it is used before no other mood; so is it a sign of the objective case, or of what in Latin is called the dative, because it precedes no other case. If we suppose it to be a "part of the infinitive," or a "part of the verb," it is certainly no necessary part of either; because there is no verb which may not, in several different ways, be properly used in the infinitive without it. But if it be a part of the infinitive, it must be a verb, and ought to be classed with the auxiliaries. Dr. Ash accordingly placed it among the auxiliaries; but he says, (inaccurately, however,) "The auxiliary sign seems to have the nature of adverbs."—Grammatical Institutes, p. 33. "The auxiliary [signs] are, to, do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, can, must, might," &c.—Ib., p. 31.

OBS. 6.—It is clear, as I have already shown, that the word to may be a sign of the infinitive, and yet not be a part of it. Dr. Ash supposes, it may even be a part of the mood, and yet not be a part of the verb. How this can be, I see not, unless the mood consists in something else than either the form or the parts of the verb. This grammarian says, "In parsing, every word should be considered as a distinct part of speech: for though two or more words may be united to form a mode, a tense, or a comparison; yet it seems quite improper to unite two or more words to make a noun, a verb, an adjective, &c."—Gram. Inst., p. 28. All the auxiliaries, therefore, and the particle to among them, he parses separately; but he follows not his own advice, to make them distinct parts of speech; for he calls them all signs only, and signs are not one of his ten parts of speech. And the participle too, which is one of the ten, and which he declares to be "no part of the verb," he parses separately; calling it a verb, and not a participle, as often as it accompanies any of his auxiliary signs. This is certainly a greater impropriety than there can be in supposing an auxiliary and a participle to constitute a verb; for the mood and tense are the properties of the compound, and ought not to be ascribed to the principal term only. Not so with the preposition to before the infinitive, any more than with the conjunction if before the subjunctive. These may well be parsed as separate parts of speech; for these moods are sometimes formed, and are completely distinguished in each of their tenses, without the adding of these signs.

OBS. 7.—After a careful examination of what others have taught respecting this disputed point in grammar, I have given, in the preceding rule, that explanation which I consider to be the most correct and the most simple, and also as well authorized as any. Who first parsed the infinitive in this manner, I know not; probably those who first called the to a preposition; among whom were Lowth and the author of the old British Grammar. The doctrine did not originate with me, or with Comly, or with any American author. In Coar's English Grammar, published in London in 1796. the phrase to trample is parsed thus: "To—A preposition, serving for a sign of the infinitive mood to the verb Trample—A verb neuter, infinitive mood, present tense, governed by the preposition TO before it. RULE. The preposition to before a verb, is the sign of the infinitive mood." See the work, p. 263. This was written by a gentleman who speaks of his "long habit of teaching the Latin Tongue," and who was certainly partial enough to the principles of Latin grammar, since he adopts in English the whole detail of Latin cases.

OBS 8.—In Fisher's English Grammar, London, 1800, (of which there had been many earlier editions,) we find the following rule of syntax: "When two principal Verbs come together, the latter of them expresses an unlimited Sense, with the Preposition to before it; as he loved to learn; I chose to dance: and is called the infinitive Verb, which may also follow a Name or Quality; as, a Time to sing; a Book delightful to read." That this author supposed the infinitive to be governed by to, and not by the preceding verb, noun, or adjective, is plain from the following note, which he gives in his margin: "The Scholar will best understand this, by being told that infinite or invariable Verbs, having neither Number, Person, nor Nominative Word belonging to them, are known or governed by the Preposition TO coming before them. The Sign to is often understood; as, Bid Robert and his company (to) tarry."—Fisher's New Gram., p. 95.

OBS. 9.—The forms of parsing, and also the rules, which are given in the early English grammars, are so very defective, that it is often impossible to say positively, what their authors did, or did not, intend to teach. Dr. Lowth's specimen of "grammatical resolution" contains four infinitives. In his explanation of the first, the preposition and the verb are parsed separately, as above; except that he says nothing about government. In his account of the other three, the two words are taken together, and called a "verb, in the infinitive mode." But as he elsewhere calls the particle to a preposition, and nowhere speaks of any thing else as governing the infinitive, it seems fair to infer, that he conceived the verb to be the regimen of this preposition.[404] If such was his idea, we have the learned Doctor's authority in opposition to that of his professed admirers and copyists. Of these, Lindley Murray is doubtless the most famous. But Murray's twelfth rule of syntax, while it expressly calls to before the infinitive a preposition, absurdly takes away from it this regimen, and leaves us a preposition that governs nothing, and has apparently nothing to do with the relation of the terms between which it occurs.

OBS. 10.—Many later grammarians, perceiving the absurdity of calling to before the infinitive a preposition without supposing it to govern the verb, have studiously avoided this name; and have either made the "little word" a supernumerary part of speech, or treated it as no part of speech at all. Among these, if I mistake not, are Allen, Lennie, Bullions, Alger, Guy, Churchill, Hiley, Nutting, Mulligan, Spencer, and Wells. Except Comly, the numerous modifiers of Murray's Grammar are none of them more consistent, on this point, than was Murray himself. Such of them as do not follow him literally, either deny, or forbear to affirm, that to before a verb is a preposition; and consequently either tell us not what it is, or tell us falsely; some calling it "a part of the verb," while they neither join it to the verb as a prefix, nor include it among the auxiliaries. Thus Kirkham: "To is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood; thus, to ride, to rule; but it should be parsed with the verb, and as a part of it."—Gram. in Familiar Lect., p. 137. So R. C. Smith: "This little word to when used before verbs in this manner, is not a preposition, but forms a part of the verb, and, in parsing, should be so considered."—Productive Gram., p. 65. How can that be "a part of the verb," which is a word used before it? or how is to "joined to the verb," or made a part of it, in the phrase, "to ride?" But Smith does not abide by his own doctrine; for, in an other part of his book, he adopts the phraseology of Murray, and makes to a preposition: saying, "The preposition TO, though generally used before the latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted; as, 'I heard him say it;' instead of 'to say it.'"—Productive Gram., p. 156. See Murray's Rule 12th.

OBS. 11.—Most English grammarians have considered the word to as a part of the infinitive, a part of the verb; and, like the teachers of Latin, have referred the government of this mood to a preceding verb. But the rule which they give, is partial, and often inapplicable; and their exceptions to it, or the heterogeneous parts into which some of them divide it, are both numerous and puzzling. They teach that at least half of the ten different parts of speech "frequently govern the infinitive:" if so, there should be a distinct rule for each; for why should the government of one part of speech be made an exception to that of an other? and, if this be done, with respect to the infinitive, why not also with respect to the objective case? In all instances to which their rule is applicable, the rule which I have given, amounts to the same thing; and it obviates the necessity for their numerous exceptions, and the embarrassment arising from other constructions of the infinitive not noticed in them. Why then is the simplest solution imaginable still so frequently rejected for so much complexity and inconsistency? Or how can the more common rule in question be suitable for a child, if its applicability depends on a relation between the two verbs, which the preposition to sometimes expresses, and sometimes does not?

OBS. 12.—All authors admit that in some instances, the sign to is "superfluous and improper," the construction and government appearing complete without it; and the "Rev. Peter Bullions, D. D., Professor of Languages in the Albany Academy," has recently published a grammar, in which he adopts the common rule, "One verb governs another in the infinitive mood; as, I desire to learn;" and then remarks, "The infinitive after a verb is governed by it only when the attribute expressed by the infinitive is either the subject or [the] object of the other verb. In such expressions as 'I read to learn,' the infinitive is not governed by 'I read,' but depends on the phrase 'in order to' understood."—Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram., p. 110. But, "I read 'in order to' to learn," is not English; though it might be, if either to were any thing else than a preposition: as, "Now set to to learn your lesson." This broad exception, therefore, which embraces well-nigh half the infinitives in the language, though it contains some obvious truth, is both carelessly stated, and badly resolved. The single particle to is quite sufficient, both to govern the infinitive, and to connect it to any antecedent term which can make sense with such an adjunct. But, in fact, the reverend author must have meant to use the "little word" but once; and also to deny that it is a preposition; for he elsewhere says expressly, though, beyond question, erroneously, "A preposition should never be used before the infinitive."—Ib., p. 92. And he also says, "The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general manner, without distinction of number, person, or time, and commonly has TO before it."—Ib., Second Edition, p. 35. Now if TO is "before" the mood, it is certainly not a part of it. And again, if this mood had no distinction of "time," our author's two tenses of it, and his own two special rules for their application, would be as absurd as is his notion of its government. See his Obs. 6 and 7, ib., p. 124.

OBS. 13.—Richard Hiley, too, a grammarian of perhaps more merit, is equally faulty in his explanation of the infinitive mood. In the first place, he absurdly says, "TO before the infinitive mood, is considered as forming part of the verb; but in every other situation it is a preposition."—Hiley's Gram., Third Edition, p. 28. To teach that a "part of the verb" stands "before the mood," is an absurdity manifestly greater, than the very opposite notion of Dr. Ash, that what is not a part of the verb, may yet be included in the mood. There is no need of either of these false suppositions; or of the suggestion, doubly false, that to "in every other situation, is a preposition." What does preposition mean? Is to a preposition when it is placed after a verb, and not a preposition when it is placed before it? For example: "I rise to shut to the door."—See Luke, xiii, 25.

OBS. 14.—In his syntax, this author further says, "When two verbs come together, the latter must be in the infinitive mood, when it denotes the object of the former; as, 'Study to improve.'" This is his Rule. Now look at his Notes. "1. When the latter verb does not express the object, but the end, or something remote, the word for, or the words in order to, are understood; as, 'I read to learn;' that is, 'I read for to learn,' or, 'in order [TO] to learn.' The word for, however, is never, in such instances, expressed in good language. 2. The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, substantives, and participles; but in this instance also, a preposition is understood, though never expressed; as, 'Eager to learn;' that is, 'eager for to learn;' or, 'for learning;' 'A desire to improve;' that is, 'for to improve.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 89. Here we see the origin of some of Bullions's blunders. To is so small a word, it slips through the fingers of these gentlemen. Words utterly needless, and worse than needless, they foist into our language, in instances beyond number, to explain infinitives that occur at almost every breath. Their students must see that, "I read to learn," and, "I study to improve," with countless other examples of either sort, are very different constructions, and not to be parsed by the same rule! And here the only government of the infinitive which Hiley affirms, is immediately contradicted by the supposition of a needless for "understood."

OBS. 15.—In all such examples as, "I read to learn,"—"I strive to learn"—"Some eat to live,"—"Some live to eat,"—"She sings to cheer him,"—"I come to aid you,"—"I go to prepare a place for you,"—the action and its purpose are connected by the word to; and if, in the countless instances of this kind, the former verbs do not govern the latter, it is not because the phraseology is elliptical, or ever was elliptical,[405] but because in no case is there any such government, except in the construction of those verbs which take the infinitive after them without the preposition to. Professor Bullions will have the infinitive to be governed by a finite verb, "when the attribute expressed by the infinitive is the subject of the other verb." An infinitive may be made the subject of a finite verb; but this grammarian has mistaken the established meaning of subject, as well as of attribute, and therefore written nonsense. Dr. Johnson defines his adverb TO, "A particle coming between two verbs, and noting the second as the object of the first." But of all the words which, according to my opponents and their oracles, govern the infinitive, probably not more than a quarter are such verbs as usually have an object after them. Where then is the propriety of their notion of infinitive government? And what advantage has it, even where it is least objectionable?

OBS. 16.—Take for an example of this contrast the terms, "Strive to enter in—many will seek to enter in."—Luke, xiii, 24. Why should it be thought more eligible to say, that the verb strive or will seek governs the infinitive verb to enter; than to say, that to is a preposition, showing the relation between strive and enter, or between will seek and enter, and governing the latter verb? (See the exact and only needful form for parsing any such term, in the Twelfth Praxis of this work.) None, I presume, will deny, that in the Greek or the Latin of these phrases, the finite verbs govern the infinitive; or that, in the French, the infinitive entrer is governed first by one preposition, and then by an other. "Contendite intrare—multi quærent intrare."—Montanus. "Efforcez-vous _d'_entrer—plusieurs chercheront à y entrer."—French Bible. In my opinion, to before a verb is as fairly a preposition as the French de or à; and it is the main design of these observations, while they candidly show the reader what others teach, to prove it so. The only construction which makes it any thing else, is that which puts it after a verb or a participle, in the sense of an adverbial supplement; as, "The infernal idol is bowed down to."—Herald of Freedom. "Going to and fro."—Bible. "At length he came to."—"Tell him to heave to."—"He was ready to set to." With singular absurdness of opinion, some grammarians call to a preposition, when it thus follows a verb and governs nothing, who resolutely deny it that name, when it precedes the verb, and requires it to be in the infinitive mood, as in the last two examples. Now, if this is not government, what is? And if to, without government, is not an adverb, what is? See Obs. 2d on the List of Prepositions.

OBS. 17.—The infinitive thus admits a simpler solution in English, than in most other languages; because we less frequently use it without a preposition, and seldom, if ever, allow any variety in this connecting and governing particle. And yet in no other language has its construction given rise to a tenth part of that variety of absurd opinions, which the defender of its true syntax must refute in ours. In French, the infinitive, though frequently placed in immediate dependence on an other verb, may also be governed by several different prepositions, (as, à, de, pour, sans, après,) according to the sense.[406] In Spanish and Italian, the construction is similar. In Latin and Greek, the infinitive is, for the most part, immediately dependent on an other verb. But, according to the grammars, it may stand for a noun, in all the six cases; and many have called it an indeclinable noun. See the Port-Royal Latin and Greek grammars; in which several peculiar constructions of the infinitive are referred to the government of a preposition—constructions that occur frequently in Greek, and sometimes even in Latin.

OBS. 18.—It is from an improper extension of the principles of these "learned languages" to ours, that much of the false teaching which has so greatly and so long embarrassed this part of English grammar, has been, and continues to be, derived. A late author, who supposes every infinitive to be virtually a noun, and who thinks he finds in ours all the cases of an English noun, not excepting the possessive, gives the following account of its origin and nature: "This mood, with almost all its properties and uses, has been adopted into our language from the ancient Greek and Latin tongues. * * * The definite article [Greek: tò] [,] the, which they [the Greeks] used before the infinitive, to mark, in an especial manner, its nature of a substantive, is evidently the same word that we use before our infinitive; thus, 'to write,' signifies the writing; that is, the action of writing;—and when a verb governs an infinitive, it only governs it as in the objective case."—Nixon's English Parser, p. 83. But who will believe, that our old Saxon ancestors borrowed from Greek or Latin what is now our construction of the very root of the English verb, when, in all likelihood, they could not read a word in either of those languages, or scarcely knew the letters in their own, and while it is plain that they took not thence even the inflection of a single branch of any verb whatever?

OBS. 19.—The particle to, being a very common preposition in the Saxon tongue, has been generally used before the English infinitive, ever since the English language, or any thing like it, existed. And it has always governed the verb, not indeed "as in the objective case," for no verb is ever declined by cases, but simply as the infinitive mood. In the Anglo-Saxon version of the Gospels, which was made as early as the eleventh century, the infinitive mood is sometimes expressed in this manner, and sometimes by the termination on without the preposition. Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language, prefixed to his large Dictionary, contains, of this version, and of Wickliffe's, the whole of the first chapter of Luke; except that the latter omits the first four verses, so that the numbers for reference do not correspond. Putting, for convenience, English characters for the Saxon, I shall cite here three examples from each; and these, if he will, the reader may compare with the 19th, the 77th, and the 79th verse, in our common Bible. SAXON: "And ic eom asend with the sprecan. and the this bodian."—Lucæ, i, 19. WICKLIFFE: "And Y am sent to thee to speke and to evangelise to thee these thingis."—Luk, i, 15. SAXON: "To syllene his folce hæle gewit on hyra synna forgyfnesse."—Lucæ, i, 77. WICKLIFFE: "To geve science of heelth to his puple into remissioun of her synnes."—Luk, i, 73. SAXON: "Onlyhtan tham the on thystrum and on deathes sceade sittath. ure fet to gereccenne on sibbe weg."—Lucæ, i, 79. WICKLIFFE: "To geve light to them that sitten in derknessis, and in schadowe of deeth, to dresse oure feet into the weye of pees."—Luk, i, 75. "In Anglo-Saxon," says Dr. Latham, "the dative of the infinitive verb ended in -nne, and was preceded by the preposition to: as, To lufienne = ad amandum [= to loving, or to love]; To bærnenne = ad urendum [= to burning, or to burn]; To syllanne = ad dandum [= to giving, or to give]."—Hand-Book, p. 205.

OBS. 20.—Such, then, has ever been the usual construction of the English infinitive mood; and a wilder interpretation than that which supposes to an article, and says, "to write signifies the writing," cannot possibly be put upon it. On this supposition, "I am going to write a letter," is a pure Grecism; meaning, "I am going the writing a letter," which is utter nonsense. And further, the infinitive in Greek and Latin, as well as in Saxon and English, is always in fact governed as a mood, rather than as a case, notwithstanding that the Greek article in any of its four different cases may, in some instances, be put before it; for even with an article before it, the Greek infinitive usually retains its regimen as a verb, and is therefore not "a substantive," or noun. I am well aware that some learned critics, conceiving that the essence of the verb consists in predication, have plainly denied that the infinitive is a verb; and, because it may be made the subject of a finite verb, or may be governed by a verb or a preposition, have chosen to call it "a mere noun substantive." Among these is the erudite Richard Johnson, who, with so much ability and lost labour, exposed, in his Commentaries, the errors and defects of Lily's Grammar and others. This author adduces several reasons for his opinion; one of which is the following: "Thirdly, it is found to have a Preposition set before it, an other sure sign of a Substantive; as, 'Ille nihil præter loqui, et ipsum maledicè et malignè, didicit.' Liv. l. 45, p. 888. [That is, "He learned nothing but to speak, and that slanderously and maliciously."] 'At si quis sibi beneficium dat, nihil interest inter dare et accipere.' Seneca, de Ben. l. 5, c. 10." [That is, "If any one bestows a benefit on himself, there is no difference between give and take;" [407]—or, "between bestowing and receiving."]—See Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 342. But I deny that a preposition is a "sure sign of a substantive." (See Obs. 2d on the Prepositions, and also Obs. 1st on the List of Prepositions, in the tenth chapter of Etymology.) And if we appeal to philological authorities, to determine whether infinitives are nouns or verbs, there will certainly be found more for the latter name, than the former; that is, more in number, if not in weight; though it must be confessed, that many of the old Latin grammarians did, as Priscian tells us, consider the infinitive a noun, calling it Nomen Verbi, the Name of the Verb.[408] If we appeal to reasons, there are more also of these;—or at least as many, and most of them better: as, 1. That the infinitive is often transitive; 2. That it has tenses; 3. That it is qualified by adverbs, rather than by adjectives; 4. That it is never declined like a noun; 5. That the action or state expressed by it, is not commonly abstract, though it may be so sometimes; 6. That in some languages it is the root from which all other parts of the verb are derived, as it is in English.

OBS. 21.—So far as I know, it has not yet been denied, that to before a participle is a preposition, or that a preposition before a participle governs it; though there are not a few who erroneously suppose that participles, by virtue of such government, are necessarily converted into nouns. Against this latter idea, there are many sufficient reasons; but let them now pass, because they belong not here. I am only going to prove, in this place, that to before the infinitive is just such a word as it is before the participle; and this can be done, call either of them what you will. It is plain, that if the infinitive and the participle are ever equivalent to each other, the same word to before them both must needs be equivalent to itself. Now I imagine there are some examples of each equivalence; as, "When we are habituated to doing [or to do] any thing wrong, we become blinded by it."—Young Christian, p. 326. "The lyre, or harp, was best adapted to accompanying [or to accompany] their declamations."—Music of Nature, p. 336. "The new beginner should be accustomed to giving [or to give] all the reasons for each part of speech."—Nutting's Gram., p. 88. "Which, from infecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt [say, to corrupting] our language."—SWIFT: Blair's Rhet., p. 108. Besides these instances of sameness in the particle, there are some cases of constructional ambiguity, the noun and the verb having the same form, and the to not determining which is meant: as, "He was inclined to sleep."—"It must be a bitter experience, to be more accustomed to hate than to love." Here are double doubts for the discriminators: their "sign of the infinitive" fails, or becomes uncertain; because they do not know it from a preposition. Cannot my opponents see in these examples an argument against the distinction which they attempt to draw between to and to? An other argument as good, is also afforded by the fact, that our ancestors often used the participle after to, in the very same texts in which we have since adopted the infinitive in its stead; as, "And if yee wolen resceyue, he is Elie that is to comynge."—Matt., xi, 14. "Ihesu that delyueride us fro wraththe to comynge."—1 Thes., i, 10. These, and seventeen other examples of the same kind, may be seen in Tooke's Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii. pp. 457 and 458.

OBS. 22.—Dr. James P. Wilson, speaking of the English infinitive, says:—"But if the appellation of mode be denied it, it is then a verbal noun. This is indeed its truest character, because its idea ever represents an object of approach. To supplies the defect of a termination characteristic of the infinitive, precedes it, and marks it either as that, towards which the preceding verb is directed;[409] or it signifies act, and shows the word to import an action. When the infinitive is the expression of an immediate action, which it must be, after the verbs, bid, can, dare, do, feel, hear, let, make, may, must, need, see, shall, and will, the preposition TO is omitted."—Essay on Grammar, p. 129. That the truest character of the infinitive is that of a verbal noun, is not to be conceded, in weak abandonment of all the reasons for a contrary opinion, until it can be shown that the action or being expressed by it, must needs assume a substantive character, in order to be "that towards which the preceding verb is directed." But this character is manifestly not supposable of any of those infinitives which, according to the foregoing quotation, must follow other verbs without the intervention of the preposition to: as, "Bid him come;"—"He can walk." And I see no reason to suppose it, where the relation of the infinitive to an other word is not "immediate" but marked by the preposition, as above described. For example: "And he laboured till the going-down of the sun TO deliver him."—Dan., vi, 14. Here deliver is governed by to, and connected by it to the finite verb laboured; but to tell us, it is to be understood substantively rather than actively, is an assumption as false, as it is needless.

OBS. 23.—To deny to the infinitive the appellation of mood, no more makes it a verbal noun, than does the Doctor's solecism about what "ITS IDEA ever represents." "The infinitive therefore," as Horne Tooke observes, "appears plainly to be what the Stoics called it, the very verb itself, pure and uncompounded."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 286. Not indeed as including the particle to, or as it stands in the English perfect tense, but as it occurs in the simple root. But I cited Dr. Wilson, as above, not so much with a design of animadverting again on this point, as with reference to the import of the particle to; of which he furnishes a twofold explanation, leaving the reader to take which part he will of the contradiction. He at first conceives it to convey in general the idea of "towards," and to mark the infinitive as a term "towards which" something else "is directed." If this interpretation is the true one, it is plain that to before a verb is no other than the common preposition to; and this idea is confirmed by its ancient usage, and by all that is certainly known of its derivation. But if we take the second solution, and say, "it signifies act," we make it not a preposition, but either a noun or a verb; and then the question arises, Which of these is it? Besides, what sense can there be, in supposing to go to mean act go, or to be equivalent to do go.[410]

OBS. 24.—Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite verb, yet it may be connected to almost all the other parts of speech, or even to an other infinitive. The preposition to being its only and almost universal index, we seldom find any other preposition put before this; unless the word about, in such a situation, is a preposition, as I incline to think it is.[411] Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by for as well as to; as, "I went up to Jerusalem for to worship."—Acts, xxiv, 11. "What went ye out for to see?"—Luke, vii, 26. "And stood up for to read."—Luke, iv, 16. Here modern usage rejects the former preposition: the idiom is left to the uneducated. But it seems practicable to subjoin the infinitive to every one of the ten parts of speech, except the article: as,

1. To a noun; as, "If there is any precept to obtain felicity."—Hawkesworth. "It is high time to awake out of sleep."—Rom., xiii, 11. "To flee from the wrath to come."—Matt., iii, 7.

2. To an adjective; as, "He seemed desirous to speak, yet unwilling to offend."—Hawkesworth. "He who is the slowest to promise, is the quickest to perform."—Art of Thinking, p. 35.

3. To a pronoun; as, "I discovered him to be a scholar."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 166. "Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Cæsar?"—Luke, xx, 22. "Let me desire you to reflect impartially."—BLAIR: Murray's Eng. Reader, p. 77. "Whom hast thou then or what t' accuse?"—Milton, P. L., iv, 67.

4. To a finite verb; as, "Then Peter began to rebuke him."—Matt., xvi, 22. "The Son of man is come to seek and to save that which was lost."—Luke, xix, 10.

5. To an other infinitive; as, "To go to enter into Egypt."—Jer., xli, 17. "We are not often willing to wait to consider."—J. Abbott. "For what had he to do to chide at me?"—Shak.

6. To a participle; as, "Still threatening to devour me."—Milton. "Or as a thief bent to unhoard the cash of some rich burgher."—Id.

7. To an adverb; as, "She is old enough to go to school."—"I know not how to act."—Nutting's Gram., p. 106. "Tell me when to come, and where to meet you."—"He hath not where to lay his head."

8. To a conjunction; as, "He knows better than to trust you."—"It was so hot as to melt these ornaments."—"Many who praise virtue, do no more than praise it."—Dr. Johnson.

9. To a preposition; as, "I was about to write."—Rev., x, 4. "Not for to hide it in a hedge."—Burns's Poems, p. 42. "Amatum iri, To be about to be loved."—Adam's Gram., p. 95.[412]

10. To an interjection; as, "O to forget her!"—Young's Night Thoughts.

OBS. 25.—The infinitive is the mere verb, without affirmation, without person or number, and therefore without the agreement peculiar to a finite verb. (See Obs. 8th on Rule 2d.) But, in most instances, it is not without limitation of the being, action, or passion, to some particular person or persons, thing or things, that are said, supposed, or denied, to be, to act, or to be acted upon. Whenever it is not thus limited, it is taken abstractly, and has some resemblance to a noun: because it then suggests the being, action, or passion alone: though, even then, the active infinitive may still govern the objective case; and it may also be easy to imagine to whom or to what the being, action, or passion, naturally pertains. The uses of the infinitive are so many and various, that it is no easy matter to classify them accurately. The following are unquestionably the chief of the things for which it may stand:

1. For the supplement to an other verb, to complete the sense; as, "Loose him, and let him go."—John, xi, 44. "They that go to seek mixed wine."—Prov., xxiii, 30. "His hands refuse to labour."—Ib., xxi, 25. "If you choose to have those terms."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 374. "How our old translators first struggled to express this."—Ib., ii, 456. "To any one who will please to examine our language."—Ib., ii, 444. "They are forced to give up at last."—Ib., ii, 375. "Which ought to be done."—Ib., ii, 451. "Which came to pass."—Acts, xi, 28. "I dare engage to make it out."—Swift.

2. For the purpose, or end, of that to which it is added; as, "Each has employed his time and pains to establish a criterion."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 374. "I shall not stop now, to assist in their elucidation."—Ib., ii, 75. "Our purposes are not endowed with words to make them known."—Ib., ii, 74. [A] "TOOL is some instrument taken up to work with."—Ib., ii, 145. "Labour not to be rich."—Prov., xxiii, 4. "I flee unto thee to hide me."—Ps., cxliii, 9. "Evil shall hunt the violent man to overthrow him."—Ib., cxl, 11.

3. For the object of an affection or passion; as, "He loves to ride."—"I desire to hear her speak again."—Shale. "If we wish to avoid important error."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 3. "Who rejoice to do evil."—Prov., ii, 14. "All agreeing in earnestness to see him."—Shak. "Our curiosity is raised to know what lies beyond."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 335.

4. For the cause of an affection or passion; as, "I rejoice to hear it."—"By which I hope to have laid a foundation," &c.—Blair's Rhet., p. 34. "For he made me mad, to see him shine so brisk, and smell so sweet."—Beauties of Shak., p. 118. "Thou didst eat strange flesh, which some did die to look on."—Ib., p. 182. "They grieved to see their best allies at variance."—Rev. W. Allen's Gram., p. 165.

5. For the subject of a proposition, or the chief term in such subject; as, "To steal is sinful."—"To do justice and judgement, is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice."—Prov., xxi, 3. "To do RIGHT, is, to do that which is ordered to be done."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 7. "To go to law to plague a neighbour, has in it more of malice, than of love to justice."—Seattle's Mor. Sci., i, 177.

6. For the predicate of a proposition, or the chief term in such predicate; as, "To enjoy is to obey."—Pope. "The property of rain is to wet, and fire, to burn."—Beauties of Shak., p. 15. "To die is to be banished from myself."—Ib., p. 82. "The best way is, to slander Valentine."—Ib., p. 83. "The highway of the upright is to depart from evil."—Prov., xvi, 17.

7. For a coming event, or what will be; as, "A mutilated structure soon to fall."—Cowper. "He being dead, and I speedily to follow him."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 111. "She shall rejoice in time to come."—Prov., xxxi, 25. "Things present, or things to come."—1 Cor., iii, 22.

8. For a necessary event, or what ought to be; as, "It is to be remembered."—"It is never to be forgotten."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 2. "An oversight much to be deplored."—Ib., ii, 460. "The sign is not to be used by itself, or to stand alone; but is to be joined to some other term."—Ib., ii, 372. "The Lord's name is to be praised."—Ps., cxiii, 3.

9. For what is previously suggested by another word; as, "I have faith to believe."—"The glossarist did well here not to yield to his inclination."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 329. "It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord."—Ps., xcii, 1. "It is as sport to a fool to do mischief."—Prov., x, 23. "They have the gift to know it."—Shak. "We have no remaining occupation but to take care of the public."—Art of Thinking, p. 52.

10. For a term of comparison or measure; as, "He was so much affected as to weep."—"Who could do no less than furnish him."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 408. "I shall venture no farther than to explain the nature and convenience of these abbreviations."—Ib., ii, 439. "I have already said enough to show what sort of operation that is."—Ib., ii, 358.

OBS. 26.—After dismissing all the examples which may fairly be referred to one or other of the ten heads above enumerated, an observant reader may yet find other uses of the infinitive, and those so dissimilar that they can hardly be reduced to any one head or rule; except that all are governed by the preposition to, which points towards or to the verb; as, "A great altar to see to."—Joshua, xxii, 10. "[Greek: Bomon megan tou idein]."—Septuagint. That is, "An altar great to behold." "Altare infinitæ magnitudinis."—Vulgate. "Un fort grand autel."—French Bible. "Easy to be entreated."—Jos., iii, 17. "There was none to help."—Ps., cvii, 12. "He had rained down manna upon them to eat."—Ps., lxxviii, 24. "Remember his commandments to do them."—Ps., viii, 18. "Preserve thou those that are appointed to die."—Ps., lxxix, 11. "As coals to burning coals, and as wood to fire; so is a contentious man to kindle strife."—Prov., xxvi, 21. "These are far beyond the reach and power of any kings to do away."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 126. "I know not indeed what to do with those words."—Ib., ii, 441. "They will be as little able to justify their innovation."—Ib., ii, 448. "I leave you to compare them."—Ib., ii, 458. "There is no occasion to attribute it."—Ib., ii, 375. "There is no day for me to look upon."—Beauties of Shak., p. 82. "Having no external thing to lose."—Ib., p. 100. "I'll never be a gosling to obey instinct."—Ib., p. 200. "Whereto serves mercy, but to confront the visage of offence?"—Ib., p. 233. "If things do not go to suit him."—Liberator, ix, 182. "And, to be plain, I think there is not half a kiss to choose, who loves an other best."—Shak., p. 91. "But to return to R. Johnson's instance of good man."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 370. Our common Bibles have this text: "And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon Abimelech's head, and all to break his skull."—Judges, ix, 53. Perhaps the interpretation of this may be, "and so as completely to break his skull." The octavo edition stereotyped by "the Bible Association of Friends in America," has it, "and all-to brake his skull." This, most probably, was supposed by the editors to mean, "and completely broke his skull;" but all-to is no proper compound word, and therefore the change is a perversion. The Septuagint, the Vulgate, and the common French version, all accord with the simple indicative construction, "and broke his skull."

OBS. 27.—According to Lindley Murray, "The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on [say of] the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the potential mood: as, 'To confess the truth, I was in fault;' 'To begin with the first;' 'To proceed;' 'To conclude;' that is, 'That I may confess,' &c."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 184; Ingersoll's Gram., p. 244. Some other compilers have adopted the same doctrine. But on what ground the substitution of one mood for the other is imagined, I see not. The reader will observe that this potential mood is here just as much "made absolute," as is the infinitive; for there is nothing expressed to which the conjunction that connects the one phrase, or the preposition to the other. But possibly, in either case, there may be an ellipsis of some antecedent term; and surely, if we imagine the construction to be complete without any such term, we make the conjunction the more anomalous word of the two. Confession of the truth, is here the aim of speaking, but not of what is spoken. The whole sentence may be, "In order to confess the truth, I admit that I was in fault." Or, "In order that I may confess the truth, I admit that I was in fault." I do not deny, that the infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is a part, is sometimes put absolute; for, if it is not so in any of the foregoing examples, it appears to be so in the following: "For every object has several faces, so to speak, by which it may be presented to us."—Blair's Rhet., p. 41. "To declare a thing shall be, long before it is in being, and then to bring about the accomplishment of that very thing, according to the same declaration; this, or nothing, is the work of God."—Justin Martyr.

"To be, or not to be;—that is the question."—Shakspeare.

"To die;—to sleep;—To sleep! perchance, to dream!"—Id., Hamlet.

OBS. 28.—The infinitive usually follows the word on which it depends, or to which the particle to connects it; but this order is sometimes reversed: as, "To beg I am ashamed."—Luke, xvi, 3. "To keep them no longer in suspense, [I say plainly,] Sir Roger de Coverly is dead."—Addison. "To suffer, as to do, Our strength is equal."—Milton.

"To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand."—Thomson.

OBS. 29.—Though, in respect to its syntax, the infinitive is oftener connected with a verb, a participle, or an adjective, than with a noun or a pronoun, it should never be so placed that the reader will be liable to mistake the person to whom, or the thing to which, the being, action, or passion, pertains. Examples of error: "This system will require a long time to be executed as it should be."—Journal of N. Y. Lit. Convention, 1830, p. 91. It is not the time, that is to be executed; therefore say, "This system, to be executed as it should be, will require a long time." "He spoke in a manner distinct enough to be heard by the whole assembly."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 192. This implies that the orator's manner was heard! But the grammarian interprets his own meaning, by the following alternative: "Or—He spoke distinctly enough to be heard by the whole assembly."—Ibid. This suggests that the man himself was heard. "When they hit upon a figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it, and frequently continue it so long, as to become tedious and intricate."—Murray's Gram., p. 341. Is it the authors, or their figure, that becomes tedious and intricate? If the latter, strike out, "so long, as to become," and say, "till it becomes." "Facts are always of the greatest consequence to be remembered during the course of the pleading."—Blair's Rhet., p. 272. The rhetorician here meant: "The facts stated in an argument, are always those parts of it, which it is most important that the hearers should be made to remember."

OBS. 30.—According to some grammarians, "The Infinitive of the verb to be, is often understood; as, 'I considered it [to be] necessary to send the dispatches.'"—W. Allen's Gram., p. 166. In this example, as in thousands more, of various forms, the verb to be may be inserted without affecting the sense; but I doubt the necessity of supposing an ellipsis in such sentences. The adjective or participle that follows, always relates to the preceding objective; and if a noun is used, it is but an other objective in apposition with the former: as, "I considered it an imposition." The verb to be, with the perfect participle, forms the passive infinitive; and the supposition of such an ellipsis, extensively affects one's mode of parsing. Thus, "He considered himself insulted," "I will suppose the work accomplished," and many similar sentences, might be supposed to contain passive infinitives. Allen says, "In the following construction, the words in italics are (elliptically) passive infinitives; I saw the bird caught, and the hare killed; we heard the letters read."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 168. Dr. Priestley observes, "There is a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the participle preterite, as the same word may express a thing either doing, or done; as, I went to see the child dressed."—Priestley's Gram., p. 125. If the Doctor's participle is ambiguous, I imagine that Allen's infinitives are just as much so. "The participle which we denominate past, often means an action whilst performing: thus, I saw the battle fought, and the standard lowered."—Wilson's Essay, p. 158. Sometimes, especially in familiar conversation, an infinitive verb is suppressed, and the sign of it retained; as, "They might have aided us; they ought to" [have aided us].—Herald of Freedom. "We have tried to like it, but it's hard to."—Lynn News.

OBS. 31.—After the verb make, some writers insert the verb be, and suppress the preposition to; as, "He must make every syllable, and even every letter, in the word which he pronounces, be heard distinctly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 329; Murray's E. Reader, p. 9. "You must make yourself be heard with pleasure and attention."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 84. "To make himself be heard by all."—Blair's Rhet., p. 328. "To make ourselves be heard by one."—Ibid. "Clear enough to make me be understood."—Locke, on Ed., p. 198. In my opinion, it would be better, either to insert the to, or to use the participle only; as, "The information which he possessed, made his company to be courted."—Dr. M'Rie. "Which will both show the importance of this rule, and make the application of it to be understood."—Blair's Rhet., p. 103. Or, as in these brief forms: "To make himself heard by all."—"Clear enough to make me understood."

OBS. 32.—In those languages in which the infinitive is distinguished as such by its termination, this part of the verb may be used alone as the subject of a finite verb; but in English it is always necessary to retain the sign to before an abstract infinitive, because there is nothing else to distinguish the verb from a noun. Here we may see a difference between our language and the French, although it has been shown, that in their government of the infinitive they are in some degree analogous:—"HAÏR est un tourment; AIMER est un besoin de l'âme."—M. de Ségur. "To hate is a torment; to love is a requisite of the soul." If from this any will argue that to is not here a preposition, the same argument will be as good, to prove that for is not a preposition when it governs the objective case; because that also may be used without any antecedent term of relation: as, "They are by no means points of equal importance, for me to be deprived of your affections, and for him to be defeated in his prosecution."—Anon., in W. Allen's Gram., p. 166. I said, the sign to must always be put before an abstract infinitive: but possibly a repetition of this sign may not always be necessary, when several such infinitives occur in the same construction: as, "But, to fill a heart with joy, restore content to the afflicted, or relieve the necessitous, these fall not within the reach of their five senses."—Art of Thinking, p. 66. It may be too much to affirm, that this is positively ungrammatical; yet it would be as well or better, to express it thus: "But to relieve the necessitous, to restore content to the afflicted, and to fill a heart with joy, these full not within the reach of their five senses."

OBS. 33.—In the use of the English infinitive, as well as of the participle in ing, the distinction of voice is often disregarded; the active form being used in what, with respect to the noun before it, is a passive sense: as, "There's no time to waste."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 82. "You are to blame."—Ib. "The humming-bird is delightful to look upon."—Ib. "What pain it was to drown."—Shak. "The thing's to do."—Id. "When deed of danger was to do."—Scott. "The evil I bring upon myself, is the hardest to bear."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 27. "Pride is worse to bear than cruelty."—Ib., p. 37. These are in fact active verbs, and not passive. We may suggest agents for them, if we please; as, "There is no time for us to waste." That the simple participle in ing may be used passively, has been proved elsewhere. It seems sometimes to have no distinction of voice; as, "What is worth doing, is worth doing well."—Com. Maxim. This is certainly much more agreeable, than to say, "What is worth being done, is worth being done well." In respect to the voice of the infinitive, and of this participle, many of our grammarians are obviously hypercritical. For example: "The active voice should not be used for the passive; as, I have work to do: a house to sell, to let, instead of to be done, to be sold, to be let."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 220. "Active verbs are often used improperly with a passive signification, as, 'the house is building, lodgings to let, he has a house to sell, nothing is wanting;' in stead of 'the house is being built, lodgings to be lett, he has a house to be sold, nothing is wanted.'"—Blair's Gram., p. 64. In punctuation, orthography, and the use of capitals, here are more errors than it is worth while to particularize. With regard to such phraseology as, "The house is being built," see, in Part II, sundry Observations on the Compound Form of Conjugation. To say, "I have work to do,"—"He has a house to sell,"—or, "We have lodgings to let," is just as good English, as to say, "I have meat to eat."—John, iv, 32. And who, but some sciolist in grammar, would, in all such instances, prefer the passive voice?

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION. FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVIII.

INFINITIVES DEMANDING THE PARTICLE TO.

"William, please hand me that pencil."—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 12.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the infinitive verb hand is not preceded by the preposition to. But, according to Rule 18th, "The preposition to governs the infinitive mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb." Therefore, to should be here inserted; thus, "William, please to hand me that pencil."]

"Please insert points so as to make sense."—Davis's Gram., p. 123. "I have known Lords abbreviate almost the half of their words."—Cobbett's English Gram., ¶ 153. "We shall find the practice perfectly accord with the theory."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 23. "But it would tend to obscure, rather than elucidate the subject."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 95. "Please divide it for them as it should be."—Willett's Arith., p. 193. "So as neither to embarrass, nor weaken the sentence."—Blair's Rhet., p. 116; Murray's Gram., 322. "Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare,[413] and hear his heavenly discourse."—SHERLOCK: Blair's Rhet., p. 157; Murray's Gram., 347. "That we need not be surprised to find this hold in eloquence."—Blair's Rhet., p. 174. "Where he has no occasion either to divide or explain."—Ib., p. 305. "And they will find their pupils improve by hasty and pleasant steps."—Russell's Gram., Pref., p. 4. "The teacher however will please observe," &c.—Infant School Gram., p. 8. "Please attend to a few rules in what is called syntax."—Ib., p. 128. "They may dispense with the laws to favor their friends, or secure their office."—Webster's Essays, p. 39. "To take back a gift, or break a contract, is a wanton abuse."—Ib., p. 41. "The legislature has nothing to do, but let it bear its own price."—Ib., p. 315. "He is not to form, but copy characters."—Rambler, No. 122. "I have known a woman make use of a shoeing-horn."—Spect., No. 536. "Finding this experiment answer, in every respect, their wishes."—Sandford and Merton, p. 51. "In fine let him cause his argument conclude in the term of the question."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 443.

   "That he permitted not the winds of heaven
    Visit her face too roughly."—Shakspeare, Hamlet.

RULE XIX.—INFINITIVES. The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition to: as, "If he bade thee depart, how darest thou stay?"—"I dare not let my mind be idle as I walk in the streets."—Cotton Mather.

   "Thy Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep,
    Shall neither hear thee sigh, nor see thee weep."
        —Pope's Homer.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIX.

OBS. 1.—Respecting the syntax of the infinitive mood when the particle to is not expressed before it, our grammarians are almost as much at variance, as I have shown them to be, when they find the particle employed. Concerning verbs governed by verbs, Lindley Murray, and some others, are the most clear and positive, where their doctrine is the most obviously wrong; and, where they might have affirmed with truth, that the former verb governs the latter, they only tell us that "the preposition TO is sometimes properly omitted,"—or that such and such verbs "have commonly other verbs following them without the sign TO."—Murray's Gram., p. 183; Alger's, 63; W. Allen's, 167, and others. If these authors meant, that the preposition to is omitted by ellipsis, they ought to have said so. Then the many admirers and remodellers of Murray's Grammar might at least have understood him alike. Then, too, any proper definition of ellipsis must have proved both them and him to be clearly wrong about this construction also. If the word to is really "understood," whenever it is omitted after bid, dare, feel, &c., as some authors, affirm, then is it here the governing word, if anywhere; and this nineteenth rule, however common, is useless to the parser.[414] Then, too, does no English verb ever govern the infinitive without governing also a preposition, "expressed or understood." Whatever is omitted by ellipsis, and truly "understood," really belongs to the grammatical construction; and therefore, if inserted, it cannot be actually improper, though it may be unnecessary. But all our grammarians admit, that to before the infinitive is sometimes "superfluous and improper."—Murray's Gram., p. 183. I imagine, there cannot be any proper ellipsis of to before the infinitive, except in some forms of comparison; because, wherever else it is necessary, either to the sense or to the construction, it ought to be inserted. And wherever the to is rightly used, it is properly the governing word; but where it cannot be inserted without impropriety, it is absurd to say, that it is "understood." The infinitive that is put after such a verb or participle as excludes the preposition to, is governed by this verb or participle, if it is governed by any thing: as,

   "To make them do, undo, eat, drink, stand, move,
    Talk, think, and feel, exactly as he chose."—Pollok, p. 69.

OBS. 2.—Ingersoll, who converted Murray's Grammar into "Conversations," says, "I will just remark to you that the verbs in the infinitive mood, that follow make, need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, and their participles, are always GOVERNED by them."—Conv. on Eng. Gram., p. 120. Kirkham, who pretended to turn the same book into "Familiar Lectures," says, "To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood before the verb; as, 'Let me proceed;' that is, Let me to proceed."—Gram. in Fam. Lect., p. 137. The lecturer, however, does not suppose the infinitive to be here governed by the preposition to, or the verb let, but rather by the pronoun me. For, in an other place, he avers, that the infinitive may be governed by a noun or a pronoun; as, "Let him do it."—Ib., p. 187. Now if the government of the infinitive is to be referred to the objective noun or pronoun that intervenes, none of those verbs that take the infinitive after them without the preposition, will usually be found to govern it, except dare and need; and if need, in such a case, is an auxiliary, no government pertains to that. R. C. Smith, an other modifier of Murray, having the same false notion of ellipsis, says, "To, the usual sign of this mood, is sometimes understood; as, 'Let me go,' instead of, 'Let me to go.'"—Smith's New Gram., p. 65. According to Murray, whom these men profess to follow, let, in all these examples, is an auxiliary, and the verb that follows it, is not in the infinitive mood, but in the imperative. So they severally contradict their oracle, and all are wrong, both he and they! The disciples pretend to correct their master, by supposing "Let me to go," and "Let me to proceed," good English!

OBS. 3.—It is often impossible to say by what the infinitive is governed, according to the instructions of Murray, or according to any author who does not parse it as I do. Nutting says, "The infinitive mode sometimes follows the comparative conjunctions, as, than, and how, WITHOUT GOVERNMENT."—Practical Gram., p. 106. Murray's uncertainty[415] may have led to some part of this notion, but the idea that how is a "comparative conjunction," is a blunder entirely new. Kirkham is so puzzled by "the language of that eminent philologist," that he bolts outright from the course of his guide, and runs he knows not whither; feigning that other able writers have well contended, "that this mood IS NOT GOVERNED by any particular word." Accordingly he leaves his pupils at liberty to "reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood;" and even frames a rule which refers it always "To some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 188. Murray teaches that the object of the active verb sometimes governs the infinitive that follows it: as, "They have a desire to improve."—Octavo Gram., p. 184. To what extent, in practice, he would carry this doctrine, nobody can tell; probably to every sentence in which this object is the antecedent term to the preposition to, and perhaps further: as, "I have a house to sell"—Nutting's Gram., p. 106. "I feel a desire to excel." "I felt my heart within me die."—Merrick.

OBS. 4.—Nutting supposes that the objective case before the infinitive always governs it wherever it denotes the agent of the infinitive action; as, "He commands me to write a letter."—Practical Gram., p. 96. Nixon, on the contrary, contends, that the finite verb, in such a sentence, can govern only one object, and that this object is the infinitive. "The objective case preceding it," he says, "is the subject or agent of that infinitive, and not governed by the preceding verb." His example is, "Let them go."—English Parser, p. 97. "In the examples, 'He is endeavouring to persuade them to learn,'—'It is pleasant to see the sun,'—the pronoun them, the adjective pleasant, and the participle endeavouring, I consider as governing the following verb in the infinitive mode."—Cooper's Plain and Pract. Gram., p. 144. "Some erroneously say that pronouns govern the infinitive mode in such examples as this: 'I expected him to be present.' We will change the expression: 'He was expected to be present.' All will admit that to be is governed by was expected. The same verb that governs it in the passive voice, governs it in the active."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 144. So do our professed grammarians differ about the government of the infinitive, even in the most common constructions of it! Often, however, it makes but little difference in regard to the sense, which of the two words is considered the governing or antecedent term; but where the preposition is excluded, the construction seems to imply some immediate influence of the finite verb upon the infinitive.

OBS. 5.—The extent of this influence, or of such government, has never yet been clearly determined. "This irregularity," says Murray, "extends only to active or neuter verbs: ['active and neuter verbs,' says Fisk:] for all the verbs above mentioned, when made passive, require the preposition to before the following verb: as, 'He was seen to go;' 'He was heard to speak;' 'They were bidden to be upon their guard.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 183. Fisk adds with no great accuracy "In the past and future tenses of the active voice also, these verbs generally require the sign to, to be prefixed to the following verbs; as, 'You have dared to proceed without authority;' 'They will not dare to attack you.'"—Gram. Simplified, p. 125. What these gentlemen here call "neuter verbs," are only the two words dare and need, which are, in most cases, active, though not always transitive; unless the infinitive itself can make them so—an inconsistent doctrine of theirs which I have elsewhere refuted. (See Obs. 3rd on Rule 5th.) These two verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition, only when they are intransitive; while all the rest seem to have this power, only when they are transitive. If there are any exceptions, they shall presently be considered. A more particular examination of the construction proper for the infinitive after each of these eight verbs, seems necessary for a right understanding of the rule.

OBS. 6.—Of the verb BID. This verb, in any of its tenses, when it commands an action, usually governs an object and also an infinitive, which come together; as, "Thou bidst the world adore."—Thomson. "If the prophet had bid thee do some great thing."—2 Kings, v, 13. But when it means, to promise or offer, the infinitive that follows, must be introduced by the preposition to; as, "He bids fair to excel them all"—"Perhaps no person under heaven bids more unlikely to be saved."—Brown's Divinity, p. vii. "And each bade high to win him."—GRANVILLE: Joh. Dict. After the compound forbid, the preposition is also necessary; as, "Where honeysuckles forbid the sun to enter."—Beauties of Shak.. p. 57. In poetry, if the measure happens to require it, the word to is sometimes allowed after the simple verb bid, denoting a command; as,

"Bid me to strike my dearest brother dead, To bring my aged father's hoary head."—Rowe's Lucan, B. i, l. 677.

OBS. 7.—Of the verb DARE. This verb, when used intransitively, and its irregular preterit durst, which is never transitive, usually take the infinitive after them without to; as, "I dare do all that may become a man: Who dares do more, is none."—Shakspeare. "If he durst steal any thing adventurously."—Id. "Who durst defy th' Omnipotent to arms."—Milton. "Like one who durst his destiny control."—Dryden. In these examples, the former verbs have some resemblance to auxiliaries, and the insertion of the preposition to would be improper. But when we take away this resemblance, by giving dare or dared, an objective case, the preposition is requisite before the infinitive; as, "Time! I dare thee to discover Such a youth or such a lover."—Dryden. "He dares me to enter the lists."—Fisk's Gram., p. 125. So when dare itself is in the infinitive mood, or is put after an auxiliary, the preposition is not improper; as, "And let a private man dare to say that it will."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 147. "Would its compiler dare to affront the Deity?"—West's Letters, p. 151. "What power so great, to dare to disobey?"—Pope's Homer. "Some would even dare to die."—Bible. "What would dare to molest him?"—Dr. Johnson. "Do you dare to prosecute such a creature as Vaughan?"—Junius, Let. xxxiii. Perhaps these examples might be considered good English, either with or without the to; but the last one would be still better thus: "Dare you prosecute such a creature as Vaughan?" Dr. Priestley thinks the following sentence would have been better with the preposition inserted: "Who have dared defy the worst."—HARRIS: Priestley's Gram., p. 132. To is sometimes used after the simple verb, in the present tense; as, "Those whose words no one dares to repeat."—Opie, on Lying, p. 147.

   "Dare I to leave of humble prose the shore?"
        —Young, p. 377.

   "Against heaven's endless mercies pour'd, how dar'st thou to rebel?"
        —Id., p. 380.

   "The man who dares to be a wretch, deserves still greater pain."
        —Id., p. 381.

OBS. 8.—Of the verb FEEL. This verb, in any of its tenses, may govern the infinitive without the sign to; but it does this, only when it is used transitively, and that in regard to a bodily perception: as, "I feel it move."—"I felt something sting me." If we speak of feeling any mental affection, or if we use the verb intransitively, the infinitive that follows, requires the preposition; as, "I feel it to be my duty."—"I felt ashamed to ask."—"I feel afraid to go alone."—"I felt about, to find the door." One may say of what is painful to the body, "I feel it to be severe."

OBS. 9.—Of the verb HEAR. This verb is often intransitive, but it is usually followed by an objective case when it governs the infinitive; as. "To hear a bird sing."—Webster. "You have never heard me say so." For this reason, I am inclined to think that those sentences in which it appears to govern the infinitive alone, are elliptical; as, "I have heard tell of such things."—"And I have heard say of thee, that thou canst understand a dream to interpret it."—Gen, xli, 15. Such examples may be the same as. "I have heard people tell,"—"I have heard men say," &c.

OBS. 10.—Of the verb LET. By many grammarians this verb has been erroneously called an auxiliary of the optative mood; or, as Dr. Johnson terms it, "a sign of the optative mood:" though none deny, that it is sometimes also a principal verb. It is, in fact, always a principal verb; because, as we now apply it, it is always transitive. It commonly governs an objective noun or pronoun, and also an infinitive without the sign to; as, "Rise up, let us go."—Mark. "Thou shalt let it rest."—Exodus. But sometimes the infinitive coalesces with it more nearly than the objective, so that the latter is placed after both verbs; as, "The solution lets go the mercury."—Newton. "One lets slip out of his account a good part of that duration."—Locke. "Back! on your lives; let be, said he, my prey."—Dryden. The phrase, let go, is sometimes spoken for, let go your hold; and let be, for let him be, let it be, &c. In such instances, therefore, the verb let is not really intransitive. This verb, even in the passive form, may have the infinitive after it without the preposition to; as, "Nothing is let slip."—Walker's English Particles, p. 165. "They were let go in peace."—Acts, xv, 33. "The stage was never empty, nor the curtain let fall."—Blair's Rhet., p. 459. "The pye's question was wisely let fall without a reply."—L'Estrange. With respect to other passives, Murray and Fisk appear to be right; and sometimes the preposition is used after this one: as, "There's a letter for you, sir, if your name be Horatio, as I am let to know it is."—Shakspeare. Let, when used intransitively, required the preposition to before the following infinitive; as, "He would not let [i. e. forbear] to counsel the king."—Bacon. But this use of let is now obsolete.

OBS. 11.—Of the verb MAKE. This verb, like most of the others, never immediately governs an infinitive, unless it also governs a noun or a pronoun which is the immediate subject of such infinitive; as, "You make me blush."—"This only made the youngster laugh"—Webster's Spelling-Book. "Which soon made the young chap hasten down."—Ib. But in very many instances it is quite proper to insert the preposition where this verb is transitive; as, "He maketh both the deaf to hear, and the dumb to speak."—Mark, vii, 37. "He makes the excellency of a sentence to consist in four things."—Blair's Rhet., p. 122; Jamieson's, 124. "It is this that makes the observance of the dramatic unities to be of consequence."—Blair's Rhet., p. 464. "In making some tenses of the English verb to consist of principal and auxiliary."—Murray's Gram., p. 76. "When make is intransitive, it has some qualifying word after it, besides the sign of the infinitive; as,—I think he will make out to pay his debts." Formerly, the preposition to was almost always inserted to govern the infinitive after make or made; as, "Lest I make my brother to offend."—1 Cor., viii, 13. "He made many to fall."—Jer., xlvi, 16. Yet, in the following text, it is omitted, even where the verb is meant to be passive: "And it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a man."—Dan., vii, 4. This construction is improper, and not free from ambiguity; because stand may be a noun, and made, an active verb governing it. There may also be uncertainty in the meaning, where the insertion of the preposition leaves none in the construction; for made may signify either created or compelled, and the infinitive after it, may denote either the purpose of creation, or the effect of any temporary compulsion: as, "We are made to be serviceable to others."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 167. "Man was made to mourn."—Burns. "Taste was never made to cater for vanity."—Blair. The primitive word make seldom, if ever, produces a construction that is thus equivocal. The infinitive following it without to, always denotes the effect of the making, and not the purpose of the maker; as, "He made his son Skjöld be received there as king."—North. Antiq., p. 81. But the same meaning may be conveyed when the to is used; as,

   "The fear of God is freedom, joy, and peace;
    And makes all ills that vex us here to cease."—Waller, p. 56.

OBS. 12.—Of the verb NEED. I incline to think, that the word need, whenever it is rightly followed by the infinitive without to, is, in reality an auxiliary of the potential mood; and that, like may, can, and must, it may properly be used, in both the present and the perfect tense, without personal inflection: as, "He need not go, He need not have gone;" where, if need is a principal verb, and governs the infinitive without to, the expressions must be, "He needs not go, He needed not go, or, He has not needed go." But none of these three forms is agreeable; and the last two are never used. Wherefore, in stead of placing in my code of false syntax the numerous examples of the former kind, with which the style of our grammarians and critics has furnished me, I have exhibited many of them, in contrast with others, in the eighth and ninth observations on the Conjugation of Verbs; in which observations, the reader may see what reasons there are for supposing the word need to be sometimes an auxiliary and sometimes a principal verb. Because no other author has yet intentionally recognized the propriety of this distinction, I have gone no farther than to show on what grounds, and with what authority from usage, it might be acknowledged. If we adopt this distinction, perhaps it will be found that the regular or principal verb need always requires, or, at least, always admits, the preposition to before the following infinitive; as, "They need not to be specially indicated."—Adams's Rhet., i, 302. "We need only to remark."—Ib., ii, 224. "A young man needed only to ask himself," &c.—Ib., i, 117. "Nor is it conceivable to me, that the lightning of a Demosthenes could need to be sped upon the wings of a semiquaver."—Ib., ii, 226. "But these people need to be informed."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 220. "No man needed less to be informed."—Ib., p. 175. "We need only to mention the difficulty that arises."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 362. "Can there need to be argument to prove so plain a point?"—Graham's Lect. "Moral instruction needs to have a more prominent place."—Dr. Weeks. "Pride, ambition, and selfishness, need to be restrained."—Id. "Articles are sometimes omitted, where they need to be used."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 197. "Whose power needs not to be dreaded."—Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 93. "A workman that needeth not to be ashamed."—2 Tim., ii, 15. "The small boys may have needed to be managed according to the school system."—T. D. Woolsey. "The difficulty of making variety consistent, needs not to disturb him."—Rambler, No. 122. "A more cogent proof needs not to be introduced."—Wright's Gram., p. 66. "No person needs to be informed, that you is used in addressing a single person."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 19. "I hope I need not to advise you further."—Shak., All's Well.

   "Nor me, nor other god, thou needst to fear,
    For thou to all the heavenly host art dear."—Congreve.

OBS. 13.—If need is ever an auxiliary, the essential difference between an auxiliary and a principal verb, will very well account for the otherwise puzzling fact, that good writers sometimes inflect this verb, and sometimes do not; and that they sometimes use to after it, and sometimes do not. Nor do I see in what other way a grammarian can treat it, without condemning as bad English a great number of very common phrases which he cannot change for the better. On this principle, such examples as, "He need not proceed," and "He needs not to proceed," may be perfectly right in either form; though Murray, Crombie,[416] Fisk, Ingersoll, Smith, C. Adams, and many others, pronounce both these forms to be wrong; and unanimously, (though contrary to what is perhaps the best usage,) prefer, "He needs not proceed."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 180.

OBS. 14.—On questions of grammar, the practice of authors ought to be of more weight, than the dogmatism of grammarians; but it is often difficult to decide well by either; because errors and contradictions abound in both. For example: Dr. Blair says, (in speaking of the persons represented by I and thou,) "Their sex needs not be marked."—Rhet., p. 79. Jamieson abridges the work, and says, "needs not to be marked."—Gram. of Rhet., p. 28. Dr. Lowth also says, "needs not be marked."—Gram., p. 21. Churchill enlarges the work, and says, "needs not to be marked."—New Gram., p. 72. Lindley Murray copies Lowth, and says, "needs not be marked."—Gram., 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 39; 23d Ed., p. 51; and perhaps all other editions. He afterwards enlarges his own work, and says, "needs not to be marked."—Octavo Gram., p. 51. But, according to Greenleaf they all express the idea ungrammatically; the only true form being, "Their sex need not be marked." See Gram. Simplified, p. 48. In the two places in which the etymology and the syntax of this verb are examined, I have cited from proper sources more than twenty examples in which to is used after it, and more than twenty others in which the verb is not inflected in the third person singular. In the latter, need is treated as an auxiliary; in the former, it is a principal verb, of the regular construction. If the principal verb need can also govern the infinitive without to, as all our grammarians have supposed, then there is a third form which is unobjectionable, and my pupils may take their choice of the three. But still there is a fourth form which nobody approves, though the hands of some great men have furnished us with examples of it: as, "A figure of thought need not to detort the words from their literal sense."—J. Q. Adams's Lectures, Vol. ii, p. 254. "Which a man need only to appeal to his own feelings immediately to evince."—Clarkson's Prize-Essay on Slavery, p. 106.

OBS. 15.—Webster and Greenleaf seem inclined to justify the use of dare, as well as of need, for the third person singular. Their doctrine is this: "In popular practice it is used in the third person, without the personal termination. Thus, instead of saying, 'He dares not do it;' WE generally say, 'He dare not do it.' In like manner, need, when an active verb, is regular in its inflections; as, 'A man needs more prudence.' But when intransitive, it drops the personal terminations in the present tense, and is followed by a verb without the prefix to; as, 'A man need not be uneasy.'"—Greenleaf s Grammar Simplified, p. 38; Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 178; Improved Gram., 127. Each part of this explanation appears to me erroneous. In popular practice, one shall oftener hear, "He dares n't do it," or even, "You dares n't do it," than, "He dare not do it." But it is only in the trained practice of the schools, that he shall ever hear, "He needs n't do it," or, "He needs not do it." If need is sometimes used without inflection, this peculiarity, or the disuse of to before the subsequent infinitive, is not a necessary result of its "intransitive" character. And as to their latent nominative, "whereof there is no account," or, "whereof there needs no account;" their fact, of which "there is no evidence," or of which "there needs no evidence;" I judge it a remarkable phenomenon, that authors of so high pretensions, could find, in these transpositions, a nominative to "is," but none to "needs!" See a marginal note under Rule 14th, at p. 570.

OBS. 16.—Of the verb SEE. This verb, whenever it governs the infinitive without to, governs also an objective noun or pronoun; as, "See me do it."—"I saw him do it."—Murray. Whenever it is intransitive, the following infinitive must be governed by to; as, "I will see to have it done."—Comly's Gram., p. 98; Greenleaf's, 38. "How could he see to do them?"—Beauties of Shak., p. 43. In the following text, see is transitive, and governs the infinitive; but the two verbs are put so far apart, that it requires some skill in the reader to make their relation apparent: "When ye therefore shall see the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet, stand in the holy place," &c.—Matt., xxiv, 15. An other scripturist uses the participle, and says—"standing where it ought not," &c.—Mark, xiii, 14. The Greek word is the same in both; it is a participle, agreeing with the noun for abomination. Sometimes the preposition to seems to be admitted on purpose to protract the expression: as,

   "Tranio, I saw her coral lips to move,
    And with her breath she did perfume the air."—Shak.

OBS 17.—A few other verbs, besides the eight which are mentioned in the foregoing rule and remarks, sometimes have the infinitive after them without to. W. Allen teaches, that, "The sign to is generally omitted," not only after these eight, but also after eight others; namely, "find, have, help, mark, observe, perceive, watch, and the old preterit gan, for began; and sometimes after behold and know."—Elements of Gram., p. 167. Perhaps he may have found some instances of the omission of the preposition after all these, but in my opinion his rule gives a very unwarrantable extension to this "irregularity," as Murray calls it. The usage belongs only to particular verbs, and to them not in all their applications. Other verbs of the same import do not in general admit the same idiom. But, by a license for the most part peculiar to the poets, the preposition to is occasionally omitted, especially after verbs equivalent to those which exclude it; as, "And force them sit."—Cowper's Task, p. 46. That is, "And make them sit." According to Churchill, "To use ought or cause in this manner, is a Scotticism: [as,] 'Won't you cause them remove the hares?'—'You ought not walk.' SHAK."—New Gram., p. 317. The verbs, behold, view, observe, mark, watch, and spy, are only other words for see; as, "There might you behold one joy crown an other."—Shak. "There I sat, viewing the silver stream glide silently towards the tempestuous sea."—Walton. "I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven."—Luke, x, 18.

   "Thy drowsy nurse hath sworn she did them spy
    Come tripping to the room where thou didst lie."—Milton.

    ———"Nor with less dread the loud
    Ethereal trumpet from on high 'gan blow."—Id., P. L., vi, 60.

OBS. 18.—After have, help, and find, the infinitive sometimes occurs without the preposition to, but much oftener with it; as, "When enumerating objects which we wish to have appear distinct."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 222. "Certainly, it is heaven upon earth, to have a man's mind move in charity, rest in Providence, and turn upon the poles of truth."—Ld. Bacon. "What wilt thou have me to do?"—Acts, ix, 6. "He will have us to acknowledge him."—Scougal, p. 102. "I had to walk all the way."—Lennie's Gram., p. 85. "Would you have them let go then? No."—Walker's Particles, p. 248. According to Allen's rule, this question is ambiguous; but the learned author explains it in Latin thus: "Placet igitur eos dimitti? Minimé." That is, "Would you have them dismissed then? No." Had he meant, "Would you have them to let go then?" he would doubtless have said so. Kirkham, by adding help to Murray's list, enumerates nine verbs which he will have to exclude the sign of the infinitive; as, "Help me do it."—Gram., p. 188. But good writers sometimes use the particle to after this verb; as, "And Danby's matchless impudence helped to support the knave."—DRYDEN: Joh. Dict., w. Help. Dr. Priestley says, "It must, I suppose, be according to the Scotch idiom that Mrs. Macaulay omits it after the verb help: 'To help carry on the new measures of the court.' History, Vol. iv, p. 150."—Priestley's Gram., p. 133. "You will find the difficulty disappear in a short time."—Cobbett's English Gram., ¶ 16. "We shall always find this distinction obtain."—Blair's Rhet., p. 245. Here the preposition to might have been inserted with propriety. Without it, a plural noun will render the construction equivocal. The sentence, "You will find the difficulties disappear in a short time," will probably be understood to mean, "You will find that the difficulties disappear in a short time." "I do not find him reject his authority."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 167. Here too the preposition might as well have been inserted. But, as this use of the infinitive is a sort of Latinism, some critics would choose to say, "I do not find that he rejects his authority." "Cyrus was extremely glad to find them have such sentiments of religion."—Rollin, ii, 117. Here the infinitive may be varied either by the participle or by the indicative; as, "to find them having," or, "to find they had." Of the three expressions, the last, I think, is rather the best.

OBS. 19.—When two or more infinitives are connected in the same construction, one preposition sometimes governs them both or all; a repetition of the particle not being always necessary, unless we mean to make the terms severally emphatical. This fact is one evidence that to is not a necessary part of each infinitive verb, as some will have it to be. Examples: "Lord, suffer me first TO go and bury my father."—Matt., viii, 21. "To shut the door, means, TO throw or cast the door to."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 105. "Most authors expect the printer TO spell, point, and digest their copy, that it may be intelligible to the reader."—Printer's Grammar.

   "I'll not be made a soft and dull-eyed fool,
    To shake the head, relent, and sigh, and yield."—Shak.

OBS. 20.—An infinitive that explains an other, may sometimes be introduced without the preposition to; because, the former having it, the construction of the latter is made the same by this kind of apposition: as, "The most accomplished way of using books at present is, TO serve them as some do lords; learn their titles, and, then brag of their acquaintance."—SWIFT: Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 166.

OBS. 21.—After than or as, the sign of the infinitive is sometimes required, and sometimes excluded; and in some instances we can either insert it or not, as we please. The latter term of a comparison is almost always more or less elliptical; and as the nature of its ellipsis depends on the structure of the former term, so does the necessity of inserting or of omitting the sign of the infinitive. Examples: "No desire is more universal than [is the desire] to be exalted and honoured."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 197. "The difficulty is not so great to die for a friend, as [is the difficulty] to find a friend worth dying for."—Id., Art of Thinking, p. 42. "It is no more in one's power to love or not to love, than [it is in one's power] to be in health or out of order."—Ib., p. 45. "Men are more likely to be praised into virtue, than [they are likely] to be railed out of vice."—Ib., p. 48. "It is more tolerable to be always alone, than [it is tolerable] never to be so."—Ib., p. 26. "Nothing [is] more easy than to do mischief [is easy]: nothing [is] more difficult than to suffer without complaining" [is difficult].—Ib., p. 46. Or: "than [it is easy] to do mischief:" &c., "than [it is difficult] to suffer," &c. "It is more agreeable to the nature of most men to follow than [it is agreeable to their nature] to lead."—Ib., p. 55. In all these examples, the preposition to is very properly inserted; but what excludes it from the former term of a comparison, will exclude it from the latter, if such governing verb be understood there: as, "You no more heard me say those words, than [you heard me] talk Greek." It may be equally proper to say, "We choose rather to lead than follow," or, "We choose rather to lead than to follow."—Art of Thinking, p. 37. The meaning in either case is, "We choose to lead rather than we choose to follow." In the following example, there is perhaps an ellipsis of to before cite: "I need do nothing more than simply cite the explicit declarations," &c.—Gurney's Peculiarities, p. 4. So in these: "Nature did no more than furnish the power and means."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 147.

   "To beg, than work, he better understands;
    Or we perhaps might take him off thy hands."
        —Pope's Odyssey, xvii, 260.

OBS. 22.—It has been stated, in Obs. 16th on Rule 17th, that good writers are apt to shun a repetition of any part common to two or more verbs in the same sentence; and among the examples there cited is this: "They mean to, and will, hear patiently."—Salem Register. So one might say, "Can a man arrive at excellence, who has no desire to?"—"I do not wish to go, nor expect to."—"Open the door, if you are going to." Answer: "We want to, and try to, but can't." Such ellipses of the infinitive after to, are by no means uncommon, especially in conversation; nor do they appear to me to be always reprehensible, since they prevent repetition, and may contribute to brevity without obscurity. But Dr. Bullions has lately thought proper to condemn them; for such is presumed to have been the design of the following note: "To, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used for the infinitive itself. Thus, 'I have not written, and I do not intend to,' is a colloquial vulgarism for, 'I have not written, and I do not intend to write.'"—Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 179. His "Exercises to be corrected," here, are these: "Be sure to write yourself and tell him to. And live as God designed me to."—Ib., 1st Ed., p. 180. It being manifest, that to cannot "be used for"—(that is, in place of—)what is implied after it, this is certainly a very awkward way of hinting "there should never be an ellipsis of the infinitive after to." But, from the false syntax furnished, this appears to have been the meaning intended. The examples are severally faulty, but not for the reason suggested—not because "to" is used for "write" or "live"—not, indeed, for any one reason common to the three—but because, in the first, "to write" and "have not written," have nothing in common which we can omit; in the second, the mood of "tell" is doubtful, and, without a comma after "yourself," we cannot precisely know the meaning; in the third, the mood, the person, and the number of "live," are all unknown. See Note 9th to Rule 17th, above; and Note 2d to the General Rule, below.

OBS. 23.—Of some infinitives, it is hard to say whether they are transitive or intransitive; as, "Well, then, let us proceed; we have other forced marches to make; other enemies to subdue; more laurels to acquire; and more injuries to avenge."—BONAPARTE: Columbian Orator, p. 136. These, without ellipsis, are intransitive; but relatives may be inserted.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIX.

INFINITIVES AFTER BID, DARE, FEEL, HEAR, LET, &c.

"I dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence."—Murray's
Exercises, p. 63.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted before proceed, which follows the active verb dare. But, according to Rule 19th, "The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after them without the preposition to;" and this is an instance in which the finite verb should immediately govern the infinitive. Therefore, the to should be omitted; thus, "I dare not proceed so hastily," &c.]

"Their character is formed, and made appear."—Butler's Analogy, p. 115.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the preposition to is not inserted between made and appear, the verb is made being passive. But, according to Obs. 5th and 10th on Rule 19th, those verbs which in the active form govern the infinitive without to, do not so govern it when they are made passive, except the verb let. Therefore, to should be here inserted; thus, "Their character is formed, and made to appear."]

"Let there be but matter and opportunity offered, and you shall see them quickly to revive again."—Wisdom of the Ancients, p. 53. "It has been made appear, that there is no presumption against a revelation."—Butler's Analogy, p. 252. "MANIFEST, v. t. To reveal; to make to appear; to show plainly."—Webster's American Dict. "Let him to reign like unto good Aurelius, or let him to bleed like unto Socrates."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 169. "To sing I could not; to complain I durst not."—S. Fothergill. "If T. M. be not so frequently heard pray by them."—Barclay's Works, iii, 132. "How many of your own church members were never heard pray?"—Ib., iii, 133. "Yea, we are bidden pray one for another."—Ib., iii, 145. "He was made believe that neither the king's death, nor imprisonment would help him."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 281. "I felt a chilling sensation to creep over me."—Inst., p. 188. "I dare to say he has not got home yet."—Ib. "We sometimes see bad men to be honoured."—Ib. "I saw him to move."—Felch's Comprehensive Gram., p. 62. "For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world to raise its terrours."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 167. "But that he make him to rehearse so."—Lily's Gram., p. xv. "Let us to rise."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 41.

   "Scripture, you know, exhorts us to it;
    Bids us to 'seek peace, and ensue it.'"—Swift's Poems, p. 336.

    "Who bade the mud from Dives' wheel
    To spurn the rags of Lazarus?
    Come, brother, in that dust we'll kneel,
    Confessing Heaven that ruled it thus."—Christmas Book.

CHAPTER VII—PARTICIPLES.

The true or regular syntax of the English Participle, as a part of speech distinct from the verb, and not converted into a noun or an adjective, is twofold; being sometimes that of simple relation to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it, and sometimes that of government, or the state of being governed by a preposition. In the former construction, the participle resembles an adjective; in the latter, it is more like a noun, or like the infinitive mood: for the participle after a preposition is governed as a participle, and not as a case.[417] To these two constructions, some add three others less regular, using the participle sometimes as the subject of a finite verb, sometimes as the object of a transitive verb, and sometimes as a nominative after a neuter verb. Of these five constructions, the first two, are the legitimate uses of this part of speech; the others are occasional, modern, and of doubtful propriety.

RULE XX.—PARTICIPLES.

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions: as, "Elizabeth's tutor, at one time paying her a visit, found her employed in reading Plato."—Hume. "I have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempting wit and failing, than in seeing a man trying to leap over a ditch and tumbling into it."—Dr. Johnson.

   "Now, rais'd on Tyre's sad ruins, Pharaoh's pride
    Soar'd high, his legions threat'ning far and wide."—Dryden.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of which it forms no part; as, "I then quit the society; to withdraw and leave them to themselves, APPEARING to me a duty."—"It is almost exclusively on the ground we have mentioned, that we have heard his being continued in office DEFENDED."—Professors' Reasons, p. 23. (Better, "his continuance in office," or, "the continuing of him in office." See Obs. 18th on Rule 4th.)

   "But ever to do ill our sole delight,
    As being the contrary to his high will."—Milton.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a participle is sometimes also taken abstractly; (that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To seem compelled, is disagreeable."—"To keep always praying aloud, is plainly impossible."—"It must be disagreeable to be left pausing[418] on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 323.

   "To praise him is to serve him, and fulfill,
    Doing and suffering, his unquestion'd will."
        —Cowper, Vol. i, p. 88.

EXCEPTION THIRD.

The participle is often used irregularly in English, as a substitute for the infinitive mood, to which it is sometimes equivalent without irregularity; as, "I saw him enter, or entering"—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 230. "He is afraid of trying, or to try."—Ibid. Examples irregular: "Sir, said I, if the case stands thus, 'tis dangerous drinking:" i.e., to drink.—Collier's Tablet of Cebes. "It will be but ill venturing thy soul upon that:" i.e., to venture.—Bunyan's Law and Grace, p. 27. "Describing a past event as present, has a fine effect in language:" i.e., to describe.—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 93. "In English likewise it deserves remarking:" i.e., to be remarked.—Harris's Hermes, p. 232. "Bishop Atterbury deserves being particularly mentioned:" i.e., to be particularly mentioned.—Blair's Rhet., p. 291. "This, however, is in effect no more than enjoying the sweet that predominates:" i.e., to enjoy.—Campbell's Rhet., p. 43.

   "Habits are soon assum'd; but when we strive
    To strip them off, 'tis being flay'd alive."—Cowper, Vol. i, p. 44

EXCEPTION FOURTH.

An other frequent irregularity in the construction of participles, is the practice of treating them essentially as nouns, without taking from them the regimen and adjuncts of participles; as, "Your having been well educated will be a great recommendation."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 171. (Better: "Your excellent education"—or, "That you have been well educated, will be," &c.) "It arises from sublimity's expressing grandeur in its highest degree."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29. "Concerning the separating by a circumstance, words intimately connected."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 104. "As long as there is any hope of their keeping pace with them."—Literary Convention, p. 114. "Which could only arise from his knowing the secrets of all hearts."—West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 180. "But this again is talking quite at random."—Butler's Analogy, p. 146.

"My being here it is, that holds thee hence."—Shak.

    "Such, but by foils, the clearest lustre see,
    And deem aspersing others, praising thee."—Savage, to Walpole.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XX.

OBS. 1.—To this rule, I incline to think, there are properly no other exceptions than the first two above; or, at least, that we ought to avoid, when we can, any additional anomalies. Yet, not to condemn with unbecoming positiveness what others receive for good English, I have subjoined two items more, which include certain other irregularities now very common, that, when examples of a like form occur, the reader may parse them as exceptions, if he does not choose to censure them as errors. The mixed construction in which participles are made to govern the possessive case, has already been largely considered in the observations on Rule 4th. Murray, Allen, Churchill, and many other grammarians, great and small, admit that participles may be made the subjects or the objects of verbs, while they retain the nature, government, and adjuncts, of participles; as, "Not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very common error."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 200; Comly's Gram., 188; Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., 170. "Polite is employed to signify their being highly civilized.'"—Blair's Rhet., p. 219. "One abhors being in debt."—Ib., p. 98; Jamieson's Rhet., 71; Murray's Gram., 144. "Who affected being a fine gentleman so unmercifully."—Spect., No. 496. "The minister's being attached to the project, prolonged their debate."—Nixon's Parser, p. 78. "It finds [i.e., the mind finds,] that acting thus would gratify one passion; not acting, or acting otherwise, would gratify another."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 109. "But further, cavilling and objecting upon any subject is much easier than clearing up difficulties."—Bp. Butler's Charge to the Clergy of Durham, 1751.

OBS. 2.—W. Allen observes, "The use of the participle as a nominative, is one of the peculiarities of our language."—Elements of Gram., p. 171. He might have added, that the use of the participle as an objective governed by a verb, as a nominative after a verb neuter, or as a word governing the possessive, is also one of the peculiarities of our language, or at least an idiom adopted by no few of its recent writers. But whether any one of these four modern departures from General Grammar ought to be countenanced by us, as an idiom that is either elegant or advantageous, I very much doubt. They are all however sufficiently common in the style of reputable authors; and, however questionable their character, some of our grammarians seem mightily attached to them all. It becomes me therefore to object with submission. These mixed and irregular constructions of the participle, ought, in my opinion, to be generally condemned as false syntax; and for this simple reason, that the ideas conveyed by them may generally, if not always, be expressed more briefly, and more elegantly, by other phraseology that is in no respect anomalous. Thus, for the examples above: "Inattention to this rule, is the cause of a very common error."—"Polite is employed to signify a high degree of civilization;" or, "that they are highly civilized."—"One abhors debt."—"Who affected the fine gentleman so unmercifully."—"The minister's partiality to the project, prolonged their debate."—"It finds [i.e., the mind finds,] that to act thus, would gratify one passion; and that not to act, or to act otherwise, would gratify another."—"But further, to cavil and object, upon any subject, is much easier than to clear up difficulties." Are not these expressions much better English than the foregoing quotations? And if so, have we not reason to conclude that the adoption of participles in such instances is erroneous and ungrammatical?

OBS. 3.—In Obs. 17th on Rule 4th, it was suggested, that in English the participle, without governing the possessive case, is turned to a greater number and variety of uses, than in any other language. This remark applies mainly to the participle in ing. Whether it is expedient to make so much of one sort of derivative, and endeavour to justify every possible use of it which can be plausibly defended, is a question well worthy of consideration. We have already converted this participle to such a multiplicity of purposes, and into so many different parts of speech, that one can well-nigh write a chapter in it, without any other words. This practice may have added something to the copiousness and flexibility of the language, but it certainly has a tendency to impair its strength and clearness. Not every use of participles is good, for which there may be found precedents in good authors. One may run to great excess in the adoption of such derivatives, without becoming absolutely unintelligible, and without violating any rule of our common grammars. For example, I may say of somebody, "This very superficial grammatist, supposing empty criticism about the adoption of proper phraseology to be a show of extraordinary erudition, was displaying, in spite of ridicule, a very boastful turgid argument concerning the correction of false syntax, and about the detection of false logic in debate." Now, in what other language than ours, can a string of words anything like the following, come so near to a fair and literal translation of this long sentence? "This exceeding trifling witling, considering ranting criticising concerning adopting fitting wording being exhibiting transcending learning, was displaying, notwithstanding ridiculing, surpassing boasting swelling reasoning, respecting correcting erring writing, and touching detecting deceiving arguing during debating." Here are not all the uses to which our writers apply the participle in ing, but there would seem to be enough, without adding others that are less proper.

OBS. 4.—The active participles, admitting, allowing, considering, granting, speaking, supposing, and the like, are frequently used in discourse so independently, that they either relate to nothing, or to the pronoun I or we understood; as, "Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred from it?"—Murray's Gram., p. 195. This may be supposed to mean, "I, granting this to be true, ask what is to be inferred from it?" "The very chin was, modestly speaking, as long as my whole face."—Addison. Here the meaning may be, "I, modestly speaking, say." So of the following examples: "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 172. "Because, generally speaking, the figurative sense of a word is derived from its proper sense."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 190. "But, admitting that two or three of these offend less in their morals than in their writings, must poverty make nonsense sacred?"—Pope's Works, Vol. iii, p. 7. Some grammarians suppose such participles to be put absolute in themselves, so as to have no reference to any noun or pronoun; others, among whom are L. Murray and Dr. James P. Wilson, suppose them to be put absolute with a pronoun understood. On the former supposition, they form an other exception to the foregoing rule; on the latter, they do not: the participle relates to the pronoun, though both be independent of the rest of the sentence. If we supply the ellipsis as above, there is nothing put absolute.

OBS. 5.—Participles are almost always placed after the words on which their construction depends, and are distinguished from adjectives by this position; but when other words depend on the participle, or when several participles have the same construction, the whole phrase may come before the noun or pronoun: as, "Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to myself the miseries of confinement."—Sterne.

"Immured in cypress shades, a sorcerer dwells."—Milton.

"Brib'd, bought, and bound, they banish shame and fear; Tell you they're stanch, and have a soul sincere."—Crabbe.

OBS. 6.—When participles are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb, they become adjectives; and, as such, they cannot govern an object after them. The following construction is therefore inaccurate: "When Caius did any thing unbecoming his dignity."—Jones's Church History, i, 87. "Costly and gaudy attire, unbecoming godliness."—Extracts, p. 185. Such errors are to be corrected by Note 15th to Rule 9th, or by changing the particle un to not: as, "Unbecoming to his dignity;" or, "Not becoming his dignity."

OBS. 7.—An imperfect or a preperfect participle, preceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a verbal or participial noun; and, as such, it cannot with strict propriety, govern an object after it. A word which may be the object of the participle in its proper construction, requires the preposition of, to connect it with the verbal noun; as, 1. THE PARTICIPLE: "Worshiping idols, the Jews sinned."—"Thus worshiping idols,—In worshiping idols,—or, By worshiping idols, they sinned." 2. THE VERBAL NOUN: "The worshiping of idols,—Such worshiping of idols,—or, Their worshiping of idols, was sinful."—"In the worshiping of idols, there is sin."

OBS. 8.—It is commonly supposed that these two modes of expression are, in very many instances, equivalent to each other in meaning, and consequently interchangeable. How far they really are so, is a question to be considered. Example: "But if candour be a confounding of the distinctions between sin and holiness, a depreciating of the excellence of the latter, and at the same time a diminishing of the evil of the former; then it must be something openly at variance with the letter and the spirit of revelation."—The Friend, iv, 108. Here the nouns, distinctions, excellence, and evil, though governed by of, represent the objects of the forenamed actions; and therefore they might well be governed by confounding, depreciating, and diminishing, if these were participles. But if, to make them such, we remove the article and the preposition, the construction forsakes our meaning; for be confounding, (be) depreciating, and (be) diminishing, seem rather to be verbs of the compound form; and our uncertain nominatives after be, thus disappear in the shadow of a false sense. But some sensible critics tell us, that this preposition of should refer rather to the agent of the preceding action, than to its passive object; so that such a phrase as, "the teaching of boys," should signify rather the instruction which boys give, than that which they receive. If, for the sake of this principle, or for any other reason, we wish to avoid the foregoing phraseology, the meaning may be expressed thus: "But if your candour confound the distinctions between sin and holiness; if it depreciate the excellence of the latter, and at the same time diminish the evil of the former; then it must be something openly at variance with the letter and the spirit of revelation."

OBS. 9.—When the use of the preposition produces ambiguity or harshness, let a better expression be sought. Thus the sentence, "He mentions Newton's writing of a commentary," is not entirely free from either of these faults. If the preposition be omitted, the word writing will have a double construction, which is inadmissible, or at least objectionable. Some would say, "He mentions Newton writing a commentary." This, though not uncommon, is still more objectionable because it makes the leading word in sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may be correctly expressed thus: "He mentions that Newton wrote a commentary." "Mr. Dryden makes a very handsome observation on Ovid's writing a letter from Dido to Æneas."—Spect., No. 62; Campbell's Rhet., p. 265; Murray's Key, ii, 253. Here the word writing is partly a noun and partly a participle. If we make it wholly a noun, by saying, "on Ovid's writing of a letter," or wholly a participle, by saying, "on Ovid writing a letter;" it may be doubted, whether we have effected any improvement. And again, if we adopt Dr. Lowth's advice, "Let it be either the one or the other, and abide by its proper construction;" we must make some change; and therefore ought perhaps to say; "on Ovid's conceit of writing a letter from Dido to Æneas." This is apparently what Addison meant, and what Dryden remarked upon; the latter did not speak of the letter itself, else the former would have said, "on Ovid's letter from Dido to Æneas."

OBS. 10.—When a needless possessive, or a needless article, is put before the participle, the correction is to be made, not by inserting of, but by expunging the article, according to Note 16th to Rule 1st, or the possessive, according to Note 5th to Rule 4th. Example: "By his studying the Scriptures he became wise."—Lennie's Gram., p. 91. Here his serves only to render the sentence incorrect; yet this spurious example is presented by Lennie to prove that a participle may take the possessive case before it, when the preposition of is not admissible after it. So, in stead of expunging one useless word, our grammarians often add an other and call the twofold error a correction; as, "For his avoiding of that precipice, he is indebted to his friend's care."—Murray's Key, ii, 201. Or worse yet: "It was from our misunderstanding of the directions that we lost our way."—Ibid. Here, not our and of only, but four other words, are worse than useless. Again: "By the exercising of our judgment, it is improved. Or thus: By exercising our judgment, it is improved."—Comly's Key in his Gram., 12th Ed., p. 188. Each of these pretended corrections is wrong in more respects than one. Say, "By exercising our judgement, we improve it" Or, "Our judgement is improved by being exercised" Again: "The loving of our enemies is a divine command; Or, loving our enemies [is a divine command]."—Ibid. Both of these are also wrong. Say, "'Love your enemies,' is a divine command." Or, "We are divinely commanded to love our enemies." Some are apt to jumble together the active voice and the passive, and thus destroy the unity even of a short sentence; as, "By exercising our memories, they are improved."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 226 and 195. "The error might have been avoided by repeating the substantive."—Murray's Gram., p. 172. "By admitting such violations of established grammatical distinctions, confusion would be introduced."—Ib., p. 187. In these instances, we have an active participle without an agent; and this, by the preposition by, is made an adjunct to a passive verb. Even the participial noun of this form, though it actually drops the distinction of voice, is awkward and apparently incongruous in such a relation.

OBS. 11.—When the verbal noun necessarily retains any adjunct of the verb or participle, it seems proper that the two words be made a compound by means of the hyphen: as, "Their hope shall be as the giving-up of the ghost."—Job, xi, 20. "For if the casting-away of them be the reconciling of the world."—Rom., xi, 15. "And the gathering-together of the waters called he seas."—Gen., i, 10. "If he should offer to stop the runnings-out of his justice."—Law and Grace, p. 26. "The stopping-short before the usual pause in the melody, aids the impression that is made by the description of the stone's stopping-short.'"—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 106. I do not find these words united in the places referred to, but this is nevertheless their true figure. Our authors and printers are lamentably careless, as well as ignorant, respecting the figure of words: for which part of grammar, see the whole of the third chapter, in Part First of this work; also observations on the fourth rule of syntax, from the 30th to the 35th. As certain other compounds may sometimes be broken by tmesis, so may some of these; as, "Not forsaking the assembling of ourselves together, as the manner of some is."—Heb., x, 23. Adverbs may relate to participles, but nouns require adjectives. The following phrase is therefore inaccurate: "For the more easily reading of large numbers." Yet if we say, "For reading large numbers the more easily," the construction is different, and not inaccurate. Some calculator, I think, has it, "For the more easily reading large numbers." But Hutton says, "For the more easy reading of large numbers."—Hutton's Arith., p. 5; so Babcock's, p. 12. It would be quite as well to say, "For the greater ease in reading large numbers."

OBS. 12.—Many words of a participial form are used directly as nouns, without any article, adjective, or possessive case before them, and without any object or adjunct after them. Such is commonly the construction of the words spelling, reading, writing, ciphering, surveying, drawing, parsing, and many other such names of actions or exercises. They are rightly put by Johnson among "nouns derived from verbs;" for, "The [name of the] action is the same with the participle present, as loving, frighting, fighting, striking."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 10. Thus: "I like writing."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 171. "He supposed, with them, that affirming and denying were operations of the mind."—Tooke's Diversions, i, 35. "'Not rendering,' said Polycarp the disciple of John, 'evil for evil, or railing for railing, or striking for striking, or cursing for cursing."—Dymond, on War. Against this practice, there is seldom any objection; the words are wholly nouns, both in sense and construction. We call them participial nouns, only because they resemble participles in their derivation; or if we call them verbal nouns, it is because they are derived from verbs. But we too frequently find those which retain the government and the adjuncts of participles, used as nouns before or after verbs; or, more properly speaking, used as mongrels and nondescripts, a doubtful species, for which there is seldom any necessity, since the infinitive, the verbal or some other noun, or a clause introduced by the conjunction that, will generally express the idea in a better manner: as, "Exciting such disturbances, is unlawful." Say rather, "To excite such disturbances,—The exciting of such disturbances,—The excitation of such disturbances,—or, That one should excite such disturbances, is unlawful."

OBS. 13.—Murray says, "The word the, before the active participle, in the following sentence, and in all others of a similar construction, is improper, and should be omitted: 'The advising, or the attempting, to excite such disturbances, is unlawful.' It should be, 'Advising or attempting to excite disturbances.'"—Octavo Gram., p. 195. But, by his own showing, "the present participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive."—Ib., p. 192. And substantives, or nouns, by an other of his notes, can govern the infinitive mood, just as well as participles; or just as well as the verbs which he thinks would be very proper here; namely, "To advise or attempt to excite such disturbances."—Ib., p. 196. It would be right to say, "Any advice, or attempt, to excite such disturbances, is unlawful." And I see not that he has improved the text at all, by expunging the article. Advising and attempting, being disjunct nominatives to is, are nothing but nouns, whether the article be used or not; though they are rather less obviously such without it, and therefore the change is for the worse.

OBS. 14.—Lennie observes, "When a preposition"—(he should have said, When an other preposition—) "follows the participle, of is inadmissible; as, His depending on promises proved his ruin. His neglecting to study when young, rendered him ignorant all his life."—Prin. of E. Gram., 5th Ed., p. 65; 13th Ed., 91. Here on and to, of course, exclude of; but the latter may be changed to of, which will turn the infinitive into a noun: as, "His neglecting of study," &c. "Depending" and "neglecting," being equivalent to dependence and neglect, are participial nouns, and not "participles." Professor Bullions, too, has the same faulty remark, examples and all; (for his book, of the same title, is little else than a gross plagiarism from Lennie's;) though he here forgets his other erroneous doctrines, that, "A preposition should never be used before the infinitive," and that, "Active verbs do not admit a preposition after them." See Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram., pp. 91, 92, and 107.

OBS. 15.—The participle in ing is, on many occasions, equivalent to the infinitive verb, so that the speaker or writer may adopt either, just as he pleases: as, "So their gerunds are sometimes found having [or to have] an absolute or apparently neuter signification."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 234. "With tears that ceas'd not flowing" [or to flow].—Milton. "I would willingly have him producing [produce, or to produce] his credentials."—Barclay's Works, iii, 273. There are also instances, and according to my notion not a few, in which the one is put improperly for the other. The participle however is erroneously used for the infinitive much oftener than the infinitive for the participle. The lawful uses of both are exceedingly numerous; though the syntax of the participle, strictly speaking, does not include its various conversions into other parts of speech. The principal instances of regular equivalence between infinitives and participles, may be reduced to the following heads:

1. After the verbs see, hear, and feel, the participle in ing, relating to the objective, is often equivalent to the infinitive governed by the verb; as, "I saw him running"—"I heard it howling."—W. Allen. "I feel the wind blowing." Here the verbs, run, howl, and blow, might be substituted. 2. After intransitive verbs signifying to begin or to continue, the participle in ing, relating to the nominative, may be used in stead of the infinitive connected to the verb; as, "The ass began galloping with all his might."—Sandford and Merton. "It commenced raining very hard."—Silliman. "The steamboats commenced running on Saturday."—Daily Advertiser. "It is now above three years since he began printing."—Dr. Adam's Pref. to Rom. Antiq. "So when they continued asking him."—John, viii, 7. Greek, "[Greek: Os epemenon erotontes auton.]" Latin, "Cum ergo perseverarent interrogantes eum."—Vulgate. "Cùm autem perseverarent eum interrogare."—Beza. "Then shall ye continue following the Lord your God."—1 Sam., xii, 14. "Eritis sequentes Dominum Deum vestrum."—Vulgate. "As she continued praying before the Lord."—1 Sam., i, 12. "Cùm ilia multiplicaret preces coram Domino."—Vulgate. "And they went on beating down one an other."—2 Sam., xiv, 16. "Make the members of them go on rising and growing in their importance."—Blair's Rhet., p. 116. "Why do you keep teasing me?"

3. After for, in, of, or to, and perhaps some other prepositions, the participle may in most cases be varied by the infinitive, which is governed by to only; as, "We are better fitted for receiving the tenets and obeying the precepts of that faith which will make us wise unto salvation."—West's Letters, p. 51. That is—"to receive the tenets and obey the precepts." "Men fit for fighting, practised in fighting, proud of fighting, accustomed to fighting."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 172. That is, "fit to fight," &c. "What is the right path, few take the trouble of inquiring."—Murray's Key, 8vo. ii, 235. Better, perhaps:—"few take the trouble to inquire."

OBS. 16.—One of our best grammarians says, "The infinitive, in the following sentences, should be exchanged for the participle: 'I am weary to bear them.' Is. i, 14. 'Hast thou, spirit, perform'd to point the tempest?' Shak."—Allen's Gram., p. 172. This suggestion implies, that the participle would be here not only equivalent to the infinitive in sense, but better in expression. It is true, the preposition to does not well express the relation between weary and bear; and, doubtless, some regard should be had to the meaning of this particle, whenever it is any thing more than an index of the mood. But the critic ought to have told us how he would make these corrections. For in neither case does the participle alone appear to be a fit substitute for the infinitive, either with or without the to; and the latter text will scarcely bear the participle at all, unless we change the former verb; as, "Hast thou, spirit, done pointing the tempest?" The true meaning of the other example seems somewhat uncertain. The Vulgate has it, "Laboravi sustinens," "I have laboured bearing them;" the French Bible, "Je suis las de les souffrir," "I am tired of bearing them;" the Septuagint, "[Greek: Ouketi anæso tas hamartias humon,]" "I will no more forgive your sins."

OBS. 17.—In the following text, the infinitive is used improperly, nor would the participle in its stead make pure English: "I will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings, to have been continually before me."—Ps. 1. 8. According to the French version, "to have been" should be "which are;" but the Septuagint and the Vulgate take the preceding noun for the nominative, thus: "I will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices, but thy burnt-offerings are continually before me."

OBS. 18.—As the preposition to before the infinitive shows the latter to be "that towards which the preceding verb is directed," verbs of desisting, omitting, preventing, and avoiding, are generally found to take the participle after them, and not the infinitive; because, in such instances, the direction of effort seems not to be so properly to, or towards, as from the action.[419] Where the preposition from is inserted, (as it most commonly is, after some of these verbs.) there is no irregularity in the construction of the participle; but where the participle immediately follows the verb, it is perhaps questionable whether it ought to be considered the object of the verb, or a mere participle relating to the nominative which precedes. If we suppose the latter, the participle may be parsed by the common rule; if the former, it must be referred to the third exception above. For example:

1. After verbs of DESISTING; as, "The Cryer used to proclaim, DIXERUNT, i. e. They have done speaking."—Harris's Hermes, p. 132. "A friend is advised to put off making love to Lalage."—Philological Museum, i, 446. "He forbore doing so, on the ground of expediency."—The Friend, iv, 35. "And yet architects never give over attempting to reconcile these two incompatibles."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 338. "Never to give over seeking and praying for it."—N. Y. Observer. "Do not leave off seeking."—President Edwards. "Then Satan hath done flattering and comforting."—Baxter. "The princes refrained talking."—Job, xxix, 9. "Principes cessabant loqui."—Vulgate. Here it would be better to say, "The princes refrained from talking." But Murray says, "From seems to be superfluous after forbear: as, 'He could not forbear from appointing the pope,' &c."—Octavo Gram., p. 203. But "forbear to appoint" would be a better correction; for this verb is often followed by the infinitive; as, "Forbear to insinuate."—West's Letters, p. 62. "And he forbare to go forth."—1 Sam., xxiii, 13. The reader will observe, that, "never to give over" or "not to leave off," is in fact the same thing as to continue; and I have shown by the analogy of other languages, that after verbs of continuing the participle is not an object of government; though possibly it may be so, in these instances, which are somewhat different. 2. After verbs of OMITTING; as, "He omits giving an account of them."—Tooke's Diversions of Purley, i, 251. I question the propriety of this construction; and yet, "omits to give" seems still more objectionable. Better, "He omits all account of them." Or, "He neglects to give, or forbears to give, any account of them." L. Murray twice speaks of apologizing, "for the use he has made of his predecessors' labours, and for omitting to insert their names."—Octavo Gram., Pref., p. vii; and Note, p. 73. The phrase, "omitting to insert," appears to me a downright solecism; and the pronoun their is ambiguous, because there are well-known names both for the men and for their labours, and he ought not to have omitted either species wholly, as he did. "Yet they absolutely refuse doing so, one with another."—Harris's Hermes, p. 264. Better, "refuse to do so." "I had as repeatedly declined going."—Leigh Hunt's Byron, p. 15.

3. After verbs of PREVENTING; as, "Our sex are happily prevented from engaging in these turbulent scenes."—West's Letters to a Lady, p. 74. "To prevent our frail natures from deviating into bye paths [write by-paths] of error."—Ib., p. 100. "Prudence, prevents our speaking or acting improperly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 99; Murray's Gram., p. 303; Jamieson's Rhet., p. 72. This construction, though very common, is palpably wrong: because its most natural interpretation is, "Prudence improperly prevents our speech or action." These critics ought to have known enough to say, "Prudence prevents us from speaking or acting improperly." "This, however, doth not hinder pronunciation to borrow from singing."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 70. Here the infinitive is used, merely because it does not sound well to say, "from borrowing from singing;" but the expression might very well be changed thus, "from being indebted to singing." "'This by no means hinders the book to be a useful one.'—Geddes. It should be, 'from being.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 318.

4. After verbs of AVOIDING: as, "He might have avoided treating of the origin of ideas."—Tooke's Diversions, i, 28. "We may avoid talking nonsense on these subjects."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 281. "But carefully avoid being at any time ostentatious and affected."—Blair's Rhet., p. 233. "Here I cannot avoid mentioning[420] the assistance I have received."—Churchill's Gram., p. iv. "It is our duty to avoid leading others into temptation,"—West's Letters, p. 33. "Nay, such a garden should in some measure avoid imitating nature."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 251. "I can promise no entertainment to those who shun thinking."—Ib., i, 36. "We cannot help being of opinion."—ENCYC. BRIT. Murray's Gram., p. 76. "I cannot help being of opinion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 311. "I cannot help mentioning here one character more."—Hughes. Spect., No. 554. "These would sometimes very narrowly miss being catched away."—Steele. "Carleton very narrowly escaped being taken."—Grimshaw's Hist., p. 111. Better, "escaped from being taken;"—or, "escaped capture."

OBS. 19.—In sentences like the following, the participle seems to be improperly made the object of the verb: "I intend doing it."—"I remember meeting him." Better, "I intend to do it."—"I remember to have met him." According to my notion, it is an error to suppose that verbs in general may govern participles. If there are any proper instances of such government, they would seem to be chiefly among verbs of quitting or avoiding. And even here the analogy of General Grammar gives countenance to a different solution; as, "They left beating of Paul."—Acts, xxi, 32. Better, "They left beating Paul;"—or, "They quit beating Paul." Greek, "[Greek: Epausanto tuptontes ton Paulon.]" Latin, "Cessaverunt percutientes Paulum."—Montanus. "Cessarunt coedere Paulum."—Beza. "Cessaverunt percutere Paulum."—Vulgate. It is true, the English participle in ing differs in some respects from that which usually corresponds to it in Latin or Greek; it has more of a substantive character, and is commonly put for the Latin gerund. If this difference does not destroy the argument from analogy, the opinion is still just, that left and quit are here intransitive, and that the participle beating relates to the pronoun they. Such is unequivocally the construction of the Greek text, and also of the literal Latin of Arias Montanus. But, to the mere English grammarian, this method of parsing will not be apt to suggest itself: because, at first sight, the verbs appear to be transitive, and the participle in ing has nothing to prove it an adjunct of the nominative, and not the object of the verb—unless, indeed, the mere fact that it is a participle, is proof of this.

OBS. 20.—Our great Compiler, Murray, not understanding this construction, or not observing what verbs admit of it, or require it, has very unskillfully laid it down as a rule, that, "The participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb, expressed or understood: as, 'By promising much and performing but little, we become despicable.' 'He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely.'"—Octavo Gram., p. 194.[421] This very popular author seems never to have known that participles, as such, may be governed in English by prepositions. And yet he knew, and said, that "prepositions do not, like articles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the nature of a substantive."—Ibid. This he avouches in the same breath in which he gives that "nature" to a participle and its adverb! For, by a false comma after much, he cuts his first "substantive phrase" absurdly in two; and doubtless supposes a false ellipsis of by before the participle performing. Of his method of resolving the second example, some notice has already been taken, in Observations 4th and 5th on Rule 5th. Though he pretends that the whole phrase is in the objective case, "the truth is, the assertion grammatically affects the first word only;" which in one aspect he regards as a noun, and in an other as a participle: whereas he himself, on the preceding page, had adopted from Lowth a different doctrine, and cautioned the learner against treating words in ing, "as if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs;" that is, "partly nouns and partly participles;" for, according to Murray, Lowth, and many others, participles are verbs. The term, "substantive phrase," itself a solecism, was invented merely to cloak this otherwise bald inconsistency. Copying Lowth again, the great Compiler defines a phrase to be "two or more words rightly put together;" and, surely, if we have a well-digested system of grammar, whatsoever words are rightly put together, may be regularly parsed by it. But how can one indivisible word be consistently made two different parts of speech at once? And is not this the situation of every transitive participle that is made either the subject or the object of a verb? Adjuncts never alter either the nature or the construction of the words on which they depend; and participial nouns differ from participles in both. The former express actions as things; the latter generally attribute them to their agents or recipients.

OBS. 21.—The Latin gerund is "a kind of verbal noun, partaking of the nature of a participle."—Webster's Dict. "A gerund is a participial noun, of the neuter gender, and singular-number, declinable like a substantive, having no vocative, construed like a substantive, and governing the case of its verb."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 70. In the Latin gerund thus defined, there is an appearance of ancient classical authority for that "amphibious species" of words of which so much notice has already been taken. Our participle in ing, when governed by a preposition, undoubtedly corresponds very nearly, both in sense and construction, to this Latin gerund; the principal difference being, that the one is declined, like a noun, and the other is not. The analogy, however, is but lamely maintained, when we come to those irregular constructions in which the participle is made a half-noun in English. It is true, the gerund of the nominative case may be made the subject of a verb in Latin; but we do not translate it by the English participle, but rather by the infinitive, or still oftener by the verb with the auxiliary must: as, "Vivendum est mihi rectè, I must live well."—Grant's L. Gram., p. 232. This is better English than the nearer version, "Living correctly is necessary for me;" and the exact imitation, "Living is to me correctly," is nonsense. Nor does the Latin gerund often govern the genitive like a noun, or ever stand as the direct object of a transitive verb, except in some few doubtful instances about which the grammarians dispute. For, in fact, to explain this species of words, has puzzled the Latin grammarians about as much as the English; though the former do not appear to have fallen into those palpable self-contradictions which embarrass the instructions of the latter.

OBS. 22.—Dr. Adam says, "The gerund in English becomes a substantive, by prefixing the article to it, and then it is always to be construed with the preposition of; as, 'He is employed in writing letters,' or, 'in the writing of letters:' but it is improper to say, 'in the writing letters,' or, 'in writing of letters.'"—Latin and English Gram., p. 184. This doctrine is also taught by Lowth, Priestley, Murray, Comly, Chandler, and many others; most of whom extend the principle to all participles that govern the possessive case; and they might as well have added all such as are made either the subjects or the objects of verbs, and such as are put for nominatives after verbs neuter. But Crombie, Allen, Churchill, S. S. Greene, Hiley, Wells, Weld, and some others, teach that participles may perform these several offices of a substantive, without dropping the regimen and adjuncts of participles. This doctrine, too, Murray and his copyists absurdly endeavour to reconcile with the other, by resorting to the idle fiction of "substantive phrases" endued with all these powers: as, "His being at enmity with Cæsar was the cause of perpetual discord."—Crombie's Treatise, p. 237; Churchill's Gram., p. 141. "Another fault is allowing it to supersede the use of a point."— Churchill's Gram., p. 372. "To be sure there is a possibility of some ignorant reader's confounding the two vowels in pronunciation."—Ib., p. 375. It is much better to avoid all such English as this. Say, rather, "His enmity with Cæsar was the cause of perpetual discord."—"An other fault is the allowing of it to supersede the use of a point."—"To be sure, there is a possibility that some ignorant reader may confound the two vowels, in pronunciation."

OBS. 23.—In French, the infinitive is governed by several different prepositions, and the gerundive by one only, the preposition en,—which, however, is sometimes suppressed; as, "en passant, en faisant,—il alloit courant."—Traité des Participes, p. 2. In English, the gerundive is governed by several different prepositions, and the infinitive by one only, the preposition to,—which, in like manner, is sometimes suppressed; as, "to pass, to do,—I saw him run." The difficulties in the syntax of the French participle in ant, which corresponds to ours in ing, are apparently as great in themselves, as those which the syntax of the English word presents; but they result from entirely different causes, and chiefly from the liability there is of confounding the participle with the verbal adjective, which is formed from it. The confounding of it with the gerundive is now, in either language, of little or no consequence, since in modern French, as well as in English, both are indeclinable. For this reason, I have framed the syntactical rule for participles so as to include under that name the gerund, or gerundive, which is a participle governed by a preposition. The great difficulty with us, is, to determine whether the participle ought, or ought not, to be allowed to assume other characteristics of a noun, without dropping those of a participle, and without becoming wholly a noun. The liability of confounding the English participle with the verbal or participial adjective, amounts to nothing more than the occasional misnaming of a word in parsing; or perhaps an occasional ambiguity in the style of some writer, as in the following citation: "I am resolved, 'let the newspapers say what they please of canvassing beauties, haranguing toasts, and mobbing demireps,' not to believe one syllable."—Jane West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 74. From these words, it is scarcely possible to find out, even with the help of the context whether these three sorts of ladies are spoken of as the canvassers, haranguers, and mobbers, or as being canvassed, harangued, and mobbed. If the prolixity and multiplicity of these observations transcend the reader's patience, let him consider that the questions at issue cannot be settled by the brief enunciation of loose individual opinions, but must be examined in the light of all the analogies and facts that bear upon them. So considerable are the difficulties of properly distinguishing the participle from the verbal adjective in French, that that indefatigable grammarian, Girault Du Vivier, after completing his Grammaire des Grammaires in two large octavo volumes, thought proper to enlarge his instructions on this head, and to publish them in a separate book, (Traité des Participes,) though we have it on his own authority, that the rule for participles had already given rise to a greater number of dissertations and particular treatises than any other point in French grammar.

OBS. 24.—A participle construed after the nominative or the objective case, is not in general equivalent to a verbal noun governing the possessive. There is sometimes a nice distinction to be observed in the application of these two constructions. For the leading word in sense, should not be made the adjunct in construction. The following sentences exhibit a disregard to this principle, and are both inaccurate: "He felt his strength's declining."—"He was sensible of his strength declining." In the former sentence, the noun strength should be in the objective case, governed by felt; and in the latter, it should rather be in the possessive, governed by declining. Thus: "He felt his strength declining;" i.e., "felt it decline."—"He was sensible of his strength's declining;" i.e., "of its decline." These two sentences state the same fact, but, in construction, they are very different; nor does it appear, that where there is no difference of meaning, the two constructions are properly interchangeable. This point has already been briefly noticed in Obs. 12th and 13th on Rule 4th. But the false and discordant instructions which our grammarians deliver respecting possessives before participles; their strange neglect of this plain principle of reason, that the leading word in sense ought to be made the leading or governing word in the construction; and the difficulties which they and other writers are continually falling into, by talking their choice between two errors, in stead of avoiding both: these, as well as their suggestions of sameness or difference of import between the participle and the participial noun, require some farther extension of my observations in this place.

OBS. 25.—Upon the classification of words, as parts of speech, distinguished according to their natures and uses, depends the whole scheme of grammatical science. And it is plain, that a bad distribution, or a confounding of such things as ought to be separated, must necessarily be attended with inconveniences to the student, for which no skill or learning in the expounder of such a system can ever compensate. The absurdity of supposing with Horne Tooke, that the same word can never be used so differently as to belong to different parts of speech, I have already alluded to more than once. The absolute necessity of classing words, not according to their derivation merely, but rather according to their sense and construction, is too evident to require any proof. Yet, different as are the natures and the uses of verbs, participles, and nouns, it is no uncommon thing to find these three parts of speech confounded together; and that too to a very great extent, and by some of our very best grammarians, without even an attempt on their part to distinguish them. For instances of this glaring fault and perplexing inconsistency, the reader may turn to the books of W. Allen and T. O. Churchill, two of the best authors that have ever written on English grammar. Of the participle the latter gives no formal definition, but he represents it as "a form, in which the action denoted by the verb is capable of being joined to a noun as its quality, or accident."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 85. Again he says, "That the participle is a mere mode of the verb is manifest, if our definition of a verb be admitted."—Ib., p. 242. While he thus identifies the participle with the verb, this author scruples not to make what he calls the imperfect participle perform all the offices of a noun: saying, "Frequently too it is used as a noun, admits a preposition or an article before it, becomes a plural by taking s at the end, and governs a possessive case: as, 'He who has the comings in of a prince, may be ruined by his own gaming, or his wife's squandering.'"—Ib., p. 144. The plural here exhibited, if rightly written, would have the s, not at the end, but in the middle; for comings-in, (an obsolete expression for revenues,) is not two words, but one. Nor are gaming and squandering, to be here called participles, but nouns. Yet, among all his rules and annotations, I do not find that Churchill any where teaches that participles become nouns when they are used substantively. The following example he exhibits for the express purpose of showing that the nominatives to "is" and "may be" are not nouns, but participles: "Walking is the best exercise, though riding may be more pleasant."—Ib., p. 141. And, what is far worse, though his book is professedly an amplification of Lowth's brief grammar, he so completely annuls the advice of Lowth concerning the distinguishing of participles from participial nouns, that he not only misnames the latter when they are used correctly, but approves and adopts well-nigh all the various forms of error, with which the mixed and irregular construction of participles has filled our language: of these forms, there are, I think, not fewer than a dozen.

OBS. 26.—Allen's account of the participle is no better than Churchill's—and no worse than what the reader may find in many an English Grammar now in use. This author's fault is not so much a lack of learning or of comprehension, as of order and discrimination. We see in him, that it is possible for a man to be well acquainted with English authors, ancient as well as modern, and to read Greek and Latin, French and Saxon, and yet to falter miserably in describing the nature and uses of the English participle. Like many others, he does not acknowledge this sort of words to be one of the parts of speech; but commences his account of it by the following absurdity: "The participles are adjectives derived from the verb; as, pursuing, pursued, having pursued."—Elements of E. Gram., p. 62. This definition not only confounds the participle with the participial adjective, but merges the whole of the former species in a part of speech of which he had not even recognized the latter as a subdivision: "An adjective shows the quality of a thing. Adjectives may be reduced to five classes: 1. Common—2. Proper—3. Numeral—4. Pronominal—5. Compound."—Ib., p. 47. Now, if "participles are adjectives," to which of these five classes do they belong? But there are participial or verbal adjectives, very many; a sixth class, without which this distribution is false and incomplete: as, "a loving father; an approved copy." The participle differs from these, as much as it does from a noun. But says our author, "Participles, as simple adjectives, belong to a noun; as, a loving father; an approved copy;—as parts of the verb, they have the same government as their verbs have; as, his father, recalling the pleasures of past years, joined their party."—Ib., p. 170. What confusion is this! a complete jumble of adjectives, participles, and "parts of verbs!" Again: "Present participles are often construed as substantives; as, early rising is conducive to health; I like writing; we depend on seeing you."—Ib., p. 171. Here rising and writing are nouns; but seeing is a participle, because it is active and governs you, Compare this second jumble with the definition above. Again he proceeds: "To participles thus used, many of our best authors prefix the article; as, 'The being chosen did not prevent disorderly behaviour.' Bp. Tomline. 'The not knowing how to pass our vacant hours.' Seed."—Ib., p. 171. These examples I take to be bad English. Say rather, "The state of election did not prevent disorderly behaviour."—"The want of some entertainment for our vacant hours." The author again proceeds: "If a noun limits the meaning of a participle thus used, that noun is put in the genitive; as, your father's coming was unexected."—Ib., p. 171. Here coming is a noun, and no participle at all. But the author has a marginal note, "A possessive pronoun is equivalent to a genitive;" (ibid.;) and he means to approve of possessives before active participles: as, "Some of these irregularities arise from our having received the words through a French medium."—Ib., p. 116. This brings us again to that difficult and apparently unresolvable problem, whether participles as such, by virtue of their mixed gerundive character, can, or cannot, govern the possessive case; a question, about which, the more a man examines it, the more he may doubt.

OBS. 27.—But, before we say any thing more about the government of this case, let us look at our author's next paragraph on participles: "An active participle, preceded by an article or by a genitive, is elegantly followed by the preposition of, before the substantive which follows it; as, the compiling of that book occupied several years; his quitting of the army was unexpected."—Allen's Gram., p. 171. Here the participial nouns compiling and quitting are improperly called active participles, from which they are certainly as fairly distinguished by the construction, as they can be by any means whatever. And this complete distinction the author considers at least an elegance, if not an absolute requisite, in English composition. And he immediately adds: "When this construction produces ambiguity, the expression must be varied."—Ib., p. 171. This suggestion is left without illustration; but it doubtless refers to one of Murray's remarks, in which it is said: "A phrase in which the article precedes the present participle and the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in every instance, convey the same meaning as would be conveyed by the participle without the article and preposition. 'He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher,' is capable of a different sense from, 'He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher.'"—Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 193; R. C. Smith's Gram., 161; Ingersoll's, 199; and others. Here may be seen a manifest difference between the verbal or participial noun, and the participle or gerund; but Murray, in both instances, absurdly calls the word hearing a "present participle;" and, having robbed the former sentence of a needful comma, still more absurdly supposes it ambiguous: whereas the phrase, "in the hearing of the philosopher," means only, "in the philosopher's hearing;" and not, "in hearing the philosopher," or, "in hearing of the philosopher." But the true question is, would it be right to say, "He expressed the pleasure he had in the philosopher's hearing him?" For here it would be equivocal to say, "in the philosopher's hearing of him;" and some aver, that of would be wrong, in any such instance, even if the sense were clear. But let us recur to the mixed example from Allen, and compare it with his own doctrines. To say, "from our having received of the words through a French medium," would certainly be no elegance; and if it be not an ambiguity, it is something worse. The expression, then, "must be varied." But varied how? Is it right without the of, though contrary to the author's rule for elegance?

OBS. 28.—The observations which have been made on this point, under the rule for the possessive case, while they show, to some extent, the inconsistencies in doctrine, and the improprieties of practice, into which the difficulties of the mixed participle have betrayed some of our principal grammarians, bring likewise the weight of much authority and reason against the custom of blending without distinction the characteristics of nouns and participles in the same word or words; but still they may not be thought sufficient to prove this custom to be altogether wrong; nor do they pretend to have fully established the dogma, that such a construction is in no instance admissible. They show, however, that possessives before participles are seldom to be approved; and perhaps, in the present instance, the meaning might be quite as well expressed by a common substantive, or the regular participial noun: as, "Some of these irregularities arise from our reception of the words—or our receiving of the words—through a French medium." But there are some examples which it is not easy to amend, either in this way, or in any other; as, "The miscarriages of youth have very much proceeded from their being imprudently indulged, or left to themselves."—Friends' N. E. Discipline, p. 13. And there are instances too, of a similar character, in which the possessive case cannot be used. For example: "Nobody will doubt of this being a sufficient proof."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 66. "But instead of this being the fact of the case, &c."—Butlers Analogy, p. 137. "There is express historical or traditional evidence, as ancient as history, of the system of religion being taught mankind by revelation."—Ibid. "From things in it appearing to men foolishness."—Ib., p. 175. "As to the consistency of the members of our society joining themselves to those called free-masons."—N. E. Discip., p. 51. "In either of these cases happening, the person charging is at liberty to bring the matter before the church, who are the only judges now remaining."—Ib., p. 36; Extracts, p. 57. "Deriving its efficacy from the power of God fulfilling his purpose."—Religious World, Vol. ii, p. 235. "We have no idea of any certain portion of time intervening between the time of the action and the time of speaking of it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 33: Murray's, i, 70; Emmons's, 41; and others. The following example therefore, however the participle may seem to be the leading word in sense, is unquestionably wrong; and that in more respects than one: "The reason and time of the Son of God's becoming man."—Brown's Divinity, p. xxii. Many writers would here be satisfied with merely omitting the possessive sign; as does Churchill, in the following example: "The chief cause of this appears to me to lie in grammarians having considered them solely as the signs of tense."—New Gram., p. 243. But this sort of construction, too, whenever the noun before the participle is not the leading word in sense, is ungrammatical. In stead, therefore, of stickling for choice between two such errors, we ought to adopt some better expression; as, "The reason and time of the Saviour's incarnation."—"The chief cause of this appears to me to be, that grammarians have considered them solely as signs of tense."

OBS. 29.—It is certain that the noun or pronoun which "limits the meaning of a participle," cannot always be "put in the genitive" or possessive case; for the sense intended sometimes positively forbids such a construction, and requires the objective: as, "A syllable consists of one or more letters forming one sound."—Allen's Gram., p. 29. The word representing or denoting would here be better than forming, because the letters do not, strictly speaking, form the sound. But chiefly let it be noticed, that the word letters could not with any propriety have been put in the possessive case. Nor is it always necessary or proper, to prefer that case, where the sense may be supposed to admit it; as, "'The example which Mr. Seyer has adduced, of the gerund governing the genitive of the agent.' Dr. Crombie."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 237. "Which possibly might have been prevented by parents doing their duty."—N. E. Discipline, p. 187. "As to the seeming contradiction of One being Three, and Three One."—Religious World, Vol. ii, p. 113. "You have watched them climbing from chair to chair."—PIERPONT: Liberator, Vol. x, p. 22. "Whether the world came into being as it is, by an intelligent Agent forming it thus, or not."—Butler's Analogy, p. 129. "In the farther supposition of necessary agents being thus rewarded and punished."—Ib., p. 140. "He grievously punished the Israelites murmuring for want of water."—Leslie, on Tythes, p. 21. Here too the words, gerund, parents, One, Three, them, Agent, agents, and Israelites, are rightly put in the objective case; yet doubtless some will think, though I do not, that they might as well have been put in the possessive. Respectable writers sometimes use the latter case, where the former would convey the same meaning, and be more regular; as, "Which is used, as active verbs often are, without its regimen's being expressed."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 302. Omit the apostrophe and s; and, if you please, the word being also. "The daily instances of men's dying around us."—Butler's Analogy, p. 113. Say rather,—"of men dying around us." "To prevent our rashly engaging in arduous or dangerous enterprises."—Brown's Divinity, p. 17. Say, "To prevent us from," &c. The following example is manifestly inconsistent with itself; and, in my opinion, the three possessives are all wrong: "The kitchen too now begins to give 'dreadful note of preparation;' not from armourers accomplishing the knights, but from the shop maid's chopping force meat, the apprentice's cleaning knives, and the journeyman's receiving a practical lesson in the art of waiting at table."—West's Letters to a Lady, p. 66. It should be—"not from armorers accomplishing the knights, but from the shopmaid chopping forcemeat, the apprentice cleaning knives, and the journeyman receiving," &c. The nouns are the principal words, and the participles are adjuncts. They might be separated by commas, if semicolons were put where the commas now are.

OBS. 30.—Our authors, good and bad, critics and no critics, with few exceptions, write sometimes the objective case before the participle, and sometimes the possessive, under precisely the same circumstances; as, "We should, presently, be sensible of the melody suffering."—Blair's Rhet., p. 122. "We should, presently, be sensible of the melody's suffering."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 327. "We shall presently be sensible of the melody suffering."—Murray's Exercises, 8vo, p. 60. "We shall presently be sensible of the melody's suffering."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 195. "And I explain what is meant by the nominative case governing the verb, and by the verb agreeing with its nominative case."—Rand's Gram., p. 31. "Take the verb study, and speak of John's studying his lesson, at different times."—Ib., p. 53. "The following are examples of the nominative case being used instead of the objective."—J. M. Putnam's Gram., p. 112. "The following are examples of an adverb's qualifying a whole sentence."—Ib., p. 128. "Where the noun is the name of a person, the cases may also be distinguished by the nominative's answering to WHO, and the objective to WHOM."—Hart's Gram., p. 46. "This depends chiefly on their being more or less emphatic; and on the vowel sound being long or short."—Churchill's Gram., p. 182. "When they speak of a monosyllable having the grave or the acute accent."—Walker's Key, p. 328. Here some would erroneously prefer the possessive case before "having;" but, if any amendment can be effected it is only by inserting as there. "The event of Maria's loving her brother."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 55. "Between that and the man being on it."—Ib., p. 59. "The fact of James placing himself."—Ib., p. 166. "The event of the persons' going."—Ib., p. 165. Here persons' is carelessly put for person's, i.e., James's: the author was parsing the puerile text, "James went into a store and placed himself beside Horatio."—Ib., p. 164. And I may observe, in passing, that Murray and Blair are both wrong in using commas with the adverb presently above.

OBS. 31.—It would be easy to fill a page with instances of these two cases, the objective and the possessive, used, as I may say, indiscriminately; nor is there any other principle by which we can determine which of them is right, or which preferable, than that the leading word in sense ought not to be made the adjunct in the construction, and that the participle, if it remain such, ought rather to relate to its noun, as being the adjunct, than to govern it in the possessive, as being the principal term. To what extent either of these cases may properly be used before the participle, or in what instances either of them may be preferable to the other, it is not very easy to determine. Both are used a great deal too often, filling with blemishes the style of many authors: the possessive, because the participle is not the name of any thing that can be possessed; the objective, because no construction can be right in which the relation of the terms is not formed according to the sense. The former usage I have already criticised to a great extent. Let one example suffice here: "There can be no objection to a syllable's being long, on the ground of its not being so long, or so much protracted, as some other long syllables are."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 242. Some would here prefer syllable to syllable's, but none would be apt to put it for its, without some other change. The sentence may be amended thus: "There can be no objection to a syllable as being long, on the ground that it is not so long as some other syllables."

OBS. 32.—It should be observed, that the use of as between the participle and the noun is very often better than either the adoption of the possessive sign, or the immediate connexion of the two words; as, "Another point constantly brought into the investigation now, is that of military success as forming a claim to civil position."—Boston Daily Advertiser. Concerning examples like the following, it may be questioned, whether the objective is proper or not; whether the possessive would be preferable or not; or whether a better construction than either may not be found: "There is scarce an instance of any one being chosen for a pattern."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 338. "Instead of its authenticity being shaken, it has been rendered more sure than ever."— West's Letters, p. 197. "When there is no longer a possibility of a proper candidate being nominated by either party."—Liberator, Vol. x. p. 9. "On the first stone being thrown, it was returned by a fire of musketry."—Ib., p. 16. "To raise a cry about an innocent person being circumvented by bribery."—Blair's Rhet., p. 276. "Whose principles forbid them taking part in the administration of the government."— Liberator, Vol. x, p. 15. "It can have no other ground than some such imagination, as that of our gross bodies being ourselves."—Butler's Analogy, p. 150. "In consequence of this revelation being made."—Ib., p. 162. If such relations between the participle and the objective be disapproved, the substitution of the possessive case is liable to still stronger objections; but both may be avoided, by the use of the nominative or otherwise: thus, "Scarcely is any one ever chosen for a pattern."— "Its authenticity, in stead of being shaken, has been rendered more sure than ever."—"When there is no longer a possibility that a proper candidate will be nominated by either party."—"As soon as the first stone was thrown, there was returned a fire of musketry."—"To raise a cry, as if an innocent person had been circumvented by bribery."— "Whose principles forbid them to take part in the administration of the government."—"It can have no other ground than some such imagination, as that our gross bodies are ourselves."—"In consequence of this revelation which is made."

OBS. 33.—A recent grammarian quotes Dr. Crombie thus: "Some late writers have discarded a phraseology which appears unobjectionable, and substituted one that seems less correct; and instead of saying, 'Lady Macbeth's walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror,' would say, 'Lady Macbeth walking in her sleep is an incident full of tragic horror.' This seems to me an idle affectation of the Latin idiom, less precise than the common mode of expression, and less consonant with the genius of our language; for, ask what was an incident full of tragic horror, and, according to this phraseology, the answer must be, Lady Macbeth; whereas the meaning is, not that Lady Macbeth, but her walking in her sleep, is an incident full of tragic horror. This phraseology also, in many instances, conveys not the intended idea; for, as Priestley remarks, if it is said, 'What think you of my horse's running to-day?' it is implied that the horse did actually run. If it is said, 'What think you of my horse running to-day?' it is intended to ask whether it be proper for my horse to run to-day. This distinction, though frequently neglected, deserves attention; for it is obvious that ambiguity may arise from using the latter only of these phraseologies to express both meanings."— Maunder's Compendious Eng. Gram., p. 15. (See Crombie's Treatise, p. 288-290.) To this, before any comment is offered, let me add an other quotation: "RULE. A noun before the present participle is put in the possessive case; as, Much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently. Sometimes, however, the sense forbids it to be put in the possessive case; thus, What do you think of my horse running to-day? means, Do you think I should let him run? but, What do you think of my horse's running? means, he has run, do you think he ran well?"— Lennie's Gram., p. 91; Brace's Gram., 94. See Bullions's Gram., p. 107; Hiley's, 94; Murray's, 8vo. 195: Ingersoll's, 201: and many others.

OBS. 34.—Any phraseology that conveys not the intended idea, or that involves such an absurdity as that of calling a lady an "incident" is doubtless sufficiently reprehensible; but, compared with a rule of grammar so ill-devised as to mislead the learner nine times in ten, an occasional ambiguity or solecism is a mere trifle. The word walking, preceded by a possessive and followed by a preposition, as above, is clearly a noun, and not a participle; but these authors probably intend to justify the use of possessives before participles, and even to hold all phraseology of this kind "unobjectionable." If such is not their design, they write as badly as they reason; and if it is, their doctrine is both false and inconsistent. That a verbal noun may govern the possessive case, is certainly no proof that a participle may do so too; and, if these parts of speech are to be kept distinct the latter position must be disallowed: each must "abide by its own construction," as says Lowth. But the practice which these authors speak of, as an innovation of "some late writers," and "an idle affectation of the Latin idiom," is in fact a practice as different from the blunder which they quote, or feign, as their just correction of that blunder is different from the thousand errors or irregularities which they intend to shelter under it. To call a lady an "incident," is just as far from any Latin idiom, as it is from good English; whereas the very thing which they thus object to at first, they afterwards approve in this text: "What think you of my horse running to-day?" This phraseology corresponds with "the Latin idiom;" and it is this, that, in fact, they begin with pronouncing to be "less correct" than, "What think you of my horse's running to-day?"

OBS. 35.—Between these expressions, too, they pretend to fix a distinction of signification; as, if "the horse's running to-day," must needs imply a past action, though, (they suppose,) "the pupil's composing frequently," or, "the horse running to-day," signifies a future one. This distinction of time is altogether imaginary; and the notion, that to prefer the possessive case before participles, is merely to withstand an error of "some late writers," is altogether false. The instructions above cited, therefore, determine nothing rightly, except the inaccuracy of one very uncommon form of expression. For, according to our best grammarians, the simple mode of correction there adopted will scarcely be found applicable to any other text. It will not be right where the participle happens to be transitive, or even where it is qualified by an adverb. From their subsequent examples, it is plain that these gentlemen think otherwise; but still, who can understand what they mean by "the common mode of expression?" What, for instance, would they substitute for the following very inaccurate expression from the critical belles-lettres of Dr. Blair? "A mother accusing her son, and accusing him of such actions, as having first bribed judges to condemn her husband, and having afterwards poisoned him, were circumstances that naturally raised strong prejudices against Cicero's client."—Blair's Lectures, p. 274. Would they say. "A mother's accusing her son, &c., were circumstances," &c.? Is this their "common mode of expression?" and if it is, do they not make "common" what is no better English than the Doctor's? If, to accuse a son, and to accuse him greatly, can be considered different circumstances of the same prosecution, the sentence may be corrected thus: "A mother's accusing of her son, and her charging of him with such actions, as those of having first bribed judges to condemn her husband, and having afterwards poisoned him, were circumstances that naturally raised strong prejudices against Cicero's client."

OBS. 36.—On several occasions, as in the tenth and twelfth observations on Rule 4th, and in certain parts of the present series, some notice has been taken of the equivalence or difference of meaning, real or supposed, between the construction of the possessive, and that of an other case, before the participle; or between the participial and the substantive use of words in ing. Dr. Priestley, to whom, as well as to Dr. Lowth, most of our grammarians are indebted for some of their doctrines respecting this sort of derivatives, pretends to distinguish them, both as constituting different parts of speech, and as conveying different meanings. In one place, he says, "When a word ending in ing is preceded by an article, it seems to be used as a noun; and therefore ought not to govern an other word, without the intervention of a preposition."—Priestley's Gram., p. 157. And in an other: "Many nouns are derived from verbs, and end in ing, like participles of the present tense. The difference between these nouns and participles is often overlooked, and the accurate distinction of the two senses not attended to. If I say, What think you of my horse's running to-day, I use the NOUN running, and suppose the horse to have actually run; for it is the same thing as if I had said, What think you of the running of my horse. But if I say, What think you of my horse running to-day, I use the PARTICIPLE, and I mean to ask, whether it be proper that my horse should run or not: which, therefore, supposes that he had not then run."—Ib., p. 122. Whatever our other critics say about the horse running or the horse's running, they have in general borrowed from Priestley, with whom the remark originated, as it here stands. It appears that Crombie, Murray, Maunder, Lennie, Bullions, Ingersoll, Barnard, Hiley, and others, approve the doctrine thus taught, or at least some part of it; though some of them, if not all, thereby contradict themselves.

ODS. 37.—By the two examples here contrasted, Priestley designed to establish a distinction, not for these texts only, but for all similar expressions—a distinction both of the noun from the participle, and of the different senses which he supposed these two constructions to exhibit. In all this, there is a complete failure. Yet with what remarkable ductility and implicitness do other professed critics take for granted what this superficial philologer so hastily prescribes! By acknowledging with reference to such an application of them, that the two constructions above are both good English, our grammarians do but the more puzzle their disciples respecting the choice between them; just as Priestley himself was puzzled, when he said, "So we may either say, I remember it being reckoned, a great exploit; or, perhaps more elegantly, I remember its being reckoned, &c."—Gram., p. 70. Murray and others omit this "perhaps," and while they allow both forms to be good, decidedly prefer the latter; but neither Priestley, nor any of the rest, ever pretended to discern in these a difference of signification, or even of parts of speech. For my part, in stead of approving either of these readings about the "great exploit," I have rejected both, for reasons which have already been given; and now as to the first two forms of the horserace question, so far as they may strictly be taken for models, I cannot but condemn them also, and for the same reasons: to which reasons may be joined the additional one, that neither expression is well adapted to the sense which the author himself gives to it in his interpretation. If the Doctor designed to ask, "Do you think my horse ran well to-day?" or, "Do you think it proper for my horse to run to-day?" he ought to have used one or the other of these unequivocal and unobjectionable expressions. There is in fact between the others, no such difference of meaning as he imagines; nor does he well distinguish "the NOUN running" from the PARTICIPLE runnning; because he apparently allows the word, in both instances, to be qualified by the adverb to-day.[422]

OBS. 38.—It is clear, that the participle in ing partakes sometimes the nature of its verb and an adjective; so that it relates to a noun, like an adjective, and yet implies time, and, if transitive, governs an object, like a verb: as, "Horses running a race." Hence, by dropping what here distinguishes it as a participle, the word may become an adjective, and stand before its noun; as, "A running brook." So, too, this participle sometimes partakes the nature of its verb and a noun; so that it may be governed by a preposition, like a noun, though in itself it has no cases or numbers, but is indeclinable: as "In running a race." Hence, again, by dropping what distinguishes it as a participle, it may become a noun; as, "Running is a safer sport than wrestling." Now, if to a participle we prefix something which makes it an adjective, we also take away its regimen, by inserting a preposition; as, "A doctrine _un_deserving of praise,"—"A man _un_compromising in his principles." So, if we put before it an article, an adjective, or a possessive, and thus give to the participle a substantive character or relation, there is reason to think, that we ought, in like manner, to take away its regimen, and its adverb too, if it have any, and be careful also to distinguish this noun from the participial adjective; as, "The running of a race,"—"No racing of horses,"—"Your deserving of praise."—"A man's compromising of his principles." With respect to the articles, or any adjectives, it seems now to be generally conceded, that these are signs of substantives; and that, if added to participles, they must cause them to be taken, in all respects, substantively. But with respect to possessives before participles, the common practice of our writers very extensively indulges the mixed construction of which I have said so much, and concerning the propriety of which, the opinions of our grammarians are so various, so confused, and so self-contradictory.

OBS. 39.—Though the participle with a nominative or an objective before it, is not in general, equivalent to the verbal noun or the mixed participle with a possessive before it; and though the significations of the two phrases are often so widely different as to make it palpably absurd to put either for the other; yet the instances are not few in which it makes little or no difference to the sense, which of the two forms we prefer, and therefore, in these instances, I would certainly choose the more simple and regular construction; or, where a better than either can readily be found, reject both. It is also proper to have some regard to the structure of other languages, and to the analogy of General Grammar. If there be "some late writers" who are chargeable with "an idle affectation of the Latin idiom," there are perhaps more who as idly affect what they suppose "consonant with the genius of our language." I allude to those who would prefer the possessive case in a text like the following: "Wherefore is this noise of the city being in an uproar?"'—1 Kings, i, 41. "Quid sibi vult clamor civitatis tumultuantis?"—Vulgate. "[Greek: Gis hæ phonæ tæs poleos æchousæs];"—Septuagint. Literally: "What [means] the clamour of the city resounding?" "Que veut dire ce bruit de la ville qui est ainsi émue?"—French Bible. Literally: "What means this noise of the city which is so moved?" Better English: "What means this noise with which the city rings?" In the following example, there is a seeming imitation of the foregoing Latin or Greek construction; but it may well be doubted whether it would be any improvement to put the word "disciples" in the possessive case; nor is it easy to find a third form which would be better than these: "Their difficulties will not be increased by the intended disciples having ever resided in a Christian country."—West's Letters, p. 119.

OBS. 40.—It may be observed of these different relations between participles and other words, that nouns are much more apt to be put in the nominative or the objective case, than are pronouns. For example: "There is no more of moral principle in the way of abolitionists nominating their own candidates, than in that of their voting for those nominated by others."—GERRIT SMITH: Liberator, Vol. X, p. 17. Indeed, a pronoun of the nominative or the objective case is hardly ever used in such a relation, unless it be so obviously the leading word in sense, as to preclude all question about the construction.[423] And this fact seems to make it the more doubtful, whether it be proper to use nouns in that manner. But it may safely be held, that if the noun can well be considered the leading word in sense, we are at least under no necessity of subjecting it to the government of a mere participle. If it be thought desirable to vary the foregoing example, it may easily be done, thus: "There is no more of moral principle to prevent abolitionists from nominating their own candidates, than to prevent them from voting for those nominated by others." The following example is much like the preceding, but less justifiable: "We see comfort, security, strength, pleasure, wealth, and prosperity, all flowing from men combining together; and misery, weakness, and poverty, ensuing from their acting separately or in opposition to each other."—West's Letters, p. 133. Say rather,—"from men's combining-together," or, "from the just combination of men in society;" and,—"from their separate action, or their opposition to one an other." Take an other example: "If illorum be governed here of negotii, it must be in this order, gratia negotii illorum videndi; and this is, for the sake of their business being seen, and not, for the sake of them being seen."—Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, p. 352. Here the learned critic, in disputing Perizonius's resolution of the phrase, "illorum videndi gratiâ" has written disputable English. But, had he affected the Latin idiom, a nearer imitation of it would have been,—"for the sake of their business's being seen, and not for the sake of their being seen." Or nearer still,—"for the sake of seeing of their business, and not, for the sake of seeing of them." An elegant writer would be apt to avoid all these forms, and say,—"for the sake of seeing their business;" and,—"for the sake of seeing them;" though the former phrase, being but a version of bad Latin, makes no very good sense in any way.

OBS. 41.—Idioms, or peculiarities of expression, are never to be approved or valued, but according to their convenience, utility, or elegance. By this rule, some phrases that are not positively barbarous, may yet be ungrammatical, and a construction that is sometimes allowable, may yet be quite unworthy to be made or reckoned, "the common mode of expression." Thus, in Latin, the infinitive verb is occasionally put for a noun, and taken to signify a property possessed; as, "Tuum scire, [thy to know,] the same as tua scientia, thy knowledge. Pers."—Adam's Gram., p. 153. So, in English, the participle in ing is often taken substantively, when it does not actually become a substantive or noun; as, "Thy knowing this,"—"Our doing so."—West. Such forms of speech, because they are idiomatical, seldom admit of any literal translation, and are never naturalized by any transfer from one language or dialect into an other; nor is it proper for grammarians to justify them, in vernacular speech, except as figures or anomalies that ought not to be generally imitated. It cannot be truly affirmed, that the genius of our language ever requires that participles, as such, should assume the relations of a noun, or govern the possessive case; nor, on the other hand, can it be truly denied, that very excellent and learned writers do sometimes make use of such phraseology. Without disrespect to the many users and approvers of these anomalies, I set down for bad English every mixed construction of the participle, for which the language can furnish an equivalent expression that is more simple and more elegant. The extent to which these comparative barbarisms now abound in English books, and the ridiculous fondness for them, which has been shown by some writers on English grammar, in stead of amounting to any argument in their favour, are in fact, plain proofs of the necessity of an endeavour to arrest so obvious and so pernicious an innovation.

OBS. 42.—A late author observes as follows: "That the English gerund, participle, or verbal noun, in ing, has both an active and a passive signification, there can be little doubt.[424] Whether the Latin gerund has precisely a similar import, or whether it is only active, it may be difficult, and, indeed, after all, it is not of much moment, to ascertain."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 234. The gerund in Latin most commonly governs the case of its own verb, as does the active participle, both in Latin and English: as, "Efferor studio patres vestros videndi. Cic. de sen. 23."—Lily's Gram., p. 96. That is, "I am transported, with a desire of seeing your fathers." But sometimes we find the gerund taken substantively and made to govern the genitive. Or,—to adopt the language of an old grammarian:—"Interdum non invenustè additur gerundiis in di etiam genitivus pluralis: ut, 'Quum illorum videndi gratiâ me in forum contulissem.'—'Novarum [qui] spectandi faciunt copiam.' Ter. Heaut. prol. 29."—Lily's Gram., p. 97. That is, "To gerunds in di there is sometimes not inelegantly added a genitive plural: as, 'When, for the sake of seeing of them, I went into the forum.'—'Who present an opportunity of attending of new ones:' i.e., new comedies." Here the of which is inserted after the participle to mark the genitive case which is added, forms rather an error than an elegance, though some English writers do now and then adopt this idiom. The gerund thus governing the genitive, is not analogous to our participle governing the possessive; because this genitive stands, not for the subject of the being or action, but for what would otherwise be the object of the gerund, or of the participle, as may be seen above. The objection to the participle as governing the possessive, is, that it retains its object or its adverb; for when it does not, it becomes fairly a noun, and the objection is removed. R. Johnson, like many others, erroneously thinks it a noun, even when it governs an objective, and has merely a preposition before it; as, "For the sake of seeing them. Where seeing (says he) is a Substantive."—Gram. Com., p. 353.

OBS. 43.—If the Latin gerund were made to govern the genitive of the agent, and allowed at the same time to retain its government as a gerund, it would then correspond in every thing but declension, to the English participle when made to govern both the possessive case and the objective. But I have before observed that no such analogy appears. The following example has been quoted by Seyer, as a proof that the gerund may govern the genitive of the agent: "Cujus autem in dicendo aliquid reprehensum est—Cic."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 236. That is, (as I understand it,) "But in whose speaking something is reprehended." This seems to me a case in point; though Crombie and Grant will not allow it to be so. But a single example is not sufficient. If the doctrine is true, there must be others. In this solitary instance, it would be easier to doubt the accuracy even of Cicero, than to approve the notion of these two critics, that cujus is here governed by aliquid, and not by the gerund. "Here," says Grant, "I am inclined to concur in opinion with Dr. Crombie, whose words I take the liberty to use, 'That, for the sake of euphony, the gerund is sometimes found governing the genitive of the patient, or subject [say object] of the action, is unquestionable: thus, studio videndi patrum vestrorum. [That is, literally, By a desire of seeing of your fathers.] But I recollect no example, where the gerund is joined with a possessive adjective, or genitive of a noun substantive, where the person is not the patient, but the agent; as, dicendum meum, ejus dicendum, cujus dicendum. [That is, my speaking, his speaking, whose speaking.] In truth, these phraseologies appear to me, not only repugnant to the idiom of the language, but also unfavourable to precision and perspicuity.'"—Grant's Latin Gram., 8vo, p. 236.

OBS. 44.—Of that particular distinction between the participle and the participial noun, which depends on the insertion or omission of the article and the preposition of, a recent grammarian of considerable merit adopts the following views: "This double nature of the participle has led to much irregularity in its use. Thus we find, 'indulging which,' 'indulging of which,' 'the indulging which,' and 'the indulging of which,' used indiscriminately. Lowth very properly instructs us, either to use both the article and the preposition with the participle; as, 'the indulging of which:' or to reject both; as, 'indulging which:' thus keeping the verbal and substantive forms distinct. But he is wrong, as Dr. Crombie justly remarks, in considering these two modes of expression as perfectly similar. Suppose I am told, 'Bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had in hearing Fawcet:' I understand at once, that the eloquence of Fawcet gave Bloomfield great pleasure. But were it said, 'Bloomfield spoke warmly of the pleasure he had in the hearing of Fawcet:' I should be led to conclude merely that the orator was within hearing, when the poet spoke of the pleasure he felt from something, about which I have no information. Accordingly Dr. Crombie suggests as a general rule, conducive at least to perspicuity, and perhaps to elegance; that, when the noun connected with the participle is active, or doing something, the article should be inserted before the participle, and the preposition after it; and, when the noun is passive, or represents the object of an action, both the article and the preposition should be omitted:[425] agreeably to the examples just adduced. It is true, that when the noun following the participle denotes something incapable of the action the participle expresses, no mistake can arise from using either form: as, 'The middle condition seems to be the most advantageously situate for the gaining of wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities.' Addison, Spect., 464. Yet I cannot think it by any means a commendable practice, thus to jumble together different forms; and indeed it is certainly better, as the two modes of expression have different significations, to confine each to its distinct and proper use, agreeably to Dr. Crombie's rule, even when no mistake could arise from interchanging them."—Churchill's Gram., p. 319.

OBS. 45.—The two modes of expression which these grammarians would thus apply constantly to different uses, on the supposition that they have always different significations, are the same that Lindley Murray and his copyists suppose to be generally equivalent, and concerning which it is merely admitted by the latter, that they do "not in every instance convey the same meaning." (See Obs. 27th above.) If Dr. Lowth considered them "as perfectly similar," he was undoubtedly very wrong in this matter: though not more so than these gentlemen, who resolve to interpret them as being perfectly and constantly dissimilar. Dr. Adam says, "There are, both in Latin and [in] English, substantives derived from the verb, which so much resemble the Gerund in their signification, that frequently they may be substituted in its place. They are generally used, however, in a more undetermined sense than the Gerund, and in English, have the article always[426] prefixed to them. Thus, with the gerund, Detector legendo Ciceronem, I am delighted with reading Cicero. But with the substantive, Delector lectione Ciceronis, I am delighted with the reading of Cicero."—Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 142. "Gerunds are so called because they, as it were, signify the thing in gerendo, (anciently written gerundo,) in doing; and, along with the action, convey an idea of the agent."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 70; Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 353. "The reading of Cicero," does not necessarily signify an action of which Cicero is the agent, as Crombie, Churchill, and Hiley choose to expound it; and, since the gerundive construction of words in ing ought to have a definite reference to the agent or subject of the action or being, one may perhaps amend even some of their own phraseology above, by preferring the participial noun: as, "No mistake can arise from the using of either form."—"And riches [turn our thoughts too much] upon the enjoying of our superfluities."—"Even when no mistake could arise from the interchanging of them." Where the agent of the action plainly appears, the gerundive form is to be preferred on account of its brevity; as, "By the observing of truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing truth, &c."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 189. Here the latter phraseology is greatly preferable, though this author did not perceive it. "I thought nothing was to be done by me before the giving of you thanks."—Walker's Particles, p. 63. Say,—"before giving you thanks;" for otherwise the word thanks has no proper construction, the pronoun alone being governed by of—and here again is an error; for "you" ought to be the object of to.

OBS. 46.—In Hiley's Treatise, a work far more comprehensive than the generality of grammars, "the established principles and best usages of the English" Participle are so adroitly summed up, as to occupy only two pages, one in Etymology, and an other in Syntax. The author shows how the participle differs from a verb, and how from an adjective; yet he neither makes it a separate part of speech, nor tells us with what other it ought to be included. In lieu of a general rule for the parsing of all participles, he presents the remark, "Active transitive participles, like their verbs, govern the objective case; as, 'I am desirous of hearing him;' 'Having praised them, he sat down.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 93. This is a rule by which one may parse the few objectives which are governed by participles; but, for the usual construction of participles themselves, it is no rule at all; neither does the grammar, full as it is, contain any. "Hearing" is here governed by of, and "Having praised" relates to he; but this author teaches neither of these facts, and the former he expressly contradicts by his false definition of a preposition. In his first note, is exhibited, in two parts, the false and ill-written rule which Churchill quotes from Crombie. (1.) "When the noun, connected with the participle, is active or doing something, the participle must have an article before it, and the preposition of after it; as, 'In the hearing of the philosopher;' or, 'In the philosopher's hearing;' 'By the preaching of Christ;' or, 'By Christ's preaching.' In these instances," says Hiley, "the words hearing and preaching are substantives." If so, he ought to have corrected this rule, which twice calls them participles; but, in stead of doing that, he blindly adds, by way of alternative, two examples which expressly contradict what the rule asserts. (2.) "But when the noun represents the object of an action, the article and the preposition of must be omitted; as, 'In hearing the philosopher.'"—Ib., p. 94. If this principle is right, my second note below, and most of the corrections under it, are wrong. But I am persuaded that the adopters of this rule did not observe how common is the phraseology which it condemns; as, "For if the casting-away of them be the reconciling of the world, what shall the receiving of them be, but life from the dead?"—Rom., xi, 15. Finally, this author rejects the of which most critics insert when a possessive precedes the verbal noun; justifies and prefers the mixed or double construction of the participle; and, consequently, neither wishes nor attempts to distinguish the participle from the verbal noun. Yet he does not fail to repeat, with some additional inaccuracy, the notion, that, "What do you think of my horse's running? is different to [say from,] What do you think of my horse running?"—Ib., p. 94.

OBS. 47.—That English books in general, and the style of even our best writers, should seldom be found exempt from errors in the construction of participles, will not be thought wonderful, when we consider the multiplicity of uses to which words of this sort are put, and the strange inconsistencies into which all our grammarians have fallen in treating this part of syntax. It is useless, and worse than useless, to teach for grammar any thing that is not true; and no doctrine can be true of which one part palpably oversets an other. What has been taught on the present topic, has led me into a multitude of critical remarks, designed both for the refutation of the principles which I reject, and for the elucidation and defence of those which are presently to be summed up in notes, or special rules, for the correction of false syntax. If my decisions do not agree with the teaching of our common grammarians, it is chiefly because these authors contradict themselves. Of this sort of teaching I shall here offer but one example more, and then bring these strictures to a close: "When present participles are preceded by an article, or pronoun adjective, they become nouns, and must not be followed by objective pronouns, or nouns without a preposition; as, the reading of many books wastes the health. But such nouns, like all others, may be used without an article, being sufficiently discovered by the following preposition; as, he was sent to prepare the way, by preaching of repentance. Also an article, or pronoun adjective, may precede a clause, used as a noun, and commencing with a participle; as, his teaching children was necessary."—Dr. Wilson's Syllabus of English Gram., p. xxx. Here the last position of the learned doctor, if it be true, completely annuls the first; or, if the first be true, the last must needs be false, And, according to Lowth, L. Murray, and many others, the second is as bad as either. The bishop says, concerning this very example, that by the use of the preposition of after the participle preaching, "the phrase is rendered obscure and ambiguous: for the obvious meaning of it, in its present form, is, 'by preaching concerning repentance, or on that subject;' whereas the sense intended is, 'by publishing the covenant of repentance, and declaring repentance to be a condition of acceptance with God.'"—Lowth's Gram., p. 82. "It ought to be, 'by the preaching of repentance;' or, by preaching repentance."—Murray's Gram., p. 193.

NOTES TO RULE XX.

NOTE I.—Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived; the preposition of, therefore, should never be used after the participle, when the verb does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, of is improper: "Keeping of one day in seven;"—"By preaching of repentance;"—"They left beating of Paul."

NOTE II.—When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, of must be inserted to govern the object following; as, "So that there was no withstanding of him."—Walker's Particles. p. 252. "The cause of their salvation doth not so much arise from their embracing of mercy, as from God's exercising of it"—Penington's Works, Vol. ii, p. 91. "Faith is the receiving of Christ with the whole soul."—Baxter. "In thy pouring-out of thy fury upon Jerusalem."—Ezekiel, ix, 8.

NOTE III.—When the insertion of the word of, to complete the conversion of the transitive participle into a noun, produces ambiguity or harshness, some better phraseology must be chosen. Example: "Because the action took place prior to the taking place of the other past action."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 140. Here the words prior and place have no regular construction; and if we say, "prior to the taking of place of the other," we make the jumble still worse. Say therefore, "Because the action took place before the other past action;"—or, "Because the action took place previously to the other past action."

NOTE IV.—When participles become nouns, their adverbs should either become adjectives, or be taken as parts of such nouns, written as compound words: or, if neither of these methods be agreeable, a greater change should be made. Examples of error: 1. "Rightly understanding a sentence, depends very much on a knowledge of its grammatical construction."—Comly's Gram., 12th Ed., p. 8. Say, "The right understanding of a sentence," &c. 2. "Elopement is a running away, or private departure."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book. p. 102. Write "running-away" as one word. 3. "If they [Milton's descriptions] have any faults, it is their alluding too frequently to matters of learning, and to fables of antiquity."—Blair's Rhet., p. 451. Say, "If they have any fault, it is that they allude too frequently," &c.

NOTE V.—When the participle is followed by an adjective, its conversion into a noun appears to be improper; because the construction of the adjective becomes anomalous, and its relation doubtful: as, "When we speak of 'ambition's being restless' or, 'a disease's being deceitful.'"—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 346; Kirkham's, p. 224. This ought to be, "When we speak of ambition as being restless, or a disease as being deceitful;" but Dr. Blair, from whom the text originally came, appears to have written it thus: "When we speak of ambition's being restless, or a disease being deceitful."—LECT. xvi, p. 155. This is inconsistent with itself; for one noun is possessive, and the other, objective. NOTE VI.—When a compound participle is converted into a noun, the hyphen seems to be necessary, to prevent ambiguity; but such compound nouns are never elegant, and it is in general better to avoid them, by some change in the expression. Example: "Even as the being healed of a wound, presupposeth the plaster or salve: but not, on the contrary; for the application of the plaster presupposeth not the being healed."—Barclays Works, Vol. i, p. 143. The phrase, "the being healed" ought to mean only, the creature healed; and not, the being-healed, or the healing received, which is what the writer intended. But the simple word healing might have been used in the latter sense; for, in participial nouns, the distinction of voice and of tense are commonly disregarded.

NOTE VII.—A participle should not be used where the infinitive mood, the verbal noun, a common substantive, or a phrase equivalent, will better express the meaning. Examples: 1. "But placing an accent on the second syllable of these words, would entirely derange them."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 239. Say rather, "But, to place an accent—But the placing of an accent—or, But an accent placed on the second syllable of these words, would entirely derange them." 2. "To require their being in that case."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 21. Say, "To require them to be in that case." 3. "She regrets not having read it."—West's Letters, p. 216. Say, "She regrets that she has not read it." Or, "She does not regret that she has read it." For the text is equivocal, and admits either of these senses.

NOTE VIII.—A participle used for a nominative after be, is, was, &c., produces a construction which is more naturally understood to be a compound form of the verb; and which is therefore not well adapted to the sense intended, when one tells what something is, was, or may be. Examples: 1. "Whose business is shoeing animals."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 365. Say, "Whose business it is, to shoe animals;"—or, "Whose business is the shoeing of animals." 2. "This was in fact converting the deposite to his own use."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 200. Say rather, "This was in fact a converting of the deposite to his own use."—Ib.

NOTE IX.—Verbs of preventing should be made to govern, not the participle in ing, nor what are called substantive phrases, but the objective case of a noun or pronoun; and if a participle follow, it ought to be governed by the preposition from: as, "But the admiration due to so eminent a poet, must not prevent us from remarking some other particulars in which he has failed."—Blair's Rhet., p. 438. Examples of error: 1. "I endeavoured to prevent letting him escape"—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 150. Say,—"to prevent his escape." 2. "To prevent its being connected with the nearest noun."—Churchill's Gram., p. 367. Say, "To prevent it from being connected," &c. 3. "To prevent it bursting out with open violence."—Robertson's America, Vol. ii, p. 146. Say, "To prevent it from bursting out," &c. 4. "To prevent their injuring or murdering of others."—Brown's Divinity, p. 26. Say rather, "To prevent them from injuring or murdering others."

NOTE X.—In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in sense should always be made the leading or governing word in the construction; and where there is reason to doubt whether the possessive case or some other ought to come before the participle, it is better to reject both, and vary the expression. Examples: "Any person may easily convince himself of the truth of this, by listening to foreigners conversing in a language [which] he does not understand."—Churchill's Gram., p. 361. "It is a relic of the ancient style abounding with negatives."—Ib., p. 367. These forms are right; though the latter might be varied, by the insertion of "which abounds" for "abounding." But the celebrated examples before cited, about the "lady holding up her train," or the "lady's holding up her train,"—the "person dismissing his servant," or the "person's dismissing his servant,"—the "horse running to-day," or the "horse's running to-day,"—and many others which some grammarians suppose to be interchangeable, are equally bad in both forms.

NOTE XI.—Participles, in general, however construed, should have a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, action, or passion. The following sentence is therefore faulty: "By establishing good laws, our peace is secured."—Russell's Gram., p. 88; Folker's, p. 27. Peace not being the establisher of the laws, these authors should have said, "By establishing good laws, we secure our peace." "There will be no danger of spoiling their faces, or of gaining converts."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 201. This sentence is to me utterly unintelligible. If the context were known, there might possibly be some sense in saying, "They will be in no danger of spoiling their faces," &c. "The law is annulled, in the very act of its being made."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 267. "The act of MAKING a law," is a phrase intelligible; but, "the act of its BEING MADE," is a downright solecism—a positive absurdity.

NOTE XII.—A needless or indiscriminate use of participles for nouns, or of nouns for participles, is inelegant, if not improper, and ought therefore to be avoided. Examples: "Of denotes possession or belonging."— Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 118; Ingersoll's, 71. "The preposition of, frequently implies possession, property, or belonging to."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 137. Say, "Of frequently denotes possession, or the relation of property." "England perceives the folly of the denying of such concessions."—Nixon's Parser, p. 149. Expunge the and the last of, that denying may stand as a participle.

NOTE XIII.—Perfect participles being variously formed, care should be taken to express them agreeably to the best usage, and also to distinguish them from the preterits of their verbs, where there is any difference of form. Example: "It would be well, if all writers who endeavour to be accurate, would be careful to avoid a corruption at present so prevalent, of saying, it was wrote, for, it was written; he was drove, for, he was driven; I have went, for, I have gone, &c., in all which instances a verb is absurdly used to supply the proper participle, without any necessity from the want of such word."—Harris's Hermes, p. 186.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XX.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—EXPUNGE OF.

"In forming of his sentences, he was very exact."—Error noticed by
Murray, Vol. i, p. 194.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the preposition of is used after the participle forming, whose verb does not require it. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 20th, "Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are derived; the preposition of, therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb does not require it." Therefore, of should be omitted; thus, "In forming his sentences, he was very exact."]

"For not believing of which I condemn them"—Barclay's Works, iii. 354. "To prohibit his hearers from reading of that book."—Ib., i, 223. "You will please them exceedingly, in crying down of ordinances."—MITCHELL: ib., i, 219. "The war-wolf subsequently became an engine for casting of stones,"—Constable's Miscellany, xxi, 117. "The art of dressing of hides and working in leather was practised."—Ib., xxi, 101. "In the choice they had made of him, for restoring of order."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 37. "The Arabians exercised themselves by composing of orations and poems."—Sale's Koran, p. 17. "Behold, the widow-woman was there gathering of sticks."—1 Kings, xvii, 10. "The priests were busied in offering of burnt-offerings."—2 Chron., xxxv, 14. "But Asahel would not turn aside from following of him."—2 Sam., ii, 21. "He left off building of Ramah, and dwelt in Tirzah."—1 Kings, xv, 21. "Those who accuse us of denying of it, belie us."—Barclay's Works, iii, 280. "And breaking of bread from house to house."—Ib., i, 192. "Those that set about repairing of the walls."—Ib., i, 459. "And secretly begetting of divisions."—Ib., i, 521. "Whom he had made use of in gathering of his church."—Ib., i, 535. "In defining and distinguishing of the acceptions and uses of those particles."—Walker's Particles, p. 12.

   "In punishing of this, we overthrow
    The laws of nations, and of nature too."—Dryden, p. 92.

UNDER NOTE II.—ARTICLES REQUIRE OF.

"The mixing them makes a miserable jumble of truth and fiction."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 357. "The same objection lies against the employing statues."—Ib., ii, 358. "More efficacious than the venting opulence upon the Fine Arts."—Ib., Vol. i, p. viii. "It is the giving different names to the same object."—Ib., ii, 19. "When we have in view the erecting a column."—Ib., ii, 56. "The straining an elevated subject beyond due bounds, is a vice not so frequent."—Ib., i, 206. "The cutting evergreens in the shape of animals is very ancient."—Ib., ii, 327. "The keeping juries, without meet, drink or fire, can be accounted for only on the same idea."—Webster's Essays, p. 301. "The writing the verbs at length on his slate, will be a very useful exercise."—Beck's Gram., p. 20. "The avoiding them is not an object of any moment."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 180. "Comparison is the increasing or decreasing the Signification of a Word by degrees."—British Gram., p. 97. "Comparison is the Increasing or Decreasing the Quality by Degrees."—Buchanan's English Syntax, p. 27. "The placing a Circumstance before the Word with which it is connected, is the easiest of all Inversion."—Ib., p. 140. "What is emphasis? It is the emitting a stronger and fuller sound of voice," &c.—Bradley's Gram., p. 108. "Besides, the varying the terms will render the use of them more familiar."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 25. "And yet the confining themselves to this true principle, has misled them!"—Horne Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 15. "What is here commanded, is merely the relieving his misery."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 417. "The accumulating too great a quantity of knowledge at random, overloads the mind instead of adorning it."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 5. "For the compassing his point."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 35. "To the introducing such an inverted order of things."—Butler's Analogy, p. 95. "Which require only the doing an external action."—Ib., p. 185. "The imprisoning my body is to satisfy your wills."—GEO. FOX: Sewel's Hist., p. 47. "Who oppose the conferring such extensive command on one person."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 130. "Luxury contributed not a little to the enervating their forces."—Sale's Koran, p. 49. "The keeping one day of the week for a sabbath."—Barclay's Works, i. 202. "The doing a thing is contrary to the forbearing of it."—Ib., i, 527. "The doubling the Sigma is, however, sometimes regular."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 29. "The inserting the common aspirate too, is improper."—Ib., p. 134. "But in Spenser's time the pronouncing the ed seems already to have been something of an archaism."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 656. "And to the reconciling the effect of their verses on the eye."—Ib., i, 659. "When it was not in their power to hinder the taking the whole."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 155. "He had indeed given the orders himself for the shutting the gates."—Ibid. "So his whole life was a doing the will of the Father."—Penington, iv, 99. "It signifies the suffering or receiving the action expressed."—Priestley's Gram., p. 37. "The pretended crime therefore was the declaring himself to be the Son of God."—West's Letters, p. 210. "Parsing is the resolving a sentence into its different parts of speech."—Beck's Gram., p. 26.

UNDER NOTE II.—ADJECTIVES REQUIRE OF.

"There is no expecting the admiration of beholders."—Baxter. "There is no hiding you in the house."—Shakspeare. "For the better regulating government in the province of Massachusetts."—British Parliament. "The precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 6. "[This state of discipline] requires the voluntary foregoing many things which we desire, and setting ourselves to what we have no inclination to."—Butler's Analogy, p. 115. "This amounts to an active setting themselves against religion."—Ib., p. 264. "Which engaged our ancient friends to the orderly establishing our Christian discipline."—N. E. Discip., p. 117. "Some men are so unjust that there is no securing our own property or life, but by opposing force to force."—Brown's Divinity, p. 26. "An Act for the better securing the Rights and Liberties of the Subject."—Geo. III, 31st. "Miraculous curing the sick is discontinued."—Barclay's Works, iii, 137. "It would have been no transgressing the apostle's rule."—Ib., p. 146. "As far as consistent with the proper conducting the business of the House."—Elmore, in Congress, 1839. "Because he would have no quarrelling at the just condemning them at that day."—Law and Grace, p. 42. "That transferring this natural manner—will ensure propriety."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 372. "If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old turning the key."—Macbeth, Act ii, Sc. 3.

UNDER NOTE II.—POSSESSIVES REQUIRE OF.

"So very simple a thing as a man's wounding himself."—Blair's Rhet., p. 97; Murray's Gram., p. 317. "Or with that man's avowing his designs."—Blair, p. 104; Murray, p. 308; Parker and Fox, Part III, p. 88. "On his putting the question."—Adams's Rhet., Vol. ii, p. 111. "The importance of teachers' requiring their pupils to read each section many times over."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 169. "Politeness is a kind of forgetting one's self in order to be agreeable to others."—Ramsay's Cyrus. "Much, therefore, of the merit, and the agreeableness of epistolary writing, will depend on its introducing us into some acquaintance with the writer."—Blair's Rhet., p. 370; Mack's Dissertation in his Gram., p. 175. "Richard's restoration to respectability, depends on his paying his debts."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 176. "Their supplying ellipses where none ever existed; their parsing words of sentences already full and perfect, as though depending on words understood."—Ib., p. 375. "Her veiling herself and shedding tears," &c., "her upbraiding Paris for his cowardice," &c.—Blair's Rhet., p. 433. "A preposition may be known by its admitting after it a personal pronoun, in the objective case."—Murray's Gram., p. 28; Alger's, 14; Bacon's, 10; Merchant's, 18; and others. "But this forms no just objection to its denoting time."—Murray's Gram., p. 65. "Of men's violating or disregarding the relations which God has placed them in here."—Butler's Analogy, p. 164. "Success, indeed, no more decides for the right, than a man's killing his antagonist in a duel."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 295. "His reminding them."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 123. "This mistake was corrected by his preceptor's causing him to plant some beans."—Ib., p. 235. "Their neglecting this was ruinous."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 82. "That he was serious, appears from his distinguishing the others as 'finite.'"—Felch's Gram., p. 10. "His hearers are not at all sensible of his doing it."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 119.

UNDER NOTE III.—CHANGE THE EXPRESSION.

"An allegory is the saying one thing, and meaning another; a double-meaning or dilogy is the saying only one thing, but having two in view."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 461. "A verb may generally be distinguished, by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it."—Murray's Gram., p. 28; Alger's, 13; Bacon's, 10; Comly's, and many others. "A noun may, in general, be distinguished by its taking an article before it, or by its making sense of itself."—Merchant's Gram., p. 17; Murray's, 27; &c. "An Adjective may usually be known by its making sense with the addition of the word thing: as, a good thing; a bad thing."—Same Authors. "It is seen in the objective case, from its denoting the object affected by the act of leaving."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 44. "It is seen in the possessive case, from its denoting the possessor of something."—Ibid. "The name man is caused by the adname whatever to be twofold subjective case, from its denoting, of itself, one person as the subject of the two remarks."—Ib., p. 56. "When, as used in the last line, is a connective, from its joining that line to the other part of the sentence."—Ib., p. 59. "From their denoting reciprocation."—Ib., p. 64. "To allow them the making use of that liberty."—Sale's Koran, p. 116. "The worst effect of it is, the fixing on your mind a habit of indecision."—Todd's Student's Manual, p. 60. "And you groan the more deeply, as you reflect that there is no shaking it off."—Ib., p. 47. "I know of nothing that can justify the having recourse to a Latin translation of a Greek writer."—Coleridge's Introduction, p. 16. "Humour is the making others act or talk absurdly."—Hazlitt's Lectures. "There are remarkable instances of their not affecting each other."—Butler's Analogy, p. 150. "The leaving Cæsar out of the commission was not from any slight."—Life of Cicero, p. 44. "Of the receiving this toleration thankfully I shall say no more."—Dryden's Works, p. 88. "Henrietta was delighted with Julia's working lace so very well."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 255. "And it is from their representing each two different words that the confusion has arisen."—Booth's Introd., p. 42. "Æschylus died of a fracture of his skull, caused by an eagle's letting fall a tortoise on his head."—Biog. Dict. "He doubted their having it."—Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 81. "The making ourselves clearly understood, is the chief end of speech."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 68. "There is no discovering in their countenances, any signs which are the natural concomitants of the feelings of the heart."—Ib., p. 165. "Nothing can be more common or less proper than to speak of a river's emptying itself."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 186. "Our not using the former expression, is owing to this."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 59.

UNDER NOTE IV.—DISPOSAL OF ADVERBS.

"To this generally succeeds the division, or the laying down the method of the discourse."—Blair's Rhet., p. 311. "To the pulling down of strong holds."—2 Cor., x, 4. "Can a mere buckling on a military weapon infuse courage?"—Brown's Estimate, i, 62. "Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health."—Murray's Gram., i, 234. "By living frugally and temperately, health is preserved."—Ibid. "By living temperately, our health is promoted."—Ib., p. 227. "By the doing away of the necessity."—The Friend, xiii, 157. "He recommended to them, however, the immediately calling of the whole community to the church."—Gregory's Dict., w. Ventriloquism. "The separation of large numbers in this manner certainly facilitates the reading them rightly."—Churchill's Gram., p. 303. "From their merely admitting of a twofold grammatical construction."—Philol. Museum, i. 403. "His gravely lecturing his friend about it."—Ib., i, 478. "For the blotting out of sin."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 140. "From the not using of water."—Barclay's Works, i, 189. "By the gentle dropping in of a pebble."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 125. "To the carrying on a great part of that general course of nature."—Butler's Analogy, p. 127. "Then the not interposing is so far from being a ground of complaint."—Ib., p. 147. "The bare omission, or rather the not employing of what is used."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 180; Jamieson's, 48. "Bringing together incongruous adverbs is a very common fault."—Churchill's Gram., p. 329. "This is a presumptive proof of its not proceeding from them."—Butler's Analogy, p. 186. "It represents him in a character to which the acting unjustly is peculiarly unsuitable."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 372. "They will aim at something higher than merely the dealing out of harmonious sounds."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 65. "This is intelligible and sufficient; and going farther seems beyond the reach of our faculties."—Butler's Analogy, p. 147. "Apostrophe is a turning off from the regular course of the subject."—Murray's Gram., p. 348; Jamieson's Rhet., 185. "Even Isabella was finally prevailed upon to assent to the sending out a commission to investigate his conduct."—Life of Columbus. "For the turning away of the simple shall slay them."—Prov., i, 32.

   "Thick fingers always should command
    Without the stretching out the hand."—King's Poems, p. 585.

UNDER NOTE V.—PARTICIPLES WITH ADJECTIVES.

"Is there any Scripture speaks of the light's being inward?"—Barclay's Works, i, 367. "For I believe not the being positive therein essential to salvation."—Ib., iii, 330. "Our not being able to act an uniform right part without some thought and care."—Butler's Analogy, p. 122. "Upon supposition of its being reconcileable with the constitution of nature."—Ib., p. 128. "Upon account of its not being discoverable by reason or experience."—Ib., p. 170. "Upon account of their being unlike the known course of nature."—Ib., p. 171. "Our being able to discern reasons for them, gives a positive credibility to the history of them."—Ib., p. 174. "From its not being universal."—Ib., p. 175. "That they may be turned into the passive participle in dus is no decisive argument in favour of their being passive."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 233. "With the implied idea of St. Paul's being then absent from the Corinthians."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 123. "On account of its becoming gradually weaker, until it finally dies away into silence."—Ib., p. 32. "Not without the author's being fully aware."—Ib., p. 84. "Being witty out of season, is one sort of folly."—Sheffield's Works, ii. 172. "Its being generally susceptible of a much stronger evidence."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 102. "At least their being such rarely enhanceth our opinion, either of their abilities or of their virtues."—Ib., p. 162. "Which were the ground of our being one."—Barclay's Works, i, 513. "But they may be distinguished from it by their being intransitive."—Murray's Gram., i, 60. "To distinguish the higher degree of our persuasion of a thing's being possible."—Churchill's Gram., p. 234.

   "His being idle, and dishonest too,
    Was that which caus'd his utter overthrow."—Tobitt's Gram., p. 61.

UNDER NOTE VI.—COMPOUND VERBAL NOUNS.

"When it denotes being subjected to the exertion of another."—Booth's Introd., p. 37. "In a passive sense, it signifies being subjected to the influence of the action."—Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 60. "The being abandoned by our friends is very deplorable."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 181. "Without waiting for their being attacked by the Macedonians."—Ib., ii, 97. "In progress of time, words were wanted to express men's being connected with certain conditions of fortune."—Blair's Rhet., p. 135. "Our being made acquainted with pain and sorrow, has a tendency to bring us to a settled moderation."—Butler's Analogy, p. 121. "The chancellor's being attached to the king secured his crown; The general's having failed in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace; John's having been writing a long time had wearied him."—Murray's Gram., p. 66; Sanborn's, 171; Cooper's, 96; Ingersoll's, 46; Fisk's, 83; and others. "The sentence should be, 'John's having been writing a long time has wearied him.'"—Wright's Gram., p. 186. "Much depends on this rule's being observed."—Murray's Key, ii, 195. "He mentioned a boy's having been corrected for his faults; The boy's having been corrected is shameful to him."—Alger's Gram., p. 65; Merchant's, 93. "The greater the difficulty of remembrance is, and the more important the being remembered is to the attainment of the ultimate end."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 90. "If the parts in the composition of similar objects were always in equal quantity, their being compounded would make no odds."—Ib., p. 65. "Circumstances, not of such importance as that the scope of the relation is affected by their being known."—Ib., p. 379. "A passive verb expresses the receiving of an action or the being acted upon; as, 'John is beaten'"—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 16. "So our Language has another great Advantage, namely its not being diversified by Genders."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 20. "The having been slandered is no fault of Peter."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 82. "Without being Christ's friends, there is no being justified."—William Penn. "Being accustomed to danger, begets intrepidity, i.e. lessens fear."—Butler's Analogy, p. 112. "It is, not being affected so and so, but acting, which forms those habits."—Ib., p. 113. "In order to our being satisfied of the truth of the apparent paradox."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 164. "Tropes consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning."—Blair's Rhet., p. 132; Jamieson's, 140; Murray's Gram., 337; Kirkham's, 222. "A Trope consists in a word's being employed," &c.—Hiley's Gram., p. 133. "The scriptural view of our being saved from punishment."—Gurney's Evidences, p. 124. "To submit and obey, is not a renouncing a being led by the Spirit."—Barclay's Works, i, 542.

UNDER NOTE VII.—PARTICIPLES FOR INFINITIVES, &C.

"Teaching little children is a pleasant employment."—Bartlett's School Manual, ii, 68. "Denying or compromising principles of truth is virtually denying their divine Author."—Reformer, i, 34. "A severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear being retrenched."—Blair's Rhet., p. 206. "Never attempt prolonging the pathetic too much."—Ib., p. 323. "I now recollect having mentioned a report of that nature."— Whiting's Reader, p. 132. "Nor of the necessity which there is for their being restrained in them."—Butler's Analogy, p. 116. "But doing what God commands, because he commands it, is obedience, though it proceeds from hope or fear."—Ib., p. 124. "Simply closing the nostrils does not so entirely prevent resonance."—Music of Nature, p. 484. "Yet they absolutely refuse doing so."—Harris's Hermes, p. 264. "But Artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning him."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 173. "Doing them in the best manner is signified by the name of these arts."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 360. "Behaving well for the time to come, may be insufficient." —Butler's Analogy, p. 198. "The compiler proposed publishing that part by itself."—Dr. Adam, Rom. Antiq., p. v. "To smile upon those we should censure, is bringing guilt upon ourselves."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 108. "But it would be doing great injustice to that illustrious orator to bring his genius down to the same level."—Ib., p. 28. "Doubting things go ill, often hurts more than to be sure they do."—Beauties of Shak., p. 203. "This is called straining a metaphor."—Blair's Rhet., p. 150; Murray's Gram., i, 341. "This is what Aristotle calls giving manners to the poem."—Blair's Rhet., p. 427. "The painter's being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, deprives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same action."—Murray's Gram., i, 195. "It imports retrenching all superfluities, and pruning the expression."— Blair's Rhet., p. 94; Jamieson's, 64; Murray's Gram., p. 301; Kirkham's, 220. "The necessity for our being thus exempted is further apparent."—West's Letters, p. 40. "Her situation in life does not allow of her being genteel in every thing."—Ib., p. 57. "Provided you do not dislike being dirty when you are invisible."—Ib., p. 58. "There is now an imperious necessity for her being acquainted with her title to eternity."—Ib., p. 120. "Discarding the restraints of virtue, is misnamed ingenuousness."—Ib., p. 105. "The legislature prohibits opening shop of a Sunday."—Ib., p. 66. "To attempt proving that any thing is right."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 256. "The comma directs making a pause of a second in duration, or less."—Ib., p. 280. "The rule which directs putting other words into the place of it, is wrong."—Ib., p. 326. "They direct calling the specifying adjectives or adnames adjective pronouns."— Ib., p. 338. "William dislikes attending court."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 82. "It may perhaps be worth while remarking that Milton makes a distinction."—Philological Museum, i, 659. "Professing regard, and acting differently, discover a base mind."—Murray's Key, p. 206; Bullions's E. Gram., pp. 82 and 112; Lennie's, 58. "Professing regard and acting indifferently, discover a base mind."—Weld's Gram., Improved Edition, p. 59. "You have proved beyond contradiction, that acting thus is the sure way to procure such an object."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 92.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—PARTICIPLES AFTER BE, IS, &C.

"Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts."—Murray's Gram., p. 353; Kirkham's, 225; Goldsbury's, 90. "Irony is saying one thing and meaning the reverse of what that expression would represent."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 303. "An Irony is dissembling or changing the proper signification of a word or sentence to quite the contrary."—Fisher's Gram., p. 151. "Irony is expressing ourselves contrary to what we mean."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 280. "This is in a great Measure delivering their own Compositions."—Buchanan's Gram., p. xxvi. "But purity is using rightly the words of the language."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 59. "But the most important object is settling the English quantity."—Walker's Key. p. 17. "When there is no affinity, the transition from one meaning to another is taking a very wide step."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 293. "It would be losing time to attempt further to illustrate it."—Ib., p. 79. "This is leaving the sentence too bare, and making it to be, if not nonsense, hardly sense."—Cobbett's Gram., ¶220. "This is requiring more labours from every private member."—West's Letters, p. 120. "Is not this using one measure for our neighbours, and another for ourselves?"—Ib., p. 200. "Is it not charging God foolishly, when we give these dark colourings to human nature?"—Ib., p. 171. "This is not enduring the cross as a disciple of Jesus Christ, but snatching at it like a partizan of Swift's Jack."—Ib., p. 175. "What is Spelling? It is combining letters to form syllables and words."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 18. "It is choosing such letters to compose words," &c.—Ibid. "What is Parsing? (1.) It is describing the nature, use, and powers of words."—Ib., pp. 22 and 192. (2.) "For parsing is describing the words of a sentence as they are used."—Ib., p. 10. (3.) "Parsing is only describing the nature and relations of words as they are used."—Ib., p. 11. (4.) "Parsing, let the pupil understand and remember, is describing facts concerning words; or representing them in their offices and relations as they are."—Ib., p. 34. (5.) "Parsing is resolving and explaining words according to the rules of grammar."—Ib., p. 326. (6.) "Parsing a word, remember, is enumerating and describing its various relations and qualities, and its grammatical relations to other words in the sentence."—Ib., p. 325. (7.) "For parsing a word is enumerating and describing its various properties and relations to the sentence."—Ib., p. 326. (8.) "Parsing a noun is telling of what person, number, gender, and case, it is; and also telling all its grammatical relations in a sentence with respect to other words."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 16. (9.) "Parsing any part of speech is telling all its properties and relations."—Ibid. (10.) "Parsing is resolving a sentence into its elements."—Fowler's E. Gram., 1850, §588. "The highway of the righteous is, departing from evil."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 168. "Besides, the first step towards exhibiting truth should be removing the veil of error."—Ib., p. 377. "Punctuation is dividing sentences and the words of sentences, by pauses."—Ib., p. 280. "Another fault is using the preterimperfect shook instead of the participle shaken"—Churchill's Gram., p. 259. "Her employment is drawing maps."—Alger's Gram., p. 65. "Going to the play, according to his notion, is leading a sensual life, and exposing ones self to the strongest temptations. This is begging the question, and therefor requires no answer."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 217. "It is overvaluing ourselves to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities."—Murray's Gram., i, 193; Ingersoll's, 199. "What is vocal language? It is speaking; or expressing ideas by the human voice."—Sanders, Spelling-Book, p. 7.

UNDER NOTE IX.—VERBS OF PREVENTING.

"The annulling power of the constitution prevented that enactment's becoming a law."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 267. "Which prevents the manner's being brief."—Ib., p. 365. "This close prevents their bearing forward as nominatives."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 153. "Because this prevents its growing drowzy."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 5. "Yet this does not prevent his being great."—Ib., p. 27. "To prevent its being insipid."—Ib., p. 112. "Or whose interruptions did not prevent its being continued."—Ib., p. 167. "This by no means prevents their being also punishments."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 123. "This hinders not their being also, in the strictest sense, punishments."—Ibid., "The noise made by the rain and wind prevented their being heard."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 118. "He endeavoured to prevent its taking effect."—Ib., i, 128. "So sequestered as to prevent their being explored."—West's Letters, p. 62. "Who prevented her making a more pleasant party."—Ib., p. 65. "To prevent our being tossed about by every wind of doctrine."—Ib., p. 123. "After the infirmities of age prevented his bearing his part of official duty."—Religious World, ii, 193. "To prevent splendid trifles passing for matters of importance."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 310. "Which prevents his exerting himself to any good purpose."—Beattie's Moral Science, i, 146. "The want of the observance of this rule, very frequently prevents our being punctual in our duties."—Student's Manual, p. 65. "Nothing will prevent his being a student, and his possessing the means of study."—Ib., p. 127. "Does the present accident hinder your being honest and brave?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 51. "The e is omitted to prevent two es coming together."—Fowle's Gram., p. 34. "A pronoun is used for or in place of a noun.—to prevent repeating the noun."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 13. "Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents it being tired with the too frequent recurrence of the rhymes."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 166. "Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents its being tired," &c.—Murray's Gram., i. p. 362. "Timidity and false shame prevent our opposing vicious customs."—Murray's Key, ii, 236; Sanborn's Gram., 171; Merchant's, 205. "To prevent their being moved by such."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 155. "Some obstacle or impediment, that prevents its taking place."—Priestley's Gram., p. 38. "Which prevents our making a progress towards perfection."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 4. "This method of distinguishing words, must prevent any regular proportion of time being settled."—Ib., p. 67. "That nothing but affectation can prevent its always taking place."—Ib., p. 78. "This did not prevent John's being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy."—HENRY: Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 182; his Improved Gram., 130; Sanborn's Gram., 189; Fowler's, 8vo, 1850, p. 541.

UNDER NOTE X.—THE LEADING WORD IN SENSE.

"This would preclude the possibility of a nouns' or any other word's ever being in the possessive case."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 338. "A great part of our pleasure arises from the plan or story being well conducted."—Blair's Rhet., p. 18, "And we have no reason to wonder at this being the case."—Ib., p. 249. "She objected only, as Cicero says, to Oppianicus having two sons by his present wife."—Ib., p. 274. "The Britons being subdued by the Saxons, was a necessary consequence of their having called in these Saxons, to their assistance."—Ib., p. 329. "What he had there said, concerning the Saxons expelling the Britons, and changing the customs, the religion, and the language of the country, is a clear and good reason for our present language being Saxon rather than British."—Ib., p. 230. "The only material difference between them, besides the one being short and the other being prolonged, is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that are connected with it."—Ib., p. 151; Murray's Gram., p. 342. "The description of Death's advancing to meet Satan, on his arrival."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 156. "Is not the bare fact of God being the witness of it, sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon?"—Chalmers, Serm., p. 288. "As in the case of one entering upon a new study."—Beattie's Moral Science, i, 77. "The manner of these affecting the copula is called the imperative mode."—BP. WILKINS: Lowth's Gram., p. 43. "We are freed from the trouble, by our nouns having no diversity of endings."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 20. "The Verb is rather indicative of the actions being doing, or done, than the time when, but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable."—Booth's Introd., p. 69. "Nobody would doubt of this being a sufficient proof."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 66. "Against the doctrine here maintained, of conscience being, as well as reason, a natural faculty."—Beattie's M. Sci., i, 263. "It is one cause of the Greek and English languages being much more easy to learn, than the Latin."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 25. "I have not been able to make out a solitary instance of such being the fact."—Liberator, x, 40. "An angel's forming the appearance of a hand, and writing the king's condemnation on the wall, checked their mirth, and filled them with terror."—Wood's Dict., w. Belshazzar. "The prisoners' having attempted to escape, aroused the keepers."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 357. "I doubt not, in the least, of this having been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world."—Blair's Rhet., p. 155. "From the general rule he lays down, of the verbs being the parent word of all language."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 227. "He was accused of himself being idle."—Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 52. "Our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him so removing."—Wm. Edmondson. "The spectacle is too rare of men's deserving solid fame while not seeking it."—Prof. Bush's Lecture on Swedenborg. "What further need was there of an other priest rising?"—See Key.

UNDER NOTE XI.—REFERENCE OF PARTICIPLES.

"Viewing them separately, different emotions are produced."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 344. "But leaving this doubtful, another objection occurs."—Ib., ii, 358. "Proceeding from one particular to another, the subject grew under his hand."—Ib., i, 27. "But this is still an interruption, and a link of the chain broken."—Ib., ii, 314. "After some days hunting, Cyrus communicated his design to his officers."—Rollin, ii, 66. "But it is made, without the appearance of making it in form."—Blair's Rhet., p. 358. "These would have had a better effect disjoined thus."—Ib., p. 119; Murray's Gram., i, 309. "An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded."—Murray's Gram., p. 9; Alger's, 12; Merchant's, 9; Smith's, 118; Ingersoll's, 4. "And being led to think of both together, my view is rendered unsteady."— Blair's Rhet., p. 95; Murray's Gram., 302; Jamieson's Rhet., 66. "By often doing the same thing, it becomes habitual."—Murray's Key, p. 257. "They remain with us in our dark and solitary hours, no less than when surrounded with friends and cheerful society."—Ib., p. 238. "Besides shewing what is right, the matter may be further explained by pointing out what is wrong."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. viii. "The former teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone."—Murray's Gram., Vol., i, p. 235. "Persons may be reproved for their negligence, by saying; 'You have taken great care indeed.'"—Ib., i, 354. "The words preceding and following it, are in apposition to each other."—Ib., ii, p. 22. "Having finished his speech, the assembly dispersed."—Cooper's Pract. Gram., p. 97. "Were the voice to fall at the close of the last line, as many a reader is in the habit of doing."— Kirkham's Elocution, p. 101. "The misfortunes of his countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath, by depriving them of his assistance."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 299. "Taking them as nouns, this construction may be explained thus."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 233. "These have an active signification, those which come from neuter verbs being excepted."—Ib., p. 233. "From the evidence of it not being universal."—Butler's Analogy, p. 84. "And this faith will continually grow, by acquainting ourselves with our own nature."—Channing's Self-Culture, p. 33. "Monosyllables ending with any consonant but f, l, or s, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant; excepting add, ebb," &c.—Murray's Gram., p. 23; Picket's, 10; Merchant's, 13; Ingersoll's, 8; Fisk's, 44; Blair's, 7. "The relation of being the object of the action is expressed by the change of the Noun Maria to Mariam"—Booth's Introd., p. 38. "In analyzing a proposition, it is first to be divided into its logical subject and predicate."—Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Gram., p. 254. "In analyzing a simple sentence, it should first be resolved into its logical subject and logical predicate."—Wells's School Gram., 113th Ed., p. 189.

UNDER NOTE XII.—OF PARTICIPLES AND NOUNS.

"The discovering passions instantly at their birth, is essential to our well being."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 352. "I am now to enter on considering the sources of the pleasures of taste."—Blair's Rhet., p. 28. "The varieties in using them are, indeed many."—Murray's Gram., i, 319. "Changing times and seasons, removing and setting up kings, belong to Providence alone."—Ib., Key, ii, p. 200. "Adhering to the partitions seemed the cause of France, accepting the will that of the house of Bourbon."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 246. "Another source of darkness in composing is, the injudicious introduction of technical words and phrases."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 247. "These are the rules of grammar, by the observing of which, you may avoid mistakes."—Murray's Gram., i, 192; Merchant's, 93; Fisk's, 135; Ingersoll's, 198. "By the observing of the rules you may avoid mistakes."—Alger's Gram., p. 65. "By the observing of these rules he succeeded."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 82. "Being praised was his ruin."—Ibid. "Deceiving is not convincing."— Ibid. "He never feared losing a friend."—Ibid. "Making books is his amusement."—Alger's Gram., p. 65. "We call it declining a noun."— Ingersoll's Gram., p. 22. "Washington, however, pursued the same policy of neutrality, and opposed firmly, taking any part in the wars of Europe."—Hall and Baker's School Hist., p. 294. "The following is a note of Interrogation, or asking a question (?)."—Infant School Gram., p. 132. "The following is a note of Admiration, or expressing wonder (!)."—Ib. "Omitting or using the article a forms a nice distinction in the sense."—Murray's Gram., ii, 284. "Placing the preposition before the word it governs is more graceful."—Churchill's Gram., p. 150. "Assistance is absolutely necessary to their recovery, and retrieving their affairs."—Butler's Analogy, p. 197. "Which termination, [ish,] when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality."—Murray's Gram., i, 131; Kirkham's, 172. "After what is said, will it be thought refining too much to suggest, that the different orders are qualified for different purposes?"—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 114. "Who has nothing to think of but killing time."—West's Letters, p. 58. "It requires no nicety of ear, as in the distinguishing of tones, or measuring time."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 65. "The Possessive Case denotes possession, or belonging to."—Hall's Gram., p. 7.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—PERFECT PARTICIPLES.

"Garcilasso was master of the language spoke by the Incas."—Robertson's Amer., ii, 459. "When an interesting story is broke off in the middle."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 244. "Speaking of Hannibal's elephants drove back by the enemy."—Ib., ii, 32. "If Du Ryer had not wrote for bread, he would have equalled them."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 166. "Pope describes a rock broke off from a mountain, and hurling to the plain."—Kames, ii, 106. "I have wrote or have written, Thou hast wrote or hast written. He hath or has wrote, or hath or has written;" &c.—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 47; Maltby's, 47. "This was spoke by a pagan."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 174. "But I have chose to follow the common arrangement."—Ib., p. 10. "The language spoke in Bengal."—Ib., p. 78. "And sound Sleep thus broke off, with suddain Alarms, is apt enough to discompose any one."—Locke, on Ed., p. 32. "This is not only the Case of those Open Sinners, before spoke of."—Right of Tythes, p. 26. "Some Grammarians have wrote a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on Punctuation."—Ensell's Gram., p. 340. "There hath a pity arose in me towards thee."—Sewel's Hist., fol., p. 324. "Abel is the only man that has underwent the awful change of death."—Juvenile Theatre, p. 4.

   "Meantime, on Afric's glowing sands,
    Smote with keen heat, the Trav'ler stands."—Union Poems, p. 88.

CHAPTER VIII.—ADVERBS.

The syntax of an Adverb consists in its simple relation to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or whatever else it qualifies; just as the syntax of an English Adjective, (except in a few instances,) consists in its simple relation to a noun or a pronoun.

RULE XXI.—ADVERBS.

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs: as, "Any passion that habitually discomposes our temper, or unfits us for properly discharging the duties of life, has most certainly gained a very dangerous ascendency."—Blair.

"How bless'd this happy hour, should he appear, Dear to us all, to me supremely dear!"—Pope's Homer.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

The adverbs yes, ay, and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and the adverbs no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sentence. Is it clear, that they ought to be called adverbs? No. "Can honour set to a leg? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief of a wound? No. Honour hath no skill in surgery then? No."—SHAK.: First Part of Hen. IV, Act v, 1.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or a prayer; and is itself a prayer, meaning, So let it be: as, "Surely, I come quickly. Amen: Even so, come Lord Jesus."—Rev., xxii, 20. When it does not stand thus alone, it seems in general to be used substantively; as, "The strangers among them stood on Gerizim, and echoed amen to the blessings."—Wood's Dict. "These things saith the Amen."—Rev., iii, 14

EXCEPTION THIRD.

An adverb before a preposition seems sometimes to relate to the latter, rather than to the verb or participle to which the preposition connects its object; as, "This mode of pronunciation runs considerably beyond ordinary discourse."—Blair's Rhet., p. 334. "Yea, all along the times of the apostasy, this was the thing that preserved the witnesses."—Penington's Works, Vol. iv, p. 12. [See Obs. 8th on Rule 7th.]

"Right against the eastern gate, Where the great sun begins his state."—Milton, L'Allegro.

EXCEPTION FOURTH.

The words much, little, far, and all, being originally adjectives, are sometimes preceded by the negative not, or (except the last) by such an adverb as too, how, thus, so, or as, when they are taken substantively; as, "Not all that glitters, is gold."—"Too much should not be offered at once."—Murray's Gram., p. 140. "Thus far is consistent."—Ib., p. 161. "Thus far is right."—Lowth's Gram., p. 101.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXI.

OBS. 1.—On this rule of syntax, Dr. Adam remarks, "Adverbs sometimes likewise qualify substantives;" and gives Latin examples of the following import: "Homer plainly an orator:"—"Truly Metellus;"—"To-morrow morning." But this doctrine is not well proved by such imperfect phrases, nor can it ever be very consistently admitted, because it destroys the characteristic difference between an adjective and an adverb. To-morrow is here an adjective; and as for truly and plainly, they are not such words as can make sense with nouns. I therefore imagine the phrases to be elliptical: "Verè Metellus," may mean, "This is truly Metellus;" and "Homerus planè orator," "Homer was plainly an orator." So, in the example, "Behold an Israelite indeed," the true construction seems to be, "Behold, here is indeed an Israelite;" for, in the Greek or Latin, the word Israelite is a nominative, thus: "Ecce verè Israëlita."—Beza; also Montanus. "[Greek: Ide alæthos 'Israaelitæs.]"—Greek Testament. Behold appears to be here an interjection, like Ecce. If we make it a transitive verb, the reading should be, "Behold a true Israelite;" for the text does not mean, "Behold indeed an Israelite." At least, this is not the meaning in our version. W. H. Wells, citing as authorities for the doctrine, "Bullions, Allen and Cornwell, Brace, Butler, and Webber," has the following remark: "There are, however, certain forms of expression in which adverbs bear a special relation to nouns or pronouns; as, 'Behold I, even I, do bring a flood of waters.'—Gen. 6: 17. 'For our gospel came not unto you in word only, but also in power.'—1 Thes. 1: 5."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 156; late Ed., 168. And again, in his Punctuation, we find this: "When, however, the intervening word is an adverb, the comma is more commonly omitted; as, 'It is labor only which gives a relish to pleasure.'"—Ib., p. 176. From all this, the doctrine receives no better support than from Adam's suggestion above considered. The word "only" is often an adjective, and wherever its "special relation" is to a noun or a pronoun, it can be nothing else. "Even," when it introduces a word repeated with emphasis, is a conjunction.

OBS. 2.—When participles become nouns, their adverbs are not unfrequently left standing with them in their original relation; as, "For the fall and rising again of many in Israel."—Luke, ii, 34. "To denote the carrying forward of the action."—Barnard's Gram., p. 52. But in instances like these, the hyphen seems to be necessary. This mark would make the terms rising-again and carrying-forward compound nouns, and not participial nouns with adverbs relating to them.

"There is no flying hence, nor tarrying here."—Shak., Macbeth.

    "What! in ill thoughts again? men must endure
    Their going hence, ev'n as their coming hither."—Id.

OBS. 3.—Whenever any of those words which are commonly used adverbially, are made to relate directly to nouns or pronouns, they must be reckoned adjectives, and parsed by Rule 9th. Examples: "The above verbs."—Dr. Adam. "To the above remarks."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 318. "The above instance."—Ib., p. 442. "After the above partial illustration."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., ii, 62. "The above explanation."—Cobbett's Gram., ¶ 22. "For very age."—Zech., viii, 4. "From its very greatness."—Phil. Museum, i, 431. "In his then situation."—Johnson's Life of Goldsmith. "This was the then state of Popery."—Id., Life of Dryden, p. 185. "The servant becomes the master of his once master."—Shillitoe. "Time when is put in the ablative, time how long is put in the accusative."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 201; Gould's, 198. "Nouns signifying the time when or how long, may be put in the objective case without a preposition."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 24. "I hear the far-off curfew sound."—Milton. "Far on the thither side."—Book of Thoughts, p. 58. "My hither way."—"Since my here remain in England."—Shak. "But short and seldom truce."—Fell. "An exceeding knave."—Pope. "According to my sometime promise."—Zenobia, i, 176. "Thine often infirmities."—Bible. "A far country."—Ib. "No wine,"—"No new thing,"—"No greater joy."—Ib. "Nothing else."—Blair. "Tomorrow noon."—Scott. "Calamity enough."—Tr. Sallust. "For thou only art holy."—Rev., xv, 4.

OBS. 4.—It is not my design to justify any uncouth substitution of adverbs for adjectives; nor do I affirm that all the foregoing examples are indisputably good English, though most of them are so; but merely, that the words, when they are thus used, are adjectives, and not adverbs. Lindley Murray, and his copyists, strongly condemn some of these expressions, and, by implication, most or all of them; but both he and they, as well as others, have repeatedly employed at least one of the very models they censure. They are too severe on all those which they specify. Their objections stand thus; "Such expressions as the following, though not destitute of authority, are very inelegant, and do not suit the idiom of our language; 'The then ministry,' for, 'the ministry of that time;' 'The above discourse,' for, 'the preceding discourse.'"—Murray's Gram., i, p. 198; Crombie's, 294; Ingersoll's, 206. "The following phrases are also exceptionable: 'The then ministry;' 'The above argument.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 190. "Adverbs used as adjectives, as, 'The above statement;' 'The then administration;' should be avoided."—Barnard's Gram., p. 285. "When and then must not be used for nouns and pronouns; thus, 'Since when,' 'since then,' 'the then ministry,' ought to be, 'Since which time,' 'since that time,' 'the ministry of that period.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 96. Dr. Priestley, from whom Murray derived many of his critical remarks, noticed these expressions; and, (as I suppose,) approvingly; thus, "Adverbs are often put for adjectives, agreeably to the idiom of the Greek tongue: [as,] 'The action was amiss.'—'The then ministry.'—'The idea is alike in both.'—Addison. 'The above discourse.'—Harris."—Priestley's Gram., p. 135. Dr. Johnson, as may be seen above, thought it not amiss to use then as Priestley here cites it; and for such a use of above, we may quote the objectors themselves: "To support the above construction."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 149; Ingersoll's, p. 238. "In all the above instances."—Mur., p. 202; Ing., 230. "To the above rule."—Mur., p. 270; Ing., 283. "The same as the above."—Mur., p. 66; Ing., 46. "In such instances as the above."—Mur., p. 24; Ing., 9; Kirkham, 23.[427]

OBS. 5.—When words of an adverbial character are used after the manner of nouns, they must be parsed as nouns, and not as adverbs; as, "The Son of God—was not yea and nay, but in him was yea."—Bible. "For a great while to come."—Ib. "On this perhaps, this peradventure infamous for lies."—Young. "From the extremest upward of thine head."—Shak. "There are upwards of fifteen millions of inhabitants."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 266. "Information has been derived from upwards of two hundred volumes."—Worcester's Hist., p. v. "An eternal now does always last"—Cowley. "Discourse requires an animated no."—Cowper. "Their hearts no proud hereafter swelled."—Sprague. An adverb after a preposition is used substantively, and governed by the preposition; though perhaps it is not necessary to call it a common noun: as, "For upwards of thirteen years."—Hiley's Gram., p. xvi. "That thou mayst curse me them from thence."—Numb., xxiii, 27. "Yet for once we'll try."—Dr. Franklin. But many take such terms together, calling them "adverbial phrases." Allen says, "Two adverbs sometimes come together; as, 'Thou hast kept the good wine until now.'"—Gram., p. 174. But until is here more properly a preposition, governing now.

OBS. 6.—It is plain, that when words of an adverbial form are used either adjectively or substantively, they cannot be parsed by the foregoing rule, or explained as having the ordinary relation of adverbs; and if the unusual relation or character which they thus assume, be not thought sufficient to fix them in the rank of adjectives or nouns, the parser may describe them as adverbs used adjectively, or substantively, and apply the rule which their assumed construction requires. But let it be remembered, that adverbs, as such, neither relate to nouns, nor assume the nature of cases: but express the time, place, degree, or manner, of actions or qualities. In some instances in which their construction may seem not to be reconcilable with the common rule, there may be supposed an ellipsis of a verb or a participle:[428] as, "From Monday to Saturday inclusively."—Webster's Dict. Here, the Doctor ought to have used a comma after Saturday; for the adverb relates, not to that noun, but to the word reckoned, understood. "It was well said by Roscommon, 'too faithfully is pedantically.'"—Com. Sch. Journal, i, 167. This saying I suppose to mean, "To do a thing too faithfully, is, to do it pedantically." "And, [I say] truly, if they had been mindful of that country from whence they came out, they might have had opportunity to have returned."—Heb., xi, 15.

OBS 7.—To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, verbs of self-motion (such as go, come, rise, get, &c.) are sometimes suppressed, being suggested to the mind by an emphatic adverb, which seems to be put for the verb, but does in fact relate to it understood; as,

"I'll hence to London, on a serious matter."—Shak. Supply "go."

"I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in"—Id.
Supply "get."

"Away, old man; give me thy hand; away."—Id. Supply "come."

"Love hath wings, and will away"—Waller. Supply "fly."

"Up, up, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!"—Scott. Supply "spring."

"Henry the Fifth is crowned; up, vanity!" Supply "stand."

"Down, royal state! all you sage counsellors, hence!"—Shak. Supply "fall," and "get you."

"But up, and enter now into full bliss."—Milton. Supply "rise."

OBS. 8.—We have, on some occasions, a singular way of expressing a transitive action imperatively, or emphatically, by adding the preposition with to an adverb of direction; as, up with it, down with it, in with it, out with it, over with it, away with it, and the like; in which construction, the adverb seems to be used elliptically as above, though the insertion of the verb would totally enervate or greatly alter the expression. Examples: "She up with her fist, and took him on the face."—Sydney, in Joh. Dictionary. "Away with him!"—Acts, xxi, 36. "Away with such a fellow from the earth."—Ib., xxii, 22. "The calling of assemblies I cannot away with"—Isaiah, i, 13. "Hence with denial vain, and coy excuse."—Milton's Comus. Ingersoll says, "Sometimes a whole phrase is used as an interjection, and we call such interjectional phrases: as, out upon him!—away with him!—Alas, what wonder! &c."—Conversations on Gram., p. 79. This method of lumping together several different parts of speech under the notion of one, and calling the whole an "adverbial phrase," a "substantive phrase," or an "interjectional phrase," is but a forced put, by which some grammarians would dodge certain difficulties which they know not how to meet. It is directly repugnant to the idea of parsing; for the parser ever deals with the parts of speech as such, and not with whole phrases in the lump. The foregoing adverbs when used imperatively, have some resemblance to interjections; but, in some of the examples above cited, they certainly are not used in this manner.

OBS. 9.—A conjunctive adverb usually relates to two verbs at the same time, and thus connects two clauses of a compound sentence; as, "And the rest will I set in order when I come,"—1 Cor., xi, 34. Here when is a conjunctive adverb of time, and relates to the two verbs will set and come; the meaning being, "And the rest will I set in order at the time at which I come." This adverb when is often used erroneously in lieu of a nominative after is, to which construction of the word, such an interpretation as the foregoing would not be applicable; because the person means to tell, not when, but what, the thing is, of which he speaks: as, "Another cause of obscurity is when the structure of the sentence is too much complicated, or too artificial; or when the sense is too long suspended by parentheses."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 246. Here the conjunction that would be much better than when, but the sentence might advantageously spare them both; thus, "An other cause of obscurity is too much complication, too artificial a structure of the sentence, or too long a suspension of the sense by parenthesis."

OBS. 10.—For the placing of adverbs, no definite general rule can be given; yet is there no other part of speech so liable to be misplaced. Those which relate to adjectives, or to other adverbs, with very few exceptions, immediately precede them; and those which belong to compound verbs, are commonly placed after the first auxiliary; or, if they be emphatical, after the whole verb. Those which relate to simple verbs, or to simple participles, are placed sometimes before and sometimes after them. Examples are so very common, I shall cite but one: "A man may, in respect to grammatical purity, speak unexceptionably, and yet speak obscurely, or ambiguously; and though we cannot say, that a man may speak properly, and at the same time speak unintelligibly, yet this last case falls more naturally to be considered as an offence against perspicuity, than as a violation of propriety."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 239.

OBS. 11.—Of the infinitive verb and its preposition to, some grammarians say, that they must never be separated by an adverb. It is true, that the adverb is, in general, more elegantly placed before the preposition than after it; but, possibly, the latter position of it may sometimes contribute to perspicuity, which is more essential than elegance: as, "If any man refuse so to implore, and to so receive pardon, let him die the death."—Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 209. The latter word so, if placed like the former, might possibly be understood in a different sense from what it now bears. But perhaps it would be better to say. "If any man refuse so to implore, and on such terms to receive pardon, let him die the death." "Honour teaches us properly to respect ourselves."—Murray's Key, ii, 252. Here it is not quite clear, to which verb the adverb "properly" relates. Some change of the expression is therefore needful. The right to place an adverb sometimes between to and its verb, should, I think, be conceded to the poets: as,

"Who dared to nobly stem tyrannic pride."—BURNS: C. Sat. N.

OBS. 12.—The adverb no is used independently, only when it is equivalent to a whole sentence. This word is sometimes an adverb of degree; and as such it has this peculiarity, that it can relate only to comparatives: as, "No more,"—"No better,"—"No greater,"—"No sooner." When no is set before a noun, it is clearly an adjective, corresponding to the Latin nullus; as, "No clouds, no vapours intervene."—Dyer. Dr. Johnson, with no great accuracy, remarks, "It seems an adjective in these phrases, no longer, no more, no where; though sometimes it may be so commodiously changed to not, that it seems an adverb; as, 'The days are yet no shorter.'"—Quarto Dict. And his first example of what he calls the "adverb NO" is this: "'Our courteous Antony, Whom ne'er the word of no woman heard speak.' SHAKSPEARE."—Ibid. Dr. Webster says, "When it precedes where, as in no where, it may be considered as adverbial, though originally an adjective."—Octavo Dict. The truth is, that no is an adverb, whenever it relates to an adjective; an adjective, whenever it relates to a noun; and a noun, whenever it takes the relation of a case. Thus, in what Johnson cites from Shakspeare, it is a noun, and not an adverb; for the meaning is, that a woman never heard Antony speak the word of no—that is, of negation. And there ought to be a comma after this word, to make the text intelligible. To read it thus: "the word of no woman," makes no an adjective. So, to say, "There are no abler critics than these," is a very different thing from saying, "There are critics no abler than these;" because no is an adjective in the former sentence, and an adverb in the latter. Somewhere, nowhere, anywhere, else-where, and everywhere, are adverbs of place, each of which is composed of the noun where and an adjective; and it is absurd to write a part of them as compound words, and the rest as phrases, as many authors do.

OBS. 13.—In some languages, the more negatives one crowds into a sentence, the stronger is the negation; and this appears to have been formerly the case in English, or in what was anciently the language of Britain: as, "He never yet no vilanie ne sayde in alle his lif unto no manere wight."—Chaucer. "Ne I ne wol non reherce, yef that I may."—Id. "Give not me counsel; nor let no comforter delight mine ear."—Shakspeare. "She cannot love, nor take no shape nor project of affection."—Id. Among people of education, this manner of expression has now become wholly obsolete; though it still prevails, to some extent, in the conversation of the vulgar. It is to be observed, however, that the repetition of an independent negative word or clause yet strengthens the negation; as, "No, no, no."—"No, never."—"No, not for an hour."—Gal., ii, 5. "There is none righteous, no, not one."—Rom., iii, 10. But two negatives in the same clause, if they have any bearing on each other, destroy the negation, and render the meaning weakly affirmative; as, "Nor did they not perceive their evil plight."—Milton. That is, they did perceive it. "'His language, though inelegant, is not ungrammatical;' that is, it is grammatical."— Murray's Gram., p. 198. The term not only, or not merely, being a correspondent to but or but also, may be followed by an other negative without this effect, because the two negative words have no immediate bearing on each other; as, "Your brother is not only not present, and not assisting in prosecuting your injuries, but is now actually with Verres."—Duncan's Cicero, p, 19. "In the latter we have not merely nothing, to denote what the point should be; but no indication, that any point at all is wanting."—Churchill's Gram., p. 373. So the word nothing, when taken positively for nonentity, or that which does not exist, may be followed by an other negative; as,

   "First, seat him somewhere, and derive his race,
    Or else conclude that nothing has no place."—Dryden, p. 95.

OBS. 14.—The common rule of our grammars, "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative," is far from being true of all possible examples. A sort of informal exception to it, (which is mostly confined to conversation,) is made by a familiar transfer of the word neither from the beginning of the clause to the end of it; as, "But here is no notice taken of that neither"—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 336. That is, "But neither is any notice here taken of that." Indeed a negation may be repeated, by the same word or others, as often as we please, if no two of the terms in particular contradict each other; as, "He will never consent, not he, no, never, nor I neither." "He will not have time, no, nor capacity neither."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 103. "Many terms and idioms may be common, which, nevertheless, have not the general sanction, no, nor even the sanction of those that use them."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 160; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 358. And as to the equivalence spoken of in the same rule, such an expression as, "He did not say nothing," is in fact only a vulgar solecism, take it as you will; whether for, "He did not say anything," or for, "He did say something." The latter indeed is what the contradiction amounts to; but double negatives must be shunned, whenever they seem like blunders. The following examples have, for this reason, been thought objectionable; though Allen says, "Two negatives destroy each other, or elegantly form an affirmation."—Gram., p. 174.

    ——————"Nor knew I not
    To be both will and deed created free."
        —Milton, P. L., B. v., l. 548.

   "Nor doth the moon no nourishment exhale
    From her moist continent to higher orbs."
        —Ib., B. v, l. 421.

OBS. 15.—Under the head of double negatives, there appears in our grammars a dispute of some importance, concerning the adoption of or or nor, when any other negative than neither or nor occurs in the preceding clause or phrase: as, "We will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image."—Dan., iii., 18. "Ye have no portion, nor right, nor memorial in Jerusalem."—Neh., ii, 20. "There is no painsworthy difficulty nor dispute about them."—Horne Tooke, Div., Vol. i, p. 43. "So as not to cloud that principal object, nor to bury it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 115; Murray's Gram., p. 322. "He did not mention Leonora, nor her father's death."—Murray's Key, p. 264. "Thou canst not tell whence it cometh, nor whither it goeth."—Ib., p. 215. The form of this text, in John iii, 8th. is—"But canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth;" which Murray inserted in his exercises as bad English. I do not see that the copulative and is here ungrammatical; but if we prefer a disjunctive, ought it not to be or rather than nor? It appears to be the opinion of some, that in ail these examples, and in similar instances innumerable, nor only is proper. Others suppose, that or only is justifiable; and others again, that either or or nor is perfectly correct. Thus grammar, or what should be grammar, differs in the hands of different men! The principle to be settled here, must determine the correctness or incorrectness of a vast number of very common expressions. I imagine that none of these opinions is warrantable, if taken in all that extent to which each of them has been, or may be, carried.

OBS. 16.—It was observed by Priestley, and after him by Lindley Murray, from whom others again have copied the remark: "Sometimes the particles or and nor, may, either of them, be used with nearly equal propriety; [as,] 'The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the measure.'—Hume. Or would perhaps have been better, but nor seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression."— Priestley's Gram., p. 138; Murray's, i, 212; Ingersoll's, 268; R. C. Smith's, 177. The conjunction or might doubtless have been used in this sentence, but not with the same meaning that is now conveyed; for, if that connective had been employed, the adjective decisive would have been qualified by the adverb sufficiently, and would have seemed only an alternative for the former epithet, vigorous. As the text now stands, it not only implies a distinction between vigour of character and decision of character, but denies the latter to the king absolutely, the former, with qualification. If the author had meant to suggest such a distinction, and also to qualify his denial of both, he ought to have said—"not sufficiently vigorous, nor sufficiently decisive." With this meaning, however, he might have used neither for not; or with the former, he might have used or for nor, had he transposed the terms—"was not decisive, or sufficiently vigorous."

OBS. 17.—In the tenth edition of John Burn's Practical Grammar, published at Glasgow, in 1810, are the following suggestions: "It is not uncommon to find the conjunctions or and nor used indiscriminately; but if there be any real distinction in the proper application of them, it is to be wished that it were settled. It is attempted thus:—Let the conjunction or be used simply to connect the members of a sentence, or to mark distribution, opposition, or choice, without any preceding negative particle; and nor to mark the subsequent part of a negative sentence, with some negative particle in the preceding part of it. Examples of OR: 'Recreation of one kind or other is absolutely necessary to relieve the body or mind from too constant attention to labour or study.'—'After this life, succeeds a state of rewards or punishments.'—'Shall I come to you with a rod, or in love?' Examples of NOR: 'Let no man be too confident, nor too diffident of his own abilities.'—'Never calumniate any man, nor give the least encouragement to calumniators.'—'There is not a Christian duty to which providence has not annexed a blessing, nor any affliction for which a remedy is not provided.' If the above distinction be just, the following passage seems to be faulty:

    'Seasons return, but not to me returns
    Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn,
    Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose,
    Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine.'
       Milton, P. L., B. iii, l. 40.—"Burn's Gr., p. 108.

OBS. 18.—T. O. Churchill, whose Grammar first appeared in London in 1823, treats this matter thus: "As or answers to either, nor, a compound of not or [ne or] by contraction, answers to neither, a similar compound of not either [ne either]. The latter however does not constitute that double use of the negative, in which one, agreeably to the principles of philosophical grammar, destroys the other; for a part of the first word, neither, cannot be understood before the second, nor: and for the same reason a part of it could not be understood before or, which is sometimes improperly used in the second clause; while the whole of it, neither, would be obviously improper before or. On the other hand, when not is used in the first clause, nor is improper in the second; since it would involve the impropriety of understanding not before a compound of not [or ne] with or. 'I shall not attempt to convince, nor to persuade you.—What will you not attempt?—To convince, nor to persuade you.' The impropriety of nor in this answer is clear: but the answer should certainly repeat the words not heard, or not understood."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 330.

OBS. 19.—"It is probable, that the use of nor after not has been introduced, in consequence of such improprieties as the following: 'The injustice of inflicting death for crimes, when not of the most heinous nature, or attended with extenuating circumstances.' Here it is obviously not the intention of the writer, to understand the negative in the last clause: and, if this were good English, it would be not merely allowable to employ nor after not, to show the subsequent clause to be negative as well as the preceding, but it would always be necessary. In fact, however, the sentence quoted is faulty, in not repeating the adverb when in the last clause; 'or when attended:' which would preclude the negative from being understood in it; for, if an adverb, conjunction, or auxiliary verb, preceding a negative, be understood in the succeeding clause, the negative is understood also; if it be repeated, the negative must be repeated likewise, or the clause becomes affirmative."—Ib., p. 330.

OBS. 20.—This author, proceeding with his remarks, suggests forms of correction for several other common modes of expression, which he conceives to be erroneous. For the information of the student, I shall briefly notice a little further the chief points of his criticism, though he teaches some principles which I have not thought it necessary always to observe in writing. "'And seemed not to understand ceremony, or to despise it.' Goldsmith. Here either ought to be inserted before not. 'It is not the business of virtue, to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' Addison. The sentence ought to have been: 'It is the business of virtue, not to extirpate the affections of the mind, but to regulate them.' 'I do not think, that he was averse to the office; nor do I believe, that it was unsuited to him.' How much better to say: 'I do not think, that he was averse to the office, or that it was unsuited to him!' For the same reason nor cannot follow never, the negative in the first clause affecting all the rest."—Ib. p. 332. "Nor is sometimes used improperly after no: [as,] 'I humbly however trust in God, that I have hazarded no conjecture, nor have given any explanation of obscure points, inconsistent with the general sense of Scripture, which must be our guide in all dubious passages.' Gilpin. It ought to be: 'and have given no explanation;' or, 'I have neither hazarded any conjecture, nor given any explanation.' The use of or after neither is as common, as that of nor after no or not.[429] 'Neither the pencil or poetry are adequate.' Coxe. Properly, 'Neither the pencil nor poetry is adequate.' 'The vow of poverty allowed the Jesuits individually, to have no idea of wealth.' Dornford. We cannot allow a nonentity. It should be: 'did not allow, to have any idea.'"—Ib., p. 333.

OBS. 21.—Thus we see that Churchill wholly and positively condemns nor after not, no, or never; while Burn totally disapproves of or, under the same circumstances. Both of these critics are wrong, because each carries his point too far; and yet it may not be right, to suppose both particles to be often equally good. Undoubtedly, a negation may be repeated in English without impropriety, and that in several different ways: as, "There is no living, none, if Bertram be away."—Beauties of Shak., p. 3. "Great men are not always wise, neither do the aged [always] understand judgement."—Job, xxxii, 9. "Will he esteem thy riches? no, not gold, nor all the forces of strength."—Job, xxxiv. 19. Some sentences, too, require or, and others nor, even when a negative occurs in a preceding clause; as, "There was none of you that convinced Job, or that answered his words."—Job, xxxii, 12. "How much less to him that accepteth not the persons of princes nor regardeth the rich more than the poor."—Job, xxxiv, 19. "This day is holy unto the Lord your God; mourn not, nor weep."—Neh., viii, 9. "Men's behaviour should be like their apparel, not too straight or point-de-vise, but free for exercise."—Ld. Bacon. Again, the mere repetition of a simple negative is, on some occasions, more agreeable than the insertion of any connective; as, "There is no darkness, nor shadow of death, where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves."—Job, xxxiv, 22. Better: "There is no darkness, no shadow of death, wherein the workers of iniquity may hide themselves." "No place nor any object appears to him void of beauty."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 255. Better: "No place, no object, appears to him void of beauty." That passage from Milton which Burn supposes to be faulty, and that expression of Addison's which Churchill dislikes, are, in my opinion, not incorrect as they stand; though, doubtless, the latter admits of the variation proposed. In the former, too, or may twice be changed to nor, where the following nouns are nominatives; but to change it throughout, would not be well, because the other nouns are objectives governed by of:

"Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, nor the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, Nor sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine."

OBS. 22.—Ever and never are directly opposite to each other in sense, and yet they are very frequently confounded and misapplied, and that by highly respectable writers; as, "Seldom, or never can we expect," &c.—Blair's Lectures, p. 305. "And seldom, or ever, did any one rise, &c."—Ib., p. 272. "Seldom, or never, is[430] there more than one accented syllable in any English word."—Ib., p. 329. "Which that of the present seldom or ever is understood to be."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., Vol. ii, p. 120. Here never is right, and ever is wrong. It is time, that is here spoken of; and the affirmative ever, meaning always, or at any time, in stead of being a fit alternative for seldom, makes nonsense of the sentence, and violates the rule respecting the order and fitness of time: unless we change or to if, and say, "seldom, if ever." But in sentences like the following, the adverb appears to express, not time, but degree; and for the latter sense ever is preferable to never, because the degree ought to be possible, rather than impossible: "Ever so little of the spirit of martyrdom is always a more favourable indication to civilization, than ever so much dexterity of party management, or ever so turbulent protestation of immaculate patriotism."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 411. "Now let man reflect but never so little on himself."—Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 29. "Which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely."—Ps., lviii, 5. The phrase ever so, (which ought, I think, to be written as one word,) is now a very common expression to signify in whatsoever degree; as, "everso little,"—"everso much,"—"everso wise,"—"everso wisely." And it is manifestly this, and not time, that is intended by the false phraseology above;—"a form of speech handed down by the best writers, but lately accused, I think with justice, of solecism. * * * It can only be defended by supplying a very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis."—Johnson's Dict., w. Never.

OBS. 23.—Dr. Lowth seconds this opinion of Johnson, respecting the phrase, "never so wisely," and says, "It should be, 'ever so wisely;' that is, 'how wisely soever.'" To which he adds an other example somewhat different: "'Besides, a slave would not have been admitted into that society, had he had never such opportunities.' Bentley."—Lowth's Gram., p. 109. This should be, "had he had everso excellent opportunities." But Churchill, mistaking the common explanation of the meaning of everso for the manner of parsing or resolving it, questions the propriety of the term, and thinks it easier to defend the old phrase never so; in which he supposes never to be an adverb of time, and not to relate to so, which is an adverb of degree; saying, "'Be it never so true,' is resolvable into, 'Be it so true, as never any thing was.'[431] 'I have had never so much trouble on this occasion,' may be resolved into, 'I have never had so much trouble, as on this occasion:' while, 'I have had ever so much trouble on this occasion, cannot be resolved, without supplying some very harsh and unprecedented ellipsis indeed."—New Gram., p. 337, Why not? I see no occasion at all for supposing any ellipsis. Ever is here an adverb of degree, and relates to so; or, if we take everso as one word, this too is an adverb of degree, and relates to much: because the meaning is—"everso much trouble." But the other phraseology, even as it stands in Churchill's explanations, is a solecism still; nor can any resolution which supposes never to be here an adverb of time, be otherwise. We cannot call that a grammatical resolution, which makes a different sense from that which the writer intended: as, "A slave would not have been admitted into that society, had he never had such opportunities." This would be Churchill's interpretation, but it is very unlike what Bentley says above. So, 'I have never had so much trouble,' and, 'I have had everso much trouble,' are very different assertions.

OBS. 24.—On the word never, Dr. Johnson remarks thus: "It seems in some phrases to have the sense of an adjective, [meaning,] not any; but in reality it is not ever: [as,] 'He answered him to never a word.' MATTHEW, xxvii, 14."—Quarto Dict. This mode of expression was formerly very common, and a contracted form of it is still frequently heard among the vulgar: as, "Because he'd ne'er an other tub."—Hudibras, p. 102. That is, "Because he had no other tub." "Letter nor line know I never a one."—Scott's Lay of L. M., p. 27. This is what the common people pronounce "ne'er a one," and use in stead of neither or no one. In like manner they contract ever a one into "e'er a one;" by which they mean either or any one. These phrases are the same that somebody—(I believe it is Smith, in his Inductive Grammar—) has ignorantly written "ary one" and "nary one" calling them vulgarisms.[432] Under this mode of spelling, the critic had an undoubted right to think the terms unauthorized! In the compounds of whoever or whoe'er, whichever or whiche'er, whatever or whate'er, the word ever or e'er, which formerly stood separate, appears to be an adjective, rather than an adverb; though, by becoming part of the pronoun, it has now technically ceased to be either.

OBS. 25.—The same may be said of soever or soe'er, which is considered as only a part of an other word even when it is written separately; as, "On which side soever I cast my eyes." In Mark, iii, 28th, wherewithsoever is commonly printed as two words; but Alger, in his Pronouncing Bible, more properly makes it one. Dr. Webster, in his grammars, calls soever a WORD; but, in his dictionaries, he does not define it as such. "The word soever may be interposed between the attribute and the name; 'how clear soever this idea of infinity,'—'how remote soever it may seem.'—LOCKE."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 154; Improved Gram., p. 107. "SOEVER, so and ever, found in compounds, as in whosoever, whatsoever, wheresoever. See these words."—Webster's Dict., 8vo.

OBS. 26.—The word only, (i.e., onely, or onelike,) when it relates to a noun or a pronoun, is a definitive adjective, meaning single, alone, exclusive of others; as, "The only man,"—"The only men,"—"Man only,"—"Men only,"—"He only,"—"They only." When it relates to a verb or a participle, it is an adverb of manner, and means simply, singly, merely, barely; as, "We fancy that we hate flattery, when we only hate the manner of it."—Art of Thinking, p. 38. "A disinterested love of one's country can only subsist in small republics."—Ib., p. 56. When it stands at the head of a clause, it is commonly a connective word, equivalent to but, or except that; in which sense, it must be called a conjunction, or at least a conjunctive adverb, which is nearly the same thing; as, "Only they would that we should remember the poor."—Gal., ii, 10. "For these signs are prepositions, only they are of more constant use than the rest."—Ward's Gram., p. 129.

OBS. 27.—Among our grammarians, the word "only" often passes for an adverb, when it is in fact an adjective. Such a mistake in this single word, has led Churchill to say of the adverb in general, "It's place is for the most part before adjectives, after nouns, and after verbs;" &c.—New Gram., p. 147. But, properly, the placing of adverbs has nothing to do with "nouns," because adverbs do not relate to nouns. In this author's example, "His arm only was bare," there is no adverb; and, where he afterwards speaks of the latitude allowable in the placing of adverbs, alleging, "It is indifferent whether we say, 'He bared his arm only;' or, 'He bared only his arm,'" the word only is an adjective, in one instance, if not in both. With this writer, and some others, the syntax of an adverb centres mainly in the suggestion, that, "It's propriety and force depend on it's position."—Ib., p. 147. Illustration: "Thus people commonly say; 'I only spoke three words:' which properly implies, that I, and no other person, spoke three words: when the intention of the speaker requires: 'I spoke only three words; that is, no more than three words.'"—Ib., p. 327. One might just as well say, "I spoke three words only." But the interpretation above is hypercritical, and contrary to that which the author himself gives in his note on the other example, thus: "Any other situation of the adverb would make a difference. 'He only bared his arm;' would imply, that he did nothing more than bare his arm. 'Only he bared his arm;' must refer to a preceding part of the sentence, stating something, to which the act of baring his arm was an exception; as, 'He did it in the same manner, only he bared his arm.' If only were placed immediately before arm; as, 'He bared his only arm;' it would be an adjective, and signify, that he had but one arm."—Ib., p. 328. Now are not, "I only spoke three words," and, "He only bared his arm," analogous expressions? Is not the former as good English as the latter? Only, in both, is most naturally conceived to belong to the verb; but either may be read in such a manner as to make it an adjective belonging to the pronoun.

OBS. 28.—The term not but is equivalent to two negatives that make an affirmative; as, "Not but that it is a wide place."—Walker's Particles, p. 89. "Non quo non latus locus sit."—Cic. Ac., iv, 12. It has already been stated, that cannot but is equal to must; as, "It is an affection which cannot but be productive of some distress."—Blair's Rhet., p. 461. It seems questionable, whether but is not here an adverb, rather than a conjunction. However this may be, by the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before but, in some other sentences, that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only; and it may, when used with that signification, be called an adverb. Thus, the text, "He hath not grieved me but in part." (2 Cor., ii, 5,) might drop the negative not, and still convey the same meaning: "He hath grieved me but in part;" i.e., "only in part." In the following examples, too, but appears to be an adverb, like only: "Things but slightly connected should not be crowded into one sentence."—Murray's Octavo Gram., Index. "The assertion, however, serves but to show their ignorance."—Webster's Essays, p. 96.

"Reason itself but gives it edge and power."—Pope.

"Born but to die, and reasoning but to err."—Id.

OBS. 29.—In some constructions of the word but, there is a remarkable ambiguity; as, "There cannot be but one capital musical pause in a line."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 92. "A line admits but one capital pause."—Ibid. Thus does a great critic, in the same paragraph, palpably contradict himself, and not perceive it. Both expressions are equivocal. He ought rather to have said: "A line admits no more than one capital pause."—"There cannot be more than one capital musical pause in a line." Some would say—"admits only one"—"there can be only one." But here, too, is some ambiguity; because only may relate either to one, or to the preceding verb. The use of only for but or except that, is not noticed by our lexicographers; nor is it, in my opinion, a practice much to be commended, though often adopted by men that pretend to write grammatically: as, "Interrogative pronouns are the same as relative, ONLY their antecedents cannot be determined till the answer is given to the question."—Comly's Gram., p. 16. "A diphthong is always long; as, Aurum, Cæsar, &c. ONLY præ, in composition before a vowel is commonly short."—Adam's Gram., p. 254; Gould's, 246.

OBS. 30.—It is said by some grammarians, that, "The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense; in which case, it precedes the verb and the nominative; as, 'There is a person at the door.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 197; Ingersoll's, 205; Greenleaf's, 33; Nixon's Parser, p. 53. It is true, that in our language the word there is thus used idiomatically, as an introductory term, when we tell what is taking, or has taken, place; but still it is a regular adverb of place, and relates to the verb agreeably to the common rule for adverbs. In some instances it is even repeated in the same sentence, because, in its introductory sense, it is always unemphatical; as, "Because there was pasture there for their flocks."—1 Chron., iv, 41. "If there be indistinctness or disorder there, we can have no success."—Blair's Rhet., p. 271. "There, there are schools adapted to every age."—Woodbridge, Lit. Conv., p. 78. The import of the word is more definite, when emphasis is laid upon it; but this is no good reason for saying, with Dr. Webster, that it is "without signification," when it is without emphasis; or, with Dr. Priestley, that it "seems to have no meaning whatever, except it be thought to give a small degree of emphasis."—Rudiments of E. Gram., p. 135.

OBS. 31.—The noun place itself is just as loose and variable in its meaning as the adverb there. For example; "There is never any difference;" i.e., "No difference ever takes place." Shall we say that "place," in this sense, is not a noun of place? To take place, is, to occur somewhere, or anywhere; and the unemphatic word there is but as indefinite in respect to place, as these other adverbs of place, or as the noun itself. S. B. Goodenow accounts it a great error, to say that there is an adverb of place, when it is thus indefinite; and he chooses to call it an "indefinite pronoun," as, "'What is there here?'—'There is no peace.'—'What need was there of it?'" See his Gram., p. 3 and p. 11. In treating of the various classes of adverbs, I have admitted and shown, that here, there, and where, have sometimes the nature of pronouns, especially in such compounds as hereof, thereof, whereof; but in this instance, I see not what advantage there is in calling there a "pronoun:" we have just as much reason to call here and where pronouns—and that, perhaps, on all occasions. Barnard says, "In the sentence, 'There is one glory of the sun,' &c., the adverb there qualifies the verb is, and seems to have the force of an affirmation, like truly"—Analytical Gram., p. 234. But an adverb of the latter kind may be used with the word there, and I perceive no particular similarity between them: as, "Verily there is a reward for the righteous."—Psal., lviii, 11. "Truly there is a glory of the sun."

OBS. 32.—There is a vulgar error of substituting the adverb most for almost, as in the phrases, "most all,"—"most anywhere,"—"most every day,"—which we sometimes hear for "almost all,"—"almost anywhere,"—"almost every day." The fault is gross, and chiefly colloquial, but it is sometimes met with in books; as, "But thinking he had replied most too rashly, he said, 'I won't answer your question.'"—Wagstaff's History of Friends, Vol. i, p. 207.

NOTES TO RULE XXI.

NOTE I.—Adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Example of error: "We are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though every word which he uses be not precise and exact."—Blair's Rhet., p. 95; Jamieson's, 66. Murray says,—"though every word which he uses is not precise and exact."—Octavo Gram., p. 302. Better:—"though not every word which he uses, is precise and exact."

NOTE II.—Adverbs should not be needlessly used for adjectives; nor should they be employed when quality is to be expressed, and not manner: as, "That the now copies of the original text are entire."—S. Fisher. Say, "the present copies," or, "the existing copies." "The arrows of calumny fall harmlessly at the feet of virtue."—Murray's Key, p. 167; Merchant's Gram., 186; Ingersoll's, 10; Kirkham's, 24. Say, "fall harmless;" as in this example: "The impending black cloud, which is regarded with so much dread, may pass by harmless."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 262.

NOTE III.—With a verb of motion, most grammarians prefer hither, thither, and whither, to here, there, and where, which are in common use, and perhaps allowable, though not so good; as, "Come hither, Charles,"—or, "Come here."

NOTE IV.—"To the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, the preposition from is frequently (though not with strict propriety) prefixed; as, from hence, from whence."—See W. Allen's Gram., p. 174. Some critics, however, think this construction allowable, notwithstanding the former word is implied in the latter. See Priestley's Gram., p. 134; and L. Murray's, p. 198. It is seldom elegant to use any word needlessly.

NOTE V.—The adverb how should not be used before the conjunction that, nor in stead of it; as, "He said how he would go."—"Ye see how that not many wise men are called." Expunge how. This is a vulgar error. Somewhat similar is the use of how for lest or that not; as, "Be cautious how you offend him, i.e., that you do not offend him."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 175.

NOTE VI.—The adverb when, while, or where, is not fit to follow the verb is in a definition, or to introduce a clause taken substantively; because it expresses identity, not of being, but of time or place: as, "Concord, is when one word agrees with another in some accidents."—Adam's Gram., p. 151; Gould's, 155. Say, "Concord is the agreement of one word with an other in some accident or accidents."

NOTE VII.—The adverb no should not be used with reference to a verb or a participle. Such expressions as, "Tell me whether you will go or no," are therefore improper: no should be not; because the verb go is understood after it. The meaning is, "Tell me whether you will go or will not go;" but nobody would think of saying, "Whether you will go or no go."

NOTE VIII.—A negation, in English, admits but one negative word; because two negatives in the same clause, usually contradict each other, and make the meaning affirmative. The following example is therefore ungrammatical: "For my part, I love him not, nor hate him not."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 16. Expunge the last not, or else change nor to and.

NOTE IX.—The words ever and never should be carefully distinguished according to their sense, and not confounded with each other in their application. Example: "The Lord reigneth, be the earth never so unquiet."—Experience of St. Paul, p. 195. Here, I suppose, the sense to require everso, an adverb of degree: "Be the earth everso unquiet." That is,—"unquiet in whatever degree."

NOTE X.—Adverbs that end in ly, are in general preferable to those forms which, for want of this distinction, may seem like adjectives misapplied. Example: "There would be scarce any such thing in nature as a folio."—Addison. Better:—"scarcely."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXI.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—THE PLACING OF ADVERBS.

"All that is favoured by good use, is not proper to be retained."—Murray's Gram., ii, p. 296.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adverb not is not put in the most suitable place. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 21st, "Adverbs must be placed in that position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable." The sentence will be improved by placing not before all; thus, "Not all that is favoured by good use, is proper to be retained."]

"Every thing favoured by good use, [is] not on that account worthy to be retained."—Ib., i, 369; Campbell's Rhet., p. 179. "Most men dream, but all do not."—Beattie's Moral Science, i, 72. "By hasty composition, we shall acquire certainly a very bad style."—Blair's Rhet., p. 191. "The comparisons are short, touching on one point only of resemblance."—Ib., p. 416. "Having had once some considerable object set before us."—Ib., p. 116. "The positive seems improperly to be called a degree."—Adam's Gram., p. 69; Gould's, 68. "In some phrases the genitive is only used."—Adam, 159; Gould, 161. "This blunder is said actually to have occurred."—Smith's Inductive Gram., p. 5. "But every man is not called James, nor every woman Mary."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 15. "Crotchets are employed for the same purpose nearly as the parenthesis."—Churchill's Gram., p. 167. "There is still a greater impropriety in a double comparative."—Priestley's Gram., p. 78. "We have often occasion to speak of time."—Lowth's Gram., p. 39. "The following sentence cannot be possibly understood."—Ib., p. 104. "The words must be generally separated from the context."—Comly's Gram., p. 155. "Words ending in ator have the accent generally on the penultimate."—Murray's Gram., i, 239. "The learned languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently constructed from the English tongue."—Ib., i, 101. "Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more."—Ib., i, 114. "But it is only so, when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case."—Ib., i, 174. "Enter, (says he) boldly, for here too there are gods."—Harris's Hermes, p. 8. "For none work for ever so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less."—Sedgwick's Economy, p. 190. "For sinners also lend to sinners, to receive as much again."—Luke, vi, 34. "They must be viewed exactly in the same light."—Murray's Gram., ii, 24. "If he does but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention."—Ib., Key, ii, 207.

UNDER NOTE II.—ADVERBS FOR ADJECTIVES.

"Motion upwards is commonly more agreeable than motion downwards."—Blair's Rhet., p. 48. "There are but two ways possibly of justification before God."—Dr. Cox, on Quakerism, p. 413. "This construction sounds rather harshly."—Murray's Gram., i, 194; Ingersoll's, 199. "A clear conception in the mind of the learner, of regularly and well-formed letters."—Com. School Journal, i, 66. "He was a great hearer of * * * Attalus, Sotion, Papirius, Fabianus, of whom he makes often mention."—Seneca's Morals, p. 11. "It is only the Often doing of a thing that makes it a Custom."—Divine Right of Tythes, p. 72. "Because W. R. takes oft occasion to insinuate his jealousies of persons and things."—Barclay's Works, i, 570. "Yet often touching will wear gold."—Beauties of Shak., p. 18. "Uneducated persons frequently use an adjective, when they ought to use an adverb: as, 'The country looks beautiful;' instead of beautifully."—Bucke's Gram., p. 84. "The adjective is put absolutely, or without its substantive."—Ash's Gram., p. 57. "A noun or pronoun in the second person, may be put absolutely in the nominative case."—Harrison's Gram., p. 45. "A noun or pronoun, when put absolutely with a participle," &c.—Ib., p. 44; Jaudon's Gram., 108. "A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands independently of the remaining part of the sentence."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 24. "At my return lately into England, I met a book intituled: 'The Iron Age.'"—Cowley's Preface, p. v. "But he can discover no better foundation for any of them, than the practice merely of Homer and Virgil."—Kames, El. of Criticism, Introd., p. xxv.

UNDER NOTE III—HERE FOR HITHER, &c.

"It is reported that the governour will come here to-morrow."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 196. "It has been reported that the governour will come here to-morrow."—Ib., Key, p. 227. "To catch a prospect of that lovely land where his steps are tending."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 244. "Plautus makes one of his characters ask another where he is going with that Vulcan shut up in a horn; that is, with a lanthorn in his hand."—Adams's Rhet. ii, 331. "When we left Cambridge, we intended to return there in a few days."—Anonym. "Duncan comes here to-night."—Shak., Macbeth. "They talked of returning here last week."—J. M. Putnam's Gram., p. 116.

UNDER NOTE IV.—FROM HENCE, &c.

"From hence he concludes that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word, that a constitution has a higher authority than a law or statute."—Webster's Essays, p. 67. "From whence we may likewise date the period of this event."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 202. "From hence it becomes evident, that LANGUAGE, taken in the most comprehensive view, implies certain Sounds, having certain Meanings."—Harris's Hermes, p. 315. "They returned to the city from whence they came out."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 135. "Respecting ellipses, some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas; and from thence has arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar."—Author. "What am I and from whence? i.e. what am I, and from whence am I?"—Jaudon's Gram., p. 171.

UNDER NOTE V.—THE ADVERB HOW.

"It is strange how a writer, so accurate as Dean Swift, should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle."—Blair's Rhet., p. 112. "Ye know how that a good while ago God made choice among us," &c.—Acts, xv, 7. "Let us take care how we sin; i.e. that we do not sin."—Priestley's Gram., p. 135. "We see by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to connect those words, which in their signification are not naturally connected."—Murray's Gram., p. 118. "Know ye not your own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates?"—2 Cor., xiii, 5. "That thou mayest know how that the earth is the Lord's."—Exod., ix, 29.

UNDER NOTE VI.—WHEN, WHILE, OR WHERE.

"Ellipsis is when one or more words are wanting, to complete the sense."—Adam's Gram., p. 235; Gould's, p. 229; B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram.. 184. "Pleonasm is when a word more is added than is absolutely necessary to express the sense."—Same works. "Hyst~eron prot~eron is when that is put in the former part of the sentence, which, according to the sense, should be in the latter."—Adam, p. 237; Gould, 230. "Hysteron proteron, n. A rhetorical figure when that is said last which was done first."—Webster's Dict. "A Barbarism is when a foreign or strange word is made use of."—Adam's Gram., p. 242; Gould's, 234. "A Solecism is when the rules of Syntax are transgressed."—Iidem, ib. "An Idiotism is when the manner of expression peculiar to one language is used in another."—Iid., ib. "Tautology is when we either uselessly repeat the same words, or repeat the same sense in different words."—Adam, p. 243; Gould, 238. "Bombast is when high sounding words are used without meaning, or upon a trifling occasion."—Iid., ib. "Amphibology is when, by the ambiguity of the construction, the meaning may be taken in two different senses."—Iid., ib. "Irony is when one means the contrary of what is said."—Adam, p. 247; Gould, 237. "The Periphrasis, or Circumlocution, is when several words are employed to express what might be expressed in fewer."—Iid., ib. "Hyperbole is when a thing is magnified above the truth,"—Adam, p. 249; Gould, 240. "Personification is when we ascribe life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract qualities."—Iid., ib. "Apostrophe, or Address, is when the speaker breaks off from the series of his discourse, and addresses himself to some person present or absent, living or dead, or to inanimate nature, as if endowed with sense and reason."—Iid., ib. "A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 223. "Simile, or Comparison, is when one thing is illustrated or heightened by comparing it to another."—Adam's Gram., p. 250; Gould's, 240. "Antithesis, or Opposition, is when things contrary or different are contrasted, to make them appear in the more striking light."—Iid., ib. "Description, or Imagery, [is] when any thing is painted in a lively manner, as if done before our eyes."—Adam's Gram., p. 250. "Emphasis is when a particular stress is laid on some word in a sentence."—Ib. "Epanorthosis, or Correction, is when the speaker either recalls or corrects what he had last said."—Ib. "Paralepsis, or Omission, is when one pretends to omit or pass by, what he at the same time declares."—Ib. "Incrementum, or Climax in sense, is when one member rises above another to the highest."—Ib., p. 251. "A Metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign for the thing signified."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 223. "Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gender, or person."—Frost's Gram., p. 43; Greenleaf's, 32. "Government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number, person, or case."—Webster's Imp. Gram., p. 89; Greenleaf's, 32; Frost's, 43. "Fusion is while some solid substance is converted into a fluid by heat."—B. "A Proper Diphthong is where both the Vowels are sounded together; as, oi in Voice, ou in House."— Fisher's Gram., p. 10. "An Improper Diphthong is where the Sound of but one of the two Vowels is heard; as e in People."—Ib., p. 11.

UNDER NOTE VII.—THE ADVERB NO FOR NOT.

"An adverb is joined to a verb to show how, or whether or no, or when, or where one is, does, or suffers."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 62. "We must be immortal, whether we will or no."—Maturin's Sermons, p. 33. "He cares not whether the world was made for Cæsar or no."—American Quarterly Review. "I do not know whether they are out or no."—Byron's Letters. "Whether it can be proved or no, is not the thing."—Butler's Analogy, p. 84. "Whether or no he makes use of the means commanded by God."—Ib.,, p. 164. "Whether it pleases the world or no, the care is taken."— L'Estrange's Seneca, p. 5. "How comes this to be never heard of nor in the least questioned, whether the Law was undoubtedly of Moses's writing or no?"—Bp. Tomline's Evidences, p. 44. "Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not."—John, ix, 25. "Can I make men live, whether they will or no?"—Shak.

   "Can hearts, not free, be try'd whether they serve
    Willing or no, who will but what they must?"—Milton, P. L.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES.

"We need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of God."—Bentley. "I cannot by no means allow him that."—Idem. "We must try whether or no we cannot increase the Attention by the Help of the Senses."—Brightland's Gram., p. 263. "There is nothing more admirable nor more useful."—Horne Tooke, Vol. i, p. 20. "And what in no time to come he can never be said to have done, he can never be supposed to do."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 345. "No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel, the terrible infection."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 114. "Prudery cannot be an indication neither of sense nor of taste."—Spurzheim, on Education, p. 21. "But that scripture, nor no other, speaks not of imperfect faith."—Barclay's Works, i, 172. "But this scripture, nor none other, proves not that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting."—Ibid. "The light of Christ is not nor cannot be darkness."—Ib., p. 252. "Doth not the Scripture, which cannot lie, give none of the saints this testimony?"—Ib., p. 379. "Which do not continue, nor are not binding."—Ib., Vol. iii. p. 79. "It not being perceived directly no more than the air."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 331. "Let's be no Stoics, nor no stocks, I pray."—Shak., Shrew. "Where there is no marked nor peculiar character in the style."—Blair's Rhet., p. 175. "There can be no rules laid down, nor no manner recommended."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 163.

"Bates. 'He hath not told his thought to the king?' K. Henry. 'No; nor it is not meet he should.'"—Shak.

UNDER NOTE IX.—EVER AND NEVER.

"The prayer of Christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we never so weak; and to overthrow all adversary power, be it never so strong."—Hooker. "He is like to have no share in it, or to be ever the better for it."—Law and Grace, p. 23. "In some parts of Chili, it seldom or ever rains."—Willetts's Geog. "If Pompey shall but never so little seem to like it."—Walker's Particles, p. 346. "Latin: 'Si Pompeius paulum modò ostenderit sibi placere.' Cic. i, 5."—Ib. "Though never such a power of dogs and hunters pursue him."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Quamlibet magnâ canum et venantium urgente vi.' Plin. l. 18, c. 16."—Ib. "Though you be never so excellent."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Quantumvis licet excellas.' Cic. de Amic."—Ib. "If you do amiss never so little."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Si tantillum peccâssis.' Plaut. Rud. 4, 4"—Ib. "If we cast our eyes never so little down."—Walker, ib. "Latin: 'Si tantulum oculos dejecerimus.' Cic. 7. Ver."—Ib. "A wise man scorneth nothing, be it never so small or homely."—Book of Thoughts, p. 37. "Because they have seldom or ever an opportunity of learning them at all."—Clarkson's Prize-Essay, p. 170. "We seldom or ever see those forsaken who trust in God."—Atterbury.

   "Where, playing with him at bo-peep,
    He solved all problems, ne'er so deep."—Hudibras.

UNDER NOTE X.—OF THE FORM OF ADVERBS.

"One can scarce think that Pope was capable of epic or tragic poetry; but within a certain limited region, he has been outdone by no poet."—Blair's Rhet., p. 403. "I, who now read, have near finished this chapter."—Harris's Hermes, p. 82. "And yet, to refine our taste with respect to beauties of art or of nature, is scarce endeavoured in any seminary of learning."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. viii. "By the Numbers being confounded, and the Possessives wrong applied, the Passage is neither English nor Grammar."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 123. "The letter G is wrong named jee."—Creighton's Dict., p. viii. "Last; Remember that in science, as in morals, authority cannot make right, what, in itself, is wrong."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 194. "They regulate our taste even where we are scarce sensible of them."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 96. "Slow action, for example, is imitated by words pronounced slow."—Ib., ii, 257. "Sure, if it be to profit withal, it must be in order to save."—Barclay's Works, i, 366. "Which is scarce possible at best."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 67. "Our wealth being near finished."—HARRIS: Priestley's Gram., p. 80.

CHAPTER IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

The syntax of Conjunctions consists, not (as L. Murray and others erroneously teach) in "their power of determining the mood of verbs," or the "cases of nouns and pronouns," but in the simple fact, that they link together such and such terms, and thus "mark the connexions of human thought."—Beattie.

RULE XXII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences: as, "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and between my herdmen and thy herdmen; for we are brethren."—Gen., xiii, 8.

   "Ah! if she lend not arms as well as rules.
    What can she more than tell us we are fools?"—Pope.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb;[433] as, "That mind is not matter, is certain."

"That you have wronged me, doth appear in this."—Shak.

"That time is mine, O Mead! to thee, I owe."—Young.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the former should generally be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the connecting word; as, "Neither sun nor stars in many days appeared."—Acts, xxvii, 20. "Whether that evidence has been afforded [or not,] is a matter of investigation."—Keith's Evidences, p. 18.

EXCEPTION THIRD. Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or not, are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end of the sentence; as, "Where then was their capacity of standing, or his either?"—Barclay's Works, iii, 359. "It is not dangerous neither."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 135. "He is very tall, but not too tall neither."—Spect., No. 475.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXII.

OBS. 1.—Conjunctions that connect particular words, generally join similar parts of speech in a common dependence on some other term. Hence, if the words connected be such as have cases, they will of course be in the same case; as, "For me and thee"—Matt., xvii, 27. "Honour thy father and thy mother."—Ib., xviii, 19. Here the latter noun or pronoun is connected by and to the former, and governed by the same preposition or verb. Conjunctions themselves have no government, unless the questionable phrase "than whom" may be reckoned an exception. See Obs. 17th below, and others that follow it.

OBS. 2.—Those conjunctions which connect sentences or clauses, commonly unite one sentence or clause to an other, either as an additional assertion, or as a condition, a cause, or an end, of what is asserted. The conjunction is placed between the terms which it connects, except there is a transposition, and then it stands before the dependent term, and consequently at the beginning of the whole sentence: as, "He taketh away the first, that he may establish the second."—Heb., x, 9. "That he may establish the second, he taketh away the first."

OBS. 3.—The term that follows a conjunction, is in some instances a phrase of several words, yet not therefore a whole clause or member, unless we suppose it elliptical, and supply what will make it such: as, "And whatsoever ye do, do it heartily, AS to the Lord, AND not unto men"—Col., iii, 23. If we say, this means, "as doing it to the Lord, and not as doing it unto men," the terms are still mere phrases; but if we say, the sense is, "as if ye did it to the Lord, and not as if ye did it unto men," they are clauses, or sentences. Churchill says, "The office of the conjunction is, to connect one word with an other, or one phrase with an other."—New Gram., p. 152. But he uses the term phrase in a more extended sense than I suppose it will strictly bear: he means by it, a clause, or member; that is, a sentence which forms a part of a greater sentence.

OBS. 4.—What is the office of this part of speech, according to Lennie, Bullions, Brace, Hart, Hiley, Smith, M'Culloch, Webster, Wells, and others, who say that it "joins words and sentences together," (see Errors on p. 434 of this work,) it is scarcely possible to conceive. If they imagine it to connect "words" on the one side, to "sentences" on the other; this is plainly absurd, and contrary to facts. If they suppose it to join sentence to sentence, by merely connecting word to word, in a joint relation; this also is absurd, and self-contradictory. Again, if they mean, that the conjunction sometimes connects word with word, and sometimes, sentence with sentence; this sense they have not expressed, but have severally puzzled their readers by an ungrammatical use of the word "and." One of the best among them says, "In the sentence, 'He and I must go,' the word and unites two sentences, and thus avoids an unnecessary repetition; thus instead of saying, 'He must go,' 'I must go,' we connect the words He, I, as the same thing is affirmed of both, namely, must go."—Hiley's Gram., p. 53. Here is the incongruous suggestion, that by connecting words only, the conjunction in fact connects sentences; and the stranger blunder concerning those words, that "the same thing is affirmed of both, namely, [that they] must go." Whereas it is plain, that nothing is affirmed of either: for "He and I must go," only affirms of him and me, that "we must go." And again it is plain, that and here connects nothing but the two pronouns; for no one will say, that, "He and I must go together" is a compound sentence, capable of being resolved into two simple sentences; and if, "He and I must go," is compound because it is equivalent to, "He must go, and I must go;" so is, "We must go," for the same reason, though it has but one nominative and one verb. "He and I were present," is rightly given by Hiley as an example of two pronouns connected together by and. (See his Gram., p. 105.) But, of verbs connected to each other, he absurdly supposes the following to be examples: "He spake, and it was done."—"I know it, and I can prove it."—"Do you say so, and can you prove it?"—Ib. Here and connects sentences, and not particular words.

OBS. 5.—Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together; as, "What rests, but that the mortal sentence pass?"—Milton. "Nor yet that he should offer himself often."—Heb., ix, 25. These may be severally parsed as "connecting what precedes and what follows," and the observant reader will not fail to notice, that such combinations of connecting particles are sometimes required by the sense; but, since nothing that is needless, is really proper, conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated: as, "But AND if that evil servant say in his heart," &c.—Matt., xxiv, 48. Greek, "[Greek: Ean de eipæ o kakos donlos ekeinos,]" &c. Here is no and. "But AND if she depart."—1 Cor., vii, 11. This is almost a literal rendering of the Greek, "[Greek: Ean de kai choristhæ.]"—yet either but or and is certainly useless. "In several cases," says Priestley, "we content ourselves, now, with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors did [say used]. Example: 'So AS that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers.' Universal Hist., Vol. 29, p. 501. So that would have been much easier, and better."—Priestley's Gram., p. 139. Some of the poets have often used the word that as an expletive, to fill the measure of their verse; as,

"When that the poor have cried, Cæsar hath wept."—Shakspeare.

"If that he be a dog, beware his fangs."—Id.

    "That made him pine away and moulder,
    As though that he had been no soldier."—Butler's Poems, p. 164.

OBS. 6.—W. Allen remarks, that, "And is sometimes introduced to engage our attention to a following word or phrase; as, 'Part pays, and justly, the deserving steer.' [Pope.] 'I see thee fall, and by Achilles' hand.' [Id.]"—Allen's E. Gram., p. 184. The like idiom, he says, occurs in these passages of Latin: "'Forsan et hæc olim meminisse juvabit.' Virg. 'Mors et fugacem persequitur virum.' Hor."—Allen's Gram., p. 184. But it seems to me, that and and et are here regular connectives. The former implies a repetition of the preceding verb: as, "Part pays, and justly pays, the deserving steer."—"I see thee fall, and fall by Achilles' hand." The latter refers back to what was said before: thus, "Perhaps it will also hereafter delight you to recount these evils."—"And death pursues the man that flees." In the following text, the conjunction is more like an expletive; but even here it suggests an extension of the discourse then in progress: "Lord, and what shall this man do?"—John, xxi, 21. "[Greek: Kurie, outos de ti;]"—"Domine, hic autem quid?"—Beza.

OBS. 7.—The conjunction as often unites words that are in apposition, or in the same case; as, "He offered himself AS a journeyman."—"I assume it AS a fact."—Webster's Essays, p. 94. "In an other example of the same kind, the earth, AS a common mother, is animated to give refuge against a father's unkindness."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol ii, p. 168. "And then to offer himself up AS a sacrifice and propitiation for them."—Scougal, p. 99. So, likewise, when an intransitive verb takes the same case after as before it, by Rule 6th; as, "Johnson soon after engaged AS usher in a school."—L. Murray. "He was employed AS usher." In all these examples, the case that follows as, is determined by that which precedes. If after the verb "engaged" we supply himself, usher becomes objective, and is in apposition with the pronoun, and not in agreement with Johnson: "He engaged himself as usher." One late writer, ignorant or regardless of the analogy of General Grammar, imagines this case to be an "objective governed by the conjunction as," according to the following rule: "The conjunction as, when it takes the meaning of for, or in the character of, governs the objective case; as, Addison, as a writer of prose, is highly distinguished."—J. M. Putnam's Gram., p. 113. S. W. Clark, in his grammar published in 1848, sets as in his list of prepositions, with this example: "'That England can spare from her service such men as HIM.'—Lord Brougham."—Clark's Practical Gram., p. 92. And again: "When the second term of a Comparison of equality is a Noun, or Pronoun, the Preposition AS is commonly used. Example—'He hath died to redeem such a rebel as ME.'—Wesley." Undoubtedly, Wesley and Brougham here erroneously supposed the as to connect words only, and consequently to require them to be in the same case, agreeably to OBS. 1st, above; but a moment's reflection on the sense, should convince any one, that the construction requires the nominative forms he and I, with the verbs is and am understood.

OBS. 8.—The conjunction as may also be used between an adjective or a participle and the noun to which the adjective or participle relates; as, "It does not appear that brutes have the least reflex sense of actions AS distinguished from events; or that will and design, which constitute the very nature of actions AS such, are at all an object of their perception."—Butler's Analogy, p. 277.

OBS. 9.—As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun, and when it evidently sustains the relation of a case, it ought to be called, and generally is called, a pronoun, rather than a conjunction; as, "Avoid such as are vicious,"—Anon. "But as many as received him," &c.—John, i, 12. "We have reduced the terms into as small a number as was consistent with perspicuity and distinction."—Brightland's Gram., p. ix. Here as represents a noun, and while it serves to connect the two parts of the sentence, it is also the subject of a verb. These being the true characteristics of a relative pronoun, it is proper to refer the word to that class. But when a clause or a sentence is the antecedent, it is better to consider the as a conjunction, and to supply the pronoun it, if the writer has not used it; as, "He is angry, as [it] appears by this letter." Horne Tooke says, "The truth is, that AS is also an article; and (however and whenever used in English) means the same as It, or That, or Which."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 223. But what definition he would give to "an article," does not appear.

OBS. 10.—In some examples, it seems questionable whether as ought to be reckoned a pronoun, or ought rather to be parsed as a conjunction after which a nominative is understood; as, "He then read the conditions as follow."—"The conditions are as follow."—Nutting's Gram., p. 106. "The principal evidences on which this assertion is grounded, are as follow."—Gurney's Essays, p. 166. "The Quiescent verbs are as follow."—Pike's Heb. Lex., p. 184. "The other numbers are duplications of these, and proceed as follow"—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., Vol. ii, p. 35. "The most eminent of the kennel are bloodhounds, which lead the van, and are as follow."—Steele, Tattler, No. 62. "His words are as follow."—Spect., No. 62. "The words are as follow."—Addison, Spect., No. 513. "The objections that are raised against it as a tragedy, are as follow."—Gay, Pref. to What d' ye call it. "The particulars are as follow."—Bucke's Gram., p. 93. "The principal interjections in English are as follow."—Ward's Gram., p. 81. In all these instances, one may suppose the final clause to mean, "as they here follow;"—or, supposing as to be a pronoun, one may conceive it to mean, "such as follow." But some critical writers, it appears, prefer the singular verb, "as follows" Hear Campbell: "When a verb is used impersonally, it ought undoubtedly to be in the singular number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood: and when no nominative in the sentence can regularly be construed with the verb, it ought to be considered as impersonal. For this reason, analogy as well as usage favour [say favours] this mode of expression, 'The conditions of the agreement were as follows;' and not 'as follow.' A few late writers have inconsiderately adopted this last form through a mistake of the construction. For the same reason we ought to say, 'I shall consider his censures so far only as concerns my friend's conduct;' and not 'so far as concern.'"—Philosophy of Rhet., p. 229. It is too much to say, at least of one of these sentences, that there is no nominative with which the plural verb can be regularly construed. In the former, the word as may be said to be a plural nominative; or, if we will have this to be a conjunction, the pronoun they, representing conditions, may be regularly supplied, as above. In the latter, indeed, as is not a pronoun; because it refers to "so far," which is not a noun. But the sentence is bad English; because the verb concern or concerns is improperly left without a nominative. Say therefore, 'I shall consider his censures so far only as they concern my friend's conduct;'—or, 'so far only as my friend's conduct is concerned.' The following is an other example which I conceive to be wrong; because, with an adverb for its antecedent, as is made a nominative: "They ought therefore to be uttered as quickly as is consistent with distinct articulation."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 76. Say rather, "They ought therefore to be uttered with as much rapidity as is consistent with distinct articulation."

OBS. 11.—Lindley Murray was so much puzzled with Tooke's notion of as, and Campbell's doctrine of the impersonal verb, that he has expressly left his pupils to hesitate and doubt, like himself, whether one ought to say "as follows" or "as follow," when the preceding noun is plural; or—to furnish an alternative, (if they choose it,) he shows them at last how they may dodge the question, by adopting some other phraseology. He begins thus: "Grammarians differ in opinion, respecting the propriety of the following modes of expression: 'The arguments advanced were nearly as follows;' 'the positions were, as appears, incontrovertible.'"— Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 146. Then follows a detail of suggestions from Campbell and others, all the quotations being anonymous, or at least without definite references. Omitting these, I would here say of the two examples given, that they are not parallel instances. For, "as follows," refers to what the arguments were,—to the things themselves, considered plurally, and immediately to be exhibited; wherefore the expression ought rather to have been, "as follow," or, "as they here follow." But, "as appears" means "as it appears," or "as the case now appears;" and one of these plain modes of expression would have been much preferable, because the as is here evidently nothing but a conjunction.

OBS. 12.—"The diversity of sentiment on this subject," says L. Murray, "and the respectability of the different opponents, will naturally induce the readers to pause and reflect, before they decide."—Octavo Gram., p. 147. The equivalent expressions by means of which he proposes to evade at last the dilemma, are the following: "The arguments advanced were nearly such as follow;"—"The arguments advanced were nearly of the following nature;"—"The following are nearly the arguments which were advanced;"— "The arguments advanced were nearly those which follow:"—"These, or nearly these, were the arguments advanced;"—"The positions were such as appear incontrovertible;"—"It appears that the positions were incontrovertible;" —"That the positions were incontrovertible, is apparent;"—"The positions were apparently incontrovertible;"—"In appearance, the positions were incontrovertible."—Ibid. If to shun the expression will serve our turn, surely here are ways enough! But to those who "pause and reflect" with the intention to decide, I would commend the following example: "Reconciliation was offered, on conditions as moderate as were consistent with a permanent union."—Murray's Key, under Rule 1. Here Murray supposes "was" to be wrong, and accordingly changes it to "were," by the Rule, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person." But the amendment is a pointed rejection of Campbell's "impersonal verb," or verb which "has no nominative;" and if the singular is not right here, the rhetorician's respectable authority vouches only for a catalogue of errors. Again, if this verb must be were in order to agree with its nominative, it is still not clear that as, is, or ought to be, the nominative; because the meaning may perhaps be better expressed thus:—"on conditions as moderate as any that were consistent with a permanent union."

OBS. 13.—A late writer expresses his decision of the foregoing question thus: "Of all the different opinions on a grammatical subject, which have arisen in the literary world, there scarcely appears one more indefensible than that of supposing as follows to be an impersonal verb, and to be correctly used in such sentences as this. 'The conditions were as follows.' Nay, we are told that, "A few late writers have adopted this form, 'The conditions were as follow,' inconsiderately;" and, to prove this charge of inconsiderateness, the following sentence is brought forward: 'I shall consider his censure [censures is the word used by Campbell and by Murray] so far only as concern my friend's conduct.' which should be, it is added, 'as concerns, and not as concern.' If analogy, simplicity, or syntactical authority, is of any value in our resolution of the sentence, 'The conditions were as follows,' the word as is as evident a relative as language can afford. It is undoubtedly equivalent to that or which, and relates to its antecedent those or such understood, and should have been the nominative to the verb follow; the sentence, in its present form, being inaccurate. The second sentence is by no means a parallel one. The word as is a conjunction; and though it has, as a relative, a reference to its antecedent so, yet in its capacity of a mere conjunction, it cannot possibly be the nominative case to any verb. It should be, 'it concerns.' Whenever as relates to an adverbial antecedent; as in the sentence, 'So far as it concerns me,' it is merely a conjunction; but when it refers to an adjective antecedent; as in the sentence, 'The business is such as concerns me;' it must be a relative, and susceptible of case, whether its antecedent is expressed or understood; being, in fact, the nominative to the verb concerns."—Nixon's Parser, p. 145. It will be perceived by the preceding remarks, that I do not cite what is here said, as believing it to be in all respects well said, though it is mainly so. In regard to the point at issue, I shall add but one critical authority more: "'The circumstances were as follows.' Several grammarians and critics have approved this phraseology: I am inclined, however, to concur with those who prefer 'as follow.'"—Crombie, on Etym. and Synt., p. 388.

OBS. 14.—The conjunction that is frequently understood; as, "It is seldom [that] their counsels are listened to."—Robertson's Amer., i, 316. "The truth is, [that] grammar is very much neglected among us."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. vi. "The Sportsman believes [that] there is Good in his Chace [chase.]"—Harris's Hermes, p. 296.

   "Thou warnst me [that] I have done amiss;
    I should have earlier looked to this."—Scott.

OBS. 15.—After than or as, connecting the terms of a comparison, there is usually an ellipsis of some word or words. The construction of the words employed may be seen, when the ellipsis is supplied; as, "They are stronger than we" [are.]—Numb., xiii. 31. "Wisdom is better than weapons of war" [are.]—Eccl., ix, 18. "He does nothing who endeavours to do more than [what] is allowed to humanity."—Dr. Johnson. "My punishment is greater than [what] I can bear."—Gen., iv, 13. "Ralph gave him more than I" [gave him.]—Churchill's Gram., p. 351. "Ralph gave him more than [he gave] me."—Ibid. "Revelation, surely, was never intended for such as he" [is.]—Campbell's Four Gospels, p. iv. "Let such as him sneer if they will."—Liberator, Vol. ix, p. 182. Here him ought to be he, according to Rule 2d, because the text speaks of such as he is or was. "'You were as innocent of it as me:' 'He did it as well as me.' In both places it ought to be I: that is, as I was, as I did."—Churchill's Gram., p. 352.

   "Rather let such poor souls as you and I
    Say that the holidays are drawing nigh."—Swift.

OBS. 16.—The doctrine above stated, of ellipses after than and as, proceeds on the supposition that these words are conjunctions, and that they connect, not particular words merely, but sentences, or clauses. It is the common doctrine of nearly all our grammarians, and is doubtless liable to fewer objections than any other theory that ever has been, or ever can be, devised in lieu of it. Yet as is not always a conjunction; nor, when it is a conjunction, does it always connect sentences; nor, when it connects sentences, is there always an ellipsis; nor, when there is an ellipsis, is it always quite certain what that ellipsis is. All these facts have been made plain, by observations that have already been bestowed on the word: and, according to some grammarians, the same things may severally be affirmed of the word than. But most authors consider than to be always a conjunction, and generally, if not always, to connect sentences. Johnson and Webster, in their dictionaries, mark it for an adverb; and the latter says of it, "This word signifies also then, both in English and Dutch."—Webster's Amer. Dict., 8vo, w. Than. But what he means by "also," I know not; and surely, in no English of this age, is than equivalent to then, or then to than. The ancient practice of putting then for than, is now entirely obsolete;[434] and, as we have no other term of the same import, most of our expositors merely explain than as "a particle used in comparison."—Johnson, Worcester, Maunder. Some absurdly define it thus: "THAN, adv. Placed in comparison."—Walker, (Rhym. Dict.,) Jones, Scott. According to this definition, than would be a participle! But, since an express comparison necessarily implies a connexion between different terms, it cannot well be denied that than is a connective word; wherefore, not to detain the reader with any profitless controversy, I shall take it for granted that this word is always a conjunction. That it always connects sentences, I do not affirm; because there are instances in which it is difficult to suppose it to connect anything more than particular words: as, "Less judgement than wit is more sail than ballast."—Penn's Maxims. "With no less eloquence than freedom. 'Pari eloquentiâ ac libertate.' Tacitus."—Walker's Particles, p. 200. "Any comparison between these two classes of writers, cannot be other than vague and loose."—Blair's Rhet., p. 347. "This far more than compensates all those little negligences."—Ib., p. 200.

   "Remember Handel? Who that was not born
    Deaf as the dead to harmony, forgets,
    Or can, the more than Homer of his age?"—Cowper.

OBS. 17.—When any two declinable words are connected by than or as, they are almost always, according to the true idiom of our language, to be put in the same case, whether we suppose an ellipsis in the construction of the latter, or not; as, "My Father is greater than I."—Bible. "What do ye more than others?"—Matt., v, 47. "More men than women were there."—Murray's Gram., p. 114. "Entreat him as a father, and the younger men as brethren."—1 Tim., v, 1. "I would that all men were even as I myself."—1 Cor., vii, 7. "Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me more than these?"—John, xxi, 15. This last text is manifestly ambiguous; so that some readers will doubt whether it means—"more than thou lovest these," or—"more than these love me." Is not this because there is an ellipsis in the sentence, and such a one as may be variously conceived and supplied? The original too is ambiguous, but not for the same reason: "[Greek: Simon Iona, agapas me pleion touton];"—And so is the Latin of the Vulgate and of Montanus: "Simon Jona, diligis me plus his?" Wherefore Beza expressed it differently: "Simon fili Jonæ, diligis me plus quâm hi?" The French Bible has it: "Simon, fils de Jona, m'aimes-tu plus que ne font ceux-ci?" And the expression in English should rather have been, "Lovest thou me more than do these?"

OBS. 18.—The comparative degree, in Greek, is said to govern the genitive case; in Latin, the ablative: that is, the genitive or the ablative is sometimes put after this degree without any connecting particle corresponding to than, and without producing a compound sentence. We have examples in the phrases, "[Greek: pleion touton]" and "plus his," above. Of such a construction our language admits no real example; that is, no exact parallel. But we have an imitation of it in the phrase than whom, as in this hackneyed example from Milton:

   "Which, when Beëlzebub perceived, than whom,
    Satan except, none higher sat," &c.—Paradise Lost, B. ii, l. 300.

The objective, whom, is here preferred to the nominative, who, because the Latin ablative is commonly rendered by the former case, rather than by the latter: but this phrase is no more explicable according to the usual principles of English grammar, than the error of putting the objective case for a version of the ablative absolute. If the imitation is to be judged allowable, it is to us a figure of syntax—an obvious example of Enallagè, and of that form of Enallagè, which is commonly called Antiptosis, or the putting of one case for an other.

OBS. 19.—This use of whom after than has greatly puzzled and misled our grammarians; many of whom have thence concluded that than must needs be, at least in this instance, a preposition,[435] and some have extended the principle beyond this, so as to include than which, than whose with its following noun, and other nominatives which they will have to be objectives; as, "I should seem guilty of ingratitude, than which nothing is more shameful." See Russell's Gram., p. 104. "Washington, than whose fame naught earthly can be purer."—Peirce's Gram., p. 204. "You have given him more than I. You have sent her as much as he."—Buchanan's Eng. Syntax, p. 116. These last two sentences are erroneously called by their author, "false syntax;" not indeed with a notion that than and as are prepositions, but on the false supposition that the preposition to must necessarily be understood between them and the pronouns, as it is between the preceding verbs and the pronouns him and her. But, in fact, "You have given him more than I," is perfectly good English; the last clause of which plainly means—"more than I have given him." And, "You have sent her as much as he," will of course be understood to mean—"as much as he has sent her;" but here, because the auxiliary implied is different from the one expressed, it might have been as well to have inserted it: thus, "You have sent her as much as he has." "She reviles you as much as he," is also good English, though found, with the foregoing, among Buchanan's examples of "false syntax."

OBS. 20.—Murray's twentieth Rule of syntax avers, that, "When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as, but agrees with the verb," &c.—Octavo Gram., p. 214; Russell's Gram., 103; Bacon's, 51; Alger's, 71; Smith's, 179; Fisk's, 138. To this rule, the great Compiler and most of his followers say, that than whom "is an exception." or "seems to form an exception;" to which they add, that, "the phrase is, however, avoided by the best modern writers."—Murray, i, 215. This latter assertion Russell conceives to be untrue: the former he adopts; and, calling than whom "an exception to the general rule," says of it, (with no great consistency,) "Here the conjunction than has certainly the force of a preposition, and supplies its place by governing the relative."—Russell's Abridgement of Murray's Gram., p. 104. But this is hardly an instance to which one would apply the maxim elsewhere adopted by Murray: "Exceptio probat regulam."—Octavo Gram., p. 205. To ascribe to a conjunction the governing power of a preposition, is a very wide step, and quite too much like straddling the line which separates these parts of speech one from the other.

OBS. 21.—Churchill says, "If there be no ellipsis to supply, as sometimes happens when a pronoun relative occurs after than; the relative is to be put in the objective case absolute: as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned, deserves to be held up as a model to all future sovereigns.'"—New Gram., p. 153. Among his Notes, he has one with reference to this "objective case absolute," as follows: "It is not governed by the conjunction, for on no other occasion does a conjunction govern any case; or by any word understood, for we can insert no word, or words, that will reconcile the phrase with any other rule of grammar: and if we employ a pronoun personal instead of the relative, as he, which will admit of being resolved elliptically, it must be put in the nominative case."—Ib., p. 352. Against this gentleman's doctrine, one may very well argue, as he himself does against that of Murray, Russell, and others; that on no other occasion do we speak of putting "the objective case absolute;" and if, agreeably to the analogy of our own tongue, our distinguished authors would condescend to say than who,[436] surely nobody would think of calling this an instance of the nominative case absolute,—except perhaps one swaggering new theorist, that most pedantic of all scoffers, Oliver B. Peirce.

OBS. 22.—The sum of the matter is this: the phrase, than who, is a more regular and more analogical expression than than whom; but both are of questionable propriety, and the former is seldom if ever found, except in some few grammars; while the latter, which is in some sort a Latinism, may be quoted from many of our most distinguished writers. And, since that which is irregular cannot be parsed by rule, if out of respect to authority we judge it allowable, it must be set down among the figures of grammar; which are, all of them, intentional deviations from the ordinary use of words. One late author treats the point pretty well, in this short hint: "After the conjunction than, contrary to analogy, whom is used in stead of who."—Nutting's Gram., p. 106. An other gives his opinion in the following note: "When who immediately follows than, it is used improperly in the objective case; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned;'—than whom is not grammatical. It ought to be, than who; because who is the nominative to was understood.—Than whom is as bad a phrase as 'he is taller than him.' It is true that some of our best writers have used than whom; but it is also true, that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical; then why not reject this too?"—Lennie's Grammar, Edition of 1830, p. 105.

OBS. 23.—On this point. Bullions and Brace, two American copyists and plagiarists of Lennie, adopt opposite notions. The latter copies the foregoing note, without the last sentence; that is, without admitting that "than whom" has ever been used by good writers. See Brace's Gram., p. 90. The former says, "The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even when the nominative goes before; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned.' This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probably, than, at first had the force of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative."—Bullions, E. Gram., of 1843, p. 112. Again: "A relative after than is put in the objective case; as, 'Satan, than whom none higher sat.' This anomaly has not been satisfactorily explained. In this case, some regard than as a preposition. It is probably only a case of simple enallagé"—Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., of 1849, p. 191. Prof. Fowler, in his great publication, of 1850, says of this example, "The expression should be, Satan, than who None higher sat."—Fowler's E. Gram., §482, Note 2. Thus, by one single form of antiptosis, have our grammarians been as much divided and perplexed, as were the Latin grammarians by a vast number of such changes; and, since there were some among the latter, who insisted on a total rejection of the figure, there is no great presumption in discarding, if we please, the very little that remains of it in English.

OBS. 24.—Peirce's new theory of grammar rests mainly on the assumption, that no correct sentence ever is, or can be, in any wise, elliptical. This is one of the "Two GRAND PRINCIPLES" on which the author says his "work is based."—The Grammar, p. 10. The other is, that grammar cannot possibly be taught without a thorough reformation of its nomenclature, a reformation involving a change of most of the names and technical terms heretofore used for its elucidation. I do not give precisely his own words, for one half of this author's system is expressed in such language as needs to be translated into English in order to be generally understood; but this is precisely his meaning, and in words more intelligible. In what estimation he holds these two positions, may be judged from the following assertion: "Without these grand points, no work, whatever may be its pretensions, can be A GRAMMAR of the LANGUAGE."—Ib. It follows that no man who does not despise every other book that is called a grammar, can entertain any favourable opinion of Peirce's. The author however is tolerably consistent. He not only scorns to appeal, for the confirmation of his own assertions and rules, to the judgement or practice of any other writer, but counsels the learner to "spurn the idea of quoting, either as proof or for defence, the authority of any man." See p. 13. The notable results of these important premises are too numerous for detail even in this general pandect. But it is to be mentioned here, that, according to this theory, a nominative coming after than or as, is in general to be accounted a nominative absolute; that is, a nominative which is independent of any verb; or, (as the ingenious author himself expresses it,) "A word in the subjective case following another subjective, and immediately preceded by than, as, or not, may be used without an ASSERTER immediately depending on it for sense."—Peirce's Gram., p. 195. See also his "Grammatical Chart, Rule I, Part 2."

OBS. 25.—"Lowth, Priestley, Murray, and most grammarians say, that hypothetical, conditional, concessive, or exceptive conjunctions; as, if, lest, though, unless, except; require, or govern the subjunctive mood. But in this they are certainly wrong: for, as Dr. Crombie rightly observes, the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, because the mood expresses contingency, not because it follows the conjunction: for these writers themselves allow, that the same conjunctions are to be followed by the indicative mood, when the verb is not intended to express a contingency. In the following sentence: 'Though he be displeased at it, I will bolt my door; and let him break it open if he dare:' may we not as well affirm, that and governs the imperative mood, as that though and if govern the subjunctive?"—Churchill's Gram., p. 321.

OBS. 26.—In the list of correspondents contained in Note 7th below, there are some words which ought not to be called conjunctions, by the parser; for the relation of a word as the proper correspondent to an other word, does not necessarily determine its part of speech. Thus, such is to be parsed as an adjective; as, sometimes as a pronoun; so, as a conjunctive adverb. And only, merely, also, and even, are sometimes conjunctive adverbs; as, "Nor is this only a matter of convenience to the poet, it is also a source of gratification to the reader."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 166. Murray's, Gram., i, 362. Professor Bullions will have it, that these adverbs may relate to nouns—a doctrine which I disapprove. He says "Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few others, are sometimes joined to substantives; as, 'Not only the men, but the women also were present.'"—English Gram., p. 116. Only and also are here, I think, conjunctive adverbs; but it is not the office of adverbs to qualify nouns; and, that these words are adjuncts to the nouns men and women, rather than the verb were, which is once expressed and once understood, I see no sufficient reason to suppose. Some teachers imagine, that an adverb of this kind qualifies the whole clause in which it stands. But it would seem, that the relation of such words to verbs, participles, or adjectives, according to the common rule for adverbs, is in general sufficiently obvious: as, "The perfect tense not only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allusion to the present time."—Murray's Gram., p. 70. Is there any question about the true mode of parsing "only" and "also" here? and have they not in the other sentence, a relation similar to what is seen here?

NOTES TO RULE XXII.

NOTE I.—When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it. Thus, in stead of saying, "He has made alterations and additions to the work," say, "He has made alterations in the work, and additions to it;" because the relation between alterations and work is not well expressed by to.

NOTE II.—In general, any two terms which we connect by a conjunction, should be the same in kind or quality, rather than different or heterogeneous. Example: "The assistance was welcome, and seasonably afforded."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 249. Better: "The assistance was welcome, and it was seasonably afforded." Or: "The assistance was both seasonable and welcome."

NOTE III.—The conjunctions, copulative or disjunctive, affirmative or negative, must be used with a due regard to their own import, and to the true idiom of the language. Thus, say, "The general bent or turn of the language is towards the other form;" and not, with Lowth and Churchill, "The general bent and turn of the language is towards the other form."—Short Introd., p. 60; New Gram., p. 113. So, say, "I cannot deny that there are perverse jades;" and not, with Addison, "I cannot deny but there are perverse jades."—Spect., No. 457. Again, say, "I feared that I should be deserted;" not, "lest I should be deserted."

NOTE IV.—After else, other,[437] otherwise, rather, and all English comparatives, the latter term of an exclusive comparison should be introduced by the conjunction than—a word which is appropriated to this use solely: as, "Style is nothing else than that sort of expression which our thoughts most readily assume."—Blair's Rhet., p. 92. "What we call fables or parables are no other than allegories."—Ib., p. 151; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 243. "We judge otherwise of them than of ourselves."—R. Ainsworth. "The premeditation should be of things rather than of words."—Blair's Rhet., p. 262. "Is not the life more than meat?"—Com. Bible. "Is not life a greater gift than food?"—Campbell's Gospels.

NOTE V.—Relative pronouns, being themselves a species of connective words, necessarily exclude conjunctions; except there be two or more relative clauses to be connected together; that is, one to the other. Example of error: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, and which, in my opinion, he possesses beyond all poets, is tenderness."—Blair's Rhet., p. 439. Better: "The principal and distinguishing excellence of Virgil, an excellence which, in my opinion, he possesses beyond all other poets, is tenderness."

NOTE VI.—The word that, (as was shown in the fifth chapter of Etymology,) is often made a pronoun in respect to what precedes it, and a conjunction in respect to what follows it—a construction which, for its anomaly, ought to be rejected. For example: "In the mean time THAT the Muscovites were complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."—Life of Charles XII. Better thus: "While the Muscovites were thus complaining to St. Nicholas, Charles returned thanks to God, and prepared for new victories."

NOTE VII.—The words in each of the following pairs, are the proper correspondents to each other; and care should be taken, to give them their right place in the sentence:

1. To though, corresponds yet; as, "Though he were dead, yet shall he live."—John, xi, 25. 2. To whether, corresponds or; as, "Whether it be greater or less."—Butler's Analogy, p. 77.

3. To either, corresponds or; as, "The constant indulgence of a declamatory manner, is not favourable either to good composition, or [to] good delivery."—Blair's Rhet., p. 334.

4. To neither, corresponds nor; as, "John the Baptist came neither eating bread nor drinking wine."—Luke, vii, 33. "Thou shalt neither vex a stranger nor oppress him."—Exod., xxii, 21.

5. To both, corresponds and; as, "I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the Barbarians, both to the wise and to the unwise."—Rom., i, 14.

6. To such, corresponds as; (the former being a pronominal adjective, and the latter a relative pronoun;) as, "An assembly such as earth saw never."—Cowper.

7. To such, corresponds that; with, a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "The difference is such that all will perceive it."

8. To as, corresponds as; with an adjective or an adverb, to express equality of degree: as, "And he went out from his presence a leper as white as snow."—2 Kings. v. 27.

9. To as, corresponds so; with two verbs, to express proportion or sameness: as, "As two are to four, so are six to twelve."—"As the tree falls, so it must lie."

10. So is used before as; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the degree by comparison: as, "How can you descend to a thing so base as falsehood?"

11. So is used before as; with a negative preceding, to deny equality of degree: as, "No lamb was e'er so mild as he."—Langhorne. "Relatives are not so useful in language as conjunctions."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., p. 126.

12. To so, corresponds as; with an infinitive following, to express a consequence: as, "We ought, certainly, to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to the ear"—Blair's Rhet., p. 332.

13. To so, corresponds that; with a finite verb following, to express a consequence: as, "No man was so poor that he could not make restitution."—Milman's Jews, i, 113. "So run that ye may obtain."—1 Cor., ix, 24.

14. To not only, or not merely, corresponds but, but also, or but even; as, "In heroic times, smuggling and piracy were deemed not only not infamous, but [even] absolutely honourable."—Maunder's Gram., p. 15. "These are questions, not of prudence merely, but of morals also."—Dymond's Essay, p. 82.

NOTE VIII.—"When correspondent conjunctions are used, the verb, or phrase, that precedes the first, applies [also] to the second; but no word following the former, can [by virtue of this correspondence,] be understood after the latter."—Churchill's Gram., p. 353. Such ellipses as the following ought therefore in general to be avoided: "Tones are different both from emphasis and [from] pauses."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, i, 250. "Though both the intention and [the] purchase are now past."—Ib., ii, 24.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—TWO TERMS WITH ONE.

"The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the second."—Inst., p. 171.

[FORMULE,—Not proper, because the preposition to is used with joint reference to the two adjectives different and inferior, which require different prepositions. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 22d, "When two terms connected are each to be extended and completed in sense by a third, they must both be such as will make sense with it." The sentence may be corrected thus: "The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and inferior to it."]

"A neuter verb implies the state a subject is in, without acting upon, or being acted upon, by another."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 30. "I answer, you may and ought to use stories and anecdotes."—Student's Manual, p. 220. "ORACLE, n. Any person or place where certain decisions are obtained."—Webster's Dict. "Forms of government may, and must be occasionally, changed."—Ld. Lyttelton. "I have, and pretend to be a tolerable judge."—Spect., No. 555. "Are we not lazy in our duties, or make a Christ of them?"—Baxter's Saints' Rest. "They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles, or is a-kin to it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 94. "We may, we ought therefore to read them with a distinguishing eye."—Ib., p. 352. "Compare their poverty, with what they might, and ought to possess."—Sedgwick's Econ., p. 95. "He is a much better grammarian than they are."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. "He was more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio."—ADDISON, ON MEDALS: in Priestly's Gram., p. 200. "Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old, or even older than tradition?"—Bolingb. Phil. Es., iv, §19. "The court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the common law."—Spectator, No. 564; Ware's Gram., p. 16. "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing or being seen by her."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 160. "In candid minds, truth finds an entrance, and a welcome too."—Murray's Key, ii, 168. "In many designs, we may succeed and be miserable."—lb., p. 169. "In many pursuits, we embark with pleasure, and land sorrowfully."—Ib., p. 170. "They are much greater gainers than I am by this unexpected event."—lb., p. 211.

UNDER NOTE II.—HETEROGENEOUS TERMS.

"Athens saw them entering her gates and fill her academies."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 30. "We have neither forgot his past, nor despair of his future success."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 121. "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered or crumbled into dust."—Lit. Conv., p. 15. "Competition is excellent, and the vital principle in all these things."—DR. LIEBER: ib., p. 64. "Whether provision should or not be made to meet this exigency."—Ib., p. 128. "That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted."—Murray's Gram., i. 206. "It would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent, by explanatory notes and observations, than by sweeping away our ancient landmarks, and setting up others."—Ib., i. p. 30. "It is certainly much better, to supply the defects and abridge superfluities, by occasional notes and observations, than by disorganizing, or altering a system which has been so long established."—Ib., i, 59. "To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than having none at all"—Blair's Rhet., p. 126. "Facts too well known and obvious to be insisted on."—Ib., p. 233. "In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and of a sublime kind."—Ib., p. 41. "If the description be too general, and divested of circumstances."—Ibid. "He gained nothing further than to be commended."—Murray's Key, ii, 210. "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained, and out of place."—VETHAKE: Lit. Conv., p. 29. "Two negatives in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative."—Maunders Gram., p. 15. "Slates are stone and used to cover roofs of houses."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, p. 47. "Every man of taste, and possessing an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses."—Influence of Literature. Vol. ii, p, 122. "They very seldom trouble themselves with Enquiries, or making useful observations of their own."—Locke, on Ed., p. 376.

   "We've both the field and honour won;
    The foe is profligate, and run."—Hudibras, p. 93.

UNDER NOTE III.—IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"The is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."—Lennie's Gram., p. 6; Bullions's, 8; Brace's, 9. "The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 33; Ingersoll's, 33; Lowth's, 14; Fisk's, 53; Merchant's, 24; and others. "Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mode or tense."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 137. "Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mode, tense, or form."—Ib. "The ruins of Greece and Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness."—Day's Gram., p. 88. "In many of these cases, it is not improbable, but that the articles were used originally."—Priestley's Gram., p. 152. "I cannot doubt but that these objects are really what they appear to be."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 85. "I question not but my reader will be as much pleased with it."—Spect., No. 535. "It is ten to one but my friend Peter is among them."—Ib., No. 457. "I doubt not but such objections as these will be made."—Locke, on Education, p. 169. "I doubt not but it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. vi. "It is not improbable, but that, in time, these different constructions may be appropriated to different uses."—Priestley's Gram., p. 156. "But to forget or to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man."—Idler, No. 72. "The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative and imperative sentences."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 290. "Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries? either a vine, figs?"—James, iii, 12. "Whose characters are too profligate, that the managing of them should be of any consequence."—Swift, Examiner, No. 24. "You that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine; yet have too much grace and wit than to be a bishop."—Pope, to Swift, Let. 80. "The terms rich or poor enter not into their language."—Robertson's America, Vol. i, p. 314. "This pause is but seldom or ever sufficiently dwelt upon."—Music of Nature, p. 181. "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life and human happiness."—Butler's Anal., p. 110. "The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace."—Matt., xx, 21.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF THE CONJUNCTION THAN.

"A metaphor is nothing else but a short comparison."—Adam's Gram., p. 243; Gould's, 236. "There being no other dictator here but use."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 167. "This Construction is no otherwise known in English but by supplying the first or second Person Plural."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. xi. "Cyaxares was no sooner in the throne, but he was engaged in a terrible war."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 62. "Those classics contain little else but histories of murders."—Am. Museum, v, 526. "Ye shall not worship any other except God."—Sale's Koran, p. 15. "Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained but by their place."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 260. "For he no sooner accosted her, but he gained his point."—Burder's Hist., i, 6. "And all the modern writers on this subject have done little else but translate them."—Blair's Rhet., p. 336. "One who had no other aim, but to talk copiously and plausibly."— Ib., p. 317. "We can refer it to no other cause but the structure of the eye."—Ib., p. 46. "No more is required but singly an act of vision."— Kames, El. of Crit., i, 171. "We find no more in its composition, but the particulars now mentioned."— Ib., i, 48. "He pretends not to say, that it hath any other effect but to raise surprise."—Ib., ii, 61. "No sooner was the princess dead, but he freed himself."—Johnson's Sketch of Morin. "Ought is an imperfect verb, for it has no other modification besides this one."—Priestley's Gram., p. 113. "The verb is palpably nothing else but the tie."—Neef's Sketch, p. 66. "Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else except being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"—Blair's Rhet., p. 104. "Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism?"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 307. "There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, but by means of something already known"—DR. JOHNSON: Murray's Gram., i, 163; Ingersoll's, 214. "O fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted!"— Milton's Poems, p, 132. "Architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind, but by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 318. "Or, rather, they are nothing else but nouns."—British Gram., p. 95.

   "As if religion were intended
    For nothing else but to be mended."—Hudibras, p. 11.

UNDER NOTE V.—RELATIVES EXCLUDE CONJUNCTIONS.

"To prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 214. "Has this word which represents an action an object after it, and on which it terminates?"—Osborn's Key, p. 3. "The stores of literature lie before him, and from which he may collect, for use, many lessons of wisdom."— Knapp's Lectures, p. 31. "Many and various great advantages of this Grammar, and which are wanting in others, might be enumerated."— Greenleaf's Gram., p. 6. "About the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator, the custom is said to have been introduced, and which still prevails, of writing in lines from left to right."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 19. "The fundamental rule of the construction of sentences, and into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to transfuse into the minds of others."—Blair's Rhet., p. 120; Jamieson's, 102. "He left a son of a singular character, and who behaved so ill that he was put in prison."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 221. "He discovered some qualities in the youth, of a disagreeable nature, and which to him were wholly unaccountable."—Ib., p. 213. "An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we want ['desire' M.] to fix the hearer's attention."—Blair's Rhet., p. 331; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 248. "But we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure, and which make different impressions on the ear."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 259.

UNDER NOTE VI.—OF THE WORD THAT.

"It will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher, at the same time that it will relieve the pupil of many difficulties."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 4. "At the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. viii. "On the same ground that a participle and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 76. "On the same ground that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue."—Ib., p. 101. "The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that the preceding examples are corrected."—Ib., p. 186; Ingersoll's Gram., 254. "The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till the time that Rome was taken by the Goths."—Gould's Lat. Gram., p. 277. "The introduction to the Duodecimo Edition, is retained in this volume, for the same reason that the original introduction to the Grammar, is retained in the first volume."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii, p. iv. "The verb must also be of the same person that the nominative case is."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 16. "The adjective pronoun their, is plural for the same reason that who is."—Ib., p. 84. "The Sabellians could not justly be called Patripassians, in the same sense that the Noetians were so called."—Religious World, Vol. ii, p. 122. "This is one reason that we pass over such smooth language, without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 298. "The first place that both armies came in sight of each other was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 118. "At the very time that the author gave him the first book for his perusal."—Campbell's Rhetoric, Preface, p. iv. "Peter will sup at the time that Paul will dine."—Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 81. "Peter will be supping at the time that Paul will enter."—Ibid. "These, at the same time that they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them, will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book."—Ib., p. 115.

   "Time was, like thee, they life possest,
    And time shall be, that thou shalt rest."
        —PARNELL; Mur. Seq., p. 241.

UNDER NOTE VII.—OF THE CORRESPONDENTS.

"Our manners should neither be gross, nor excessively refined."—Merchant's Gram., p. 11. "A neuter verb expresses neither action or passion, but being, or a state of being."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 342. "The old books are neither English grammars, or grammars, in any sense of the English Language."—Ib., p. 378. "The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 7. "The writer could not treat some topicks as extensively as was desirable."—Ib., p. 10. "Which would be a matter of such nicety, as no degree of human wisdom could regulate."—Murray's Gram., i, 26. "No undertaking is so great or difficult which he cannot direct."—Duncan's Cic., p. 126. "It is a good which neither depends on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune."—Harris's Hermes, 299; Murray's Gram., i, 289. "Not only his estate, his reputation too has suffered by his misconduct."—Murray's Gram., i, 150; Ingersoll's, 238. "Neither do they extend as far as might be imagined at first view."—Blair's Rhet., p. 350. "There is no language so poor, but it hath two or three past tenses."—Ib., p. 82. "As far as this system is founded in truth, language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin."—Ib., p. 56. "I have not that command of these convulsions as is necessary."—Spect., No. 474. "Conversation with such who know no arts which polish life."—Ib., No. 480. "And which can be neither very lively or very forcible."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 78. "To that degree as to give proper names to rivers."—Dr. Murray's Hist of Lang., i, 327. "In the utter overthrow of such who hate to be reformed."—Barclay's Works, i, 443. "But still so much of it is retained, as greatly injures the uniformity of the whole."—Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. vii. "Some of them have gone to that height of extravagance, as to assert," &c.—Ib., p. 91. "A teacher is confined—not more than a merchant, and probably not as much."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 27. "It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come."—Matt., xii, 32. "Which no body presumes, or is so sanguine to hope."—Swift, Drap. Let. v. "For the torrent of the voice, left neither time or power in the organs, to shape the words properly."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 118. "That he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much, or diminish his power by using too little."—Ib., p. 123. "I have retained only such which appear most agreeable to the measures of Analogy."—Littleton's Dict., Pref. "He is both a prudent and industrious man."—Day's Gram., p. 70. "Conjunctions either connect words or sentences."—Ib., pp. 81 and 101.

   "Such silly girls who love to chat and play,
    Deserve no care, their time is thrown away."—Tobitt's Gram., p. 20.

    "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,
    As to be hated needs but to be seen."—POPE: Mur. Gram., ii, 17.

    "Justice must punish the rebellious deed:
    Yet punish so, as pity shall exceed."—DRYDEN: in Joh. Dict.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—IMPROPER ELLIPSES.

"That, whose, and as relate to either persons or things."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 93. "Which and what, as adjectives, relate either to persons or things."—Ib., p. 70. "Whether of a public or private nature."— Adam's Rhet., i, 43. "Which are included both among the public and private wrongs."—Ib., i, 308. "I might extract both from the old and new testament numberless examples of induction."—Ib., ii, 66. "Many verbs are used both in an active and neuter signification."—Lowth's Gram., p. 30; Alger's, 26; Guy's, 21; Murray's, 60. "Its influence is likely to be considerable, both on the morals, and taste of a nation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 373. "The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and tender kind."—Ib., p. 439. "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and the performance of our duty."—Murray's Key, ii, 166; Ingersoll's Gram., p. 10. "Adjective Pronouns are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and adjectives."—Murray's Gram., i, 55; Merchant's, 43; Flint's, 22. "Adjective Pronouns have the nature both of the adjective and the pronoun."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 15. "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech, partaking the nature both of pronouns and adjectives."—Nutting's Gram., p. 36. "Nouns are used either in the singular or plural number."—Blair's Gram., p. 11. "The question is not, whether the nominative or accusative ought to follow the particles than and as; but, whether these particles are, in such particular cases, to be regarded as conjunctions or prepositions."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 204. "In English many verbs are used both as transitives and intransitives."—Churchill's Gram., p. 83. "He sendeth rain both on the just and unjust."—Guy's Gram., p. 56. "A foot consists either of two or three syllables."—Blair's Gram., p. 118. "Because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions."—Murray's Gram., i, 116. "Surely, Romans, what I am now about to say, ought neither to be omitted nor pass without notice."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 196. "Their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but non-sense."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 14. "Hence arises the necessity of a social state to man both for the unfolding, and exerting of his nobler faculties."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 147. "Whether the subject be of the real or feigned kind."—Blair's Rhet., p. 454. "Not only was liberty entirely extinguished, but arbitrary power felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight."—Ib., p. 249. "This rule is applicable also both to verbal Critics and Grammarians."—Hiley's Gram., p. 144. "Both the rules and exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage."—Ib., p. 143.

CHAPTER X.—PREPOSITIONS.

The syntax of Prepositions consists, not solely or mainly in their power of governing the objective case, (though this alone is the scope which most grammarians have given it,) but in their adaptation to the other terms between which they express certain relations, such as appear by the sense of the words uttered.

RULE XXIII.—PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them: as; "He came from Rome to Paris, in the company of many eminent men, and passed with them through many cities"—Analectic Magazine.

"Ah! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, By truth illumin'd, and by taste refin'd?"—Rogers.

EXCEPTION FIRST.

The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of relation; as, "To learn to die, is the great business of life."—Dillwyn. "Nevertheless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."—ST. PAUL: Phil., i, 24. "To be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction."

   "Too much to know, is, to know nought but fame;
    And every godfather can give a name."—Shakspeare.

EXCEPTION SECOND.

The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent term of relation; as, "For us to learn to die, is the great business of life."—"Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."—"For an old man to be reduced to poverty is a very great affliction."

"For man to tell how human life began, Is hard; for who himself beginning knew?"—Milton.

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIII.

OBS. 1.—In parsing any ordinary preposition, the learner should name the two terms of the relation, and apply the foregoing rule, after the manner prescribed in Praxis 12th of this work. The principle is simple and etymological, being implied in the very definition of a preposition, yet not the less necessary to be given as a rule of syntax. Among tolerable writers, the prepositions exhibit more errors than any other equal number of words. This is probably owing to the careless manner in which they are usually slurred over in parsing. But the parsers, in general, have at least this excuse, that their text-books have taught them no better; they therefore call the preposition a preposition, and leave its use and meaning unexplained.

OBS. 2.—If the learner be at any loss to discover the true terms of relation, let him ask and answer two questions: first, with the interrogative what before the preposition, to find the antecedent; and then, with the same pronoun after the preposition, to find the subsequent term. These questions answered according to the sense, will always give the true terms. For example: "They dashed that rapid torrent through."—Scott. Ques. What through? Ans. "Dashed through." Ques. Through what? Ans. "Through that torrent." For the meaning is—"They dashed through that rapid torrent." If one term is perfectly obvious, (as it almost always is,) find the other in this way; as, "Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge."—Psal., xix, 2. Ques. What unto day? Ans. "Uttereth unto day." Ques. What unto night? Ans. "Showeth unto night" For the meaning is—"Day uttereth speech unto day, and night showeth knowledge unto night." To parse rightly, is, to understand rightly; and what is well expressed, it is a shame to misunderstand or misinterpret. But sometimes the position of the two nouns is such, that it may require some reflection to find either; as,

   "Or that choice plant, so grateful to the nose,
    Which in I know not what far country grows."—Churchill, p. 18.

OBS. 3.—When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms of relation, if both are given, are transposed; as, "To a studious man, action is a relief."—Burgh. That is, "Action is a relief to a studious man." "Science they [the ladies] do not pretend TO."—Id. That is, "They do not pretend to science." "Until I have done that which I have spoken to thee OF."—Gen., xxviii, 15. The word governed by the preposition is always the subsequent term of the relation, however it may be placed; and if this be a relative pronoun, the transposition is permanent. The preposition, however, may be put before any relative, except that and as; and this is commonly thought to be its most appropriate place: as, "Until I have done that of which I have spoken to thee," Of the placing of it last, Lowth says, "This is an idiom which our language is strongly inclined to;" Murray and others, "This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined:" while they all add, "it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the preposition before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated style."—Lowth's Gram., p. 95; Murray's, 8vo, p. 200; Fisk's, 141; R. C. Smiths, 167; Ingersoll's, 227; Churchill's. 150.

OBS. 4.—The terms of relation between which a preposition may be used, are very various. The former or antecedent term may be a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb: and, in some instances, we find not only one preposition put before an other, but even a conjunction or an interjection used on this side; as, "Because OF offences."—"Alas FOR him!"—The latter or subsequent term, which is the word governed by the preposition, may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, or an imperfect or preperfect participle: and, in some instances, prepositions appear to govern adverbs, or even whole phrases. See the observations in the tenth chapter of Etymology.

OBS. 5.—Both terms of the relation are usually expressed; though either of them may, in some instances, be left out, the other being given: as, (1.) THE FORMER—"All shall know me, [reckoning] FROM the least to the greatest."—Heb., viii, 11. [I say] "IN a word, it would entirely defeat the purpose."—Blair. "When I speak of reputation, I mean not only [reputation] IN regard to knowledge, but [reputation] IN regard to the talent of communicating knowledge."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 163; Murray's Gram., i, 360. (2.) THE LATTER—"Opinions and ceremonies [which] they would die FOR."—Locke. "IN [those] who obtain defence, or [in those] who defend."—Pope. "Others are more modest than [what] this comes TO."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 66.

OBS. 6.—The only proper exceptions to the foregoing rule, are those which are inserted above, unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate is also to be excepted; as, "In both, to reason right, is to submit."—Pope. But here most if not all grammarians would say, the verb "is" is the antecedent term, or what their syntax takes to govern the infinitive. The relation, however, is not such as when we say, "He is to submit;" that is, "He must submit, or ought to submit;" but, perhaps, to insist on a different mode of parsing the more separable infinitive or its preposition, would be a needless refinement. Yet some regard ought to be paid to the different relations which the infinitive may bear to this finite verb. For want of a due estimate of this difference, the following sentence is, I think, very faulty: "The great business of this life is to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 373. If the author meant to tell what our great business in this life is, he should rather have said: "The great business of this life is, to prepare and qualify ourselves for the enjoyment of a better."

OBS. 7.—In relation to the infinitive, Dr. Adam remarks, that, "To in English is often taken absolutely; as, To confess the truth; To proceed; To conclude."—Latin and Eng. Gram., p. 182. But the assertion is not entirely true; nor are his examples appropriate; for what he and many other grammarians call the infinitive absolute, evidently depends on something understood; and the preposition is, surely, in no instance independent of what follows it, and is therefore never entirely absolute. Prepositions are not to be supposed to have no antecedent term, merely because they stand at the head of a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of a verb; for the phrase or sentence itself often contains that term, as in the following example: "In what way mind acts upon matter, is unknown." Here in shows the relation between acts and way; because the expression suggests, that mind acts IN some way upon matter.

OBS. 8.—The second exception above, wherever it is found applicable, cancels the first; because it introduces an antecedent term before the preposition to, as may be seen by the examples given. It is questionable too, whether both of them may not also be cancelled in an other way; that is, by transposition and the introduction of the pronoun it for the nominative: as, "It is a great affliction, TO be reduced to poverty."—"It is hard FOR man to tell how human life began."—"Nevertheless it is more needful for you, THAT I should abide in the flesh." We cannot so well say, "It is more needful for you, FOR me to abide in the flesh;" but we may say, "It is, on your account, more needful FOR me to abide in the flesh." If these, and other similar examples, are not to be accounted additional instances in which to and for, and also the conjunction that, are without any proper antecedent terms, we must suppose these particles to show the relation between what precedes and what follows them.

OBS. 9.—The preposition (as its name implies) precedes the word which it governs. Yet there are some exceptions. In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an interrogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with the other term of relation; as, "Whom did he speak to?" But it is more dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition before the pronoun; as, "To whom did he speak?" The relatives that and as, if governed by a preposition, must always precede it. In some instances, the pronoun must be supplied in parsing; as, "To set off the banquet [that or which] he gives notice of."—Philological Museum, i, 454. Sometimes the objective word is put first because it is emphatical; as, "This the great understand, this they pique themselves upon."—Art of Thinking, p. 66. Prepositions of more than one syllable, are sometimes put immediately after their objects, especially in poetry; as, "Known all the world over."—Walker's Particles p. 291. "The thing is known all Lesbos over."—Ibid.

"Wild Carron's lonely woods among."—Langhorne.

"Thy deep ravines and dells along."—Sir W. Scott.

OBS. 10.—Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, "Lambeth is over against Westminster abbey."—Murray's Gram., i, 118. "And from before the lustre of her face, White break the clouds away."—Thomson. "And the meagre fiend Blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips."—Cowper. These, in most instances, though they are not usually written as compounds, appear naturally to coalesce in their syntax, as was observed in the tenth chapter of Etymology, and to express a sort of compound relation between the other terms with which they are connected. When such is their character, they ought to be taken together in parsing; for, if we parse them separately, we must either call the first an adverb, or suppose some very awkward ellipsis. Some instances however occur, in which an object may easily be supplied to the former word, and perhaps ought to be; as, "He is at liberty to sell it at [a price] above a fair remuneration."— Wayland's Moral Science, p. 258. "And I wish they had been at the bottom of the ditch I pulled you out of, instead of [being] upon my back."—Sandford and Merton, p. 29. In such examples as the following, the first preposition, of, appears to me to govern the plural noun which ends the sentence; and the intermediate ones, from and to, to have both terms of their relation understood: "Iambic verse consists of from two to six feet; that is, of from four to twelve syllables."—Blair's Gram., p. 119. "Trochaic verse consists of from one to three feet."—Ibid. The meaning is—"Iambic verse consists of feet varying in number from two to six; or (it consists) of syllables varying from four to twelve."—"Trochaic verse consists of feet varying from one foot to three feet."

OBS. 11.—One antecedent term may have several prepositions depending on it, with one object after each, or more than one after any, or only one after both or all; as, "A declaration for virtue and against vice."—Butler's Anal., p. 157. "A positive law against all fraud, falsehood, and violence, and for, or in favour of, all justice and truth." "For of him, and through him, and to him, are all things."—Bible. In fact, not only may the relation be simple in regard to all or any of the words, but it may also be complex in regard to all or any of them. Hence several different prepositions, whether they have different antecedent terms or only one and the same, may refer either jointly or severally to one object or to more. This follows, because not only may either antecedents or objects be connected by conjunctions, but prepositions also admit of this construction, with or without a connecting of their antecedents. Examples: "They are capable of, and placed in, different stations in the society of mankind."—Butler's Anal., p. 115. "Our perception of vice and ill desert arises from, and is the result of, a comparison of actions with the nature and capacities of the agent."—Ib., p. 279. "And the design of this chapter is, to inquire how far this is the case; how far, over and above the moral nature which God has given us, and our natural notion of him, as righteous governor of those his creatures to whom he has given this nature; I say, how far, besides this, the principles and beginnings of a moral government over the world may be discerned, notwithstanding and amidst all the confusion and disorder of it."—Ib., p. 85.

OBS. 12.—The preposition into, expresses a relation produced by motion or change; and in, the same relation, without reference to motion as having produced it: hence, "to walk into the garden," and, "to walk in the garden," are very different in meaning. "It is disagreeable to find a word split into two by a pause."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 83. This appears to be right in sense, but because brevity is desirable in unemphatic particles, I suppose most persons would say, "split in two." In the Bible we have the phrases, "rent in twain,"—"cut in pieces,"—"brake in pieces the rocks,"—"brake all their bones in pieces,"—"brake them to pieces,"—"broken to pieces,"—"pulled in pieces." In all these, except the first, to may perhaps be considered preferable to in; and into would be objectionable only because it is longer and less simple. "Half of them dare not shake the snow from off their cassocks, lest they shake themselves to pieces."—SHAK.: Kames, ii, 246.

OBS. 13.—Between, or betwixt, is used in reference to two things or parties; among, or amongst, amid, or amidst, in reference to a greater number, or to something by which an other may be surrounded: as, "Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear."—Byron. "The host between the mountain and the shore."—Id. "To meditate amongst decay, and stand a ruin amidst ruins."—Id. In the following examples, the import of these prepositions is not very accurately regarded; "The Greeks wrote in capitals, and left no spaces between their words."—Wilson's Essay, p. 6. This construction may perhaps be allowed, because the spaces by which words are now divided, occur severally between one word and an other; but the author might as well have said, "and left no spaces to distinguish their words." "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."—L'Estrange. Here by or among would, I think, be better than betwixt, because the partners were more than two. "Between two or more authors, different readers will differ, exceedingly, as to the preference in point of merit."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 162; Jamieson's, 40; Murray's Gram., i, 360. Say, "Concerning two or more authors," because between is not consistent with the word more. "Rising one among another in the greatest confusion and disorder."—Spect., No. 476. Say, "Rising promiscuously," or, "Rising all at once;" for among is not consistent with the distributive term one an other.

OBS. 14.—Of two prepositions coming together between the same terms of relation, and sometimes connected in the same construction, I have given several plain examples in this chapter, and in the tenth chapter of Etymology, a very great number, all from sources sufficiently respectable. But, in many of our English grammars, there is a stereotyped remark on this point, originally written by Priestley, which it is proper here to cite, as an other specimen of the Doctor's hastiness, and of the blind confidence of certain compilers and copyists: "Two different prepositions must be improper in the same construction, and in the same sentence: [as,] The combat between thirty Britons, against twenty English. Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. 2, p. 292."—Priestley's Gram., p. 156. Lindley Murray and others have the same remark, with the example altered thus: "The combat between thirty French against twenty English."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 200; Smith's New Gram., 167: Fisk's, 142; Ingersoll's, 228. W. Allen has it thus: "Two different prepositions in the same construction are improper; as, a combat between twenty French against thirty English."—Elements of E. Gram., p. 179. He gives the odds to the latter party. Hiley, with no expense of thought, first takes from Murray, as he from Priestley, the useless remark, "Different relations, and different senses, must be expressed by different prepositions;" and then adds, "One relation must not, therefore, be expressed by two different prepositions in the same clause; thus, 'The combat between thirty French against thirty English,' should be, 'The combat between thirty French and thirty English.'"—Hiley's E. Gram., p 97. It is manifest that the error of this example is not in the use of two prepositions, nor is there any truth or fitness in the note or notes made on it by all these critics; for had they said, "The combat of thirty French against twenty English," there would still be two prepositions, but where would be the impropriety, or where the sameness of construction, which they speak of? Between is incompatible with against, only because it requires two parties or things for its own regimen; as, "The combat between thirty Frenchmen and twenty Englishmen." This is what Smollett should have written, to make sense with the word "between."

OBS. 15.—With like implicitness, Hiley excepted, these grammarians and others have adopted from Lowth an observation in which the learned doctor has censured quite too strongly the joint reference of different prepositions to the same objective noun: to wit, "Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, in order to connect different prepositions to the same noun; as, 'To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to, themselves.' Bentley, Serm. 6. This [construction], whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant; and should never be admitted, but in forms of law, and the like; where fullness and exactness of expression must take place of every other consideration."—Lowth's Gram., p. 96; Murray's, i, 200; Smith's, 167; Fisk's, 141; Ingersoll's, 228; Alger's, 67; Picket's, 207. Churchill even goes further, both strengthening the censure, and disallowing the exception: thus, "This, whether in the solemn or in the familiar style, is always inelegant, and should never be admitted. It is an awkward shift for avoiding the repetition of a word, which might be accomplished without it by any person who has the least command of language."—New Gram., p. 341. Yet, with all their command of language, not one of these gentlemen has told us how the foregoing sentence from Bentley may be amended; while many of their number not only venture to use different prepositions before the same noun, but even to add a phrase which puts that noun in the nominative case: as, "Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with, the thing denoted by the governing verb."—Murray's Gram., i, 191; Ingersoll's, 260; R. C. Smith's, 159.

OBS. 16.—The structure of this example not only contradicts palpably, and twice over, the doctrine cited above, but one may say of the former part of it, as Lowth, Murray, and others do, (in no very accurate English,) of the text 1 Cor., ii, 9: "There seems to be an impropriety in this sentence, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 224. See also Lowth's Gram., p. 73; Ingersoll's, 277; Fisk's, 149; Smith's, 185. Two other examples, exactly like that which is so pointedly censured above, are placed by Murray under his thirteenth rule for the comma; and these likewise, with all faithfulness, are copied by Ingersoll, Smith, Alger, Kirkham, Comly, Russell, and I know not how many more. In short, not only does this rule of their punctuation include the construction in question; but the following exception to it, which is remarkable for its various faults, or thorough faultiness, is applicable to no other: "Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma before it: as, 'Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of Rome.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 272; Smith's, 190; Ingersoll's, 284; Kirkham's, 215; Alger's, 79; Alden's, 149; Abel Flint's, 103; Russell's, 115. But the blunders and contradictions on this point, end not here. Dr. Blair happened most unlearnedly to say, "What is called splitting of particles, or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided. As if I should say, 'Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune.'"—Lect. XII, p. 112. This too, though the author himself did not always respect the rule, has been thought worthy to be copied, or stolen, with all its faults! See Jamieson's Rhetoric, p. 93; and Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 319.

OBS. 17.—Dr. Lowth says, "The noun aversion, (that is, a turning away,) as likewise the adjective averse, seems to require the preposition from after it; and not so properly to admit of to, or for, which are often used with it."—Gram., p. 98. But this doctrine has not been adopted by the later grammarians: "The words averse and aversion (says Dr. Campbell) are more properly construed with to than with from. The examples in favour of the latter preposition, are beyond comparison outnumbered by those in favour of the former."—Murray's Gram., i, 201; Fisk's, 142; Ingersoll's, 229. This however must be understood only of mental aversion. The expression of Milton, "On the coast averse from entrance," would not be improved, if from were changed to to. So the noun exception, and the verb to except, are sometimes followed by from, which has regard to the Latin particle ex, with which the word commences; but the noun at least is much more frequently, and perhaps more properly, followed by to. Examples: "Objects of horror must be excepted from the foregoing theory."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 268. "From which there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."—Ib., ii. 89. "To the rule that fixes the pause after the fifth portion, there is one exception, and no more."—Ib., ii, 84. "No exception can be taken to the justness of the figure."—Ib., ii, 37. "Originally there was no exception from the rule."—Lowth's Gram., p. 58. "From this rule there is mostly an exception."—Murray's Gram., i, 269. "But to this rule there are many exceptions."—Ib., i. 240. "They are not to be regarded as exceptions from the rule,"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 363.

OBS. 18.—After correcting the example. "He knows nothing on [of] it," Churchill remarks, "There seems to be a strange perverseness among the London vulgar in perpetually substituting on for of, and of for on."—New Gram., p. 345. And among the expressions which Campbell censures under the name of vulgarism, are the following: "'Tis my humble request you will be particular in speaking to the following points."—Guardian, No. 57. "The preposition ought to have been on. Precisely of the same stamp is the on't for of it, so much used by one class of writers."—Philosophy of Rhet., p. 217. So far as I have observed, the use of of for on has never been frequent; and that of on for of, or on't for of it, though it may never have been a polite custom, is now a manifest archaism, or imitation of ancient usage. "And so my young Master, whatever comes on't, must have a Wife look'd out for him."—Locke, on Ed., p. 378. In Saxon, on was put for more than half a dozen of our present prepositions. The difference between of and on or upon, appears in general to be obvious enough; and yet there are some phrases in which it is not easy to determine which of these words ought to be preferred: as, "Many things they cannot lay hold on at once."—HOOKER: Joh. Dict. "Uzzah put forth his hand to the ark of God, and took hold of it."—2 SAM.: ib. "Rather thou shouldst lay hold upon him."—BEN JONSON: ib. "Let them find courage to lay hold on the occasion."—MILTON: ib. "The hand is fitted to lay hold of objects."—RAY: ib. "My soul took hold on thee."—ADDISON: ib. "To lay hold of this safe, this only method of cure."—ATTERBURY: ib. "And give fortune no more hold of him."—DRYDEN: ib. "And his laws take the surest hold of us."—TILLOTSON: ib. "It will then be impossible you can have any hold upon him."—SWIFT: ib. "The court of Rome gladly laid hold on all the opportunities."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 198. "Then did the officer lay hold of him and execute him."—Ib., ii, 219. "When one can lay hold upon some noted fact."—Blair's Rhet., p. 311. "But when we would lay firm hold of them."—Ib., p. 28. "An advantage which every one is glad to lay hold of."—Ib., p. 75. "To have laid fast hold of it in his mind."—Ib., p. 94. "I would advise them to lay aside their common-places, and to think closely of their subject."—Ib., p. 317. "Did they not take hold of your fathers?"—Zech., i, 6. "Ten men shall take hold of the skirt of one that is a Jew."—Ib., viii, 23. "It is wrong to say, either 'to lay hold of a thing,' or 'to take hold on it.'"—Blair's Gram., p. 101. In the following couplet, on seems to have been preferred only for a rhyme:

   "Yet, lo! in me what authors have to brag on!
    Reduc'd at last to hiss in my own dragon."—Pope.

OBS. 19.—In the allowable uses of prepositions, there may perhaps be some room for choice; so that what to the mind of a critic may not appear the fittest word, may yet be judged not positively ungrammatical. In this light I incline to view the following examples: "Homer's plan is still more defective, upon another account."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 299. Say—"on an other account." "It was almost eight of the clock before I could leave that variety of objects."—Spectator, No. 454. Present usage requires—"eight o'clock." "The Greek and Latin writers had a considerable advantage above us."—Blair's Rhet., p. 114. "The study of oratory has this advantage above that of poetry."—Ib., p. 338. "A metaphor has frequently an advantage above a formal comparison."— Jamieson's Rhet., p. 150. This use of above seems to be a sort of Scotticism: an Englishman, I think, would say—"advantage over us," &c. "Hundreds have all these crowding upon them from morning to night."— Abbott's Teacher, p. 33. Better—"from morning till night." But Horne Tooke observes, "We apply TO indifferently to place or time; but TILL to time only, and never to place. Thus we may say, 'From morn TO night th' eternal larum rang;' or, 'From morn TILL night.' &c."—Diversions of Purley, i, 284.

NOTES TO RULE XXIII.

NOTE I.—Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended. Example of error: "By which we arrive to the last division."—Richard W. Green's Gram., p. vii. Say,—"arrive at." NOTE II.—Those prepositions which are particularly adapted in meaning to two objects, or to more, ought to be confined strictly to the government of such terms only as suit them. Example of error: "What is Person? It is the medium of distinction between the speaker, the object addressed or spoken to, and the object spoken of."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 34. "Between three" is an incongruity; and the text here cited is bad in several other respects.

NOTE III.—An ellipsis or omission of the preposition is inelegant, except where long and general use has sanctioned it, and made the relation sufficiently intelligible. In the following sentence, of is needed: "I will not flatter you, that all I see in you is worthy love."— Shakspeare. The following requires from: "Ridicule is banished France, and is losing ground in England."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 106.

NOTE IV.—The insertion of a preposition is also inelegant, when the particle is needless, or when it only robs a transitive verb of its proper regimen; as, "The people of England may congratulate to themselves."—DRYDEN: Priestley's Gram., p. 163. "His servants ye are, to whom ye obey."—Rom., vi, 16.

NOTE V.—The preposition and its object should have that position in respect to other words, which will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Examples of error: "Gratitude is a forcible and active principle in good and generous minds."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 169. Better: "In good and generous minds, gratitude is a forcible and active principle." "By a single stroke, he knows how to reach the heart."— Blair's Rhet., p. 439. Better: "He knows how to reach the heart by a single stroke."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIII.

EXAMPLES UNDER NOTE I.—CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS.

"You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving persons."—Swift, on
E. Tongue.

[FORMULE.—Not proper because the relation between have bestowed and persons is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 23d, "Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the relations intended." This relation would be better expressed by upon; thus, "You have bestowed your favours upon the most deserving persons."]

"But to rise beyond that, and overtop the crowd, is given to few."—Blair's Rhet., p. 351. "This also is a good sentence, and gives occasion to no material remark."—Ib., p. 201. "Though Cicero endeavours to give some reputation of the elder Cato, and those who were his cotemporaries."—Ib., p. 245. "The change that was produced on eloquence, is beautifully described in the Dialogue."—Ib., p. 249. "Without carefully attending to the variation which they make upon the idea."—Ib., p. 367. "All of a sudden, you are transported into a lofty palace."—Hazlitt's Lect., p. 70. "Alike independent on one another."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 398. "You will not think of them as distinct processes going on independently on each other,"—Channing's Self-Culture, p. 15. "Though we say, to depend on, dependent on, and independent on, we say, independently of."—Churchill's Gram., p. 348. "Independently on the rest of the sentence."—Lowth's Gram., p. 78; Guy's, 88; Murray's, i, 145 and 184; Ingersoll's, 150; Frost's, 46; Fisk's, 125; Smith's New Gram., 156; Gould's Lat. Gram., 209; Nixon's Parser, 65. "Because they stand independent on the rest of the sentence."—Fisk's Gram., p. 111. "When a substantive is joined with a participle in English independently in the rest of the sentence."—Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., Boston Ed. of 1803, p. 213; Albany Ed. of 1820, p. 166. "Conjunction, comes of the two Latin words con, together, and jungo, to join."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 19. "How different to this is the life of Fulvia!"—Addison's Spect., No. 15. "Loved is a participle or adjective, derived of the word love."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 27. "But I would inquire at him, what an office is?"—Barclay's Works, iii, 463. "For the capacity is brought unto action."—Ib., iii, 420. "In this period, language and taste arrive to purity."—Webster's Essays, p. 94. "And should you not aspire at distinction in the republick of letters."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 13. "Delivering you up to the synagogues, and in prisons."—Keith's Evidences, p. 55. "One that is kept from falling in a ditch, is as truly saved, as he that is taken out of one."—Barclay's Works, i, 312. "The best on it is, they are but a sort of French Hugonots."—Addison, Spect., No. 62. "These last Ten Examples are indeed of a different Nature to the former."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 333. "For the initiation of students in the principles of the English language."—ANNUAL REVIEW: Murray's Gram., ii, 299. "Richelieu profited of every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded,"—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 177. "In the names of drugs and plants, the mistake in a word may endanger life."—Murray's Key, ii, 165. "In order to the carrying on its several parts into execution."—Butler's Analogy, p. 192. "His abhorrence to the superstitious figure."—HUME: Priestley's Gram., p. 164. "Thy prejudice to my cause."—DRYDEN: ib., p. 164. "Which is found among every species of liberty."—HUME: ib., p. 169. "In a hilly region to the north of Jericho."—Milman's Jews, Vol. i, p. 8. "Two or more singular nouns, coupled with AND, require a verb and pronoun in the plural."—Lennie's Gram., p. 83.

   "Books should to one of these four ends conduce,
    For wisdom, piety, delight, or use."—Denham, p. 239.

UNDER NOTE II.—TWO OBJECTS OR MORE.

"The Anglo-Saxons, however, soon quarrelled between themselves for precedence."—Constable's Miscellany, xx, p. 59. "The distinctions between the principal parts of speech are founded in nature."—Webster's Essays, p. 7. "I think I now understand the difference between the active, passive, and neuter verbs."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 124. "Thus a figure including a space between three lines, is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle."—Locke's Essay, p. 303. "We must distinguish between an imperfect phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence."—Lowth's Gram., p. 117; Murray's, i, 267; Ingersoll's, 280; Guy's, 97. "The Jews are strictly forbidden by their law, to exercise usury among one another."—Sale's Koran, p. 177. "All the writers have distinguished themselves among one another."—Addison. "This expression also better secures the systematic uniformity between the three cases."—Nutting's Gram., p. 98. "When a disjunctive occurs between two or more Infinitive Modes, or clauses, the verb must be singular."— Jaudon's Gram., p. 95. "Several nouns or pronouns together in the same case, not united by and, require a comma between each."—Blair's Gram., p. 115. "The difference between the several vowels is produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a different manner for each."—Churchill's Gram., p. 2. "Thus feet composed of syllables, being pronounced with a sensible interval between each, make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 32. "The superlative degree implies a comparison between three or more."—Smith's Productive Gram., p. 51. "They are used to mark a distinction between several objects."—Levizac's Gram., p. 85.

UNDER NOTE III.—OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS.

"This would have been less worthy notice."—Churchill's Gram., p. 197. "But I passed it, as a thing unworthy my notice."—Werter. "Which, in compliment to me, perhaps, you may, one day, think worthy your attention."—Bucke's Gram., p. 81. "To think this small present worthy an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment."— Ib., p. iv. "There are but a few miles portage."—Jefferson's Notes on Virginia, p. 17. "It is worthy notice, that our mountains are not solitary."—Ib., p. 26. "It is of about one hundred feet diameter."— Ib., 33. "Entering a hill a quarter or half a mile."—Ib., p. 47. "And herself seems passing to that awful dissolution, whose issue is not given human foresight to scan."—Ib., p. 100. "It was of a spheroidical form, of about forty feet diameter at the base, and had been of about twelve feet altitude."—Ib., p. 143. "Before this it was covered with trees of twelve inches diameter, and round the base was an excavation of five feet depth and width."—Ibid. "Then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure."—Deut., xxiii, 24. "Then he brought me back the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary."—Ezekiel, xliv, 1. "They will bless God that he has peopled one half the world with a race of freemen."—Webster's Essays, p. 94. "What use can these words be, till their meaning is known?"—Town's Analysis, p. 7. "The tents of the Arabs now are black, or a very dark colour."—The Friend, Vol. v, p. 265. "They may not be unworthy the attention of young men."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 157. "The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons, as well as things."— Merchant's Gram., p. 87. "And who is in the same case that man is."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 148. "He saw a flaming stone, apparently about four feet diameter."—The Friend, vii, 409. "Pliny informs us, that this stone was the size of a cart."—Ibid. "Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled Rome."—Seneca's Morals, p. 11. "I was prevented[438] reading a letter which would have undeceived me."—Hawkesworth, Adv., No. 54. "If the problem can be solved, we may be pardoned the inaccuracy of its demonstration."—Booth's Introd., p. 25. "The army must of necessity be the school, not of honour, but effeminacy."—Brown's Estimate, i. 65. "Afraid of the virtue of a nation, in its opposing bad measures."—Ib., i, 73. "The uniting them in various ways, so as to form words, would be easy."—Music of Nature, p. 34. "I might be excused taking any more notice of it."—Watson's Apology, p. 65. "Watch therefore; for ye know not what hour your Lord doth come."—Matt., xxiv, 42. "Here, not even infants were spared the sword."—M'Ilvaine's Lectures, p. 313. "To prevent men turning aside to corrupt modes of worship."—Calvin's Institutes, B. I, Ch. 12, Sec. 1. "God expelled them the Garden of Eden."—Burder's Hist., Vol. i, p. 10. "Nor could he refrain expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind"—Art of Thinking, p. 123. "Who now so strenuously opposes the granting him any new powers."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 127. "That the laws of the censors have banished him the forum."—Ib., p. 140. "We read not that he was degraded his office any other way."—Barclay's Works, iii, 149. "To all whom these presents shall come, Greeting."—Hutchinson's Mass., i, 459. "On the 1st, August, 1834."—British Act for the Abolition of Slavery.

   "Whether you had not some time in your life
    Err'd in this point which now you censure him."—Shak.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF NEEDLESS PREPOSITIONS.

"And the apostles and elders came together to consider of this matter."—Barclay's Works, i, 481. "And the apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter."—Acts, xv, 6. "Adjectives in our Language have neither Case, Gender, nor Number; the only Variation they have is by Comparison."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 27. "'It is to you, that I am indebted for this privilege;' that is, 'to you am I indebted;' or, 'It is to you to whom I am indebted.'"—Sanborn's Gram., p. 232. "Books is a noun, of the third person, plural number, of neuter gender,"— Ingersoll's Gram., p. 15. "Brother's is a common substantive, of the masculine gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case."—Murray's Gram., i, 229. "Virtue's is a common substantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the possessive case."—Ib., i, 228. "When the authorities on one side greatly preponderate, it is in vain to oppose the prevailing usage."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 173; Murray's Gram., i, 367. "A captain of a troop of banditti, had a mind to be plundering of Rome."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 51. "And, notwithstanding of its Verbal power, we have added the to and other signs of exertion."—Booth's Introd., p. 28. "Some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the Noun instead of by separate words."—Ib., p. 33. "Is it such a fast that I have chosen, that a man should afflict his soul for a day, and to bow down his head like a bulrush?"—Bacon's Wisdom, p. 65. "And this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental, instead of, by the necessary antecedent."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 17. "At about the same time, the subjugation of the Moors was completed."—Balbi's Geog., p. 269. "God divided between the light and between the darkness."— Burder's Hist., i, 1. "Notwithstanding of this, we are not against outward significations of honour."—Barclay's Works, i, 242. "Whether these words and practices of Job's friends, be for to be our rule."—Ib., i, 243. "Such verb cannot admit of an objective case after it."—Lowth's Gram., "For which God is now visibly punishing of these Nations."—Right of Tythes, "In this respect, Tasso yields to no poet, except to Homer."—Blair's Rhet., "Notwithstanding of the numerous panegyrics on the ancient English liberty."—HUME: Priestley's Gram., "Their efforts seemed to anticipate on the spirit, which became so general afterwards."—Id., ib., p. 167.

UNDER NOTE V.—THE PLACING OF THE WORDS.

"But how short are my expressions of its excellency!"—Baxter. "There is a remarkable union in his style, of harmony with ease."—Blair's Rhet., "It disposes in the most artificial manner, of the light and shade, for viewing every thing to the best advantage."—"Aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers for his brevity."—"In an introduction, correctness should be carefully studied in the expression."—"Precision is to be studied, above all things in laying down a method."—"Which shall make the impression on the mind of something that is one, whole and entire."—"At the same time, there are some defects which must be acknowledged in the Odyssey."—"Beauties, however, there are, in the concluding books, of the tragic kind."—"These forms of conversation by degrees multiplied and grew troublesome."—Spectator, No. 119. "When she has made her own choice, for form's sake, she sends a congé-d'-élire to her friends."—"Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds the reins of the whole creation in his hand."—"Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him, who, in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 53. "The most frequent measure next to this in English poetry is that of eight syllables."—Blair's Gram., "To introduce as great a variety as possible of cadences."—Jamieson's Rhet., "He addressed several exhortations to them suitable to their circumstances."—Murray's Key, ii, "Habits must be acquired of temperance and self-denial."—"In reducing the rules prescribed to practice."—Murray's Gram., "But these parts must be so closely bound together as to make the impression upon the mind, of one object, not of many."—Blair's Rhet., "Errors are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writer, with respect to the use of shall and will"—Butler's Pract. Gram.,

CHAPTER XI—INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections, being seldom any thing more than natural sounds or short words uttered independently, can hardly be said to have any syntax; but since some rule is necessary to show the learner how to dispose of them in parsing, a brief axiom for that purpose, is here added, which completes our series of rules: and, after several remarks on this canon, and on the common treatment of Interjections, this chapter is made to embrace Exercises upon all the other parts of speech, that the chapters in the Key may correspond to those of the Grammar.

RULE XXIV.—INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words: as, "O! let not thy heart despise me."—Dr. Johnson. "O cruel thou!"—Pope, Odys., B. xii, l. 333. "Ah wretched we, poets of earth!"—Cowley,

   "Ah Dennis! Gildon ah! what ill-starr'd rage
    Divides a friendship long confirm'd by age?"
        Pope, Dunciad, B. iii,

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV.

OBS. 1.—To this rule, there are properly no exceptions. Though interjections are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words, yet, being mere signs of passion or of feeling, they seem not to have any strict grammatical relation, or dependence according to the sense. Being destitute alike of relation, agreement, and government, they must be used independently, if used at all. Yet an emotion signified in this manner, not being causeless, may be accompanied by some object, expressed either by a nominative absolute, or by an adjective after for: as, "Alas! poor Yorick!"—Shak. Here the grief denoted by alas, is certainly for Yorick; as much so, as if the expression were, "Alas for poor Yorick!" But, in either case, alas, I think, has no dependent construction; neither has Yorick, in the former, unless we suppose an ellipsis of some governing word.

OBS. 2.—The interjection O is common to many languages, and is frequently uttered, in token of earnestness, before nouns or pronouns put absolute by direct address; as, "Arise, O Lord; O God, lift up thine hand."—Psalms, x, 12. "O ye of little faith!"—Matt., vi, 30. The Latin and Greek grammarians, therefore, made this interjection the sign of the vocative case; which case is the same as the nominative put absolute by address in English. But this particle is no positive index of the vocative; because an independent address may be made without that sign, and the O may be used where there is no address: as, "O scandalous want! O shameful omission!"—"Pray, Sir, don't be uneasy."—Burgh's Speaker, p. 86.

OBS. 3.—Some grammarians ascribe to two or three of our interjections the power of governing sometimes the nominative case, and sometimes the objective. First, NIXON; in an exercise entitled, "NOMINATIVE GOVERNED BY AN INTERJECTION," thus: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! require after them the nominative case of a substantive in the second person; as, 'O thou persecutor!'—'O Alexander! thou hast slain thy friend.' O is an interjection, governing the nominative case Alexander."—English Parser, Again, under the title, "OBJECTIVE CASE GOVERNED BY AN INTERJECTION," he says: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! require after them the objective case of a substantive in the first or third person; as, 'Oh me!' 'Oh the humiliations!' Oh is an interjection, governing the objective case humiliations."—These two rules are in fact contradictory, while each of them absurdly suggests that O, oh, and ah, are used only with nouns. So J. M. PUTNAM: "Interjections sometimes govern an objective case; as, Ah me! O the tender ties! O the soft enmity! O me miserable! O wretched prince! O cruel reverse of fortune! When an address is made, the interjection does not perform the office of government."—Putnam's Gram., So KIRKHAM; who, under a rule quite different from these, extends the doctrine of government to all interjections: "According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and prepositions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when we say that these parts of speech govern the objective case. THE SAME PRINCIPLE APPLIES TO THE INTERJECTION. 'Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them; but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person; as, Ah me! Oh thou! O my country!' To say, then, that interjections require particular cases after them, is synonymous with saying, that they govern those cases; and this office of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs in the Latin, and many other languages."—Kirkham's Gram., According to this, every interjection has as much need of an object after it, as has a transitive verb or a preposition! The rule has, certainly, no "accordance" with what occurs in Latin, or in any other language; it is wholly a fabrication, though found, in some shape or other, in well-nigh all English grammars.

OBS. 4.—L. MURRAY'S doctrine on this point is thus expressed: "The interjections O! Oh! and Ah! require the objective case of a pronoun in the first person after them, as, 'O me! oh me! Ah me!' But the nominative case in the second person: as, 'O thou persecutor!' 'Oh ye hypocrites!' 'O thou, who dwellest,' &c."—Octavo Gram., INGERSOLL copies this most faulty note literally, adding these words to its abrupt end,—i. e., to its inexplicable "&c." used by Murray; "because the first person is governed by a preposition understood: as, 'Ah for me!' or, 'O what will become of me!' &c., and the second person is in the nominative independent, there being a direct address."—Conversations on E. Gram., So we see that this grammarian and Kirkham, both modifiers of Murray, understand their master's false verb "require" very differently. LENNIE too, in renouncing a part of Murray's double or threefold error, "Oh! happy us!" for, "O happy we!" teaches thus: "Interjections sometimes require the objective case after them, but they never govern it. In the first edition of this grammar," says he, "I followed Mr. Murray and others, in leaving we, in the exercises to be turned into us; but that it should be we, and not us, is obvious; because it is the nominative to are understood; thus, Oh happy are we, or, Oh we are happy, (being) surrounded with so many blessings."—Lennie's Gram., Fifth Edition, Twelfth, Here is an other solution of the construction of this pronoun of the first person, contradictory alike to Ingersoll's, to Kirkham's, and to Murray's; while all are wrong, and this among the rest. The word should indeed be we, and not us; because we have both analogy and good authority for the former case, and nothing but the false conceit of sundry grammatists for the latter. But it is a nominative absolute, like any other nominative which we use in the same exclamatory manner. For the first person may just as well be put in the nominative absolute, by exclamation, as any other; as, "Behold I and the children whom God hath given me!"—Heb., "Ecce ego et pueri quos mihi dedit Deus!"—Beza. "O brave we!"—Dr. Johnson, often. So Horace: "O ego lævus," &c.—Ep. ad Pi., 301.

   "Ah! luckless I! who purge in spring my spleen—
    Else sure the first of bards had Horace been."
        —Francis's Hor., ii, 209.

OBS. 5.—Whether Murray's remark above, on "O! Oh! and Ah!" was originally designed for a rule of government or not, it is hardly worth any one's while to inquire. It is too lame and inaccurate every way, to deserve any notice, but that which should serve to explode it forever. Yet no few, who have since made English grammars, have copied the text literally; as they have, for the public benefit, stolen a thousand other errors from the same quarter. The reader will find it, with little or no change, in Smith's New Grammar, p. 96 and 134; Alger's, 56; Allen's, 117; Russell's, 92; Blair's, 100, Guy's, 89; Abel Flint's, 59; A Teacher's, 43, Picket's, 210; Cooper's[439] Murray, 136; Wilcox's, 95; Bucke's, 87; Emmons's, 77; and probably in others. Lennie varies it indefinitely, thus: "RULE. The interjections Oh! and Ah! &c. generally require the objective case of the first personal pronoun, and the nominative of the second; as, Ah me! O thou fool! O ye hypocrites!"—Lennie's Gram., p. 110; Brace's, 88. M'Culloch, after Crombie, thus: "RULE XX. Interjections are joined with the objective case of the pronoun of the first person, and with the nominative of the pronoun of the second; as, Ah me! O ye hypocrites."—Manual of E. Gram., p. 145; and Crombie's Treatise, p. 315; also Fowler's E. Language, p. 563. Hiley makes it a note, thus: "The interjections. O! Oh! Ah! are followed by the objective case of a pronoun of the first person; as, 'Oh me!' 'Ah me!' but by the nominative case of the pronoun in the second person; as, 'O thou who dwellest.' "—Hiley's Gram., p. 82. This is what the same author elsewhere calls "THE GOVERNMENT OF INTERJECTIONS;" though, like some others, he had set it in the "Syntax of PRONOUNS." See Ib., p. 108. Murray, in forming his own little "Abridgment," omitted it altogether. In his other grammars, it is still a mere note, standing where he at first absurdly put it, under his rule for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents. By many of his sage amenders, it has been placed in the catalogue of principal rules. But, that it is no adequate rule for interjections, is manifest; for, in its usual form, it is limited to three, and none of these can ever, with any propriety, be parsed by it. Murray himself has not used it in any of his forms of parsing. He conceived, (as I hinted before in Chapter 1st,) that, "The syntax of the Interjection is of so very limited a nature, that it does not require a distinct, appropriate rule."—Octavo Gram., i. 224.

OBS. 6.—Against this remark of Murray's, a good argument may be drawn from the ridiculous use which has been made of his own suggestion in the other place. For, though that suggestion never had in it the least shadow of truth, and was never at all applicable either to the three interjections, or to pronouns, or to cases, or to the persons, or to any thing else of which it speaks, it has not only been often copied literally, and called a "RULE" of syntax, but many have, yet more absurdly, made it a general canon which imposes on all interjections a syntax that belongs to none of them. For example: "An interjection must be followed by the objective case of a pronoun in the first person; and by a nominative of the second person; as—Oh me! ah me! oh thou! AH hail, ye happy men!"—Jaudon's Gram., p. 116. This is as much as to say, that every interjection must have a pronoun or two after it! Again: "Interjections must be followed by the objective case of the pronoun in the first person; as, O me! Ah me! and by the nominative case of the second person; as, O thou persecutor! Oh ye hypocrites!"—Merchant's Murray, p. 80; Merchant's School Gram., p. 99. I imagine there is a difference between O and oh,[440] and that this author, as well as Murray, in the first and the last of these examples, has misapplied them both. Again: "Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person, and the nominative case of the second; as, Ah me! O thou"—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 48. This, too, is general, but equivocal; as if one case or both were necessary to each interjection!

OBS. 7.—Of nouns, or of the third person, the three rules last cited say nothing;[441] though it appears from other evidence, that their authors supposed them applicable at least to some nouns of the second person. The supposition however was quite needless, because each of their grammars contains an other Rule, that, "When an address is made, the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independent;" which, by the by, is far from being universally true, either of the noun or of the pronoun. Russell imagines, "The words depending upon interjections, have so near a resemblance to those in a direct address, that they may very properly be classed under the same general head," and be parsed as being, "in the nominative case independent." See his "Abridgment of Murray's Grammar," p. 91. He does not perceive that depending and independent are words that contradict each other. Into the same inconsistency, do nearly all those gentlemen fall, who ascribe to interjections a control over cases. Even Kirkham, who so earnestly contends that what any words require after them they must necessarily govern, forgets his whole argument, or justly disbelieves it, whenever he parses any noun that is uttered with an interjection. In short, he applies his principle to nothing but the word me in the phrases, "Ah me!" "Oh me!" and "Me miserable!" and even these he parses falsely. The second person used in the vocative, or the nominative put absolute by direct address, whether an interjection be used or not, he rightly explains as being "in the nominative case independent;" as, "O Jerusalem, Jerusalem!"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 130. "O maid of Inistore!"—Ib., p. 131. But he is wrong in saying that, "Whenever a noun is of the second person, it is in the nominative case independent;" (Ib., p. 130;) and still more so, in supposing that, "The principle contained in the note" [which tells what interjections require,] "proves that every noun of the second person is in the nominative case."—Ib., p. 164. A falsehood proves nothing but the ignorance or the wickedness of him who utters it. He is wrong too, as well as many others, in supposing that this nominative independent is not a nominative absolute; for, "The vocative is [generally, if not always,] absolute."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 142. But that nouns of the second person are not always absolute or independent, nor always in the nominative case, or the vocative, appears, I think, by the following example: "This is the stone which was set at nought of you builders."—Acts, iv, II. See Obs. 3d on Rule 8th.

OBS. 8.—The third person, when uttered in exclamation, with an interjection before it, is parsed by Kirkham, not as being governed by the interjection, either in the nominative case, according to his own argument and own rule above cited, or in the objective, according to Nixon's notion of the construction; nor yet as being put absolute in the nominative, as I believe it generally, if not always is; but as being "the nominative to a verb understood; as, 'Lo,' there is 'the poor Indian!' '0, the pain' there is! 'the bliss' there is 'IN dying!'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 129. Pope's text is, "Oh the pain, the bliss of dying!" and, in all that is here changed, the grammarian has perverted it, if not in all that he has added. It is an other principle of Kirkham's Grammar, though a false one, that, "Nouns have but two persons, the second and [the] third."—P. 37. So that, these two being disposed of agreeably to his own methods above, which appear to include the second and third persons of pronouns also, there remains to him nothing but the objective of the pronoun of the first person to which he can suppose his other rule to apply; and I have shown that there is no truth in it, even in regard to this. Yet, with the strongest professions of adhering to the principles, and even to "the language" of Lindley Murray, this gentleman, by copying somebody else in preference to "that eminent philologist," has made himself one of those by whom Murray's erroneous remark on O, oh, and ah, with pronouns of the first and second persons, is not only stretched into a rule for all interjections, but made to include nouns of the second person, and both nouns and pronouns of the third person: as, "Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person; as, 'Ah! me; Oh! thou; O! virtue!'"—Kirkham's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 134; Stereotype Ed., p. 177. See the same rule, with examples and punctuation different, in his Stereotype Edition, p. 164; Comly's Gram., 116; Greenleaf's, 36; and Fisk's, 144. All these authors, except Comly, who comes much nearest to the thing, profess to present to us "Murray's Grammar Simplified;" and this is a sample of their work of simplification!—an ignorant piling of errors on errors!

   "O imitatores servum pecus! ut mihi sæpe
    Bilem, sæpe jocum vestri movêre tumultus!"—Horace.

OBS. 9.—Since so many of our grammarians conceive that interjections require or govern cases, it may be proper to cite some who teach otherwise. "Interjections, in English, have no government."—Lowth's Gram., p. 111. "Interjections have no government, or admit of no construction."—Coar's Gram., p. 189. "Interjections have no connexion with other word's."—Fuller's Gram., p. 71. "The interjection, in a grammatical sense, is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence. Its arrangement, of course, is altogether arbitrary, and cannot admit of any theory."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 83. "Interjections cannot properly have either concord or government. They are only mere sounds excited by passion, and have no just connexion with any other part of a sentence. Whatever case, therefore, is joined with them, must depend on some other word understood, except the vocative, which is always placed absolutely."—Adam's Latin Gram., p. 196; Gould's, 193. If this is true of the Latin language, a slight variation will make it as true of ours. "Interjections, and phrases resembling them, are taken absolutely; as, Oh, world, thy slippery turns! But the phrases Oh me! and Ah me! frequently occur."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 188. This passage is, in several respects, wrong; yet the leading idea is true. The author entitles it, "SYNTAX OF INTERJECTIONS," yet absurdly includes in it I know not what phrases! In the phrase, "thy slippery turns!" no word is absolute, or "taken absolutely" but this noun "turns;" and this, without the least hint of its case, the learned author will have us to understand to be absolute, because the phrase resembles an interjection! But the noun "world" which is also absolute, and which still more resembles an interjection, he will have to be so for a different reason—because it is in what he chooses to call the vocative case. But, according to custom, he should rather have put his interjection absolute with the noun, and written it, "O world," and not, "Oh, world." What he meant to do with "Oh me! and Ah me!" is doubtful. If any phrases come fairly under his rule, these are the very ones; and yet he seems to introduce them as exceptions! Of these, it can hardly be said, that they "frequently occur." Lowth notices only the latter, which he supposes elliptical. The former I do not remember to have met with more than three or four times; except in grammars, which in this case are hardly to be called authorities: "Oh! me, how fared it with me then?"—Job Scott. "Oh me! all the horse have got over the river, what shall we do?"—WALTON: Joh. Dict.

   "But when he was first seen, oh me!
    What shrieking and what misery!"—Wordsworth's Works, p. 114.

OBS. 10.—When a declinable word not in the nominative absolute, follows an interjection, as part of an imperfect exclamation, its construction (if the phrase be good English) depends on something understood; as, "Ah me!"—that is, "Ah! pity me;" or, "Ah! it grieves me;" or, as some will have it, (because the expression in Latin is "Hei mihi!") "Ah for me!"—Ingersoll. "Ah! wo is to me."—Lowth. "Ah! sorrow is to me."—Coar. So of "oh me!" for, in these expressions, if not generally, oh and ah are exactly equivalent the one to the other. As for "O me" it is now seldom met with, though Shakspeare has it a few times. From these examples, O. B. Peirce erroneously imagines the "independent case" of the pronoun I to be me, and accordingly parses the word without supposing an ellipsis; but in the plural he makes that case to be we, and not us. So, having found an example of "Ah Him!" which, according to one half of our grammarians, is bad English, he conceives the independent case of he to be him; but in the plural, and in both numbers of the words thou and she, he makes it the nominative, or the same in form as the nominative. So builds he "the temple of Grammatical consistency!"—P. 7. Nixon and Cooper must of course approve of "Ah him!" because they assume that the interjection ah "requires" or "governs" the objective case of the third person. Others must condemn the expression, because they teach that ah requires the nominative case of this person. Thus Greenleaf sets down for false syntax, "O! happy them, surrounded with so many blessings!"—Gram. Simplified, p. 47. Here, undoubtedly, the word should be they; and, by analogy, (if indeed the instances are analogous,) it would seem more proper to say, "Ah he!" the nominative being our only case absolute. But if any will insist that "Ah him!" is good English, they must suppose that him is governed by something understood; as, "Ah! I lament him;" or, "Ah! I mourn for him." And possibly, on this principle, the example referred to may be most correct as it stands, with the pronoun in the objective case: "Ah Him! the first great martyr in this great cause."—D. WEBSTER: Peirce's Gram., p. 199.

OBS. 11.—If we turn to the Latin syntax, to determine by analogy what case is used, or ought to be used, after our English interjections, in stead of finding a "perfect accordance" between that syntax and the rule for which such accordance has been claimed, we see at once an utter repugnance, and that the pretence of their agreement is only a sample of Kirkham's unconscionable pedantry. The rule, in all its modifications, is based on the principle, that the choice of cases depends on the distinction of persons—a principle plainly contrary to the usage of the Latin classics, and altogether untrue. In Latin, some interjections are construed with the nominative, the accusative, or the vocative; some, only with the dative; some, only with the vocative. But, in English, these four cases are all included in two, the nominative and the objective; and, the case independent or absolute being necessarily the nominative, it follows that the objective, if it occur after an interjection, must be the object of something which is capable of governing it. If any disputant, by supposing ellipses, will make objectives of what I call nominatives absolute, so be it; but I insist that interjections, in fact, never "require" or "govern" one case more than an other. So Peirce, and Kirkham, and Ingersoll, with pointed self-contradiction, may continue to make "the independent case," whether vocative or merely exclamatory, the subject of a verb, expressed or understood; but I will content myself with endeavouring to establish a syntax not liable to this sort of objection. In doing this, it is proper to look at all the facts which go to show what is right, or wrong. "Lo, the poor Indian!" is in Latin, "Ecce pauper Indus!" or, "Ecce pauperem Indum!" This use of either the nominative or the accusative after ecce, if it proves any thing concerning the case of the word Indian, proves it doubtful. Some, it seems, pronounce it an objective. Some, like Murray, say nothing about it. Following the analogy of our own language, I refer it to the nominative absolute, because there is nothing to determine it to be otherwise. In the examples. "Heu me miserum! Ah wretch that I am!"—(Grant's Latin Gram., p. 263.) and "Miser ego homo! O wretched man that I am!"—(Rom., vii, 24,) if the word that is a relative pronoun, as I incline to think it is, the case of the nouns wretch and man does not depend on any other words, either expressed or implied. They are therefore nominatives absolute, according to Rule 8th, though the Latin words may be most properly explained on the principle of ellipsis.

OBS. 12.—Of some impenetrable blockhead, Horace, telling how himself was vexed, says: "O te, Bollane, cerebri Felicem! aiebam tacitus."—Lib. i, Sat. ix, 11. Literally: "O thee, Bollanus, happy of brain! said I to myself." That is, "O! I envy thee," &c. This shows that O does not "require the nominative case of the second person" after it, at least, in Latin. Neither does oh or ah: for, if a governing word be suggested, the objective may be proper; as, "Whom did he injure? Ah! thee, my boy?"—or even the possessive; as, "Whose sobs do I hear? Oh! thine, my child?" Kirkham tells us truly, (Gram., p. 126,) that the exclamation "O my" is frequently heard in conversation. These last resemble Lucan's use of the genitive, with an ellipsis of the governing noun: "O miseræ sortis!" i.e., "O [men] of miserable lot!" In short, all the Latin cases as well as all the English, may possibly occur after one or other of the interjections. I have instanced all but the ablative, and the following is literally an example of that, though the word quanto is construed adverbially: "Ah, quanto satius est!"—Ter. And., ii, 1. "Ah, how much better it is!" I have also shown, by good authorities, that the nominative of the first person, both in English and in Latin, may be properly used after those interjections which have been supposed to require or govern the objective. But how far is analogy alone a justification? Is "O thee" good English, because "O te" is good Latin? No: nor is it bad for the reason which our grammarians assign, but because our best writers never use it, and because O is more properly the sign of the vocative. The literal version above should therefore be changed; as, "O Bollanus, thou happy numskull! said I to myself."

OBS. 13—Allen Fisk, "author of Adam's Latin Grammar Simplified," and of "Murray's English Grammar Simplified," sets down for "False Syntax" not only that hackneyed example, "Oh! happy we," &c., but, "O! You, who love iniquity," and, "Ah! you, who hate the light."—Fisk's E. Gram., p. 144. But, to imagine that either you or we is wrong here, is certainly no sing of a great linguist; and his punctuation is very inconsistent both with his own rule of syntax and with common practice. An interjection set off by a comma or an exclamation point, is of course put absolute singly, or by itself. If it is to be read as being put absolute with something else, the separation is improper. One might just as well divide a preposition from its object, as an interjection from the case which it is supposed to govern. Yet we find here not only such a division as Murray sometimes improperly adopted, but in one instance a total separation, with a capital following; as, "O! You, who love iniquity," for, "O you who love iniquity!" or "O ye," &c. If a point be here set between the two pronouns, the speaker accuses all his hearers of loving iniquity; if this point be removed, he addresses only such as do love it. But an interjection and a pronoun, each put absolute singly, one after the other, seem to me not to constitute a very natural exclamation. The last example above should therefore be, "Ah! you hate the light." The first should be written, "O happy we!"

OBS. 14.—In other grammars, too, there are many instances of some of the errors here pointed out. R. C. Smith knows no difference between O and oh; takes "Oh! happy us" to be accurate English; sees no impropriety in separating interjections from the pronouns which he supposes them to "govern;" writes the same examples variously, even on the same page; inserts or omits commas or exclamation points at random; yet makes the latter the means by which interjections are to be known! See his New Gram., pp. 40, 96 and 134. Kirkham, who lays claim to "a new system of punctuation," and also stoutly asserts the governing power of interjections, writes, and rewrites, and finally stereotypes, in one part of his book. "Ah me! Oh thou! O my country!" and in an other, "Ah! me; Oh! thou; O! virtue." See Obs. 3d and Obs. 8th above. From such hands, any thing "new" should be received with caution: this last specimen of his scholarship has more errors than words.

OBS. 15.—Some few of our interjections seem to admit of a connexion with other words by means of a preposition or the conjunction that as, "O to forget her!"—Young. "O for that warning voice!"—Milton. "O that they were wise!"—Deut., xxxii, 29. "O that my people had hearkened unto me!"—Ps., lxxxi, 13, "Alas for Sicily!"—Cowper. "O for a world in principle as chaste As this is gross and selfish!"—Id. "Hurrah for Jackson!"—Newspaper. "A bawd, sir, fy upon him!"—SHAK.: Joh. Dict. "And fy on fortune, mine avowed foe!"—SPENCER: ib. This connexion, however, even if we parse all the words just as they stand, does not give to the interjection itself any dependent construction. It appears indeed to refute Jamieson's assertion, that, "The interjection is totally unconnected with every other word in a sentence;" but I did not quote this passage, with any averment of its accuracy; and, certainly, many nouns which are put absolute themselves, have in like manner a connexion with words that are not put absolute: as, "O Lord God of hosts, hear my prayer; give ear, O God of Jacob. Selah."—Ps., lxxxiv, 8. But if any will suppose, that in the foregoing examples something else than the interjection must be the antecedent term to the preposition or the conjunction, they may consider the expressions elliptical: though it must be confessed, that much of their vivacity will be lost, when the supposed ellipses are supplied: as, "O! I desire to forget her."—"O! how I long for that warning voice!"—"O! how I wish that they were wise!"—"Alas! I wail for Sicily."—"Hurrah! I shout for Jackson."—"Fy! cry out upon him." Lindley Murray has one example of this kind, and if his punctuation of it is not bad in all his editions, there must be an ellipsis in the expression: "O! for better times."—Octavo Gram., ii, 6; Duodecimo Exercises, p. 10. He also writes it thus: "O. for better times."—Octavo Gram., i, 120; Ingersoll's Gram., p. 47. According to common usage, it should be, "O for better times!"

OBS. 16.—The interjection may be placed at the beginning or the end of a simple sentence, and sometimes between its less intimate parts; but this part of speech is seldom, if ever, allowed to interrupt the connexion of any words which are closely united in sense. Murray's definition of an interjection, as I have elsewhere shown, is faulty, and directly contradicted by his example: "O virtue! how amiable thou art!"—Octavo Gram., i, 28 and 128; ii. 2. This was a favourite sentence with Murray, and he appears to have written it uniformly in this fashion; which, undoubtedly, is altogether right, except that the word "virtue" should have had a capital Vee, because the quality is here personified.

OBS. 17.—Misled by the false notion, that the term interjection is appropriate only to what is "thrown in between the parts of a sentence," and perceiving that this is in fact but rarely the situation of this part of speech, a recent critic, (to whom I should owe some acknowledgements, if he were not wrong in every thing in which he charges me with error,) not only denounces this name as "barbarous," preferring Webster's loose term, "exclamation;" but avers, that, "The words called interjection should never be so used—should always stand alone; as, 'Oh! virtue, how amiable thou art.' 'Oh? Absalom, my son.' G. Brown," continues he, "drags one into the middle of a sentence, where it never belonged; thus, 'This enterprise, alas! will never compensate us for the trouble and expense with which it has been attended.' If G. B. meant the enterprize of studying grammar, in the old theories, his sentiment is very appropriate; but his alas! he should have known enough to have put into the right place:—before the sentence representing the fact that excites the emotion expressed by alas! See on the Chart part 3, of RULE XVII. An exclamation must always precede the phrase or sentence describing the fact that excites the emotion to be expressed by the exclamation; as: Alas! I have alienated my friend! Oh! Glorious hope of bliss secure!"—Oliver B. Peirce's Gram., p. 375. "O Glorious hope of bliss secure!"—Ib., p. 184. "O glorious hope!"—Ib., p. 304.

OBS. 18.—I see no reason to believe, that the class of words which have always, and almost universally, been called interjections, can ever be more conveniently explained under any other name; and, as for the term exclamation, which is preferred also by Cutler, Felton, Spencer, and S. W. Clark, it appears to me much less suitable than the old one, because it is less specific. Any words uttered loudly in the same breath, are an exclamation. This name therefore is too general; it includes other parts of speech than interjections; and it was but a foolish whim in Dr. Webster, to prefer it in his dictionaries. When David "cried with a loud voice, O my son Absalom! O Absalom, my son, my son!" [442] he uttered two exclamations, but they included all his words. He did not, like my critic above, set off his first word with an interrogation point, or any other point. But, says Peirce, "These words are used in exclaiming, and are what all know them to be, exclamations; as I call them. May I not call them what they are?"—Ibid. Yes, truly. But to exclaim is to cry out, and consequently every outcry is an exclamation; though there are two chances to one, that no interjection at all be used by the bawler. As good an argument, or better, may be framed against every one of this gentleman's professed improvements in grammar; and as for his punctuation and orthography, any reader may be presumed capable of seeing that they are not fit to be proposed as models.

OBS. 19.—I like my position of the word "alas" better than that which Peirce supposes to be its only right place; and, certainly, his rule for the location of words of this sort, as well as his notion that they must stand alone, is as false, as it is new. The obvious misstatement of Lowth, Adam, Gould, Murray, Churchill, Alger, Smith, Guy, Ingersoll, and others, that, "Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence," I had not only excluded from my grammars, but expressly censured in them. It was not, therefore, to prop any error of the old theorists, that I happened to set one interjection "where" according to this new oracle, "it never belonged." And if any body but he has been practically misled by their mistake, it is not I, but more probably some of the following authors, here cited for his refutation: "I fear, alas! for my life."—Fisk's Gram., p. 89. "I have been occupied, alas! with trifles."—Murray's Gr., Ex. for Parsing, p. 5; Guy's, p. 56. "We eagerly pursue pleasure, but, alas! we often mistake the road."—Smith's New Gram., p. 40, "To-morrow, alas! thou mayest be comfortless!"—Wright's Gram., p. 35. "Time flies, O! how swiftly."—Murray's Gram., i, 226. "My friend, alas! is dead."—J. Flint's Gram., p. 21. "But John, alas! he is very idle."—Merchant's Gram., p. 22. "For pale and wan he was, alas the while!"—SPENSER: Joh. Dict. "But yet, alas! O but yet, alas! our haps be but hard haps."—SYDNEY: ib. "Nay, (what's incredible,) alack! I hardly hear a woman's clack."—SWIFT: ib. "Thus life is spent (oh fie upon't!) In being touch'd, and crying—Don't!"—Cowper, i, 231. "For whom, alas! dost thou prepare The sweets that I was wont to share"—Id., i, 203. "But here, alas! the difference lies."—Id., i. 100. "Their names, alas! in vain reproach an age," &c.—Id., i, 88. "What nature, alas! has denied," &c.—Id., i, 235. "A. Hail Sternhold, then; and Hopkins, hail! B. Amen."—Id., i 25.

   "These Fate reserv'd to grace thy reign divine,
    Foreseen by me, but ah! withheld from mine!"—Pope, Dun., iii, 215.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUS. [Fist] [The following examples of bad grammar, being similar in their character to others already exhibited, are to be corrected, by the pupil, according to formules previously given.]

LESSON I.—ANY PARTS OF SPEECH.

"Such an one I believe yours will be proved to be."—PEET: Farnum's Gram., p. 1. "Of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect tenses, it may be observed," &c.—Ainsworth's Gram., p. 122. "The subject is certainly worthy consideration."—Ib., p. 117. "By this means all ambiguity and controversy is avoided on this point."—Bullions, Principles of Eng. Gram., 5th Ed., Pref., p. vi. "The perfect participle in English has both an active and passive signification."—Ib., p. 58. "The old house is at length fallen down."—Ib., p. 78. "The king, with the lords and commons, constitute the English form of government."—Ib., p. 93. "The verb in the singular agrees with the person next it."—Ib., p. 95. "Jane found Seth's gloves in James' hat."—Felton's Gram., p. 15. "Charles' task is too great."—Ibid., 15. "The conjugation of a verb is the naming, in regular order, its several modes tenses, numbers and persons."—Ib., p. 24. "The long remembered beggar was his guest."—Ib., 1st Ed., p. 65. "Participles refer to nouns and pronouns."—Ib., p. 81. "F has an uniform sound in every position except in of."—Hallock's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 15. "There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine and neuter."—Ib., p. 43. "When so that occur together, sometimes the particle so is taken as an adverb."—Ib., p. 124. "The definition of the articles show that they modify the words to which they belong."—Ib., p. 138. "The auxiliaries shall, will, or should is implied."—Ib., p. 192. "Single rhyme trochaic omits the final short syllable."—Ib., p. 244. "Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book,"—BURDER: ib., p. 156; Webster's Philos. Gram., 155; Improved Gram., 107. "The first person is the person speaking."—Goldsbury's Common School Gram., p. 10. "Accent is the laying a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain letter or syllable in a word."—Ib., Ed. of 1842, p. 75. "Thomas' horse was caught."—Felton's Gram., p. 64. "You was loved."—Ib., p. 45. "The nominative and objective end the same."—Rev. T. Smith's Gram., p. 18. "The number of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two, the singular and the plural."—Ib., p. 22. "I is called the pronoun of the first person, which is the person speaking."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 32. "The essential elements of the phrase is an intransitive gerundive and an adjective."—Hazen's Practical Gram., p. 141. "Being rich is no justification for such impudence."—Ib., p. 141. "His having been a soldier in the revolution is not doubted."—Ib., p. 143. "Catching fish is the chief employment of the inhabitants. The chief employment of the inhabitants is catching fish."—Ib., p. 144. "The cold weather did not prevent the work's being finished at the time specified."—Ib., p. 145. "The former viciousness of that man caused his being suspected of this crime."—Ib., p. 145. "But person and number applied to verbs means, certain terminations."—Barrett's Gram., p. 69. "Robert fell a tree."—Ib., p. 64. "Charles raised up."—Ib., p. 64. "It might not be an useless waste of time."—Ib., p. 42. "Neither will you have that implicit faith in the writings and works of others which characterise the vulgar,"—Ib., p. 5. "I, is the first person, because it denotes the speaker."—Ib., p. 46. "I would refer the student to Hedges' or Watts' Logic."—Ib., p. 15. "Hedge's, Watt's, Kirwin's, and Collard's Logic."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part III, p. 116. "Letters are called vowels which make a full and perfect sound of themselves."—Cutler's Gram., p. 10. "It has both a singular and plural construction."—Ib., p. 23. "For he beholdest thy beams no more."—Ib., p. 136. "To this sentiment the Committee has the candour to incline, as it will appear by their summing up."—Macpherson's Ossian, Prelim. Disc., p. xviii. "This is reducing the point at issue to a narrow compass."—Ib., p. xxv. "Since the English sat foot upon the soil."—Exiles of Nova Scotia, p. 12. "The arrangement of its different parts are easily retained by the memory."—Hiley's Gram., 3d Ed., p. 262. "The words employed are the most appropriate which could have been selected."—Ib., p. 182. "To prevent it launching!"—Ib., p. 135. "Webster has been followed in preference to others, where it differs from them."—Frazee's Gram., p. 8. "Exclamation and Interrogation are often mistaken for one another."—Buchanan's E. Syntax, p. 160. "When all nature is hushed in sleep, and neither love nor guilt keep their vigils."—Felton's Gram., p. 96.

   "When all nature's hushed asleep,
    Nor love, nor guilt, their vigils keep."—Ib., p. 95.

LESSON II.—ANY PARTS OF SPEECH.

"A VERSIFYER and POET are two different Things."—Brightland's Gram., p. 163. "Those Qualities will arise from the well expressing of the Subject."—Ib., p. 165. "Therefore the explanation of network, is taken no notice of here."—Mason's Supplement, p. vii. "When emphasis or pathos are necessary to be expressed."—Humphrey's Punctuation, p. 38. "Whether this mode of punctuation is correct, and whether it be proper to close the sentence with the mark of admiration, may be made a question."—Ib., p. 39. "But not every writer in those days were thus correct."—Ib., p. 59. "The sounds of A, in English orthoepy, are no less than four."—Ib., p. 69. "Our present code of rules are thought to be generally correct."— Ib., p. 70. "To prevent its running into another."—Humphrey's Prosody, p. 7. "Shakespeare, perhaps, the greatest poetical genius which England has produced."—Ib., p. 93. "This I will illustrate by example; but prior to which a few preliminary remarks may be necessary."—Ib., p. 107. "All such are entitled to two accents each, and some of which to two accents nearly equal."—Ib., p. 109. "But some cases of the kind are so plain that no one need to exercise his judgment therein."—Ib., p. 122. "I have forbore to use the word."—Ib., p. 127. "The propositions, 'He may study,' 'He might study,' 'He could study,' affirms an ability or power to study."—Hallock's Gram. of 1842, p. 76. "The divisions of the tenses has occasioned grammarians much trouble and perplexity."—Ib., p. 77. "By adopting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this subject, it may be rendered highly attractive to young learners."—Wells's Sch. Gram., 1st Ed., p. 1; 3d, 9; 113th, 11. "The definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully compared with each other."—Ib., Preface, p. iii. "So as not wholly to prevent some sounds issuing."—Sheridan's Elements of English, p. 64. "Letters of the Alphabet not yet taken notice of."—Ib., p. 11. "IT is sad, IT is strange, &c., seems to express only that the thing is sad, strange, &c."—The Well-Wishers' Gram., p. 68. "THE WINNING is easier than THE PRESERVING a conquest."—Ib., p. 65. "The United States finds itself the owner of a vast region of country at the West."—Horace Mann in Congress, 1848. "One or more letters placed before a word is a Prefix."—S. W. Clark's Pract. Gram., p. 42. "One or more letters added to a word is a Suffix."—Ib., p. 42. "Two-thirds of my hair has fallen off."—Ib., p. 126. "'Suspecting,' describes 'we,' by expressing, incidentally, an act of 'we.'"—Ib., p. 130. "Daniel's predictions are now being fulfilled."—Ib., p. 136. "His being a scholar, entitles him to respect."—Ib., p. 141. "I doubted his having been a soldier."—Ib., p. 142. "Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief, cannot be regarded as robbing him."—Ib., p. 129. "I thought it to be him; but it was not him."—Ib., p. 149. "It was not me that you saw."—Ib., p. 149. "Not to know what happened before you was born, is always to be a boy."—Ib., p. 149. "How long was you going? Three days."—Ib., 158. "The qualifying Adjective is placed next the Noun."—Ib., p. 165. "All went but me."—Ib., p. 93. "This is parsing their own language, and not the author's."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 73. "Nouns which denote males, are of the masculine gender."—Ib., p. 49. "Nouns which denote females, are of the feminine gender."—Ib., p. 49. "When a comparison is expressed between more than two objects of the same class, the superlative degree is employed."—Ib., p. 133. "Where d or t go before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted form, coalesce into one letter with the radical d or t."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 9. "Write words which will show what kind of a house you live in—what kind of a book you hold in your hand—what kind of a day it is."—Weld's Gram., p. 7. "One word or more is often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning."—Ib., 2d Ed., p. 30. "Good is an adjective; it explains the quality or character of every person or thing to which it is applied."—Ib., p. 33; Abridg., 32. "A great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting himself to that occupation which he prefers, and for which he is specially fitted."—WAYLAND: Wells's Gram., p. 121; Weld's, 180. "There was a chance of his recovering his senses. Not thus: 'There was a chance of him recovering his senses.' MACAULEY."—See Wells's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 121; 113th, 135. "This may be known by its not having any connecting word immediately preceding it."—Weld's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 181. "There are irregular expressions occasionally to be met with, which usage or custom rather than analogy, sanction."—Ib., p. 143. "He added an anecdote of Quinn's relieving Thomson from prison."—Ib., p. 150. "The daily labor of her hands procure for her all that is necessary."—Ib., p. 182. "Its being me, need make no change in your determination."—Hart's Gram., p. 128. "The classification of words into what is called the Parts of Speech."—Weld's Gram., p. 5. "Such licenses may be explained under what is usually termed Figures."—Ib., p. 212.

"Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hands."—Ib., p. 196.

"They fall successive and successive live."—Ib., p. 213.

LESSON III.—ANY PARTS OF SPEECH.

"A figure of Etymology is the intentional deviation in the usual form of a word."—Weld's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 213. "A figure of Syntax is the intentional deviation in the usual construction of a word."—Ib., 213. "Synecdoche is putting the name of the whole of anything for a part or a part for the whole."—Ib., 215. "Apostrophe is turning off from the regular course of the subject to address some person or thing."—Ib., 215. "Even young pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility, and will unconsciously gain, in a little time, more knowledge of the structure of Language than he can acquire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing."—Ib., Preface, p. iv. "A few Rules of construction are employed in this Part, to guide in the exercise of parsing."—Ibidem. "The name of every person, object, or thing, which can be thought of, or spoken of, is a noun."—Ib., p. 18; Abridged Ed., 19. "A dot, resembling our period, is used between every word, as well as at the close of the verses."—W. Day's Punctuation, p. 16; London, 1847. "Casting types in matrices was invented by Peter Schoeffer, in 1452."—Ib., p. 23. "On perusing it, he said, that, so far from it showing the prisoner's guilt, it positively established his innocence."—Ib., p. 37. "By printing the nominative and verb in Italic letters, the reader will be able to distinguish them at a glance."—Ib., p. 77. "It is well, no doubt, to avoid using unnecessary words."—Ib., p. 99. "Meeting a friend the other day, he said to me, 'Where are you going?'"—Ib., p. 124. "John was first denied apples, then he was promised them, then he was offered them."—Lennie's Gram., 5th Ed., p. 62. "He was denied admission."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 146. "They were offered a pardon."—Pond's Murray, p. 118; Wells, 146. "I was this day shown a new potatoe."—DARWIN: Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 179; Imp. Gram., 128; Frazee's Gram., 153; Weld's, 153. "Nouns or pronouns which denote males are of the masculine gender."—S. S. Greene's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 211. "There are three degrees of comparison—the positive, comparative, and superlative."—Ib., p. 216; First Les., p. 49. "The first two refer to direction; the third, to locality."—Ib., Gr., p. 103. "The following are some of the verbs which take a direct and indirect object."—Ib., p. 62. "I was not aware of his being the judge of the Supreme Court."—Ib., p. 86. "An indirect question may refer to either of the five elements of a declarative sentence."—Ib., p. 123. "I am not sure that he will be present = of his being present."—Ib., p. 169. "We left on Tuesday."—Ib., p. 103. "He left, as he told me, before the arrival of the steamer."—Ib., p. 143. "We told him that he must leave = We told him to leave."—Ib., p. 168. "Because he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left in disgust."—Ib., p. 172. "He left, and took his brother with him."—Ib., p. 254. "This stating, or declaring, or denying any thing, is called the indicative mode, or manner of speaking."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 72; Abr. Ed., 59. "This took place at our friend Sir Joshua Reynold's."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 150; Imp. Ed., 154. "The manner of a young lady's employing herself usefully in reading will be the subject of another paper."—Ib., 150; or 154. "Very little time is necessary for Johnson's concluding a treaty with the bookseller."—Ib., 150; or 154. "My father is not now sick, but if he was your services would be welcome."—Chandler's Grammar, 1821, p. 54. "When we begin to write or speak, we ought previously to fix in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at."—Blair's Rhetoric, p. 193. "Length of days are in her right hand, and in her left hand riches and honor."—Bullions's Analytical and Practical Grammar, 1849, p. 59. "The active and passive present express different ideas."—Ib., p. 235. "An Improper Diphthong, or Digraph, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels are sounded."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §115. "The real origin of the words are to be sought in the Latin."—Ib., §120. "What sort of an alphabet the Gothic languages possess, we know; what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine."—Ib., §127. "The Runic Alphabet whether borrowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity than either the oldest Teutonic or the Moeso-Gothic Alphabets."—Ib., §129. "Common to the Masculine and the Neuter Genders."—Ib., §222. "In the Anglo-Saxon his was common to both the Masculine and Neuter Genders."—Ib., §222. "When time, number, or dimension are specified, the adjective follows the substantive."—Ib., §459. "Nor pain, nor grief, nor anxious fear Invade thy bounds."—Ib., §563. "To Brighton the Pavilion lends a lath and plaster grace."—Ib., §590. "From this consideration nouns have been given but one person, the THIRD."—D. C. Allen's Grammatic Guide, p. 10.

   "For it seems to guard and cherish
    Even the wayward dreamer—I."—Home Journal.

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS XIII.—SYNTACTICAL.

In the following Lessons, are exemplified most of the Exceptions, some of the Notes, and many of the Observations, under the preceding Rules of Syntax; to which Exceptions, Notes, or Observations, the learner may recur, for an explanation of whatsoever is difficult in the parsing, or peculiar in the construction, of these examples or others.

LESSON I.—PROSE.

"The higher a bird flies, the more out of danger he is; and the higher a Christian soars above the world, the safer are his comforts."—Sparke.

"In this point of view, and with this explanation, it is supposed by some grammarians, that our language contains a few Impersonal Verbs; that is, verbs which declare the existence of some action or state, but which do not refer to any animate being, or any determinate particluar subject."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 109.

"Thus in England and France, a great landholder possesses a hundred times the property that is necessary for the subsistence of a family; and each landlord has perhaps a hundred families dependent on him for subsistence."—Webster's Essays, p. 87.

"It is as possible to become pedantick by fear of pedantry, as to be troublesome by ill timed civility."—Johnson's Rambler, No. 173.

"To commence author, is to claim praise; and no man can justly aspire to honour, but at the hazard of disgrace."—Ib., No. 93.

"For ministers to be silent in the cause of Christ, is to renounce it; and to fly is to desert it."—SOUTH: Crabb's Synonymes, p. 7.

"Such instances shew how much the sublime depends upon a just selection of circumstances; and with how great care every circumstance must be avoided, which by bordering in the least upon the mean, or even upon the gay or the trifling, alters the tone of the emotion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 43.

"This great poet and philosopher, the more he contemplated the nature of the Deity, found that he waded but the more out of his depth, and that he lost himself in the thought instead of finding an end to it."—Addison. "Odin, which in Anglo-Saxon was Woden, was the supreme god of the Goths, answering to the Jupiter of the Greeks."—Webster's Essays, p. 262.

"Because confidence, that charm and cement of intimacy, is wholly wanting in the intercourse."—Opie, on Lying, p. 146.

"Objects of hearing may be compared together, as also of taste, of smell, and of touch: but the chief fund of comparison are objects of sight."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 136.

"The various relations of the various Objects exhibited by this (I mean relations of near and distant, present and absent, same and different, definite and indefinite, &c.) made it necessary that here there should not be one, but many Pronouns, such as He, This, That, Other, Any, Some, &c."—Harris's Hermes, p. 72.

"Mr. Pope's Ethical Epistles deserve to be mentioned with signal honour, as a model, next to perfect, of this kind of poetry."—Blair's Rhet., p. 402.

"The knowledge of why they so exist, must be the last act of favour which time and toil will bestow."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 253.

"It is unbelief, and not faith, that sinks the sinner into despondency.—Christianity disowns such characters."—Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 141.

"That God created the universe, [and] that men are accountable for their actions, are frequently mentioned by logicians, as instances of the mind judging."

LESSON II.—PROSE.

"To censure works, not men, is the just prerogative of criticism, and accordingly all personal censure is here avoided, unless where necessary to illustrate some general proposition."—Kames, El. of Crit., Introduction, p. 27.

"There remains to show by examples the manner of treating subjects, so as to give them a ridiculous appearance."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 303.

"The making of poetry, like any other handicraft, may be learned by industry."—Macpherson's Preface to Ossian, p. xiv.

"Whatever is found more strange or beautiful than was expected, is judged to be more strange or beautiful than it is in reality."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 243.

"Thus the body of an animal, and of a plant, are composed of certain great vessels; these[,] of smaller; and these again[,] of still smaller, without end, as far as we can discover."—Id., ib., p. 270.

"This cause of beauty, is too extensive to be handled as a branch of any other subject: for to ascertain with accuracy even the proper meaning of words, not to talk of their figurative power, would require a large volume; an useful work indeed, but not to be attempted without a large stock of time, study, and reflection."—Id., Vol. ii, p. 16.

"O the hourly dangers that we here walk in! Every sense, and member, is a snare; every creature, and every duty, is a snare to us."—Baxter, Saints's Rest.

"For a man to give his opinion of what he sees but in part, is an unjustifiable piece of rashness and folly."—Addison.

"That the sentiments thus prevalent among the early Jews respecting the divine authority of the Old Testament were correct, appears from the testimony of Jesus Christ and his apostles."—Gurney's Essays, p. 69.

"So in Society we are not our own, but Christ's, and the church's, to good works and services, yet all in love."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 84.

"He [Dr. Johnson] sat up in his bed, clapped his hands, and cried, 'O brave we!'—a peculiar exclamation of his when he rejoices."— Boswell's Life of Johnson, Vol. iii, p. 56.

"Single, double, and treble emphasis are nothing but examples of antithesis."—Knowles's Elocutionist, p. xxviii.

"The curious thing, and what, I would almost say, settles the point, is, that we do Horace no service, even according to our view of the matter, by rejecting the scholiast's explanation. No two eggs can be more like each other than Horace's Malthinus and Seneca's Mecenas."— Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 477. "Acting, conduct, behaviour, abstracted from all regard to what is, in fact and event, the consequence of it, is itself the natural object of this moral discernment, as speculative truth and [say or] falsehood is of speculative reason."—Butler's Analogy, p. 277.

"To do what is right, with unperverted faculties, is ten times easier than to undo what is wrong."—Porter's Analysis, p. 37.

"Some natures the more pains a man takes to reclaim them, the worse they are."—L'ESTRANGE: Johnson's Dict., w. Pains.

"Says John Milton, in that impassioned speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, where every word leaps with intellectual life, 'Who kills a man, kills a reasonable creature, God's image; but who destroys a good book, kills reason itself, kills the image of God, as it were, in the eye. Many a man lives a burden upon the earth; but a good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose for a life beyond life!'"—Louisville Examiner, June, 1850.

LESSON III.—PROSE.

"The philosopher, the saint, or the hero—the wise, the good, or the great man—very often lies hid and concealed in a plebeian, which a proper education might have disinterred and brought to light."—Addison.

"The year before, he had so used the matter, that what by force, what by policy, he had taken from the Christians above thirty small castles."—Knolles.

"It is an important truth, that religion, vital religion, the religion of the heart, is the most powerful auxiliary of reason, in waging war with the passions, and promoting that sweet composure which constitutes the peace of God."—Murray's Key, p. 181.

"Pray, sir, be pleased to take the part of us beauties and fortunes into your consideration, and do not let us be flattered out of our senses. Tell people that we fair ones expect honest plain answers, as well as other folks."—Spectator, No. 534. "Unhappy it would be for us, did not uniformity prevail in morals: that our actions should uniformly be directed to what is good and against what is ill, is the greatest blessing in society; and in order to uniformity of action, uniformity of sentiment is indispensable."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 366.

"Thus the pleasure of all the senses is the same in all, high and low, learned and unlearned."—Burke, on Taste, p. 39.

"Upwards of eight millions of acres have, I believe, been thus disposed of."—Society in America, Vol. i, p. 333.

"The Latin Grammar comes something nearer, but yet does not hit the mark neither."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 281.

"Of the like nature is the following inaccuracy of Dean Swift's."—Blair's Rhet., p. 105. "Thus, Sir, I have given you my own opinion, relating to this weighty affair, as well as that of a great majority of both houses here."—Ib.

"A foot is just twelve times as long as an inch; and an hour is sixty times the length of a minute."—Murray's Gram., p. 48.

"What can we expect, who come a gleaning, not after the first reapers, but after the very beggars?"—Cowley's Pref. to Poems, p. x.

"In our Lord's being betrayed into the hands of the chief-priests and scribes, by Judas Iscariot; in his being by them delivered to the Gentiles; in his being mocked, scourged, spitted on, [say spit upon,] and crucified; and in his rising from the dead after three days; there was much that was singular, complicated, and not to be easily calculated on before hand."—Gurney's Essays, p. 40.

"To be morose, implacable, inexorable, and revengeful, is one of the greatest degeneracies of human nature."—Dr. J. Owen.

"Now, says he, if tragedy, which is in its nature grand and lofty, will not admit of this, who can forbear laughing to hear the historian Gorgias Leontinus styling Xerxes, that cowardly Persian king, Jupiter; and vultures, living sepulchres?"—Holmes's Rhetoric?, Part II, p. 14.

"O let thy all-seeing eye, and not the eye of the world, be the star to steer my course by; and let thy blessed favour, more than the liking of any sinful men, be ever my study and delight."—Jenks's Prayers, p. 156.

LESSON IV.—PROSE.

"O the Hope of Israel, the Saviour thereof in time of trouble, why shouldest thou be as a stranger in the land, and as a way-faring man, that turneth aside to tarry for a night?"—Jeremiah, xiv, 8.

"When once the long-suffering of God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was a preparing, wherein few, that is, eight souls, were saved."—1 Peter, iii, 20.

"Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed each other."—Psalms, lxxxv, 10.

"But in vain they do worship me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men."—Matt., xv, 9.

"Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon the earth, that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the joy of the hypocrite but for a moment?"—Job, xx, 4, 5.

"For now we see through a glass darkly; but then, face to face: now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known."—1 Cor., xiii, 12.

"For then the king of Babylon's army besieged Jerusalem: and Jeremiah the Prophet was shut up in the court of the prison which was in the king of Judah's house."—Jer., xxxii, 2.

"For Herod had laid hold on John, and bound him, and put him in prison, for Herodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife."—Matt., xiv, 3.

"And now I have sent a cunning man, endued with understanding, of Huram my father's, the son of a woman of the daughters of Dan."—2 Chron., ii, 13.

"Bring no more vain oblations: incense is an abomination unto me; the new moons and sabbaths, the calling of assemblies, I cannot away with: it is iniquity even the solemn meeting."—Isaiah, i, 13.

"For I have heard the voice of the daughter of Zion, that bewaileth herself, that spreadeth her hands, saying, Woe is me now! for my soul is wearied because of murderers."—Jer., iv, 31.

"She saw men portrayed upon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles upon their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads, all of them princes to look to, after the manner of the Babylonians of Chaldea, the land of their nativity."—Ezekiel, xxiii, 15.

"And on them was written according to all the words which the Lord spake with you in the mount, out of the midst of the fire, in the day of the assembly."—Deut., ix, 10.

"And he charged them that they should tell no man: but the more he charged them, so much the more a great deal they published it."—Mark, vii, 36.

"The results which God has connected with actions, will inevitably occur, all the created power in the universe to the contrary notwithstanding."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 5.

"Am I not an apostle? am I not free? have I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord? are not ye my work in the Lord? If I be not an apostle unto others, yet doubtless I am to you; for the seal of mine apostleship are ye in the Lord."—1 Cor., ix, 1, 2.

"Not to insist upon this, it is evident, that formality is a term of general import. It implies, that in religious exercises of all kinds the outward and [the] inward man are at diametrical variance."—Chapman's Sermons to Presbyterians, p. 354.

LESSON V.—VERSE.

   "See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow,
    Which who but feels, can taste, but thinks, can know;
    Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind,
    The bad must miss, the good, untaught, will find."—Pope.

    "There are, who, deaf to mad Ambition's call,
    Would shrink to hear th' obstreperous trump of fame;
    Supremely blest, if to their portion fall
    Health, competence, and peace."—Beattie.

    "High stations tumult, but not bliss, create;
    None think the great unhappy, but the great.
    Fools gaze and envy: envy darts a sting,
    Which makes a swain as wretched as a king."—Young.

    "Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies!
    Sink down, ye mountains; and, ye valleys, rise;
    With heads declin'd, ye cedars, homage pay;
    Be smooth, ye rocks; ye rapid floods, give way."—Pope.

    "Amid the forms which this full world presents
    Like rivals to his choice, what human breast
    E'er doubts, before the transient and minute,
    To prize the vast, the stable, and sublime?"—Akenside.

    "Now fears in dire vicissitude invade;
    The rustling brake alarms, and quiv'ring shade:
    Nor light nor darkness brings his pain relief;
    One shows the plunder, and one hides the thief."—Johnson.

    "If Merab's choice could have complied with mine,
    Merab, my elder comfort, had been thine:
    And hers, at last, should have with mine complied,
    Had I not thine and Michael's heart descried."—Cowley.

    "The people have as much a negative voice
    To hinder making war without their choice,
    As kings of making laws in parliament:
    'No money' is as good as 'No assent.'"—Butler.

    "Full many a gem of purest ray serene
    The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear;
    Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
    And waste its sweetness on the desert air."—Gray.

    "Oh fool! to think God hates the worthy mind,
    The lover and the love of human kind,
    Whose life is healthful, and whose conscience clear,
    Because he wants a thousand pounds a year."—Pope.

    "O Freedom! sovereign boon of Heav'n,
    Great charter, with our being given;
    For which the patriot and the sage
    Have plann'd, have bled thro' ev'ry age!"—Mallet.

LESSON VI.—VERSE.

   "Am I to set my life upon a throw,
    Because a bear is rude and surly? No."—Cowper.

    "Poor, guiltless I! and can I choose but smile,
    When every coxcomb knows me by my style?"—Pope.

    "Remote from man, with God he pass'd his days,
    Prayer all his business, all his pleasure praise."—Parnell.

    "These are thy blessings, Industry! rough power;
    Whom labour still attends, and sweat, and pain."—Thomson.

    "What ho! thou genius of the clime, what ho!
    Liest thou asleep beneath these hills of snow?"—Dryden.

    "What! canst thou not forbear me half an hour?
    Then get thee gone, and dig my grave thyself."—Shak.

    "Then palaces and lofty domes arose;
    These for devotion, and for pleasure those."—Blackmore.

    "'Tis very dangerous, tampering with a muse;
    The profit's small, and you have much to lose."—Roscommon.

    "Lucretius English'd! 't was a work might shake
    The power of English verse to undertake."—Otway.

    "The best may slip, and the most cautious fall;
    He's more than mortal, that ne'er err'd at all."—Pomfret.

    "Poets large souls heaven's noblest stamps do bear,
    Poets, the watchful angels' darling care."—Stepney.

    "Sorrow breaks reasons, and reposing hours;
    Makes the night morning, and the noon-tide night."—Shak.

"Nor then the solemn nightingale ceas'd warbling."—Milton.

    "And O, poor hapless nightingale, thought I,
    How sweet thou singst, how near the deadly snare!"—Id.

    "He calls for famine, and the meagre fiend
    Blows mildew from between his shrivell'd lips."—Cowper.

    "If o'er their lives a refluent glance they cast,
    Theirs is the present who can praise the past."—Shenstone.

    "Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave,
    Is but the more a fool, the more a knave."—Pope.

    "Great eldest-born of Dullness, blind and bold!
    Tyrant! more cruel than Procrustes old;
    Who, to his iron bed, by torture, fits,
    Their nobler part, the souls of suffering wits."—Mallet.

    "Parthenia, rise.—What voice alarms my ear?
    Away. Approach not. Hah! Alexis there!"—Gay.

    "Nor is it harsh to make, nor hard to find
    A country with—ay, or without mankind."—Byron.

    "A frame of adamant, a soul of fire,
    No dangers fright him, and no labours tire."—Johnson.

    "Now pall the tasteless meats, and joyless wines,
    And luxury with sighs her slave resigns."—Id.

    "Seems? madam; nay, it is: I know not seems—
    For I have that within which passes show."—Hamlet.

    "Return? said Hector, fir'd with stern disdain:
    What! coop whole armies in our walls again?"—Pope.

    "He whom the fortune of the field shall cast
    From forth his chariot, mount the next in haste."—Id.

"Yet here, Laertes? aboard, aboard, for shame!"—Shak.

"Justice, most gracious Duke; O grant me justice!"—Id.

    "But what a vengeance makes thee fly
    From me too, as thine enemy?"—Butler.

    "Immortal Peter! first of monarchs! He
    His stubborn country tam'd, her rocks, her fens,
    Her floods, her seas, her ill-submitting sons."—Thomson.

    "O arrogance! Thou liest, thou thread, thou thimble,
    Thou yard, three-quarters, half-yard, quarter, nail,
    Thou flea, thou nit, thou winter-cricket, thou:—
    Brav'd in mine own house with a skein of thread!
    Away, thou rag, thou quantity, thou remnant;
    Or I shall so be-mete thee with thy yard,
    As thou shalt think on prating whilst thou liv'st."
           SHAK.: Taming of the Shrew, Act IV, Sc 3.

CHAPTER XII.—GENERAL REVIEW.

This twelfth chapter of Syntax is devoted to a series of lessons, methodically digested, wherein are reviewed and reapplied, mostly in the order of the parts of speech, all those syntactical principles heretofore given which are useful for the correction of errors.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX FOR A GENERAL REVIEW.

[Fist][The following examples of false syntax are arranged for a General Review of the doctrines contained in the preceding Rules and Notes. Being nearly all of them exact quotations, they are also a sort of syllabus of verbal criticism on the various works from which they are taken. What corrections they are supposed to need, may be seen by inspection of the twelfth chapter of the Key. It is here expected, that by recurring to the instructions before given, the learner who takes them as an oral exercise, will ascertain for himself the proper form of correcting each example, according to the particular Rule or Note under which it belongs. When two or more errors occur in the same example, they ought to be corrected successively, in their order. The erroneous sentence being read aloud as it stands, the pupil should say, "first, Not proper, because, &c." And when the first error has thus been duly corrected by a brief and regular syllogism, either the same pupil or an other should immediately proceed, and say, "Secondly, Not proper again, because," &c. And so of the third error, and the fourth, if there be so many. In this manner, a class may be taught to speak in succession without any waste of time, and, after some practice, with a near approach to the PERFECT ACCURACY which is the great end of grammatical instruction. When time cannot be allowed for this regular exercise, these examples may still be profitably rehearsed by a more rapid process, one pupil reading aloud the quoted false grammar, and an other responding to each example, by reading the intended correction from the Key.]

LESSON I.—ARTICLES.

"And they took stones, and made an heap."—Com. Bibles; Gen., xxxi, 46. "And I do know a many fools, that stand in better place."—Beauties of Shak., p. 44. "It is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion, and violence of pursuit."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. xxiii. "The word news may admit of either a singular or plural application."—Wright's Gram., p. 39. "He has earned a fair and a honorable reputation."—Ib., p. 140. "There are two general forms, called the solemn and familiar style."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 109. "Neither the article nor preposition may be omitted."—Wright's Gram., p 190. "A close union is also observable between the Subjunctive and Potential Moods."—Ib., p. 72. "We should render service, equally, to a friend, neighbour, and an enemy."—Ib., p. 140. "Till an habit is obtained of aspirating strongly."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 49. "There is an uniform, steady use of the same signs."—Ib., p. 163. "A traveller remarks the most objects he sees."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 72. "What is the name of the river on which London stands? The Thames."—"We sometimes find the last line of a couplet or triplet stretched out to twelve syllables."—Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 282. "Nouns which follow active verbs, are not in the nominative case."—Blair's Gram., p. 14. "It is a solemn duty to speak plainly of wrongs, which good men perpetrate."—Channing's Emancip., p. 71. "Gathering of riches is a pleasant torment."—Treasury of Knowledge, Dict., p. 446. "It [the lamentation of Helen for Hector] is worth the being quoted."—Coleridge's Introd., p. 100. "Council is a noun which admits of a singular and plural form."—Wright's Gram., p. 137. "To exhibit the connexion between the Old and the New Testaments."—Keith's Evidences, p. 25. "An apostrophe discovers the omission of a letter or letters."—Guy's Gram, p. 95. "He is immediately ordained, or rather acknowledged an hero."—Pope, Preface to the Dunciad. "Which is the same in both the leading and following State."—Brightland's Gram., p. 86. "Pronouns, as will be seen hereafter, have a distinct nominative, possessive, and objective case."—Blair's Gram., p. 15. "A word of many syllables is called polysyllable."—Beck's Outline of E. Gram., p. 4. "Nouns have two numbers, singular and plural."—Ib., p. 6. "They have three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter."—Ib., p. 6. "They have three cases, nominative, possessive, and objective."—Ib., p. 6. "Personal Pronouns have, like Nouns, two numbers, singular and plural. Three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Two cases, nominative and objective."—Ib., p. 10. "He must be wise enough to know the singular from plural."—Ib., p. 20. "Though they may be able to meet the every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer."—Chalmers, Sermons, p. 104. "Yet for love's sake I rather beseech thee, being such an one as Paul the aged."—Ep. to Philemon, 9. "Being such one as Paul the aged."—Dr. Webster's Bible. "A people that jeoparded their lives unto the death."—Judges, v, 18. "By preventing the too great accumulation of seed within a too narrow compass."—The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 97. "Who fills up the middle space between the animal and intellectual nature, the visible and invisible world."—Addison, Spect., No. 519. "The Psalms abound with instances of an harmonious arrangement of the words."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 339. "On another table were an ewer and vase, likewise of gold."—N. Y. Mirror, xi, 307. "Th is said to have two sounds sharp, and flat."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 33. "Section (§) is used in subdividing of a chapter into lesser parts."—Brightland's Gram., p. 152. "Try it in a Dog or an Horse or any other Creature."—Locke, on Ed., p. 46. "But particularly in learning of Languages there is least occasion for poseing of Children."—Ib., p. 296. "What kind of a noun is river, and why?"—Smith's New Gram., p. 10. "Is William's a proper or common noun?"—Ib., p. 12. "What kind of an article, then, shall we call the?"—Ib., p. 13.

   "Each burns alike, who can, or cannot write,
    Or with a rival's or an eunuch's spite."—Pope, on Crit., l. 30.

LESSON II.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

"And there is stamped upon their Imaginations Idea's that follow them with Terror and Affrightment."—Locke, on Ed., p. 251. "There's not a wretch that lives on common charity, but's happier than me."—VENICE PRESERVED: Kames, El. of Crit., i, 63. "But they overwhelm whomsoever is ignorant of them."—Common School Journal, i,115. "I have received a letter from my cousin, she that was here last week."—Inst., p. 129. "Gentlemens Houses are seldom without Variety of Company."—Locke, on Ed., p. 107. "Because Fortune has laid them below the level of others, at their Masters feet."—Ib., p. 221. "We blamed neither John nor Mary's delay."—Nixon's Parser, p. 117. "The book was written by Luther the reformer's order."—Ib., p. 59. "I saw on the table of the saloon Blair's Sermons, and somebody else (I forget who's) sermons, and a set of noisy children."—Lord Byron's Letters. "Or saith he it altogether for our sakes?"—1 Cor., ix, 10. "He was not aware of the duke's being his competitor."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 190. "It is no condition of a word's being an adjective, that it must be placed before a noun."—FOWLE: ib., p. 190. "Though their Reason corrected the wrong Idea's they had taken in."—Locke, on Ed., p. 251. "It was him, who taught me to hate slavery."—Morris, in Congress, 1839. "It is him and his kindred, who live upon the labour of others."—Id., ib. "Payment of Tribute is an Acknowledgment of his being King to whom we think it Due."—Right of Tythes, p. 161. "When we comprehend what we are taught."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 14. "The following words, and parts of words, must be taken notice of."—Priestley's Gram., p. 96. "Hence tears and commiseration are so often made use of."—Blair's Rhet., p. 269. "JOHN-A-NOKES, n. s. A fictitious name, made use of in law proceedings."—Chalmers, Eng. Dict. "The construction of Matter, and Part taken hold of."—B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram., p. x. "And such other names, as carry with them the Idea's of some thing terrible and hurtful."—Locke, on Ed., p. 250. "Every learner then would surely be glad to be spared the trouble and fatigue"—Pike's Hebrew Lexicon, p. iv. "'Tis not the owning ones Dissent from another, that I speak against."—Locke, on Ed., p 265. "A man that cannot Fence will be more careful to keep out of Bullies and Gamesters Company, and will not be half so apt to stand upon Punctilio's."—Ib., p. 357. "From such Persons it is, one may learn more in one Day, than in a Years rambling from one Inn to another."—Ib., p. 377. "A long syllable is generally considered to be twice the length of a short one."—Blair's Gram., p. 117. "I is of the first person, and singular number; Thou is second per. sing.; He, She, or It, is third per. sing.; We is first per. plural; Ye or You is second per. plural; They is third per. plural."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 46. "This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nominative."—Ib., p. 43. "No Body can think a Boy of Three or Seven Years old, should be argued with, as a grown Man."—Locke, on Ed., p. 129. "This was in one of the Pharisees' houses, not, in Simon the leper's."—Hammond. "Impossible! it can't be me."—Swift. "Whose grey top shall tremble, Him descending."—Dr. Bentley. "What gender is woman, and why?"—Smith's New Gram., p. 8. "What gender, then, is man, and why?"—Ibid. "Who is I; who do you mean when you say I?"—R. W. Green's Gram., p. 19. "It [Parnassus] is a pleasant air, but a barren soil."—Locke, on Ed., p. 311. "You may, in three days time, go from Galilee to Jerusalem."—Josephus, Vol. 5, p. 174. "And that which is left of the meat-offering shall be Aaron's and his sons."—SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: Lev., ii, 10. See also ii, 3.

   "For none in all the world, without a lie,
    Can say that this is mine, excepting I."—Bunyan.

LESSON III.—ADJECTIVES

"When he can be their Remembrancer and Advocate every Assises and Sessions."—Right of Tythes, p. 244. "Doing, denotes all manner of action; as, to dance, to play, to write, to read, to teach, to fight, &c."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 33. "Seven foot long,"—"eight foot long,"—"fifty foot long."—Walker's Particles, p. 205. "Nearly the whole of this twenty-five millions of dollars is a dead loss to the nation."—Fowler, on Tobacco, p. 16. "Two negatives destroy one another."—R. W. Green's Gram., p. 92. "We are warned against excusing sin in ourselves, or in each other."—The Friend, iv, 108. "The Russian empire is more extensive than any government in the world."—School Geog. "You will always have the Satisfaction to think it the Money of all other the best laid out."—Locke, on Ed., p. 145. "There is no one passion which all mankind so naturally give into as pride."—Steele, Spect., No. 462. "O, throw away the worser part of it."—Beauties of Shak., p 237. "He showed us a more agreeable and easier way."—Inst., p. 134. "And the four last [are] to point out those further improvements."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 52; Campbell's, 187. "Where he has not distinct and, different clear Idea's."—Locke, on Ed., p. 353. "Oh, when shall we have such another Rector of Laracor!"—Hazlitt's Lect. "Speech must have been absolutely necessary previous to the formation of society."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 2. "Go and tell them boys to be still."—Inst., p. 135. "Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits, on sand: these are apt to be requited; those, forgot."—B. "Neither of these several interpretations is the true one."—B. "My friend indulged himself in some freaks unbefitting the gravity of a clergyman."—B. "And their Pardon is All that either of their Impropriators will have to plead."—Right of Tythes, p. 196. "But the time usually chosen to send young Men abroad, is, I think, of all other, that which renders them least capable of reaping those Advantages."—Locke, on Ed., p. 372. "It is a mere figment of the human imagination, a rhapsody of the transcendent unintelligible."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 120. "It contains a greater assemblage of sublime ideas, of bold and daring figures, than is perhaps any where to be met with."—Blair's Rhet., p. 162. "The order in which the two last words are placed, should have been reversed."—Ib., p. 204. "The orders in which the two last words are placed, should have been reversed."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 310. "In Demosthenes, eloquence shown forth with higher splendour, than perhaps in any that ever bore the name of an orator."—Blair's Rhet., p. 242. "The circumstance of his being poor is decidedly favorable."— Student's Manual, p. 286. "The temptations to dissipation are greatly lessened by his being poor."—Ib., p. 287. "For with her death that tidings came."—Beauties of Shak., p. 257. "The next objection is, that these sort of authors are poor."—Cleland. "Presenting Emma as Miss Castlemain to these acquaintance."—Opie's Temper. "I doubt not but it will please more than the opera."—Spect., No. 28. "The world knows only two, that's Rome and I."—Ben Jonson. "I distinguish these two things from one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29. "And in this case, mankind reciprocally claim, and allow indulgence to each other."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 29. "The six last books are said not to have received the finishing hand of the author."—Blair's Rhet., p. 438. "The best executed part of the work, is the first six books."—Ib., p. 447.

   "To reason how can we be said to rise?
    So many cares attend the being wise."—Sheffield.

LESSON IV.—PRONOUNS.

"Once upon a time a goose fed its young by a pond side."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 175. "If either [work] have a sufficient degree of merit to recommend them to the attention of the public."—Walker's Rhyming Dict., p. iii. "Now W. Mitchell his deceit is very remarkable."—Barclay's Works, i, 264 "My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of your belief."—Bunyan's P. P., p. 158. "I had two elder brothers, one of which was a lieutenant-colonel."—Robinson Crusoe, p. 2. "Though James is here the object of the action, yet, he is in the nominative case."—Wright's Gram., p. 64. "Here, John is the actor; and is known to be the nominative, by its answering to the question, 'Who struck Richard?'"—Ib., p. 43. "One of the most distinguished privileges which Providence has conferred on mankind, is the power of communicating their thoughts to one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 9. "With some of the most refined feelings which belong to our frame."—Ib., p. 13. "And the same instructions which assist others in composing, will assist them in judging of, and relishing, the beauties of composition."—Ib., p. 12. "To overthrow all which had been yielded in favour of the army."—Mrs. Macaulay's Hist., i, 335. "Let your faith stand in the Lord God who changes not, and that created all, and gives the increase of all."—Friends' Advices, 1676. "For it is, in truth, the sentiment or passion, which lies under the figured expression, that gives it any merit."—Blair's Rhet., p. 133. "Verbs are words which affirm the being, doing, or suffering of a thing, together with the time it happens."—Al. Murray's Gram., p. 29. "The Byass will always hang on that side, that nature first placed it."—Locke, on Ed., p. 177. "They should be brought to do the things are fit for them."—Ib., p. 178. "Various sources whence the English language is derived."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 286. "This attention to the several cases, when it is proper to omit and when to redouble the copulative, is of considerable importance."—Blair's Rhet., p. 113. "Cicero, for instance, speaking of the cases where killing another is lawful in self defence, uses the following words."—Ib., p. 156. "But there is no nation, hardly any person so phlegmatic, as not to accompany their words with some actions and gesticulations, on all occasions, when they are much in earnest."—Ib., p. 335. "William's is said to be governed by coat, because it follows William's"—Smith's New Gram., p. 12. "There are many occasions in life, in which silence and simplicity are true wisdom."—Murray's Key, ii, 197. "In choosing umpires, the avarice of whom is excited."—Nixon's Parser, p. 153. "The boroughs sent representatives, which had been enacted."—Ib., p. 154. "No man believes but what there is some order in the universe."—Anon. "The moon is orderly in her changes, which she could not be by accident."—Id. "Of Sphynx her riddles, they are generally two kinds."—Bacons Wisdom, p. 73. "They must generally find either their Friends or Enemies in Power."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 166. "For of old, every one took upon them to write what happened in their own time."—Josephus's Jewish War, Pref., p. 4. "The Almighty cut off the family of Eli the high priest, for its transgressions."—See Key. "The convention then resolved themselves into a committee of the whole."—Inst., p. 146. "The severity with which this denomination was treated, appeared rather to invite than to deter them from flocking to the colony."—H. Adams's View, p. 71. "Many Christians abuse the Scriptures and the traditions of the apostles, to uphold things quite contrary to it."—Barclay's Works, i, 461. "Thus, a circle, a square, a triangle, or a hexagon, please the eye, by their regularity, as beautiful figures."—Blair's Rhet., p. 46. "Elba is remakable [sic—KTH] for its being the place to which Bonaparte was banished in 1814."—See Sanborn's Gram., p. 190. "The editor has the reputation of his being a good linguist and critic."—See ib. "'Tis a Pride should be cherished in them."—Locke, on Ed., p. 129. "And to restore us the Hopes of Fruits, to reward our Pains in its season."—Ib., p. 136. "The comick representation of Death's victim relating its own tale."—Wright's Gram., p. 103. "As for Scioppius his Grammar, that doth wholly concern the Latin Tongue."—DR. WILKINS: Tooke's D. P., i, 7.

   "And chiefly thee, O Spirit, who dost prefer
    Before all temples the upright heart and pure,
    Instruct me, for thou knowest."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 45.

LESSON V.—VERBS.

"And there was in the same country shepherds, abiding in the field."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Luke, ii. 8. "Whereof every one bear twins."—COM. BIBLE: Sol. Song, iv, 2. "Whereof every one bare twins."—ALGER'S BIBLE: ib. "Whereof every one beareth twins."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: ib. "He strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles, that is planted in it."—Addison, Spect., No. 181. "Genii, denote ærial spirits."—Wright's Gram., p. 40. "In proportion as the long and large prevalence of such corruptions have been obtained by force."—BP. HALIFAX: Brier's Analogy, p. xvi. "Neither of these are fix'd to a Word of a general Signification, or proper Name."—Brightland's Gram., p. 95. "Of which a few of the opening lines is all I shall give."—Moore's Life of Byron. "The riches we had in England was the slow result of long industry and wisdom."—DAVENANT: Webster's Imp. Gram., p. 21; Phil. Gram., 29. "The following expression appears to be correct:—'Much publick thanks is due.'"—Wright's Gram., p. 201. "He hath been enabled to correct many mistakes."—Lowth's Gram., p. x. "Which road takest thou here?"—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 106. "Learnest thou thy lesson?"—Ib., p. 105. "Learned they their pieces perfectly?"—Ibid. "Thou learnedst thy task well."—Ibid. "There are some can't relish the town, and others can't away with the country."—WAY OF THE WORLD: Kames, El. of Crit., i, 304. "If thou meetest them, thou must put on an intrepid mien."—Neef's Method of Ed., p. 201. "Struck with terror, as if Philip was something more than human."—Blair's Rhet., p. 265. "If the personification of the form of Satan was admissible, it should certainly have been masculine."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 176. "If only one follow, there seems to be a defect in the sentence."—Priestley's Gram., p. 104. "Sir, if thou have borne him hence, tell me where thou hast laid him."—John, xx, 15. "Blessed be the people that know the joyful sound."—Psalms, lxxxix, 15. "Every auditory take in good part those marks of respect and awe, which are paid them by one who addresses them."—Blair's Rhet., p. 308. "Private causes were still pleaded [in the forum]: but the public was no longer interested; nor any general attention drawn to what passed there."—Ib., p. 249. "Nay, what evidence can be brought to show, that the Inflection of the Classic tongues were not originally formed out of obsolete auxiliary words?"—Murray's Gram., i, p. 112. "If the student reflects, that the principal and the auxiliary forms but one verb, he will have little or no difficulty, in the proper application of the present rule."—Ib., p. 183. "For the sword of the enemy and fear is on every side."—Jeremiah, vi, 26. "Even the Stoics agree that nature and certainty is very hard to come at."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 71. "His politeness and obliging behaviour was changed."—Priestley's Gram., p. 186. "His politeness and obliging behaviour were changed."—Hume's Hist., Vol. vi, p. 14. "War and its honours was their employment and ambition."—Goldsmith. "Does a and an mean the same thing?"—R. W. Green's Gram., p. 15. "When a number of words come in between the discordant parts, the ear does not detect the error."—Cobbett's Gram., ¶ 185. "The sentence should be, 'When a number of words comes in,' &c."—Wright's Gram., p. 170. "The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs."—Lowth's Gram., p. 45. "The nature of our language, together with the accent and pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our Regular Verbs."—Hiley's Gram., p. 45. "Prompt aid, and not promises, are what we ought to give."—Author. "The position of the several organs therefore, as well as their functions are ascertained."—Medical Magazine, 1833, p. 5. "Every private company, and almost every public assembly, afford opportunities of remarking the difference between a just and graceful, and a faulty and unnatural elocution."—Enfield's Speaker, p. 9. "Such submission, together with the active principle of obedience, make up the temper and character in us which answers to his sovereignty."— Butler's Analogy, p. 126. "In happiness, as in other things, there is a false and a true, an imaginary and a real."—Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 134. "To confound things that differ, and to make a distinction where there is no difference, is equally unphilosophical."—Author.

   "I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows,
    Where ox-lips and the nodding violet grows."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 51.

LESSON VI.—VERBS.

"Whose business or profession prevent their attendance in the morning."—Ogilby. "And no church or officer have power over one another."—LECHFORD: in Hutchinson's Hist., i, 373. "While neither reason nor experience are sufficiently matured to protect them."—Woodbridge. "Among the Greeks and Romans, every syllable, or the far greatest number at least, was known to have a fixed and determined quantity."—Blair's Rhet., p. 383. "Among the Greeks and Romans, every syllable, or at least by far the greatest number of syllables, was known to have a fixed and determined quantity."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 303. "Their vanity is awakened and their passions exalted by the irritation, which their self-love receives from contradiction."—Influence of Literature, Vol. ii. p. 218. "I and he was neither of us any great swimmer."—Anon. "Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the measure."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 150. "A correct plainness, and elegant simplicity, is the proper character of an introduction."—Blair's Rhet., p. 308. "In syntax there is what grammarians call concord or agreement, and government."—Infant School Gram., p. 128. "People find themselves able without much study to write and speak the English intelligibly, and thus have been led to think rules of no utility."— Webster's Essays, p. 6. "But the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well, who has pondered his subject with care, and addresses himself to our judgment, rather than to our imagination."—Blair's Rhet., p. 353. "But practice hath determined it otherwise; and has, in all the languages with which we are much acquainted, supplied the place of an interrogative mode, either by particles of interrogation, or by a peculiar order of the words in the sentence."—Lowth's Gram., p. 84. "If the Lord have stirred thee up against me, let him accept an offering."—1 Sam., xxvi, 19. "But if the priest's daughter be a widow, or divorced, and have no child, and is returned unto her father's house, as in her youth, she shall eat of her father's meat."—Levit., xxii, 13. "Since we never have, nor ever shall study your sublime productions."—Neef's Sketch, p. 62. "Enabling us to form more distinct images of objects, than can be done with the utmost attention where these particulars are not found."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 174. "I hope you will consider what is spoke comes from my love."—Shak., Othello. "We will then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred,"—Rush, on the Voice, p. 406. "I knew it was Crab, and goes me to the fellow that whips the dogs."—SHAK: Joh. Dict., w. ALE. "The youth was being consumed by a slow malady."—Wright's Gram., p. 192. "If all men thought, spoke, and wrote alike, something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points may be accomplished."— Ib., p. 240. "If you will replace what has been long since expunged from the language."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 167; Murray's Gram., i, 364. "As in all those faulty instances, I have now been giving."—Blair's Rhet., p. 149. "This mood has also been improperly used in the following places."—Murray's Gram., i, 184. "He [Milton] seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what it was that nature had bestowed upon him."—Johnson's Life of Milton. "Of which I already gave one instance, the worst, indeed, that occurs in all the poem."—Blair's Rhet., p. 395. "It is strange he never commanded you to have done it."—Anon. "History painters would have found it difficult, to have invented such a species of beings."—ADDISON: see Lowth's Gram., p. 87. "Universal Grammar cannot be taught abstractedly, it must be done with reference to some language already known."—Lowth's Preface, p. viii. "And we might imagine, that if verbs had been so contrived, as simply to express these, no more was needful."—Blair's Rhet., p. 82. "To a writer of such a genius as Dean Swift, the plain style was most admirably fitted."—Ib., p. 181. "Please excuse my son's absence."—Inst., p. 188. "Bid the boys to come in immediately."—Ib.

   "Gives us the secrets of his Pagan hell,
    Where ghost with ghost in sad communion dwell."
        —Crabbe's Bor., p. 306.

    "Alas! nor faith, nor valour now remain;
    Sighs are but wind, and I must bear my chain."
        —Walpole's Catal., p. 11.

LESSON VII.—PARTICIPLES.

"Of which the Author considers himself, in compiling the present work, as merely laying of the foundation-stone."—Blair's Gram., p. ix. "On the raising such lively and distinct images as are here described."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 89. "They are necessary to the avoiding Ambiguities."— Brightland's Gram., p. 95. "There is no neglecting it without falling into a dangerous error."—Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 41. "The contest resembles Don Quixote's fighting windmills."—Webster's Essays, p. 67. "That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no particular time of their own."—Murray's Gram., i, 190. "To justify my not following the tract of the ancient rhetoricians."— Blair's Rhet., p. 122. "The putting letters together, so as to make words, is called spelling."—Infant School Gram., p. 11. "What is the putting vowels and consonants together called?"—Ib., p. 12. "Nobody knows of their being charitable but themselves."—Fuller, on the Gospel, p. 29. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for its having been so long postponed."—Murray's Gram., i, 186; Kirkham's, 194; Ingersoll's, 254. "Which will bear being brought into comparison with any composition of the kind."—Blair's Rhet., p. 396. "To render vice ridiculous, is doing real service to the world."—Ib., p. 476. "It is copying directly from nature; giving a plain rehearsal of what passed, or was supposed to pass, in conversation."—Ib., p. 433. "Propriety of pronunciation is giving to every word that sound, which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 200. "To occupy the mind, and prevent our regretting the insipidity of an uniform plain."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 329. "There are a hundred ways of any thing happening."—Steele. "Tell me, signor, what was the cause of Antonio's sending Claudio to Venice, yesterday."—Bucke's Gram., p 90. "Looking about for an outlet, some rich prospect unexpectedly opens to view."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 334. "A hundred volumes of modern novels may be read, without acquiring a new idea"—Webster's Essays, p. 29. "Poetry admits of greater latitude than prose, with respect to coining, or, at least, new compounding words."—Blair's Rhet., p. 93. "When laws were wrote on brazen tablets enforced by the sword."—Notes to the Dunciad. "A pronoun, which saves the naming a person or thing a second time, ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 49. "The using a preposition in this case, is not always a matter of choice."—Ib., ii, 37. "To save multiplying words, I would be understood to comprehend both circumstances."—Ib., i, 219. "Immoderate grief is mute: complaining is struggling for consolation."—Ib., i, 398. "On the other hand, the accelerating or retarding the natural course, excites a pain."—Ib., i, 259. "Human affairs require the distributing our attention."—Ib., i, 264. "By neglecting this circumstance, the following example is defective in neatness."—Ib., ii, 29. "And therefore the suppressing copulatives must animate a description."—Ib., ii, 32. "If the laying aside copulatives give force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid."—Ib., ii, 33. "It skills not asking my leave, said Richard."—Scott's Crusaders. "To redeem his credit, he proposed being sent once more to Sparta."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 129. "Dumas relates his having given drink to a dog."—Dr. Stone, on the Stomach, p. 24. "Both are, in a like way, instruments of our receiving such ideas from external objects."—Butler's Analogy, p. 66. "In order to your proper handling such a subject."—Spectator, No. 533. "For I do not recollect its being preceded by an open vowel."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 56. "Such is setting up the form above the power of godliness."—Barclay's Works, i, 72. "I remember walking once with my young acquaintance."— Hunt's Byron, p 27. "He [Lord Byron] did not like paying a debt."—Ib., p. 74. "I do not remember seeing Coleridge when I was a child."—Ib., p. 318. "In consequence of the dry rot's having been discovered, the mansion has undergone a thorough repair."—Maunder's Gram., p. 17. "I would not advise the following entirely the German system."—DR. LIEBER: Lit. Conv., p. 66. "Would it not be making the students judges of the professors?"—Id., ib., p. 4. "Little time should intervene between their being proposed and decided upon."—PROF. VETHAKE: ib., p. 39. "It would be nothing less than finding fault with the Creator."—Ib., p. 116. "Having once been friends is a powerful reason, both of prudence and conscience, to restrain us from ever becoming enemies."—Secker. "By using the word as a conjunction, the ambiguity is prevented."—Murray's Gram., i, 216.

   "He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem,
    But preaching Jesus is not one of them."—J. Taylor.

LESSON VIII.—ADVERBS.

"Auxiliaries cannot only be inserted, but are really understood,"—Wright's Gram., p 209. "He was since a hired Scribbler in the Daily Courant."—Notes to the Dunciad, ii, 299. "In gardening, luckily, relative beauty need never stand in opposition to intrinsic beauty."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 330. "I doubt much of the propriety of the following examples."—Lowth's Gram., p. 44. "And [we see] how far they have spread one of the worst Languages possibly in this part of the world."—Locke, on Ed., p. 341. "And in this manner to merely place him on a level with the beast of the forest."—Smith's New Gram., p. 5. "Where, ah! where, has my darling fled?"—Anon. "As for this fellow, we know not from whence he is."—John, ix, 29. "Ye see then how that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only."—James, ii, 24. "The Mixt kind is where the poet speaks in his own person, and sometimes makes other characters to speak."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 276; Gould's, 267. "Interrogation is, when the writer or orator raises questions and returns answers."—Fisher's Gram., p. 154. "Prevention is, when an author starts an objection which he foresees may be made, and gives an answer to it."—Ib., p. 154. "Will you let me alone, or no?"—Walker's Particles, p. 184. "Neither man nor woman cannot resist an engaging exterior."— Chesterfield, Let. lix. "Though the Cup be never so clean."—Locke, on Ed., p. 65. "Seldom, or ever, did any one rise to eminence, by being a witty lawyer."—Blair's Rhet., p. 272. "The second rule, which I give, respects the choice of subjects, from whence metaphors, and other figures, are to be drawn."—Blair's Rhet., p. 144. "In the figures which it uses, it sets mirrors before us, where we may behold objects, a second time, in their likeness."—Ib., p. 139. "Whose Business is to seek the true measures of Right and Wrong, and not the Arts how to avoid doing the one, and secure himself in doing the other."—Locke, on Ed., p. 331. "The occasions when you ought to personify things, and when you ought not, cannot be stated in any precise rule."—Cobbett's Eng. Gram., ¶ 182. "They reflect that they have been much diverted, but scarce can say about what."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 151. "The eyebrows and shoulders should seldom or ever be remarked by any perceptible motion."—Adams's Rhet., ii, 389. "And the left hand or arm should seldom or never attempt any motion by itself."—Ib., ii, 391. "Every speaker does not propose to please the imagination."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 104. "And like Gallio, they care little for none of these things."—The Friend, Vol. x, p. 351. "They may inadvertently be imitated, in cases where the meaning would be obscure."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 272. "Nor a man cannot make him laugh."—Shak. "The Athenians, in their present distress, scarce knew where to turn."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 156. "I do not remember where ever God delivered his oracles by the multitude."—Locke. "The object of this government is twofold, outwards and inwards."—Barclay's Works, i, 553. "In order to rightly understand what we read."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 313. "That a design had been formed, to forcibly abduct or kidnap Morgan."—Stone, on Masonry, p. 410. "But such imposture can never maintain its ground long."—Blair's Rhet., p. 10. "But sure it is equally possible to apply the principles of reason and good sense to this art, as to any other that is cultivated among men."—Ibid. "It would have been better for you, to have remained illiterate, and to have been even hewers of wood."—Murray's Gram., i, 374. "Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated in the pronunciation, have always the accent on the first syllable."—Ib., i, 238. "And they all turned their backs without almost drawing a sword."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 224. "The principle of duty takes naturally place of every other."—Ib., i, 342. "All that glitters is not gold."—Maunder's Gram., p. 13. "Whether now or never so many myriads of ages hence."—Pres. Edwards.

   "England never did, nor never shall,
    Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 109.

LESSON IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

"He readily comprehends the rules of Syntax, and their use and applicability in the examples before him."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 6. "The works of Æschylus have suffered more by time, than any of the ancient tragedians."—Blair's Rhet., p. 470. "There is much more story, more bustle, and action, than on the French theatre."—Ib., p. 478. "Such an unremitted anxiety and perpetual application as engrosses our whole time and thoughts, are forbidden."—SOAME JENYNS: Tract, p. 12. "It seems to be nothing else but the simple form of the adjective."—Wright's Gram., p. 49. "But when I talk of Reasoning, I do not intend any other, but such as is suited to the Child's Capacity."—Locke, on Ed., p. 129. "Pronouns have no other use in language, but to represent nouns."—Jamieson's Rhet., p 83. "The speculative relied no farther on their own judgment, but to choose a leader, whom they implicitly followed."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. xxv. "Unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor, bare, forked animal as thou art."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 266. "A Parenthesis is a clause introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction."—Murray's Gram., i, 280; Ingersoll's, 292; Smith's, 192; Alden's, 162; A. Flint's, 114; Fisk's, 158; Cooper's, 187; Comly's, 163. "A Caret, marked thus ^ is placed where some word happens to be left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line."—Murray's Gram., i, 282; Ingersoll's, 293; and others. "At the time that I visit them they shall be cast down."—Jer., vi, 15. "Neither our virtues or vices are all our own."—DR. JOHNSON: Sanborn's Gram., p. 167. "I could not give him an answer as early as he had desired."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 200. "He is not as tall as his brother."—Nixon's Parser, p. 124. "It is difficult to judge when Lord Byron is serious or not."—Lady Blessington. "Some nouns are both of the second and third declension."—Gould's Lat. Gram., p. 48. "He was discouraged neither by danger or misfortune."—Wells's Hist., p. 161. "This is consistent neither with logic nor history."—The Dial, i, 62. "Parts of Sentences are simple and compound."—Blair's Gram., p. 114. "English verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables than of feet."—Ib., p. 120. "I know not what more he can do, but pray for him."—Locke, on Ed., p. 140. "Whilst they are learning, and apply themselves with Attention, they are to be kept in good Humour."—Ib., p. 295. "A man cannot have too much of it, nor too perfectly."—Ib., p. 322. "That you may so run, as you may obtain; and so fight, as you may overcome."—Wm. Penn. "It is the case of some, to contrive false periods of business, because they may seem men of despatch."—Lord Bacon. "'A tall man and a woman.' In this sentence there is no ellipsis; the adjective or quality respect only the man."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 95. "An abandonment of the policy is neither to be expected or desired."—Pres. Jackson's Message, 1830. "Which can be acquired by no other means but frequent exercise in speaking."—Blair's Rhet., p. 344. "The chief and fundamental rules of syntax are common to the English as well as the Latin tongue."—Ib., p. 90. "Then I exclaim, that my antagonist either is void of all taste, or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree."— Ib., p. 21. "I cannot pity any one who is under no distress of body nor of mind."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 44. "There was much genius in the world, before there were learning or arts to refine it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 391. "Such a Writer can have little else to do, but to new model the Paradoxes of ancient Scepticism."—Brown's Estimate, i, 102. "Our ideas of them being nothing else but a collection of the ordinary qualities observed in them."—Duncan's Logic, p. 25. "A non-ens or a negative can neither give pleasure nor pain."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 63. "So as they shall not justle and embarrass one another."—Blair's Lectures, p. 318. "He firmly refused to make use of any other voice but his own."— Goldsmith's Greece, i, 190. "Your marching regiments, Sir, will not make the guards their example, either as soldiers or subjects."—Junius, Let. 35. "Consequently, they had neither meaning, or beauty, to any but the natives of each country."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 161.

   "The man of worth, and has not left his peer,
    Is in his narrow house for ever darkly laid."—Burns.

LESSON X.—PREPOSITIONS.

"These may be carried on progressively above any assignable limits."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 296. "To crowd in a single member of a period different subjects, is still worse than to crowd them into one period."—Ib., ii, 27. "Nor do we rigidly insist for melodious prose."—Ib., ii, 76. "The aversion we have at those who differ from us."—Ib., ii, 365. "For we cannot bear his shifting the scene every line."—LD. HALIFAX: ib., ii, 213. "We shall find that we come by it the same way."—Locke. "To this he has no better defense than that."—Barnes's Bed Book, p. 347. "Searching the person whom he suspects for having stolen his casket."—Blair's Rhet., p. 479. "Who are elected as vacancies occur by the whole Board."—Lit. Convention, p. 81. "Almost the only field of ambition of a German, is science."—DR. LIEBER: ib., p. 66. "The plan of education is very different to the one pursued in the sister country."—DR. COLEY, ib., p. 197. "Some writers on grammar have contended that adjectives relate to, and modify the action of verbs."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 61. "They are therefore of a mixed nature, participating of the properties both of pronouns and adjectives."— Ingersoll's Gram., p. 57. "For there is no authority which can justify the inserting the aspirate or doubling the vowel."—Knight, on Greek Alph., p. 52. "The distinction and arrangement between active, passive, and neuter verbs."—Wright's Gram, p. 176. "And see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 167. "He may be precaution'd, and be made see, how those joyn in the Contempt."—Locke, on Ed., p. 155. "The contenting themselves now in the want of what they wish'd for, is a vertue."—Ib., p. 185. "If the Complaint be of something really worthy your notice."—Ib., p. 190. "True Fortitude I take to be the quiet Possession of a Man's self, and an undisturb'd doing his Duty."—Ib., p. 204. "For the custom of tormenting and killing of Beasts will, by degrees, harden their Minds even towards Men."—Ib., p. 216. "Children are whip'd to it, and made spend many Hours of their precious time uneasily in Latin."—Ib., p. 289. "The ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail of this subject; more particular, indeed, than any other that regards language."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 123. "But the one should not be omitted without the other."—Bullions's Eng. Gram., p. 108. "In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omitted."—Murray's Gram., i, 218; Weld's, 191. "There are a great variety of causes, which disqualify a witness from being received to testify in particular cases."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., ii, 75. "Aside of all regard to interest, we should expect that," &c.—Webster's Essays, p. 82. "My opinion was given on a rather cursory perusal of the book."—Murray's Key, ii, 202. "And the next day, he was put on board his ship."—Ib., ii, 201. "Having the command of no emotions but of what are raised by sight."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 318. "Did these moral attributes exist in some other being beside himself."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 161. "He did not behave in that manner out of pride or contempt of the tribunal."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 190. "These prosecutions of William seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 199; Priestley's Gram., 126. "To restore myself into the good graces of my fair critics."—Dryden. "Objects denominated beautiful, please not in virtue of any one quality common to them all."—Blair's Rhet., p. 46. "This would have been less worthy notice, had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it."—Churchill's Gram., p. 197.

   "A Grecian youth, with talents rare,
    Whom Plato's philosophic care," &c.—Felton's Gram., p. 145.

LESSON XI.—PROMISCUOUS.

"To excel, is become a much less considerable object."—Blair's Rhet., p. 351. "My robe, and my integrity to heaven, is all I now dare call mine own."—Beauties of Shak., p. 173. "So thou the garland wear'st successively."—Ib., p. 134. "For thou the garland wears successively."—Enfield's Speaker, p. 341. "If that thou need'st a Roman's, take it forth."—Ib., p. 357. "If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth."—Beauties of Shak., p. 256. "If thou provest this to be real, thou must be a smart lad, indeed."—Neef's Method of Teaching, p. 210. "And another Bridge of four hundred Foot in Length."—Brightland's Gram., p. 242. "Metonomy is putting one name for another on account of the near relation there is between them."—Fisher's Gram., p. 151. "An Antonomasia is putting an appellative or common name for a proper name."—Ib., p. 153. "Its being me needs make no difference in your determination."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 89. "The first and second page are torn."—Ib., p. 145. "John's being from home occasioned the delay."—Ib., p. 81. "His having neglected opportunities of improvement, was the cause of his disgrace."—Ib., p. 81. "He will regret his having neglected opportunities of improvement when it may be too late."—Ib., p. 81. "His being an expert dancer does not entitle him to our regard."—Ib., p. 82.[443] "Cæsar went back to Rome to take possession of the public treasure, which his opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected taking with him."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 116. "And Cæsar took out of the treasury, to the amount of three thousand pound weight of gold, besides an immense quantity of silver."—Ibid. "Rules and definitions, which should always be clear and intelligible as possible, are thus rendered obscure."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 5. "So much both of ability and merit is seldom found."—Murray's Key, ii, 179. "If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what is become of decency and virtue?"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 78. "Especially if the subject require not so much pomp."—Blair's Rhet., p. 117. "However, the proper mixture of light and shade, in such compositions; the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense; have ever been considered as points of great nicety."—Murray's Gram., i, 343. "And adding to that hissing in our language, which is taken so much notice of by foreigners."—ADDISON: DR. COOTE: ib., i, 90. "Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that betrays unkindness or ill-humour, is certainly criminal."—Murray's Key, ii, 183; Merchant's, 190. "There is here a fulness and grandeur of expression well suited to the subject."—Blair's Rhet., p. 218. "I single Strada out among the moderns, because he had the foolish presumption to censure Tacitus."—Murray's Key, ii, 262. "I single him out among the moderns, because," &c.—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 116. "This is a rule not always observed, even by good writers, as strictly as it ought to be."—Blair's Rhet., p. 103. "But this gravity and assurance, which is beyond boyhood, being neither wisdom nor knowledge, do never reach to manhood."—Notes to the Dunciad. "The regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road has some influence upon the low people in the neighbourhood."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 358. "They become fond of regularity and neatness; which is displayed, first upon their yards and little enclosures, and next within doors."—Ibid. "The phrase, it is impossible to exist, gives us the idea of it's being impossible for men, or any body to exist."—Priestley's Gram., p. 85. "I'll give a thousand pound to look upon him."—Beauties of Shak., p. 151. "The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent his mistaking it."—Murray's Gram., i, 172; Crombie's, 253. "When two words are set in contrast or in opposition to one another, they are both emphatic."—Murray's Gram., i, 243. "The number of persons, men, women, and children, who were lost in the sea, was very great."—Ib., ii, 20. "Nor is the resemblance between the primary and resembling object pointed out"—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 179. "I think it the best book of the kind which I have met with."—DR. MATHEWS: Greenleaf's Gram., p. 2.

   "Why should not we their ancient rites restore,
    And be what Rome or Athens were before."—Roscommon, p. 22.

LESSON XII.—TWO ERRORS.

"It is labour only which gives the relish to pleasure."—Murray's Key, ii, 234. "Groves are never as agreeable as in the opening of the spring."—Ib., p. 216. "His 'Philosophical Inquiry into the origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful' soon made him known to the literati."—Biog. Rhet., n. Burke. "An awful precipice or tower whence we look down on the objects which lie below."—Blair's Rhet., p. 30. "This passage, though very poetical, is, however, harsh and obscure; owing to no other cause but this, that three distinct metaphors are crowded together."—Ib., p. 149. "I propose making some observations."—Ib., p. 280. "I shall follow the same method here which I have all along pursued."—Ib., p. 346. "Mankind never resemble each other so much as they do in the beginnings of society."—Ib., p. 380. "But no ear is sensible of the termination of each foot, in reading an hexameter line."—Ib., p. 383. "The first thing, says he, which either a writer of fables, or of heroic poems, does, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality."—Ib., p. 421. "The fourth book has been always most justly admired, and abounds with beauties of the highest kind."—Ib., p. 439. "There is no attempt towards painting characters in the poem."—Ib., p. 446. "But the artificial contrasting of characters, and the introducing them always in pairs, and by opposites, gives too theatrical and affected an air to the piece."—Ib., p. 479. "Neither of them are arbitrary nor local."—Kames, El. of Crit., p. xxi. "If crowding figures be bad, it is still worse to graft one figure upon another."—Ib., ii, 236. "The crowding withal so many objects together, lessens the pleasure."—Ib., ii, 324. "This therefore lies not in the putting off the Hat, nor making of Compliments."—Locke, on Ed., p. 149. "But the Samaritan Vau may have been used, as the Jews did the Chaldaic, both for a vowel and consonant."—Wilson's Essay, p. 19. "But if a solemn and familiar pronunciation really exists in our language, is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both?"—Walker's Dict., Pref., p. 4. "By making sounds follow each other agreeable to certain laws."—Music of Nature, p. 406. "If there was no drinking intoxicating draughts, there could be no drunkards."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 178. "Socrates knew his own defects, and if he was proud of any thing, it was in the being thought to have none."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 188. "Lysander having brought his army to Ephesus, erected an arsenal for building of gallies."—Ib., i, 161. "The use of these signs are worthy remark."—Brightland's Gram., p. 94. "He received me in the same manner that I would you."—Smith's New Gram., p. 113. "Consisting both of the direct and collateral evidence."—Butler's Analogy, p. 224. "If any man or woman that believeth have widows, let them relieve them, and let not the church be charged."—1 Tim., v, 16. "For mens sakes are beasts bred."—Walker's Particles, p. 131. "From three a clock there was drinking and gaming."—Ib., p. 141. "Is this he that I am seeking of, or no?"—Ib., p. 248. "And for the upholding every one his own opinion, there is so much ado."—Sewel's Hist., p. 809. "Some of them however will be necessarily taken notice of."—Sale's Koran, p. 71. "The boys conducted themselves exceedingly indiscreet."—Merchant's Key, p. 195. "Their example, their influence, their fortune, every talent they possess, dispense blessings on all around them."—Ib., p. 197; Murray's Key, ii, 219. "The two Reynolds reciprocally converted one another"—Johnson's Lives, p. 185. "The destroying the two last Tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 194. "Monies is your suit."—Beauties of Shak., p. 38. "Ch, is commonly sounded like tch; as in church; but in words derived from the Greek, has the sound of k."—Murray's Gram., i, 11. "When one is obliged to make some utensil supply purposes to which they were not originally destined."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 222. "But that a being baptized with water, is a washing away of sin, thou canst not from hence prove."—Barclay's Works, i, 190. "Being but spoke to one, it infers no universal command."—Ibid. "For if the laying aside Copulatives gives Force and Liveliness, a Redundancy of them must render the Period languid."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 134. "James used to compare him to a cat, who always fell upon her legs."—ADAM'S HIST. OF ENG.: Crombie, p. 384.

   "From the low earth aspiring genius springs,
    And sails triumphant born on eagles wings."—Lloyd, p. 162.

LESSON XIII.—TWO ERRORS.

"An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style, for instance, are always faults."—Blair's Rhet. p. 190. "Yet in this we find the English pronounce perfectly agreeable to rule."—Walker's Dict., p. 2. "But neither the perception of ideas, nor knowledge of any sort, are habits, though absolutely necessary to the forming of them."—Butler's Analogy, p. 111. "They were cast: and an heavy fine imposed upon them."—Goldsmiths Greece, ii, 30. "Without making this reflection, he cannot enter into the spirit, nor relish the composition of the author."—Blair's Rhet., p. 450. "The scholar should be instructed relative to finding his words."—Osborn's Key, p. 4. "And therefore they could neither have forged, or reversified them."—Knight, on the Greek Alph., p. 30. "A dispensary is the place where medicines are dispensed."—Murray's Key, ii, 172. "Both the connexion and number of words is determined by general laws."—Neef's Sketch, p. 73. "An Anapsest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented: as, 'Contravene, acquiésce.'"—Murray's Gram., i, 254. "An explicative sentence is, when a thing is said to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner."—Ib., i, 141; Lowth's, 84. "BUT is a conjunction, in all cases when it is neither an adverb nor preposition."—Smith's New Gram., p. 109. "He wrote in the king Ahasuerus' name, and sealed it with the king's ring."—Esther, viii, 10. "Camm and Audland were departed the town before this time."—Sewel's Hist., p. 100. "Previous to their relinquishing the practice, they must be convinced."—Dr. Webster, on Slavery, p. 5. "Which he had thrown up previous to his setting out."—Grimshaw's Hist. U. S., p. 84. "He left him to the value of an hundred drachmas in Persian money."—Spect., No. 535. "All which the mind can ever contemplate concerning them, must be divided between the three."—Cardell's Philad. Gram., p. 80. "Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that has fallen under my observation."—Spect., No. 476. "When you have once got him to think himself made amends for his suffering, by the praise is given him for his courage."—Locke, on Ed. §115. "In all matters where simple reason, and mere speculation is concerned."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 136. "And therefore he should be spared the trouble of attending to any thing else, but his meaning."—Ib., p. 105. "It is this kind of phraseology which is distinguished by the epithet idiomatical, and hath been originally the spawn, partly of ignorance, and partly of affectation."—Campbell's Rhet. p. 185. Murray has it—"and which has been originally," &c.—Octavo Gram. i, 370. "That neither the letters nor inflection are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of Latium."—Knight, Gr. Alph. p. 13, "In cases where the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms."—Murray's Gram.,, 150. "But this people which know not the law, are accursed."—John, vii, 49. "And the magnitude of the chorusses have weight and sublimity."—Music of Nature, p. 428. "Dare he deny but there are some of his fraternity guilty?"—Barclays Works, i, 327. "Giving an account of most, if not all the papers had passed betwixt them."—Ib., i, 235. "In this manner, both as to parsing and correcting, all the rules of syntax should be treated, proceeding regularly according to their order."—Murray's Exercises, 12mo, p. x. "Ovando was allowed a brilliant retinue and a body guard."—Sketch of Columbus. "Is it I or he whom you requested to go?"—Kirkham's Gram., Key, p. 226. "Let thou and I go on."—Bunyan's P. P., p. 158. "This I no-where affirmed; and do wholly deny."—Barclay's Works, iii, 454. "But that I deny; and remains for him to prove."—Ibid. "Our country sinks beneath the yoke; It weeps, it bleeds, and each new day a gash Is added to her wounds."—SHAKSPEARE: Joh. Dict., w. Beneath. "Thou art the Lord who didst choose Abraham, and broughtest him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees."—Murray's Key, ii, 189. "He is the exhaustless fountain, from which emanates all these attributes, that exists throughout this wide creation."—Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Ed., p. 155. "I am he who have communed with the son of Neocles; I am he who have entered the gardens of pleasure."—Wright's Athens, p. 66.

   "Such was in ancient times the tales received,
    Such by our good forefathers was believed."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. ix, l. 605.

LESSON XIV.—TWO ERRORS.

"The noun or pronoun that stand before the active verb, may be called the agent."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 121. "Such seems to be the musings of our hero of the grammar-quill, when he penned the first part of his grammar."—Merchant's Criticisms. "Two dots, the one placed above the other [:], is called Sheva, and represents a very short e."—Wilson's Hebrew Gram., p. 43. "Great has been, and is, the obscurity and difficulty, in the nature and application of them."—Butler's Analogy, p. 184. "As two is to four, so is four to eight."—Everest's Gram., p. 231. "The invention and use of it [arithmetic] reaches back to a period so remote as is beyond the knowledge of history."—Robertson's America, i, 288. "What it presents as objects of contemplation or enjoyment, fills and satisfies his mind."—Ib., i, 377. "If he dare not say they are, as I know he dare not, how must I then distinguish?"—Barclay's Works, iii, 311. "He was now grown so fond of solitude that all company was become uneasy to him."—Life of Cicero, p. 32. "Violence and spoil is heard in her; before me continually is grief and wounds."—Jeremiah, vi, 7. "Bayle's Intelligence from the Republic of Letters, which make eleven volumes in duodecimo, are truly a model in this kind."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 68. "To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper tone of voice."—Murray's Gram., i, 249. "The opposing the opinions, and rectifying the mistakes of others, is what truth and sincerity sometimes require of us."—Locke, on Ed., p. 211. "It is very probable that this assembly was called, to clear some doubt which the king had, about the lawfulness of the Hollanders' throwing off the monarchy of Spain, and withdrawing, entirely, their allegiance to that crown."—Murray's Key, ii, 195. "Naming the cases and numbers of a noun in their order is called declining it."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 10. "The embodying them is, therefore, only collecting such component parts of words."—Town's Analysis, p. 4. "The one is the voice heard at Christ's being baptized; the other, at his being transfigured."—Barclays Works, i, 267. "Understanding the literal sense would not have prevented their condemning the guiltless."—Butler's Analogy, p. 168. "As if this were taking the execution of justice out of the hand of God, and giving it to nature."—Ib., p. 194. "They will say, you must conceal this good opinion of yourself; which yet is allowing the thing, though not the showing it."—Sheffield's Works, ii, 244. "So as to signify not only the doing an action, but the causing it to be done."—Pike's Hebrew Lexicon, p. 180. "This, certainly, was both dividing the unity of God, and limiting his immensity."—Calvin's Institutes, B. i, Ch. 13. "Tones being infinite in number, and varying in almost every individual, the arranging them under distinct heads, and reducing them to any fixed and permanent rules, may be considered as the last refinement in language."—Knight, on Gr. Alph., p. 16. "The fierce anger of the Lord shall not return, until he have done it, and until he have performed the intents of his heart."—Jeremiah, xxx, 24. "We seek for more heroic and illustrious deeds, for more diversified and surprising events."—Blair's Rhet., p. 373. "We distinguish the Genders, or the Male and Female Sex, four different Ways."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 20. "Thus, ch and g, are ever hard. It is therefore proper to retain these sounds in Hebrew names, which have not been modernised, or changed by public use."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 24. "The Substantive or noun is the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion."—Lindley Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 26. "The SUBSTANTIVE, or NOUN; being the name of any thing conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion."—Dr. Lowth's Gram., p. 6. "The Noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have, or can form, an idea."—Maunders Gram., p. 1. "A noun is the name of any thing in existence, or of which we can form an idea."—Ib., p. 1. (See False Syntax under Note 7th to Rule 10th.) "The next thing to be taken Care of, is to keep him exactly to speaking of Truth."—Locke, on Ed., p. 254. "The material, vegetable, and animal world, receive this influence according to their several capacities."—The Dial, i, 59. "And yet, it is fairly defensible on the principles of the schoolmen; if that can be called principles which consists merely in words."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 274.

   "Art thou so bare and full of wretchedness,
    And fears to die? famine is in thy cheeks,
    Need and oppression starveth in thy eyes."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 317.

LESSON XV.—THREE ERRORS.

"The silver age is reckoned to have commenced on the death of Augustus, and continued to the end of Trajan's reign."—Gould's Lat. Gram., p. 277. "Language is become, in modern times, more correct, indeed, and accurate."—Blair's Rhet., p. 65. "It is evident, that words are most agreeable to the ear which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds, where there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants."—Ib., p. 121. See Murray's Gram., i, 325. "It would have had no other effect, but to add a word unnecessarily to the sentence."—Blair's Rhet., p. 194. "But as rumours arose of the judges having been corrupted by money in this cause, these gave occasions to much popular clamour, and had thrown a heavy odium on Cluentius."—Ib., p. 273. "A Participle is derived of a verb, and partakes of the nature both of the verb and the adjective."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 39; E. Devis's, 9. "I will have learned my grammar before you learn your's."—Wilbur and Liv. Gram., p. 14. "There is no earthly object capable of making such various and such forcible impressions upon the human mind as a complete speaker."—Perry's Dict., Pref. "It was not the carrying the bag which made Judas a thief and an hireling."—South. "As the reasonable soul and flesh is one man, so God and man is one Christ."—Athanasian Creed. "And I will say to them which were not my people, Thou art my people; and they shall say, Thou art my God."—Hosea, ii, 23. "Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper."—Murray's Gram., i, 250. "Each party produces words where the letter a is sounded in the manner they contend for."—Walker's Dict., p. 1. "To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely one remove from actually committing them."—Murray's Gram., i, 233. "'To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions,' is part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb 'is.'"—Ibid. "What is called splitting of particles, or separating a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided."—Blair's Rhet., p. 112; Jamieson's, 93. See Murray's Gram., i, 319. "There is, properly, no more than one pause or rest in the sentence, falling betwixt the two members into which it is divided."—Blair's Rhet., p. 125; Jamieson's, 126; Murray's Gram., i, 329. "Going barefoot does not at all help on the way to heaven."—Steele, Spect., No. 497. "There is no Body but condemns this in others, though they overlook it in themselves."—Locke, on Ed., §145. "In the same sentence, be careful not to use the same word too frequently, nor in different senses."—Murray's Gram., i, 296. "Nothing could have made her so unhappy, as marrying a man who possessed such principles."—Murray's Key, ii, 200. "A warlike, various, and a tragical age is best to write of, but worst to write in."—Cowley's Pref., p. vi. "When thou instances Peter his baptizing Cornelius."—Barclay's Works, i, 188. "To introduce two or more leading thoughts or agents, which have no natural relation to, or dependence on one another."—Murray's Gram., i, 313. "Animals, again, are fitted to one another, and to the elements where they live, and to which they are as appendices."—Ibid. "This melody, or varying the sound of each word so often, is a proof of nothing, however, but of the fine ear of that people."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 5. "They can each in their turns be made use of upon occasion."—Duncan's Logic, p. 191. "In this reign lived the poet Chaucer, who, with Gower, are the first authors who can properly be said to have written English."—Bucke's Gram., p. 144. "In the translating these kind of expressions, consider the IT IS, as if it were they, or they are."—Walker's Particles, p. 179. "The chin has an important office to perform; for upon its activity we either disclose a polite or vulgar pronunciation."—Music of Nature, p. 27. "For no other reason, but his being found in bad company."—Webster's Amer. Spelling-Book, p. 96. "It is usual to compare them in the same manner as Polisyllables."—Priestley's Gram., p. 77. "The infinitive mood is recognised easier than any others, because the preposition to precedes it."—Bucke's Gram., p, 95. "Prepositions, you recollect, connect words as well as conjunctions: how, then, can you tell the one from the other?"—Smith's New Gram., p. 38.

   "No kind of work requires so nice a touch,
    And if well finish'd, nothing shines so much"
        —Sheffield, Duke of Buck.

LESSON XVI—THREE ERRORS.

"It is the final pause which alone, on many occasions, marks the difference between prose and verse; which will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines."—Murray's Gram., i, 260. "I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have."—GUARDIAN: see Campbell's Rhet., p. 207. "I shall do all I can, to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure which I have taken."—Murray's Key, ii, 215. "It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, as they will set an house on fire, and [or an] it were but to roast their eggs."—Ld. Bacon. "Did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause where both his honour and life are concerned?"—Duncan's Cicero, p. 15. "So the rests and pauses, between sentences and their parts, are marked by points."—Lowth's Gram., p. 114. "Yet the case and mode is not influenced by them, but determined by the nature of the sentence."—Ib., p. 113. "By not attending to this rule, many errors have been committed: a number of which is subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner."—Murray's Gram., i, 114. "Though thou clothest thyself with crimson, though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold, though thou rentest thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair."—Jeremiah, iv, 30. "But that the doing good to others will make us happy, is not so evident; feeding the hungry, for example, or clothing the naked."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 161. "There is no other God but him, no other light but his."—William Penn. "How little reason to wonder, that a perfect and accomplished orator, should be one of the characters that is most rarely found?"—Blair's Rhet., p. 337. "Because they neither express doing nor receiving an action."—Infant School Gram., p. 53. "To find the answers, will require an effort of mind, and when given, will be the result of reflection, showing that the subject is understood."—Ib., p. vii. "To say, that 'the sun rises,' is trite and common; but it becomes a magnificent image when expressed as Mr. Thomson has done."—Blair's Rhet., p. 137. "The declining a word is the giving it different endings."—Ware's Gram., p. 7. "And so much are they for every one's following their own mind."—Barclay's Works, i, 462. "More than one overture for a peace was made, but Cleon prevented their taking effect."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 121. "Neither in English or in any other language is this word, and that which corresponds to it in other languages, any more an article, than two, three, four."—DR. WEBSTER: Knickerbocker of 1836. "But the most irksome conversation of all others I have met within the neighbourhood, has been among two or three of your travellers."—Spect., No. 474. "Set down the two first terms of supposition under each other in the first place."—Smiley's Arithmetic, p. 79. "It is an useful rule too, to fix our eye on some of the most distant persons in the assembly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 328. "He will generally please most, when pleasing is not his sole nor chief aim."—Ib., p. 336. "At length, the consuls return to the camp, and inform them they could receive no other terms but that of surrendering their arms, and passing under the yoke."—Ib., p. 360. "Nor is mankind so much to blame, in his choice thus determining him."—SWIFT: Crombie's Treatise, p 360. "These forms are what is called Number."—Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 62. "In languages which admit but two Genders, all Nouns are either Masculine or Feminine, even though they designate beings which are neither male or female."—Ib., p. 66. "It is called a Verb or Word by way of eminence, because it is the most essential word in a sentence, without which the other parts of speech can form no complete sense."—Gould's Adam's Gram., p. 76. "The sentence will consist of two members, which are commonly separated from one another by a comma."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 7. "Loud and soft in speaking, is like the fortè and piano in music, it only refers to the different degrees of force used in the same key; whereas high and low imply a change of key."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 116. "They are chiefly three: the acquisition of knowledge; the assisting the memory to treasure up this knowledge; or the communicating it to others."—Ib., p. 11.

   "These kind of knaves I know, which in this plainness,
    Harbour more craft, and more corrupter ends,
    Than twenty silly ducking observants."—Beauties of Shak., p. 261.

LESSON XVII.—MANY ERRORS.

"A man will be forgiven, even great errors, in a foreign language; but in his own, even the least slips are justly laid hold of, and ridiculed."—American Chesterfield, p 83. "Let does not only express permission; but praying, exhorting, commanding."—Lowth's Gram., p. 41. "Let, not only expresses permission, but entreating, exhorting, commanding."—Murray's Gram., p. 88; Ingersoll's, 135. "That death which is our leaving this world, is nothing else but putting off these bodies."—Sherlock. "They differ from the saints recorded both in the Old and New Testaments."—Newton. "The nature therefore of relation consists in the referring or comparing two things one to another; from which comparison, one or both comes to be denominated"—Locke's Essay, i, 220. "It is not credible, that there hath been any one who through the whole course of their lives will say, that they have kept themselves undefiled with the least spot or stain of sin."—Witsius. "If acting conformably to the will of our Creator;—if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;—if securing our own happiness;—are objects of the highest moment:—then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue"—Murray's Gram., i, 278; Comly's, 163; Ingersoll's, 291. "By the verb being in the plural number, it is supposed that it has a plural nominative, which is not the case. The only nominative to the verb, is, the officer: the expression his guard, are in the objective case, governed by the preposition with; and they cannot consequently form the nominative, or any part of it. The prominent subject, and the true nominative of the verb, and to which the verb peculiarly refers, is the officer."—Murray's Parsing, Cr. 8vo, ii, 22. "This is another use, that, in my opinion, contributes rather to make a man learned than wise; and is neither capable of pleasing the understanding, or imagination."—ADDISON: Churchill's Gram., p. 353. "The work is a dull performance; and is capable of pleasing neither the understanding, nor the imagination."—Murray's Key, ii, 210. "I would recommend the Elements of English Grammar, by Mr. Frost. Its plan is after Murray, but his definitions and language is simplified as far as the nature of the subject will admit, to meet the understanding of children. It also embraces more copious examples and exercises in Parsing than is usual in elementary treatises."—Hall's Lectures on School-Keeping, 1st Ed., p. 37. "More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in the first two winter ones: but it makes a much greater show upon the earth, in these than in those; because there is a much slower evaporation."—Murray's Key, ii, 189. See Priestley's Gram., p. 90. "They often contribute also to the rendering some persons prosperous though wicked: and, which is still worse, to the rewarding some actions though vicious, and punishing other actions though virtuous."—Butler's Analogy, p. 92. "From hence, to such a man, arises naturally a secret satisfaction and sense of security, and implicit hope of somewhat further."—Ib., p. 93. "So much for the third and last cause of illusion that was taken notice of, arising from the abuse of very general and abstract terms, which is the principal source of all the nonsense that hath been vented by metaphysicians, mystagogues, and theologians."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 297. "As to those animals whose use is less common, or who on account of the places which they inhabit, fall less under our observation, as fishes and birds, or whom their diminutive size removes still further from our observation, we generally, in English, employ a single Noun to designate both Genders, Masculine and Feminine."—Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 67. "Adjectives may always be distinguished by their being the word, or words, made use of to describe the quality, or condition, of whatever is mentioned."—Emmons's Gram., p. 20. "Adverb signifies a word added to a verb, participle, adjective, or other adverb, to describe or qualify their qualities."—Ib., p. 64. "The joining together two such grand objects, and the representing them both as subject, at one moment, to the command of God, produces a noble effect."—Blair's Rhet., p. 37. "Twisted columns, for instance, are undoubtedly ornamental; but as they have an appearance of weakness, they always displease when they are made use of to support any part of a building that is massy, and that seems to require a more substantial prop."—Ib., p. 40. "Upon a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones of a defined shape, is found an Alphabet different from the Greeks, Latins, and Hebrews, and also unlike that of any modern nation."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 176.

LESSON XVIII—MANY ERRORS.

"'The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated to the northeast side of Lilliput, from whence it is parted only by a channel of 800 yards wide.' Gulliver's Travels. The ambiguity may be removed thus:—'from whence it is parted by a channel of 800 yards wide only.'"—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 44. "The nominative case is usually the agent or doer, and always the subject of the verb."—Smith's New Gram., p. 47. "There is an originality, richness, and variety in his [Spenser's] allegorical personages, which almost vies with the splendor of the ancient mythology."—Hazlitt's Lect., p. 68. "As neither the Jewish nor Christian revelation have been universal, and as they have been afforded to a greater or less part of the world at different times; so likewise, at different times, both revelations have had different degrees of evidence."—Butler's Analogy, p. 210. "Thus we see, that killing a man with a sword or a hatchet, are looked upon as no distinct species of action: but if the point of the sword first enter the body, it passes for a distinct species, called stabbing."—Locke's Essay, p. 314. "If a soul sin, and commit a trespass against the Lord, and lie unto his neighbour in that which was delivered him to keep, or hath deceived his neighbour, or have found that which was lost, and lieth concerning it, and sweareth falsely; in any of all these that a man doeth, sinning therein, then it shall be," &c.—Lev., vi, 2. "As the doing and teaching the commandments of God is the great proof of virtue, so the breaking them, and the teaching others to break them, is the great proof of vice."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 281. "In Pope's terrific maltreatment of the latter simile, it is neither true to mind or eye."—Coleridge's Introd., p. 14. "And the two brothers were seen, transported with rage and fury, endeavouring like Eteocles and Polynices to plunge their swords into each other's hearts, and to assure themselves of the throne by the death of their rival."—Goldsmith's Greece, i, 176. "Is it not plain, therefore, that neither the castle, the planet, nor the cloud, which you see here, are those real ones, which you suppose exist at a distance?"—Berkley's Alciphron, p 166. "I have often wondered how it comes to pass, that every Body should love themselves best, and yet value their neighbours Opinion about themselves more than their own."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 226. "VIRTUE ([Greek: Aretahe], Virtus) as well as most of its Species, are all Feminine, perhaps from their Beauty and amiable appearance."—Harris's Hermes, p. 55. "Virtue, with most of its Species, are all Feminine, from their Beauty and amiable Appearance; and so Vice becomes Feminine of Course, as being Virtue's natural opposite."—British Gram., p. 97. "Virtue, with most of its Species, is Feminine, and so is Vice, for being Virtue's opposite."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 22. "From this deduction, may be easily seen how it comes to pass, that personification makes so great a figure in all compositions, where imagination or passion have any concern."—Blair's Rhet., p. 155. "An Article is a word prefixed to a substantive to point them out, and to show how far their signification extends."—Folker's Gram., p. 4. "All men have certain natural, essential, and inherent rights—among which are, the enjoying and defending life and liberty; acquiring, possessing, and protecting property; and, in a word, of seeking and obtaining happiness."—Constitution of New Hampshire. "From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, on the principles and construction of languages, which, in these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous, or perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex than inform the learner."—Murray's Gram., p. 68; Hall's, 15. "There are, indeed, very few who know how to be idle and innocent, or have a relish of any pleasures that are not criminal; every diversion they take, is at the expense of some one virtue or another, and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly."—ADDISON: Blair's Rhet., p. 201.[444]

   "Hail, holy love! thou word that sums all bliss!
    Gives and receives all bliss: fullest when most
    Thou givest; spring-head of all felicity!"
        —Pollok, C. of T., B. v, 1, 193.

CHAPTER XIII.—GENERAL RULE.

The following comprehensive canon for the correction of all sorts of nondescript errors in syntax, and the several critical or general notes under it, seem necessary for the completion of my design; which is, to furnish a thorough exposition of the various faults against which the student of English grammar has occasion to be put upon his guard.

GENERAL RULE OF SYNTAX.

In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout.

CRITICAL NOTES TO THE GENERAL RULE.

CRITICAL NOTE I.—OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification, or to what part of speech they belong.

CRITICAL NOTE II.—OF DOUBTFUL REFERENCE.

The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful, by any one who means to be understood.

CRITICAL NOTE III.—OF DEFINITIONS.

A definition, in order to be perfect, must include the whole thing, or class of things, which it pretends to define, and exclude every thing which comes not under the name.

CRITICAL NOTE IV.—OF COMPARISONS.

A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared; without which, it becomes a solecism.

CRITICAL NOTE V.—OF FALSITIES.

Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false, should be changed, rejected, or contradicted; because they distort language from its chief end, or only worthy use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth. CRITICAL NOTE VI.—OF ABSURDITIES.

Absurdities, of every kind, are contrary to grammar, because they are contrary to reason, or good sense, which is the foundation of grammar.

CRITICAL NOTE VII.—OF SELF-CONTRADICTION.

Every writer or speaker should be careful not to contradict himself; for what is self-contradictory, is both null in argument, and bad in style.

CRITICAL NOTE VIII.—OF SENSELESS JUMBLING.

To jumble together words without care for the sense, is an unpardonable negligence, and an abuse of the human understanding.

CRITICAL NOTE IX.—OF WORDS NEEDLESS.

Words that are entirely needless, and especially such as injure or encumber the expression, ought in general to be omitted.

CRITICAL NOTE X.—OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS.

Words necessary to the sense, or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence, ought seldom, if ever, to be omitted.

CRITICAL NOTE XI.—OF LITERARY BLUNDERS.

Grave blunders made in the name of learning, are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved.

CRITICAL NOTE XII.—OF PERVERSIONS.

Proof-texts in grammar, if not in all argument, should be quoted literally; and even that which needs to be corrected, must never be perverted.

CRITICAL NOTE XIII.—OF AWKWARDNESS.

Awkwardness, or inelegance of expression, is a reprehensible defect in style, whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not.

CRITICAL NOTE XIV.—OF IGNORANCE.

Any use of words that implies ignorance of their meaning, or of their proper orthography, is particularly unscholarlike; and, in proportion to the author's pretensions to learning, disgraceful.

CRITICAL NOTE XV.—OF SILLINESS. Silly remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style, and, when their weakness is positive, or inherent, they ought to be entirely omitted. CRITICAL NOTE XVI.—OF THE INCORRIGIBLE.

Passages too erroneous for correction, may be criticised, orally or otherwise, and then passed over without any attempt to amend them.[445]

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SYNTAX.

OBS. 1.—In the foregoing code of syntax, the author has taken the parts of speech in their order, and comprised all the general principles of relation, agreement, and government, in twenty-four leading Rules. Of these rules, eight—(namely, the 1st, of Articles; the 4th, of Possessives; the 9th, of Adjectives; the 20th, of Participles; the 21st, of Adverbs; the 22d, of Conjunctions; the 23d, of Prepositions; and the 24th, of Interjections—) are used only in parsing. The remaining sixteen, because they embrace principles that are sometimes violated in practice, answer the double purpose of parsing and correcting. The Exceptions, of which there are thirty-two, (all occasionally applicable in parsing,) belong to nine different rules, and refer to all the parts of speech, except nouns and interjections. The Notes, of which there are one hundred and fifty-two, are subordinate rules of syntax, not designed to be used in parsing, but formed for the exposition and correction of so many different forms of false grammar. The Observations, of which there are, in this part of the work, without the present series, four hundred and ninety-seven, are designed not only to defend and confirm the doctrines adopted by the author, but to explain the arrangement of words, and whatever is difficult or peculiar in construction.

OBS. 2.—The rules in a system of syntax may be more or less comprehensive, as well as more or less simple or complex; consequently they may, without deficiency or redundance, be more or less numerous. But either complexity or vagueness, as well as redundance or deficiency, is a fault; and, when all these faults are properly avoided, and the two great ends of methodical syntax, parsing and correcting, are duly answered, perhaps the requisite number of syntactical rules, or grammatical canons, will no longer appear very indeterminate. In the preceding chapters, the essential principles of English syntax are supposed to be pretty fully developed; but there are yet to be exhibited some forms of error, which must be corrected under other heads or maxims, and for the treatment of which the several dogmas of this chapter are added. Completeness in the system, however, does not imply that it must have shown the pupil how to correct every form of language that is amiss: for there may be in composition many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show, either what should be substituted for the faulty expression, or what fashion of amendment may be the most eligible. The inaccuracy may be gross and obvious, but the correction difficult or impossible. Because the sentence may require a change throughout; and a total change is not properly a correction; it is a substitution of something new, for what was, perhaps, in itself incorrigible.

OBS. 3.—The notes which are above denominated Critical or General, are not all of them obviously different in kind from the other notes; but they all are such as could not well have been placed in any of the earlier chapters of the book. The General Rule of Syntax, since it is not a canon to be used in parsing, but one that is to be applied only in the correcting of false syntax, might seem perhaps to belong rather to this order of notes; but I have chosen to treat it with some peculiar distinction, because it is not only more comprehensive than any other rule or note, but is in one respect more important; it is the rule which will be cited for the correction of the greatest number and variety of errors. Being designed to meet every possible form of inaccuracy in the mere construction of sentences,—or, at least, every corrigible solecism by which any principle of syntax can be violated,—it necessarily includes almost all the other rules and notes. It is too broad to convey very definite instruction, and therefore ought not in general to be applied where a more particular rule or note is clearly applicable. A few examples, not properly fitting under any other head, will serve to show its use and application: such examples are given, in great abundance, in the false syntax below. If, in some of the instances selected, this rule is applied to faults that might as well have been corrected by some other, the choice, in such cases, is deemed of little or no importance.

OBS. 4.—The imperfection of ancient writing, especially in regard to division and punctuation, has left the syntactical relation of words, and also the sense of passages, in no few instances, uncertain; and has consequently made, where the text has been thought worthy of it, an abundance of difficult work for translators, critics, and commentators. Rules of grammar, now made and observed, as they ought to be, may free the compositions of this, or a future age, from similar embarrassments; and it is both just and useful, to test our authors by them, criticising or correcting their known blunders according to the present rules of accurate writing. But the readers and expounders of what has come to us from remote time, can be rightly guided only by such principles and facts as have the stamp of creditable antiquity. Hence there are, undoubtedly, in books, some errors and defects which have outlived the time in which, and the authority b which, they might have been corrected. As we have no right to make a man say that which he himself never said or intended to say, so we have in fact none to fix a positive meaning upon his language, without knowing for a certainty what he meant by it. Reason, or good sense, which, as I have suggested, is the foundation of grammar and of all good writing, is indeed a perpetual as well as a universal principle; but, since the exercises of our reason must, from the very nature of the faculty, be limited to what we know and understand, we are not competent to the positive correction, or to the sure translation, of what is obscure and disputable in the standard books of antiquity.

OBS. 5.—Let me cite an example: "For all this I considered in my heart, even to declare all this, that the righteous, and the wise, and their works, are in the hand of God: no man knoweth either love or hatred by all that is before them. All things come alike to all."— Ecclesiastes, ix, 1. Here is, doubtless, one error which any English scholar may point out or correct. The pronoun "them" should be him, because its intended antecedent appears to be "man," and not "the righteous and the wise," going before. But are there not other faults in the version? The common French Bible, in this place, has the following import: "Surely I have applied my heart to all that, and to unfold all this; to wit, that the righteous and the wise, and their actions, are in the hand of God and love and hatred; and that men know nothing of all that which is before them. All happens equally to all." The Latin Vulgate gives this sense: "All these things have I considered in my heart, that I might understand them accurately: the righteous and the wise, and their works, are in the hand of God; and yet man doth not know, whether by love or by hatred lie may be worthy: but all things in the future are kept uncertain, so that all may happen alike to the righteous man and to the wicked." In the Greek of the Septuagint, the introductory members of this passage are left at the end of the preceding chapter, and are literally thus: "that all this I received into my heart, and my heart understood all this." The rest, commencing a new chapter, is as follows: "For the righteous and the wise and their works are in the hand of God, and indeed both love and hatred man knoweth not: all things before their face are vanity to all." Now, which of these several readings is the nearest to what Solomon meant by the original text, or which is the farthest from it, and therefore the most faulty, I leave it to men more learned than myself to decide; but, certainly, there is no inspired authority in any of them, but in so far as they convey the sense which he really intended. And if his meaning had not been, by some imperfection in the oldest expression we have of it, obscured and partly lost, there could be neither cause nor excuse for these discrepancies. I say this with no willingness to depreciate the general authority of the Holy Scriptures, which are for the most part clear in their import, and very ably translated into English, as well as into other languages.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE GENERAL RULE.

LESSON I.—ARTICLES.

(1.) "An article is a part of speech placed before nouns."—Comly's Gram., p. 11.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the article an is here inconsistent with the term "part of speech;" for the text declares one thing of a kind to be the whole kind. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence may be corrected in two ways, thus: "The article is a part of speech placed before nouns;"—or better, "An article is a word placed before nouns." [446]]

(2.) "An article is a part of speech used to limit nouns."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 19. (3.) "An article is a part of speech set before nouns to fix their vague Signification."—Ash's Gram., p. 18. (4.) "An adjective is a part of speech used to describe a noun."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 19. (5.) "A pronoun is a part of speech used instead of a noun."—Ibid.; and Weld's Gram., pp. 30 and 50; Abridg., pp. 29 and 46. (6.) "A Pronoun is a Part of Speech which is often used instead of a Noun Substantive common, and supplies the Want of a Noun proper."—British Gram., p. 102; Buchanan's Gram., p. 29. (7.) "A verb is a part of speech, which signifies to be, to do, or to be acted upon"—Merchant's School Gram., p. 17. (8.) "A verb is a part of speech, which signifies to be, to act, or to receive an action."—Comly's Gram., p. 11. (9.) "A verb is a part of speech by which any thing is asserted."—Weld's Gram, p. 50; Abridg., 46 and 58. (10.) "A verb is a part of speech which expresses action, or existence, in a direct manner."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 20. (11.) "A participle is a part of speech derived from a verb, and expresses action or existence in an indirect manner."—Ibid. (12.) "A Participle is a Part of Speech derived from a Verb, and denotes being, doing, or suffering, and implies Time, as a Verb does."—British Gram., p. 139; Buchanan's, p. 46. "An adverb is a part of speech used to add to the meaning of verbs, adjectives, and participles."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 20. (14.) "An adverb is an indeclinable part of speech, added to a verb, adjective, or other adverb, to express some circumstance, quality, or manner of their signification."— Adam's Gram., p. 142; Gould's, 147. (15.) "An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an Adjective, a Participle, and sometimes to another Adverb, to express the quality or circumstance of it."—Ash's Gram., p. 47, (16.) "An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a Verb, Adjective, Participle, and sometimes to another Adverb, to express some circumstances respecting it."—Beck's Gram., p. 23. (17.) "An Adverb is a Part of Speech which is joined to a Verb, Adjective, Participle, or to another Adverb to express some Modification, or Circumstance, Quality, or Manner of their Signification."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 61. (18.) "An Adverb is a part of speech added to a Verb (whence the name), and sometimes even to another word."—Bucke's Gram., p. 76. (19.) "A conjunction is a part of speech used to connect words and sentences."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 20; Weld's, 51. (20.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together."—Ash's Gram., p. 43. (21.) "A Conjunction is that part of speech which connect sentences, or parts of sentences or single words."—Blair's Gram., p. 41. (22.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech, that is used principally to connect sentences, so as, out of two, three, or more, sentences, to make one."—Bucke's Gram., p. 28. (23.) "A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence: it sometimes connects only words."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 118. (24.) "A Conjunction is a Part of Speech which joins Sentences together, and shews the Manner of their Dependance upon one another."—British Gram., p. 163; Buchanan's, p. 64; E. Devis's. 103. (25.) "A preposition is a part of Speech used to show the relation between other words."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 20. (26.) "A Preposition is a part of speech which serves to connect words and show the relation between them."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 42. (27.) "A preposition is a part of speech used to connect words and show their relation."—Weld's Gram., p. 51; Abridg. 47. (28.) "A preposition is that part of speech which shows the position of persons or things, or the relation that one noun or pronoun bears toward another."—Blair's Gram., p. 40. (29.) "A Preposition is a Part of Speech, which being added to any other Parts of Speech serves to shew their State, Relation or Reference to each other."—British Gram., p. 165; Buchanan's, p. 65. (30.) "An interjection is a part of speech used to express sudden passion or emotion."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 20. (31.) "An interjection is a part of speech used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or emotion."— Weld's Gram., pp. 49 and 51; Abridg., 44 and 47. (32.) "An Interjection is that part of speech which denotes any sudden affection or emotion of the mind."—Blair's Gram., p. 42. (33) "An Interjection is a Part of Speech thrown into discourse, and denotes some sudden Passion or Emotion of the Soul."—British Gram., p. 172; Buchanan's, p. 67.

(34.) "A scene might tempt some peaceful sage
       To rear him a lone hermitage."
        —Union Poems, p. 89.

(35.) "Not all the storms that shake the pole
       Can e'er disturb thy halcyon soul,
         And smooth th' unaltered brow."
        —Day's Gram., p. 78; E. Reader, 230.

LESSON II.—NOUNS. "The thrones of every monarchy felt the shock."—Frelinghuysen.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the plural noun thrones has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence may be corrected thus: "The throne of every monarchy felt the shock."]

"These principles ought to be deeply impressed upon the minds of every American."—Webster's Essays, p. 44. "The word church and shire are radically the same."—Ib., p. 256. "They may not, in their present form, be readily accommodated to every circumstance belonging to the possessive cases of nouns."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 53. "Will, in the second and third person, only foretels."—Ib., p. 88. "Which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods."—Ib., p. 208. "The very general approbation, which this performance of Walker has received from the public."—Ib., p. 241. "Lest she carry her improvements this way too far."—CAMPBELL: ib., p. 371. "Charles was extravagant, and by this means became poor and despicable."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 189. "We should entertain no prejudices against simple and rustic persons."—Ib., p. 205. "These are indeed the foundations of all solid merit."—Blair's Rhet., p. 175. "And his embellishment, by means of musical cadence, figures, or other parts of speech."—Ib., p. 175. "If he is at no pains to engage us by the employment of figures, musical arrangement, or any other art of writing."—Ib., p. 181. "The most eminent of the sacred poets are, the Author of the book of Job, David and Isaiah."—Ib., p. 418. "Nothing, in any poet, is more beautifully described than the death of old Priam."—Ib., p. 439. "When two vowels meet together, and are sounded at one breath, they are called diphthongs."—Infant School Gram., p. 10. "How many ss would goodness then end with? Three."—Ib., p. 33. "Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 53. "Adam gave names to every living creature."—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 5. "The steps of a stair ought to be accommodated to the human figure."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 337. "Nor ought an emblem more than a simile to be founded on low or familiar objects."—Ib., Vol. ii. p. 357. "Whatever the Latin has not from the Greek, it has from the Goth."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. ii, p. 450. "The mint and secretary of state's offices are neat buildings."—The Friend, Vol. iv, p. 266. "The scenes of dead and still life are apt to pall upon us."—Blair's Rhet., p. 407. "And Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, the angelical and the subtle doctors, are the brightest stars in the scholastic constellation."—Literary Hist., p. 244. "The English language has three methods of distinguishing the sex."—Murray's Gram., p. 38; Ingersoll's, 27; Alger's, 16; Bacon's, 13; Fisk's, 58; Greenleaf's, 21. "The English language has three methods of distinguishing sex."—Smith's New Gram., p. 44. "In English there are the three following methods of distinguishing sex."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 26. "There are three ways of distinguishing the sex."—Lennie's Gram., p. 10; Picket's, 26; Bullions's, 10. "There are three ways of distinguishing sex."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 26. "Gender is distinguished in three ways."—Maunder's Gram., p. 2. "Neither discourse in general, nor poetry in particular, can be called altogether imitative arts."—Blair's Rhet., p. 51.

   "Do we for this the gods and conscience brave,
    That one may rule and make the rest a slave?"
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. ii, l. 96.

LESSON III.—ADJECTIVES.

"There is a deal of more heads, than either heart or horns."—Barclay's
Works, i, 234.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adjective more has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence may be corrected thus: "There is a deal more of heads, than of either heart or horns."]

"For, of all villains, I think he has the wrong name."—Bunyan's P. P., p. 86. "Of all the men that I met in my pilgrimage, he, I think bears the wrong name."—Ib., p. 84. "I am surprized to see so much of the distribution, and technical terms of the Latin grammar, retained in the grammar of our tongue."—Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. vi. "Nor did the Duke of Burgundy bring him the smallest assistance."—HUME: Priestley's Gram., p. 178. "Else he will find it difficult to make one obstinate believe him."—Brightland's Gram., p. 243. "Are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison peculiar to themselves?"—Infant School Gram., p. 46. "Yet the verbs are all of the indicative mood."—Lowth's Gram., p. 33. "The word candidate is in the absolute case."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 155. "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the latter accented."—Russell's Gram., p. 108; Smith's New Gram., 188. "A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented."—L. Murray, p. 253; Bullions's E. Gram., 170; Smith's, 188; Kirkham's, 219; Guy's, 120; Blair's, 118; Merchant's, 167; Russell's, 109. "It is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing."—L. Murray, p. 284; R. C. Smith's New Gram., 192; Ingersoll's, 295; Comly's, 166; Merchant's, 14; Greenleaf's, 42; D. C. Allen's, 85; Fisk's, 159; Bullions's, 158; Kirkham's, 219; Hiley's, 119; Weld's Abridged, 16; Bullions's Analyt. and Pract., 16; Fowler's E. Gr., 674. "Five and seven make twelve, and one makes thirteen."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 227. "I wish to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you."—Ib., p. 272. "Let us consider the proper means to effect our purpose."—Ib., p. 276. "Yet they are of such a similar nature, as readily to mix and blend."—Blair's Rhet., p. 48. "The Latin is formed on the same model, but more imperfect."—Ib., p. 83. "I know very well how much pains have been taken."—Sir W. Temple. "The management of the breath requires a good deal of care."—Blair's Rhet., p. 331. "Because the mind, during such a momentary stupefaction, is in a good measure, if not totally, insensible."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 222. "Motives alone of reason and interest are not sufficient."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 232. "To render the composition distinct in its parts, and striking on the whole,"—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 333. "A and an are named indefinite because they denote some one thing of a kind."—Maunder's Gram., p. 1. "The is named definite, because it points out some particular thing."—Ibid. "So much depends upon the proper construction of sentences, that, in every sort of composition, we cannot be too strict in our attention to it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 103. "All sort of declamation and public speaking, was carried on by them."—Ib., p. 123. "The first has on many occasions, a sublimity to which the latter never attains."—Ib., p. 440. "When the words therefore, consequently, accordingly, and the like are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are adverbs."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 88. "Rude nations make little or no allusions to the productions of the arts."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 10. "While two of her maids knelt on either side of her."—Mirror, xi, 307. "The third personal pronouns differ from each other in meaning and use, as follows."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 65. "It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command with Minucius: the former's phlegm was a check upon the latter's vivacity."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 57. "If it should be objected that the words must and ought, in the preceding sentences, are all in the present tense."—Ib., p. 108. "But it will be well if you turn to them, every now and then."—Buckets Classical Gram., p. 6. "That every part should have a dependence on, and mutually contribute to support each other."—Rollin's Hist., ii, 115. "The phrase, 'Good, my Lord,' is not common, and low."—Priestley's Gram., p. 110.

   "That brother should not war with brother,
    And worry and devour each other."—Cowper.

LESSON IV.—PRONOUNS.

"If I can contribute to your and my country's glory."—Goldsmith.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular construction, adapted to the author's meaning. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, "In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." The sentence, having a doubtful or double meaning, may be corrected in two ways, thus: "If I can contribute to our country's glory;"—or, "If I can contribute to your glory and that of my country."]

"As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each their verb."—Lowth's Gram., p. 120. "He is likewise required to make examples himself."—J. Flint's Gram., p. 3. "If the emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound the meaning wholly."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 242. "If the emphasis be placed wrong, we pervert and confound the meaning wholly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 330. "It was this that characterized the great men of antiquity; it is this, which must distinguish moderns who would tread in their steps."—Ib., p. 341. "I am a great enemy to implicit faith, as well the Popish as Presbyterian, who in that are much what alike."—Barclay's Works, iii, 280. "Will he thence dare to say the apostle held another Christ than he that died?"—Ib., iii, 414. "What need you be anxious about this event?"—Collier's Antoninus, p. 188. "If a substantive can be placed after the verb, it is active."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 31 "When we see bad men honoured and prosperous in the world, it is some discouragement to virtue."—L. Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 224. "It is a happiness to young persons, when they are preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden enclosed."—Ib., p. 171. "The court of Queen Elizabeth, which was but another name for prudence and economy."— Bullions, E. Gram., p. 24. "It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence and economy. Here which ought to be used, and not who."—Priestley's Gram., p. 99; Fowler's, §488. "Better thus; Whose name was but another word for prudence, &c."—Murray's Gram., p. 157; Fish's, 115; Ingersoll's, 221; Smith's, 133; and others. "A Defective verb is one that wants some of its parts. They are chiefly the Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 31; Old Editions, 32. "Some writers have given our moods a much greater extent than we have assigned to them."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 67. "The Personal Pronouns give information which no other words are capable of conveying."—M'Culloch's Gram., p. 37, "When the article a, an, or the precedes the participle, it also becomes a noun."— Merchant's School Gram., p. 93. "There is a preference to be given to some of these, which custom and judgment must determine."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 107. "Many writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded, or the idea of which it implies."—Ib., p. 200; Priestley's Gram., 157.

   "Say, dost thou know Tectidius?—Who, the wretch
    Whose lands beyond the Sabines largely stretch?"
        —Dryden's IV Sat. of Pers.

LESSON V.—VERBS.

"We would naturally expect, that the word depend, would require from after it."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 201. "A dish which they pretend to be made of emerald."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 198. "For the very nature of a sentence implies one proposition to be expressed."—Blair's Rhet., p. 106. "Without a careful attention to the sense, we would be naturally led, by the rules of syntax, to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun."—Ib., p. 105. "For any rules that can be given, on this subject, are very general."—Ib., p. 125. "He is in the right, if eloquence were what he conceives it to be."—Ib., p. 234. "There I would prefer a more free and diffuse manner."—Ib., p. 178. "Yet that they also agreed and resembled one another, in certain qualities."—Ib., p. 73. "But since he must restore her, he insists to have another in her place."—Ib., p. 431. "But these are far from being so frequent or so common as has been supposed."—Ib., p. 445. "We are not misled to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or painful feelings." Kames, El. of Crit., Introd., p. xviii. "Which are of greater importance than is commonly thought."—Vol. ii, p. 92. "Since these qualities are both coarse and common, lets find out the mark of a man of probity."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 40. "Cicero did what no man had ever done before him, draw up a treatise of consolation for himself."—Life of Cicero. "Then there can be no other Doubt remain of the Truth."—Brightland's Gram., p. 245. "I have observed some satirists use the term."—Bullions's Prin. of E. Gram., p. 79. "Such men are ready to despond, or commence enemies."—Webster's Essays, p. 83. "Common nouns express names common to many things."—Infant School Gram., p. 18. "To make ourselves be heard by one to whom we address ourselves."—Blair's Rhet., p. 328. "That, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties."—Murray's Gram., p. 252. "On the stretch to comprehend, and keep pace with the author."— Blair's Rhet., p. 150. "For it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence, and have been given to the poor."—Mark, xiv, 5. "He is a beam that is departed, and left no streak of light behind."—OSSIAN: Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 262. "No part of this incident ought to have been represented, but reserved for a narrative."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 294. "The rulers and people debauching themselves, brings ruin on a country."—Ware's Gram., p. 9. "When Doctor, Miss, Master, &c., is prefixed to a name, the last of the two words is commonly made plural; as, the Doctor Nettletons—the two Miss Hudsons."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 106. "Wherefore that field was called, The field of blood, unto this day."—Matt., xxvii, 8. "To comprehend the situations of other countries, which perhaps may be necessary for him to explore."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 111. "We content ourselves, now, with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors did."—Priestley's Gram., p. 139. "And who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have been mistaken before them."—Ib., p. 156. "The voice of nature and revelation unites."—Wayland's Moral Science, 3d Ed., p. 307.

   "This adjective you see we can't admit,
    But changed to worse, will make it just and fit."
        —Tobitt's Gram., p. 63.

LESSON VI.—PARTICIPLES.

"Its application is not arbitrary, depending on the caprice of readers."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 246. "This is the more expedient, from the work's being designed for the benefit of private learners."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 161. "A man, he tells us, ordered by his will, to have erected for him a statue."—Blair's Rhet., p. 106. "From some likeness too remote, and laying too far out of the road of ordinary thought."—Ib., p. 146. "Money is a fluid in the commercial world, rolling from hand to hand."—Webster's Essays, p. 123. "He pays much attention to learning and singing songs."—Ib. p. 246. "I would not be understood to consider singing songs as criminal."—"It is a decided case by the Great Master of writing."—Preface to Waller, p. 5. "Did they ever bear a testimony against writing books?"—Bates's Misc. Repository. "Exclamations are sometimes mistaking for interrogations."—Hist. of Printing, 1770. "Which cannot fail proving of service."—Smith's Printer's Gram. "Hewn into such figures as would make them easily and firmly incorporated."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., i, 126. "Following the rule and example are practical inductive questions."—J. Flint's Gram., p. 3. "I think there will be an advantage in my having collected examples from modern writings."—Priestley's Gram., Pref., p. xi. "He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens."—HUME: p. 160. "The good lady was careful of serving me of every thing."—"No revelation would have been given, had the light of nature been sufficient in such a sense, as to render one not wanting and useless."—Butler's Analogy, p. 155. "Description, again is the raising in the mind the conception of an object by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols."—Blair's Rhet., p. 52. "Disappointing the expectation of the hearers, when they look for our being done."—Ib. p. 326. "There is a distinction which, in the use of them, is deserving of attention."—Maunder's Gram., p. 15. "A model has been contrived, which is not very expensive, and easily managed."—Education Reporter. "The conspiracy was the more easily discovered, from its being known to many."—Murray's Key, ii, 191. "That celebrated work had been nearly ten years published, before its importance was at all understood."—Ib. p. 220. "The sceptre's being ostensibly grasped by a female hand, does not reverse the general order of Government."—West's Letters to a Lady, p. 43. "I have hesitated signing the Declaration of Sentiments."—Liberator, x, 16. "The prolonging of men's lives when the world needed to be peopled, and now shortening them when that necessity hath ceased to exist."—Brown's Divinity, p. 7. "Before the performance commences, we have displayed the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 23. "It forbade the lending of money, or sending goods, or in any way embarking capital in transactions connected with that foreign traffic."—LORD BROUGHAM: B. and F. Anti-Slavery Reporter, Vol. ii, p. 218. "Even abstract ideas have sometimes conferred upon them the same important prerogative."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 171. "Like other terminations, ment changes y into i, when preceded by a consonant."—Walker's Rhyming Dict., p. xiii; Murray's Gram., p. 24: Ingersoll's, 11. "The term proper is from being proper, that is, peculiar to the individual bearing the name. The term common is from being common to every individual comprised in the class."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §139.

   "Thus oft by mariners are shown (Unless the men of Kent are liars)
    Earl Godwin's castles overflown, And palace-roofs, and steeple-spires."
        —Swift, p. 313.

LESSON VII.—ADVERBS.

"He spoke to every man and woman there."—Murray's Gram., p. 220; Fisk's, 147. "Thought and language act and react upon each other mutually."—Blair's Rhet., p. 120; Murray's Exercises, 133. "Thought and expression act upon each other mutually."—See Murray's Key, p. 264. "They have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining scarcely any knowledge, except what lies within the contracted circle of their several professions."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 359. "Before they are capable of understanding but little, or indeed any thing of many other branches of education."—Olney's Introd. to Geog., p. 5. "There is not more beauty in one of them than in another."—Murray's Key, ii, 275. "Which appear not constructed according to any certain rule."—Blair's Rhet., p. 47. "The vehement manner of speaking became not so universal."—Ib., p. 61. "All languages, however, do not agree in this mode of expression."—Ib., p. 77. "The great occasion of setting aside this particular day."—ATTERBURY: p. 294. "He is much more promising now than formerly."—Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 4. "They are placed before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 21. "This opinion appears to be not well considered."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 153; Ingersoll's, 249. "Precision in language merits a full explication; and the more, because distinct ideas are, perhaps, not commonly formed about it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 94. "In the more sublime parts of poetry, he [Pope] is not so distinguished."—Ib., p. 403. "How far the author was altogether happy in the choice of his subject, may be questioned."—Ib., p. 450. "But here also there is a great error in the common practice."—Webster's Essays, p. 7. "This order is the very order of the human mind, which makes things we are sensible of, a means to come at those that are not so."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, Foreman's Version, p. 113. "Now, Who is not Discouraged, and Fears Want, when he has no money?"—Divine Right of Tythes, p. 23. "Which the Authors of this work, consider of but little or no use."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 6. "And here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins not to be clear."—Blair's Rhet., p. 152. "But this is a manner which deserves not to be imitated."—Ib., p. 180. "And in this department a person never effects so little, as when he attempts too much."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 173; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 367. "The verb that signifies merely being, is neuter."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 27. "I hope not much to tire those whom I shall not happen to please."—Rambler, No. 1. "Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and others very indistinctly."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 32. "The learner may point out the active, passive, and neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons why."—C. Adams's Gram., p. 27. "These words are most always conjunctions."—S. Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 73.

   "How fluent nonsense trickles from his tongue!
    How sweet the periods, neither said, nor sung!"—Dunciad.

LESSON VIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

"Who at least either knew not, nor loved to make, a distinction."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., i, 322. "It is childish in the last degree, if this become the ground of estranged affection."—L. Murray's Key, ii, 228. "When the regular or the irregular verb is to be preferred, p. 107."—Murray's Index, Gram., ii, 296. "The books were to have been sold, as this day."—Priestley's E. Gram., p. 138. "Do, an if you will."—Beauties of Shak., p. 195. "If a man had a positive idea of infinite, either duration or space, he could add two infinites together."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 174. "None shall more willingly agree and advance the same nor I."—EARL OF MORTON: Robertson's Scotland, ii, 428. "That it cannot be but hurtful to continue it."—Barclay's Works, i, 192. "A conjunction joins words and sentences."—Beck's Gram., pp. 4 and 25. "The copulative conjunction connects words and sentences together and continues the sense."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 42. "The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, i, 123. "All Construction is either true or apparent; or in other Words just and figurative."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 130; British Gram., 234. "But the divine character is such that none but a divine hand could draw."—The Friend, Vol. v, p. 72. "Who is so mad, that, on inspecting the heavens, is insensible of a God?"—CICERO:—Dr. Gibbons. "It is now submitted to an enlightened public, with little desire on the part of the Author, than its general utility."—Town's Analysis, 9th Ed., p. 5. "This will sufficiently explain the reason, that so many provincials have grown old in the capital without making any change in their original dialect."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 51. "Of these they had chiefly three in general use, which were denominated accents, and the term used in the plural number."—Ib., p. 56. "And this is one of the chief reasons, that dramatic representations have ever held the first rank amongst the diversions of mankind."—Ib., p. 95. "Which is the chief reason that public reading is in general so disgusting."—Ib., p. 96. "At the same time that they learn to read."—Ib., p. 96. "He is always to pronounce his words exactly with the same accent that he speaks them."—Ib., p. 98. "In order to know what another knows, and in the same manner that he knows it."—Ib., p. 136. "For the same reason that it is in a more limited state assigned to the several tribes of animals."—Ib., p. 145. "Were there masters to teach this, in the same manner as other arts are taught."—Ib., p. 169.

   "Whose own example strengthens all his laws;
    And is himself that great Sublime he draws."—Pope, on Crit., l. 680.

LESSON IX.—PREPOSITIONS.

"The word so has, sometimes, the same meaning with also, likewise, the same."—Priestley's Gram., p. 137. "The verb use relates not to pleasures of the imagination, but to the terms of fancy and imagination, which he was to employ as synonymous."—Blair's Rhet., p. 197. "It never can view, clearly and distinctly, above one object at a time."—Ib., p. 94. "This figure [Euphemism] is often the same with the Periphrasis."—Adam's Gram., p. 247; Gould's, 238. "All the between time of youth and old age."—Walker's Particles, p. 83. "When one thing is said to act upon, or do something to another."—Lowth's Gram., p. 70. "Such a composition has as much of meaning in it, as a mummy has life."—Journal of Lit. Convention, p. 81. "That young men of from fourteen to eighteen were not the best judges."—Ib., p. 130. "This day is a day of trouble, and of rebuke, and blasphemy."—2 Kings, xix, 3. "Blank verse has the same pauses and accents with rhyme."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 119. "In prosody, long syllables are distinguished by ([=]), and short ones by what is called breve ([~])."—Bucke's Gram., p. 22. "Sometimes both articles are left out, especially in poetry."—Ib., p. 26. "In the following example, the pronoun and participle are omitted: [He being] 'Conscious of his own weight and importance, the aid of others was not solicited.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 221. "He was an excellent person; a mirror of ancient faith in early youth."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 172. "The carrying on its several parts into execution."—Butler's Analogy, p. 192. "Concord, is the agreement which one word has over another, in gender, number, case, and person."—Folker's Gram., p. 3. "It might perhaps have given me a greater taste of its antiquities."—ADDISON: Priestley's Gram., p. 160. "To call of a person, and to wait of him."—Priestley, ib., p. 161. "The great difficulty they found of fixing just sentiments."—HUME: ib., p. 161. "Developing the difference between the three."—James Brown's first American Gram., p. 12. "When the substantive singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural."—Murray's Gram., p. 40. "We shall present him with a list or specimen of them."—Ib., p. 132. "It is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading, of how it enervates the mind, or how it depraves the principles."—Dymond's Essays, p. 168. "In this example, the verb 'arises' is understood before 'curiosity' and 'knowledge.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 274; Ingersoll's, 286; Comly's, 155; and others. "The connective is frequently omitted between several words."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 81. "He shall expel them from before you, and drive them from out of your sight."—Joshua, xxiii, 5. "Who makes his sun shine and his rain to descend upon the just and the unjust."—M'Ilvaine's Lectures, p. 411.

LESSON X.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"This sentence violates the rules of grammar."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii, pp. 19 and 21. "The words thou and shalt are again reduced to short quantities."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 246. "Have the greater men always been the most popular? By no means."—DR. LIEBER: Lit. Conv., p. 64. "St. Paul positively stated that, 'he who loves one another has fulfilled the law.'"—Spurzheim, on Education, p. 248. "More than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant."—M'Culloch's Gram., p. 18. "If the reader will pardon my descending so low."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 20. "To adjust them so, as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the grace of the period."—Blair's Rhet., p. 118: Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 324. "This class exhibits a lamentable want of simplicity and inefficiency."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 481. "Whose style flows always like a limpid stream, where we see to the very bottom."—Blair's Rhet., p. 93. "Whose style flows always like a limpid stream, through which we see to the very bottom."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 293. "We make use of the ellipsis." [447]—Ib., p. 217. "The ellipsis of the article is thus used."—Ib., p. 217. "Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers: as, 'A magnificent house and gardens.'"—Ib., p. 218. "In some very emphatic expressions, the ellipsis should not be used."—Ib., 218. "The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following manner."—Ib., 218. "The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun."—Ib., 218. "The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following instances."—Ib., p. 219. "The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following manner."—Ib., 219. "The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis."—Ib., 220. "If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning often ambiguous."—Ib., 242. See Hart's Gram., p. 172. "If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only is discourse, rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning left often ambiguous."—Blair's Rhet., p. 330; Murray's Eng. Reader, p. xi. "He regards his word, but thou dost not regard it."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 129; his Analytical and Practical Gram., p. 196. "He regards his word, but thou dost not: i.e. dost not regard it."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 219; Parker and Fox's, p. 96; Weld's, 192. "I have learned my task, but you have not; i.e. have not learned."—Ib., Mur., 219; &c. "When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety, they must be expressed."—Ib., p. 217; Weld's Gram. 190. "And therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and refers to the whole separately and individually considered."—Murray's Gram. 8vo, ii, 24 and 190. "I understood him the best of all who spoke on the subject."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 192. "I understood him better than any other who spoke on the subject."—Ibid., "The roughness found on our entrance into the paths of virtue and learning, grow smoother as we advance."—Ib., p. 171. "The roughnesses," &c.—Murray's Key, 12mo, p 8. "Nothing promotes knowledge more than steady application, and a habit of observation."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 265. "Virtue confers supreme dignity on man: and should be his chief desire."—Ib., p. 192; and Merchant's, 192. "The Supreme author of our being has so formed the soul of man, that nothing but himself can be its last, adequate, and proper happiness."—Addison, Spect., No. 413; Blair's Rhet., p. 213. "The inhabitants of China laugh at the plantations of our Europeans; because, they say, any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures."—Ad., Spect., No. 414; Blair's Rhet., p. 222. "The divine laws are not reversible by those of men."—Murray's Key, ii, 167. "In both of these examples, the relative and the verb which was, are understood."—Murray's Gram., p. 273; Comly's, 152; Ingersoll's, 285. "The Greek and Latin languages, though, for many reasons, they cannot be called dialects of one another, are nevertheless closely connected."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of European Lang., Vol. ii, p. 51. "To ascertain and settle which, of a white rose or a red rose, breathes the sweetest fragrance."—J. Q. Adams, Orat., 1831. "To which he can afford to devote much less of his time and labour."—Blair's Rhet., p. 254.

   "Avoid extremes; and shun the fault of such,
    Who still are pleas'd too little or too much."
        —Pope, on Crit., 1, 384.

LESSON XI.—BAD PHRASES.

"He had as good leave his vessel to the direction of the winds."—SOUTH: in Joh. Dict. "Without good nature and gratitude, men had as good live in a wilderness as in society."—L'ESTRANGE: ib. "And for this reason such lines almost never occur together."—Blair's Rhet., p. 385. "His being a great man did not make him a happy man."—Crombie's Treatise, p. 288. "Let that which tends to the making cold your love be judged in all."—S. Crisp. "It is worthy the observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death."—Bacon's Essays, p. 4. "Accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it more distinguished by the ear than the rest."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 80; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 244. "Before he proceeds to argue either on one side or other."—Blair's Rhet., p. 313. "The change in general of manners throughout all Europe."—Ib., p. 375. "The sweetness and beauty of Virgil's numbers, throughout his whole works."—Ib., p. 440. "The French writers of sermons study neatness and elegance in laying down their heads."—Ib., p. 13. "This almost never fails to prove a refrigerant to passion."—Ib., p. 321. "At least their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, dispense with their not standing forth to demand vengeance."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. i, p. 191. "Alleging, that their crying down the church of Rome, was a joining hand with the Turks."—Barclay's Works, i, 239. "To which is added the Assembly of Divines Catechism."—New-England Primer, p. 1. "This treachery was always present in both their thoughts."—Dr. Robertson. "Thus far both their words agree." ("Convenient adhuo utriusqus verba. Plaut.")—Walker's Particles, p. 125. "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is the branching out into several parts of what might be expressed in fewer words."—Gould's Gram, p. 241. "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is when what might be expressed in a few words, is branched out into several parts."—Adam's Gram., p. 251. "Which may sit from time to time where you dwell or in the neighbouring vicinity."—Taylor's District School, 1st Ed., p. 281. "Place together a large and a small sized animal of the same species."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 235. "The weight of the swimming body is equal to that of the weight, of the quantity of fluid displaced by it."—Percival's Tales, ii, 213. "The Subjunctive mood, in all its tenses, is similar to that of the Optative."—Gwilt's Saxon Gram., p. 27. "No other feeling of obligation remains, except that of fidelity."—Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Ed., p. 82. "Who asked him, 'What could be the reason, that whole audiences should be moved to tears, at the representation of some story on the stage.'"—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 175. "Art not thou and you ashamed to affirm, that the best works of the Spirit of Christ in his saints are as filthy rags?"—Barclay's Works, i, 174. "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of the same signification with its own."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 127. "But he has judged better, in omitting to repeat the article the."—Blair's Rhet., p. 194. "Many objects please us as highly beautiful, which have almost no variety at all."—Ib., p. 46. "Yet notwithstanding, they sometimes follow them."—Emmons's Gram., p. 21. "For I know of nothing more material in all the whole Subject, than this doctrine of Mood and Tense."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 292. "It is by no means impossible for an errour to be got rid of or supprest."— Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 642. "These are things of the highest importance to the growing age."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 250. "He had better have omitted the word many."—Blair's Rhet. p. 205. "Which had better have been separated."—Ib., p. 225. "Figures and metaphors, therefore, should, on no occasion be stuck on too profusely."—Ib., p. 144; Jamieson's Rhet., 150. "Metaphors, as well as other figures, should on no occasion, be stuck on too profusely."—Murray's Gram., p. 338; Russell's, 136. "Something like this has been reproached to Tacitus."—BOLINGBROKE: Priestley's Gram., p. 164.

   "O thou, whom all mankind in vain withstand,
    Each of whose blood must one day stain thy hand!"
        —Sheffield's Temple of Death.

LESSON XII.—TWO ERRORS.[448]

"Pronouns are sometimes made to precede the things which they represent."—Murray's Gram., p. 160. "Most prepositions originally denote the relation of place."—Lowth's Gram., p. 65. "Which is applied to inferior animals and things without life."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 24; Pract. Lessons, 30. "What noun do they describe or tell the kind?"—Infant School Gram., p. 41. "Iron cannon, as well as brass, is now universally cast solid."—Jamieson's Dict. "We have philosophers, eminent and conspicuous, perhaps, beyond any nation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 251. "This is a question about words alone, and which common sense easily determines."—Ib., p. 320. "The low [pitch of the voice] is, when he approaches to a whisper."—Ib., p. 328. "Which, as to the effect, is just the same with using no such distinctions at all."—Ib., p. 33. "These two systems, therefore, differ in reality very little from one another."—Ib., p. 23. "It were needless to give many instances, as they occur so often."—Ib., p. 109. "There are many occasions when this is neither requisite nor would be proper."—Ib., p. 311. "Dramatic poetry divides itself into the two forms, of comedy or tragedy."—Ib., p. 452. "No man ever rhymed truer and evener than he."—Pref. to Waller, p. 5. "The Doctor did not reap a profit from his poetical labours equal to those of his prose."—Johnson's Life of Goldsmith. "We will follow that which we found our fathers practice."—Sale's Koran, i, 28. "And I would deeply regret having published them."—Infant School Gram., p. vii. "Figures exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 222. "The allegory is finely drawn, only the heads various."—Spect., No. 540. "I should not have thought it worthy a place here."—Crombie's Treatise, p. 219. "In this style, Tacitus excels all writers, ancient and modern."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 261. "No author, ancient or modern, possesses the art of dialogue equal to Shakspeare."—Ib., ii, 294. "The names of every thing we hear, see, smell, taste, and feel, are nouns."—Infant School Gram., p. 16. "What number are these boys? these pictures? &c."—Ib., p. 23. "This sentence is faulty, somewhat in the same manner with the last."—Blair's Rhet., p. 230. "Besides perspicuity, he pursues propriety, purity, and precision, in his language; which forms one degree, and no inconsiderable one, of beauty."—Ib., p. 181. "Many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague; none more so, than that of the sublime."—Ib., p. 35. "Hence, no word in the language is used in a more vague signification than beauty."—Ib., p. 45. "But, still, he made use only of general terms in speech."—Ib., p. 73. "These give life, body, and colouring to the recital of facts, and enable us to behold them as present, and passing before our eyes."—Ib., p. 360. "Which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height than it had risen in fact."—Ib., p. 374. "We write much more supinely, and at our ease, than the ancients."—Ib., p. 351. "This appears indeed to form the characteristical difference between the ancient poets, orators, and historians, compared with the modern."—Ib., p. 350. "To violate this rule, as is too often done by the English, shews great incorrectness."— Ib., p. 463. "It is impossible, by means of any study to avoid their appearing stiff and forced."—Ib., p. 335. "Besides its giving the speaker the disagreeable appearance of one who endeavours to compel assent."—Ib., p. 328. "And, on occasions where a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded, it is generally better to throw it into a note, than to hazard becoming too familiar."—Ib., p. 359. "The great business of this life is to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 373. "In some dictionaries, accordingly, it was omitted; and in others stigmatized as a barbarism."— Crombie's Treatise, p. 322. "You cannot see, or think of, a thing, unless it be a noun."—Mack's Gram., p. 65. "The fleet are all arrived and moored in safety."—Murray's Key, ii, 185.

LESSON XIII.—TWO ERRORS.

"They have each their distinct and exactly-limited relation to gravity."—Hasler's Astronomy, p 219. "But in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound, the omission takes place even in prose."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 175. "After o it [the w] is sometimes not sounded at all; sometimes like a single u."—Lowth's Gram., p. 3. "It is situation chiefly which decides of the fortunes and characters of men."—HUME: Priestley's Gram., p. 159. "It is situation chiefly which decides the fortune (or, concerning the fortune) and characters of men."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 201. "The vice of covetousness is what enters deeper into the soul than any other."—Ib., p. 167; Ingersoll's, 193; Fisk's, 103; Campbell's Rhet., 205. "Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul."—Murray, 167; and others. "Covetousness is what of all vices enters the deepest into the soul."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 205. "The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other."—Guardian, No. 19. "Would primarily denotes inclination of will; and should, obligation; but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event."—Lowth's Gram., p. 43; Murray's, 89; Fisk's, 78; Greenleaf's, 27. "But they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple events."—Comly's Gram., p. 39; Ingersoll's, 137. "But they vary their import, and are often used to express simple event."—Abel Flint's Gram., p 42. "A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made use of: as, 'Had he done this, he had escaped.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 213; Ingersoll's, 269. "The pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination, or of sense."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 191. "Claudian, in a fragment upon the wars of the giants, has contrived to render this idea of their throwing the mountains, which is in itself so grand, burlesque, and ridiculous."—Blair's Rhet., p. 42. "To which not only no other writings are to be preferred, but even in divers respects not comparable."— Barclay's Works, i, 53. "To distinguish them in the understanding, and treat of their several natures, in the same cool manner as we do with regard to other ideas."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 137. "For it has nothing to do with parsing, or analyzing, language."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 19. Or: "For it has nothing to do with parsing, or analyzing, language."—Ib., Second Edition, p. 16. "Neither was that language [the Latin] ever so vulgar in Britain."—SWIFT: see Blair's Rhet., p. 228. "All that I propose is to give some openings into the pleasures of taste."—Ib., p. 28. "But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 210. "But I think it had better be omitted in the following sentence."—Priestley's Gram., p. 162. "They appear, in this case, like excrescences jutting out from the body, which had better have been wanted."—Blair's Rhet., p. 326. "And therefore, the fable of the Harpies, in the third book of the Æneid, and the allegory of Sin and Death, in the second book of Paradise Lost, had been better omitted in these celebrated poems."—Ib., p. 430. "Ellipsis is an elegant Suppression (or the leaving out) of a Word, or Words in a Sentence."—British Gram., p. 234; Buchanan's, p. 131. "The article a or an had better be omitted in this construction."—Blair's Gram., p. 67. "Now suppose the articles had not been left out in these passages."—Burke's Gram., p. 27. "To give separate names to every one of those trees, would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking."—Blair's Rhet., p. 72. "Ei, in general, sounds the same as long and slender a."—Murray's Gram., p. 12. "When a conjunction is used apparently redundant it is called Polysyndeton."—Adam's Gram., p. 236; Gould's, 229. "Each, every, either, neither, denote the persons or things which make up a number, as taken separately or distributively."— M'Culloch's Gram., p. 31. "The Principal Sentence must be expressed by verbs in the Indicative, Imperative, or Potential Modes."—Clark's Pract. Gram., p. 133. "Hence he is diffuse, where he ought to have been pressing."—Blair's Rhet., p. 246. "All manner of subjects admit of explaining comparisons."—Ib., p. 164; Jamieson's Rhet., 161. "The present or imperfect participle denotes action or being continued, but not perfected."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 78. "What are verbs? Those words which express what the nouns do"—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 29.

   "Of all those arts in which the wise excel,
    Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well."
        —J. Sheffield, Duke of Buck.

    "Such was that muse whose rules and practice tell
    Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well."
        —Pope, on Criticism.

LESSON XIV.—THREE ERRORS.

"In some words the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether, so that in respect of it they are become obsolete."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 323. "Sure never any mortal was so overwhelmed with grief as I am at this present."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 138. "All languages differ from each other in their mode of inflexion."—Bullions, E. Gram., Pref., p. v. "Nouns and verbs are the only indispensable parts of speech—the one to express the subject spoken of, and the other the predicate or what is affirmed of it."—M'Culloch's Gram., p. 36. "The words in italics of the three latter examples, perform the office of substantives."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 66. "Such a structure of a sentence is always the mark of careless writing."—Blair's Rhet., p. 231. "Nothing is frequently more hurtful to the grace or vivacity of a period, than superfluous dragging words at the conclusion."—Ib., p. 205. "When its substantive is not joined to it, but referred to, or understood."— Lowth's Gram., p. 24. "Yet they have always some substantive belonging to them, either referred to, or understood."—Ib., 24. "Because they define and limit the extent of the common name, or general term, to which they either refer, or are joined.'"—Ib., 24. "Every new object surprises, terrifies, and makes a strong impression on their mind."—Blair's Rhet., p. 136. "His argument required to have been more fully unfolded, in order to make it be distinctly apprehended, and to give it its due force."—Ib., p. 230. "Participles which are derived from active verbs, will govern the objective case, the same as the verbs from which they are derived"—Emmons's Gram., p. 61. "Where, contrary to the rule, the nominative I precedes, and the objective case whom follows the verb."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 181. "The same conjunction governing both the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."—Ib., p. 207; Smith's New Gram., 173: see Lowth's Gram., p. 105; Fisk's, 128; and Ingersoll's, 266. "A nice discernment, and accurate attention to the best usage, are necessary to direct us, on these occasions."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 170. "The Greeks and Romans, the former especially, were, in truth, much more musical nations than we; their genius was more turned to delight in the melody of speech."—Blair's Rhet., p. 123. "When the sense admits it, the sooner a circumstance is introduced, the better, that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, i, p. 309; Parker and Fox's, Part III, p. 88. "When the sense admits it, the sooner they are despatched, generally speaking, the better; that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, quite disencumbered."—Blair's Rhet., p. 118. See also Jamieson's Rhet., p. 101. "Thus we find it, both in the Greek and Latin tongues."—Blair's Rhet., p. 74. "A train of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, should never be allowed to succeed one another."—Ib., p. 102; Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 306; Parker and Fox's Gram., Part III, p. 86. "I proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors, and which are much the same for tropes of every kind."—Blair's Rhet., p. 143. "By a proper choice of words, we may produce a resemblance of other sounds which we mean to describe."—Ib., p. 129; Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 331. "The disguise can almost never be so perfect, but it is discovered."—Blair's Rhet., p. 259. "The sense admits of no other pause than after the second syllable 'sit,' which therefore must be the only pause made in the reading."—Ib., p. 333. "Not that I believe North America to be peopled so late as the twelfth century, the period of Madoc's migration."—Webster's Essays, p. 212. "Money and commodities will always flow to that country, where they are most wanted and will command the most profit."—Ib., p. 308. "That it contains no visible marks, of articles, which are the most important of all others, to a just delivery."— Sheridan's Elocution, p. 13. "And of virtue, from its beauty, we call it a fair and favourite maid."—Mack's Gram., p. 66. "The definite article may agree with nouns in the singular and plural number."—Infant School Gram., p. 130.

LESSON XV.—MANY ERRORS.

(1.) "A compound word is included under the head of derivative words."— Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 23. (2.) "An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a word. Its chief use is to show the genitive case of nouns."—Ib., p. 281.[449] (3.) "A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words. It is also used when a word is divided."— Ib., p. 282. (4.) "The Acute Accent, marked thus ´: as, 'Fáncy.' The Grave thus ` as, 'Fàvour'"—Ib., p. 282. (5.) "The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute on the latter."—Ib., 282. (6.) "A Diæresis, thus marked ¨, consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and parts them into syllables."—Ib., 282. (7.) "A Section marked thus §, is the division of a discourse, or chapter, into less parts or portions."—Ib., 282. (8.) "A Paragraph ¶ denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This character is chiefly used in the Old and in the New Testaments."—Ib., 282. (9.) "A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his own words; and two commas in their direct position, are placed at the conclusion."—Ib., 282. (10.) "A Brace is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines, which have the same rhyme. Braces are also used to connect a number of words with one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repetition in writing or printing."—Ib., p. 283. (11.) "Two or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript."—Ib., 283. (12.) "An Ellipsis —— is also used, when some letters in a word, or some words in a verse, are omitted."—Ib., 283. (13.) "An Obelisk, which is marked thus [dagger], and Parallels thus ||, together with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are used as references to the margin, or bottom of the page."—Ib., 283. (14.) "A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases where it is only said a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question. 'The Cyprians asked me why I wept.'"—Ib., p. 279; Comly, 163; Ingersoll, 291; Fisk, 157; Flint, 113. (15.) "A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some other emotion."—Same authors and places. (16.) "The parenthesis incloses in the body of a sentence a member inserted into it, which is neither necessary to the sense, nor at all affects the construction."—Lowth's Gram., p. 124. (17.) "Simple members connected by relatives, and comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by a comma." [450]—Ib., p. 121. (18.) "Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, are, for the most part, distinguished by a comma."—L. Murray's Gram., p 272; Alden's, 148; Ingersoll's, 284. See the same words without the last two commas, in Comly's Gram., p. 149; Alger's, 79; Merchant's Murray, 143:—and this again, with a different sense, made by a comma before "connected," in Smith's New Gram., 190; Abel Flint's, 103. (19.) "Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, are for the most part distinguished by the comma."—Russell's Gram., p. 115. (20.) "Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, should generally be distinguished by a comma."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 150. (21.) "Simple members of sentences connected by than or so, or that express contrast or comparison, should, generally, be divided by a comma."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 185. (22.) "Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, if they be long, are separated by a comma."—Cooper's New Gram., p. 195. See the same without the first comma, in Cooper's Murray, p. 183. (23.) "Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, each other, are separated by commas."—Bullions, p. 153; Hiley, 113. (24.) "On which ever word we lay the emphasis, whether on the first, second, third, or fourth, it strikes out a different sense."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 243. (25.) "To inform those who do not understand sea phrases, that, 'We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea,' would be expressing ourselves very obscurely."—Ib., p. 296; and Hiley's Gram., p. 151. (26.) "Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun, on the former syllable."—Murray, p. 237. (27.) "And this gives our language a superior advantage to most others, in the poetical and rhetorical style."—Id. ib., p. 38; Ingersoll, 27; Fisk, 57. (28.) "And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the poetical and rhetorical style."—Lowth's Gram, p. 19. (29.) "The second and third scholar may read the same sentence; and as many, as it is necessary to learn it perfectly to the whole."—Osborn's Key, p. 4.

(30.) "Bliss is the name in subject as a king,
       In who obtain defence, or who defend."
        —Bullions, E. Gram., p. 178.

LESSON XVI.—MANY ERRORS.

"The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Corceans, speak different languages from one another, and from the inhabitants of China, but use, with these last people, the same written characters; a proof that the Chinese characters are like hieroglyphics, independent of language."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 18. "The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Corceans, who speak different languages from one another, and from the inhabitants of China, use, however, the same written characters with them; and by this means correspond intelligibly with each other in writing, though ignorant of the language spoken in their several countries; a plain proof," &c.—Blair's Rhet., p. 67. "The curved line is made square instead of round, for the reason beforementioned."—Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 6. "Every one should content himself with the use of those tones only that he is habituated to in speech, and to give none other to emphasis, but what he would do to the same words in discourse. Thus whatever he utters will be done with ease, and appear natural."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 103. "Stops, or pauses, are a total cessation of sound during a perceptible, and in numerous compositions, a measurable space of time."—Ib., p. 104. "Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time."—Murray's Gram., p. 248; English Reader, p. 13; Goldsbury's Gr., 76; Kirkham's, 208; Felton's, 133; et al. "Nouns which express a small one of the kind are called Diminutive Nouns; as, lambkin, hillock, satchel, gosling, from lamb, hill, sack, goose."—Bullions, E. Gram., 1837, p. 9. "What is the cause that nonsense so often escapes being detected, both by the writer and by the reader?"—Campbell's Rhet., p. xi, and 280. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. They are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without reference to the structure of the other parts of it."—M'Culloch's Gram., p. 36. "Ought (in duty bound) oughtest, oughtedst, are it's only inflections."—Mackintosh's Gram., p. 165. "But the arrangment, government, agreement, and dependence of one word upon another, are referred to our reason."—Osborn's Key, Pref., p. 3. "Me is a personal pronoun, first person singular, and the accusative case."—Guy's Gram., p. 20. "The substantive self is added to a pronoun; as, herself, himself, &c.; and when thus united, is called a reciprocal pronoun."—Ib., p. 18. "One cannot avoid thinking that our author had done better to have begun the first of these three sentences, with saying, it is novelty which bestows charms on a monster, &c."—Blair's Rhet., p. 207. "The idea which they present to us of nature's resembling art, of art's being considered as an original, and nature as a copy,[451] seems not very distinct nor well brought out, nor indeed very material to our author's purpose."—Ib., p. 220. "The present construction of the sentence, has plainly been owing to hasty and careless writing."—Ib., p. 220. "Adverbs serve to modify, or to denote some circumstance of an action, or of a quality, relative to its time, place, order, degree, and the other properties of it, which we have occasion to specify."—Ib., p. 84. "The more that any nation is improved by science, and the more perfect their language becomes, we may naturally expect that it will abound more with connective particles."—Ib., p. 85. "Mr. Greenleaf's book is by far the best adapted for learners of any that has yet appeared on the subject."—DR. FELTUS and BP. ONDERDONK: Greenleaf's Gram., p. 2. "Punctuation is the art of marking in writing the several pauses, or rests, between sentences, and the parts of sentences, according to their proper quantity or proportion, as they are expressed in a just and accurate pronunciation."—Lowth's Gram., p. 114. "A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones, and separated by commas."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 41; Allen Fisk's, 155.[452] "Simple sentences should be separated from each other by commas, unless such sentences are connected by a conjunction: as, 'Youth is passing away, age is approaching and death is near.'"—Hall's Gram., p. 36. "V has the sound of flat f, and bears the same relation to it, as b does to p, d to t, hard g to k, and z to s. It has one uniform sound."—Murray's Gram., p. 17; Fisk's, 42. "V is flat f, and bears the same relation to it as b does to p, d to t, hard g to k, and z to s. It is never irregular."—Walker's Dict., p. 52. "V has the sound of flat f; and bears the same relation to it as z does to s. It has one uniform sound."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 20. "The author is explaining the distinction, between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 343. [The author is endeavouring] "to explain a very abstract point, the distinction between the powers of sense and imagination in the human mind."—Blair's Rhet., p. 164. "HE (Anglo-Saxon he) is a Personal pronoun, of the Third Person, Masculine Gender (Decline he), of the singular number, in the nominative case."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §589.

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE CRITICAL NOTES.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE I.—OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

"The passive voice denotes a being acted upon."—Maunders Gram., p. 6.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the term "being acted upon" as here used, suggests a doubt concerning its classification in parsing. But, according to Critical Note 1st, "Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification, or to what part of speech they belong." Therefore, the phraseology should be altered; thus, "The passive voice denotes an action received." Or; "The passive voice denotes the receiving of an action."]

"Milton, in some of his prose works, has very finely turned periods."—Blair's Rhet., p. 127; Jamieson's, 129. "These will be found to be all, or chiefly, of that class."—Blair's Rhet., p. 32. "All appearances of an author's affecting harmony, are disagreeable."—Ib., p. 127; Jamieson, 128. "Some nouns have a double increase, that is, increase by more syllables than one; as, iter, itin~eris."—Adam's Gram., p. 255; Gould's, 241. "The powers of man are enlarged by advancing cultivation."—Gurney's Essays, p. 62. "It is always important to begin well; to make a favourable impression at first setting out."—Blair's Rhet., p. 307. "For if one take a wrong method at first setting out, it will lead him astray in all that follows."—Ib., 313. "His mind is full of his subject, and his words are all expressive."—Ib., 179. "How exquisitely is this all performed in Greek!"—Harris's Hermes, p. 422. "How little is all this to satisfy the ambition of an immortal soul!"— Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 253. "So as to exhibit the object in its full and most striking point of view."—Blair's Rhet., p. 41. "And that the author know how to descend with propriety to the plain, as well as how to rise to the bold and figured style."—Ib., p. 401. "The heart can only answer to the heart."—Ib., p. 259. "Upon its first being perceived."—Harris's Hermes, p. 229. "Call for Samson, that he may make us sport."—Judges, xvi, 25. "And he made them sport."—Ibid. "The term suffer in this definition is used in a technical sense, and means simply the receiving of an action, or the being acted upon."—Bullions, p. 29. "The Text is what is only meant to be taught in Schools."—Brightland, Pref., p. ix. "The perfect participle denotes action or being perfected or finished."— Kirkham's Gram., p. 78. "From the intricacy and confusion which are produced by their being blended together."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 66. "This very circumstance of a word's being employed antithetically, renders it important in the sentence."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 121. "It [the pronoun that] is applied to both persons and things."—Murray's Gram., p. 53. "Concerning us, as being every where evil spoken of."—Barclay's Works, Vol. ii, p. vi. "Every thing beside was buried in a profound silence."—Steele. "They raise more full conviction than any reasonings produce."—Blair's Rhet., p. 367. "It appears to me no more than a fanciful refinement."—Ib., p. 436. "The regular resolution throughout of a complete passage."—Churchill's Gram., p. vii. "The infinitive is known by its being immediately preceded by the word to."—Maunders Gram., p. 6. "It will not be gaining much ground to urge that the basket, or vase, is understood to be the capital."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 356. "The disgust one has to drink ink in reality, is not to the purpose where the subject is drinking ink figuratively."—Ib., ii, 231. "That we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close."—Blair's Rhet., p. 111. "Being obliged to rest for a little on the preposition by itself."—Ib., p. 112; Jamieson's Rhet., 93. "Being obliged to rest a little on the preposition by itself."—Murray's Gram., p. 319. "Our days on the earth are as a shadow, and there is none abiding."—1 Chron., xxix, 15. "There maybe a more particular expression attempted, of certain objects, by means of resembling sounds."—Blair's Rhet., p. 129; Jamieson's, 130; Murray's Gram., 331. "The right disposition of the shade, makes the light and colouring strike the more."—Blair's Rhet., 144. "I observed that a diffuse style inclines most to long periods."—Ib., p. 178. "Their poor Arguments, which they only Pickt up and down the Highway "—Divine Right of Tythes, p. iii. "Which must be little, but a transcribing out of their writings."—Barclay's Works, iii, 353. "That single impulse is a forcing out of almost all the breath."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 254. "Picini compares modulation to the turning off from a road."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 405. "So much has been written, on and off, of almost every subject."—The Friend, ii, 117. "By reading books written by the best authors, his mind became highly improved."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 201. "For I never made the being richly provided a token of a spiritual ministry."—Barclay's Works, iii, 470.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE II.—OF DOUBTFUL REFERENCE.

"However disagreeable, we must resolutely perform our duty."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 171.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adjective disagreeable appears to relate to the pronoun we, though such a relation was probably not intended by the author. But, according to Critical Note 2d, "The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful, by any one who means to be understood." The sentence may be amended thus: "However disagreeable the task, we must resolutely perform our duty."]

"The formation of verbs in English, both regular and irregular, is derived from the Saxon."—Lowth's Gram., p. 47. "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing more remarkably than on language."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 180. "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing more remarkable than on language."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 47. "Archytases being a virtuous man, who happened to perish once upon a time, is with him a sufficient ground," &c.—Philological Museum, i, 466. "He will be the better qualified to understand, with accuracy, the meaning of a numerous class of words, in which they form a material part."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 120. "We should continually have the goal in view, which would direct us in the race."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 172. "But [Addison's figures] seem to rise of their own accord from the subject, and constantly embellish it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 150; Jamieson's, 157. "As far as persons and other animals and things that we can see go, it is very easy to distinguish Nouns."—Cobbett's Gram., ¶14. "Dissyllables ending in y, e mute, or accented on the last syllable, may be sometimes compared like monosyllables."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 12. "Admitting the above objection, it will not overrule the design."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 140. "These philosophical innovators forget, that objects are like men, known only by their actions."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., i, 326. "The connexion between words and ideas is arbitrary and conventional, owing to the agreement of men among themselves."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 1. "The connexion between words and ideas may, in general, be considered as arbitrary and conventional, owing to the agreement of men among themselves."—Blair's Rhet., p. 53. "A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage and multiply and defend his corruptions."—Swift. "They have no more control over him than any other men."—Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Ed., p. 372. "His old words are all true English, and numbers exquisite."—Spectator, No. 540. "It has been said, that not only Jesuits can equivocate."—Murray's Exercises, 8vo, p. 121. "It has been said, that Jesuits can not only equivocate."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 253. "The nominative of the first and second person in Latin is seldom expressed."—Adam's Gram., p. 154; Gould's, 157. "Some words are the same in both numbers."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 40; Ingersoll's, 18; Fisk's, 59; Kirkham's, 39; W. Allen's, 42; et al. "Some nouns are the same in both numbers."—Merchant's Gram., p. 29; Smith's, 45; et al. "Others are the same in both numbers; as, deer, swine, &c."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 8. "The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants, being in number twenty-two."—Murray's Gram., p. 6; Fisk's, 36. "And is the ignorance of these peasants a reason for others to remain ignorant; or to render the subject a less becoming inquiry?"—Harris's Hermes, p. 293; Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 288. "He is one of the most correct, and perhaps the best, of our prose writers."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. iv., "The motions of a vortex and a whirlwind are perfectly similar."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 131. "What I have been saying throws light upon one important verse in the Bible, which I should like to have read."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 182. "When there are any circumstances of time, place, or other limitations, which the principal object of our sentence requires to have connected with it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 115; Jamieson's Rhet., 98; Murray's Gram., i, 322. "Interjections are words used to express emotion, affection, or passion, and imply suddenness."—Bucke's Gram., p. 77. "But the genitive is only used to express the measure of things in the plural number."—Adam's Gram., p. 200; Gould's, 198. "The buildings of the institution have been enlarged; the expense of which, added to the increased price of provisions, renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 183. "These sentences are far less difficult than complex."—S. S. Greene's Analysis, or Grammar, 1st Ed., p. 179.

   "Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife,
    Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray."—Gray's Elegy.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE III.—OF DEFINITIONS.

(1.) "Definition is such a description of things as exactly describes the thing and that thing only."—Blair's Gram., p. 135.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because this definition of a definition is not accurately adapted to the thing. But, according to Critical Note 3d, "A definition, in order to be perfect, must include the whole thing, or class of things, which it pretends to define, and exclude every thing which comes not under the name." [453] The example may be amended thus: "A definition is a short and lucid description of a thing, or species, according to its nature and properties."]

(2.) "Language, in general, signifies the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds, which are used as the signs of those ideas."—Blair's Rhet., p. 53. (3.) "A WORD is an articulate sound used by common consent as the sign of an idea,"—Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gr., p. 17. (4.) "A word is a sound, or combination of sounds, which is used in the expression of thought"—Hazen's Gram., p. 12. (5.) "Words are articulate sounds, used as signs to convey our ideas."—Hiley's Gram., p. 5. (6.) "A word is a number of letters used together to represent some idea."—Hart's E. Gram., p. 28. (7.) "A Word is a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea."—S. W. Clark's Practical Gram., p. 9. (8.) "A word is a letter or a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea."—Wells's School Gram., p. 41. (9.) "Words are articulate sounds, by which ideas are communicated."—Wright's Gram., p. 28. (10.) "Words are certain articulate sounds used by common consent as signs of our ideas."—Bullions, Principles of E. Gram., p. 6; Lat. Gram., 6; see Lowth, Murray, Smith, et al. (11.) "Words are sounds used as signs of our ideas."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 30. (12.) "Orthography means word-making or spelling.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 19; Smith's New Gram., p. 41. (13.) "A vowel is a letter, the name of which constitutes a full, open sound."—Hazen's Gram., p. 10; Lennie's, 5; Brace's, 7. (14.) "Spelling is the art of reading by naming the letters singly, and rightly dividing words into their syllables. Or, in writing, it is the expressing of a word by its proper letters."—Lowth's Gram., p. 5; Churchill's, 20. (15.) "Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters."—Murray's Gram., p. 21; Ingersoll's, 6; Merchant's, 10; Alger's, 12; Greenleaf's, 20; and others. (16) "Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters; or of rightly dividing words into syllables."—Comly's Gram., p. 8. (17.) "Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters, and rightly dividing it into syllables."—Bullions's Princ. of E. Gram., p. 2. (18.) "Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 23; Sanborn's, p. 259. (19.) "A syllable is a sound either simple or compounded, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or part of a word."—Lowth, p. 5; Murray, 21; Ingersoll, 6; Fisk, 11; Greenleaf, 20: Merchant, 9; Alger, 12; Bucke, 15; Smith, 118; et al. (20.) "A Syllable is a complete Sound uttered in one Breath."—British Gram., p. 32; Buchanan's, 5. (21.) "A syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a single impulse of the voice."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 20. (22.) "A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once."—Bullions, E. Gr., p. 2. (23.) "A syllable is a word, or part of a word, or as much as can be sounded at once."—Picket's Gram., p. 10. (24.) "A diphthong is the union of two Vowels, both of which are pronounced as one: as in bear and beat."—Bucke's Gram., p. 15. (25.) "A diphthong consists of two vowels, forming one syllable; as, ea, in beat."—Guy's Gram., p. 2. (26.) "A triphthong consists of three vowels forming one syllable; as, eau in beauty."—Ib. (27.) "But the Triphthong is the union of three Vowels, pronounced as one."—Bucke's Gram., p. 15. (28.) "What is a Noun Substantive? A Noun Substantive is the thing itself; as, a Man, a Boy."—British Gram., p. 85; Buchanan's, 26. (29.) "An adjective is a word added to nouns to describe them."—Maunder's Gram., p. 1. (30.) "An adjective is a word joined to a noun, to describe or define it."—Smith's New Gram., p. 51. (31.) "An adjective is a word used to describe or define a noun."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 2. (32.) "The adjective is added to the noun, to express the quality of it"—Murray's Gram., 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 27; Lowth, p. 6. (33.) "An adjective expresses the quality of the noun to which it is applied; and may generally be known by its making sense in connection with it; as, 'A good man,' 'A genteel woman.'"—Wright's Gram., p. 34. (34.) "An adverb is a word used to modify the sense of other words."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 2. (35.) "An adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, to modify or denote some circumstance respecting it."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 66; Lat. Gram., 185. (36.) "A Substantive or Noun is a name given to every object which the senses can perceive; the understanding comprehend; or the imagination entertain."—Wright's Gram., p. 34. (37.) "GENDER means the distinction of nouns with regard to sex."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 9. (38.) "Gender is a distinction of nouns with regard to sex."—Frost's Gram., p. 7. (39.) "Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex."—Perley's Gram., p. 10. (40.) "Gender is the distinction of nouns, in regard to sex."—Cooper's Murray, 24; Practical Gram., 21. (41.) "Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex."—Murray's Gram., p. 37; Alger's, 16; Bacon's, 12; R. G. Greene's, 16; Bullions, Prin., 5th Ed., 9; his New Gr., 22; Fisk's, 19; Hull's, 9; Ingersoll's, 15. (42.) "Gender is the distinction of sex."—Alden's Gram., p. 9; Comly's, 20; Dalton's, 11; Davenport's, 15; J. Flint's, 28; A. Flint's, 11; Greenleaf's, 21; Guy's, 4; Hart's, 36; Hiley's, 12; Kirkham's, 34; Lennie's, 11; Picket's, 25; Smith's, 43; Sanborn's, 25; Wilcox's, 8. (43.) "Gender is the distinction of Sex, or the Difference betwixt Male and Female."—British Gram., p. 94; Buchanan's, 18. (44.) "Why are nouns divided into genders? To distinguish their sexes."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 10. (45.) "What is meant by Gender? The different sexes."—Burn's Gram., p. 34. (46) "Gender, in grammar, is a difference of termination, to express distinction of sex."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p 30; Improved Gram., 22. (47.) "Gender signifies a distinction of nouns, according to the different sexes of things they denote."—Coar's Gram., p. 2. (48.) "Gender is the distinction occasioned by sex. Though there are but two sexes, still nouns necessarily admit of four distinctions[454] of gender."—Hall's Gram., p. 6. (49.) "Gender is a term which is employed for the distinction of nouns with regard to sex and species."—Wright's Gram., p. 41. (50.) "Gender is a Distinction of Sex."—Fisher's Gram., p. 53. (51.) "GENDER marks the distinction of Sex."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 37. (52.) "Gender means the kind, or sex. There are four genders."—Parker and Fox's, Part I, p. 7. (53.) "Gender is a property of the noun which distinguishes sex."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 57. (54.) "Gender is a property of the noun or pronoun by which it distinguishes sex."—Weld's Grammar Abridged, p. 49. (55.) "Case is the state or condition of a noun with respect to the other words in a sentence."—Bullion's, E. Gram., p. 16; his Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 31. (56.) "Case means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 55. (57.) "The cases of substantives signify their different terminations, which serve to express the relation of one thing to another."—L. Murray's Gram., 12mo, 2d Ed., p. 35. (58.) "Government is the power which one part of speech has over another, when it causes it or requires it to be of some particular person, number, gender, case, style, or mode."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 126; see Murray's Gram., 142; Smith's, 119; Pond's, 88; et al. (59.) "A simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one nominative case and one verb to agree with it."—Sanborn, ib.; see Murray's Gram., et al. (60.) "Declension means putting a noun through the different cases."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 58. (61.) "Zeugma is when two or more substantives have a verb in common, which is applicable only to one of them."—B. F. Fisk's Greek Gram., p. 185. (62.) "An Irregular Verb is that which has its passed tense and perfect participle terminating differently; as, smite, smote, smitten."—Wright's Gram., p. 92. (63.) "Personal pronouns are employed as substitutes for nouns that denote persons."—Hiley's Gram., p. 23.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IV.—OF COMPARISONS.

"We abound more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most languages."—Blair's Rhet., p. 89.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the terms we and languages, which are here used to form a comparison, express things which are totally unlike. But, according to Critical Note 4th, "A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared; without which, it becomes a solecism." Therefore, the expression ought to be changed; thus, "Our language abounds more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most other tongues." Or: "We abound more in vowel and diphthongal sounds, than most nations."]

"A line thus accented, has a more spirited air, than when the accent is placed on any other syllable."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 86. "Homer introduceth his deities with no greater ceremony than as mortals; and Virgil has still less moderation."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 287. "Which the more refined taste of later writers, who had far inferior genius to them, would have taught them to avoid."—Blair's Rhet., p. 28. "The poetry, however, of the Book of Job, is not only equal to that of any other of the sacred writings, but is superior to them all, except those of Isaiah alone."—Ib., p. 419. "On the whole, Paradise Lost is a poem that abounds with beauties of every kind, and that justly entitles its author to a degree of fame not inferior to any poet."—Ib., p. 452. "Most of the French writers compose in short sentences; though their style in general, is not concise; commonly less so than the bulk of English writers, whose sentences are much longer."—Ib., p. 178. "The principles of the Reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily eradicated."—HUME: Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶217. "Whether they do not create jealousy and animosity more hurtful than the benefit derived from them."—DR. J. LEO WOLF: Lit. Conv., p. 250. "The Scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire than any other country."—Music of Nature, p. 461. "When the time or quantity of one syllable exceeds the rest, that syllable readily receives the accent."—Rush, on the Voice, p. 277. "What then can be more obviously true than that it should be made as just as we can?"—Dymond's Essays, p. 198. "It was not likely that they would criminate themselves more than they could avoid."—Clarkson's Hist., Abridged, p. 76. "Their understandings were the most acute of any people who have ever lived."—Knapp's Lectures, p32. "The patentees have printed it with neat types, and upon better paper than was done formerly."—Lily's Gram., Pref., p. xiii. "In reality, its relative use is not exactly like any other word."—Felch's Comprehensive Gram., p. 62. "Thus, instead of two books, which are required, (the grammar and the exercises,) the learner finds both in one, for a price at least not greater than the others."—Bullions's E. Gram., Recom., p. iii; New Ed., Recom., p. 6. "They are not improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than the others"—Ib., p. 199. "We have had the opportunity, as will readily be believed, of becoming conversant with the case much more particularly, than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had."—The British Friend, 11mo, 29th, 1845.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE V.—OF FALSITIES.

"The long sound of i is compounded of the sound of a, as heard in ball, and that of e, as heard in be."—Churchill's Gram., p. 3.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the sentence falsely teaches, that the long sound of i is that of the diphthong heard in oil or boy. But, according to Critical Note 5th, "Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false, should be changed, rejected, or contradicted; because they distort language from its chief end, or only worthy use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth." The error may be corrected thus: "The long sound of i is like a very quick union of the sound of a, as heard in bar, and that of e, as heard in be."]

"The omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety, is called ELLIPSIS."—Priestley's Gram., p. 45. "Every substantive is of the third person."—Alexander Murray's Gram., p. 91. "A noun, when the subject is spoken to, is in the second person; and when spoken of, it is in the third person; but never in the first."—Nutting's Gram., p. 17. "With us, no substantive nouns have gender, or are masculine and feminine, except the proper names of male and female creatures."—Blair's Rhet., p. 156. "Apostrophe is a little mark signifying that something is shortened; as, for William his hat, we say, William's hat."—Infant School Gram., p. 30. "When a word beginning with a vowel is coupled with one beginning with a consonant, the indefinite article must be repeated; thus, 'Sir Matthew Hale was a noble and an impartial judge;' 'Pope was an elegant and a nervous writer.'"—Maunder's Gram., p. 11. "W and y are consonants, when they begin a word or syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels."—Murray's Gram., p. 7: Bacon, Comly, Cooper, Fish, Ingersoll, Kirkham, Smith, et al. "The is used before all adjectives and substantives, let them begin as they will."—Bucke's Gram., p. 26. "Prepositions are also prefixed to words in such manner, as to coalesce with them, and to become a part of them."—Lowth's Gram., p. 66. "But h is entirely silent at the beginning of syllables not accented, as historian."—Blair's Gram., p. 5. "Any word that will make sense with to before it, is a verb."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 44. "Verbs do not, in reality, express actions; but they are intrinsically the mere names of actions."—Ib., p. 37. "The nominative is the actor or subject, and the active verb is the action performed by the nominative."—Ib., p. 45. "If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, only one action, at the same instant, can be done; as, the girl writes."—Ib., 45. "The verb writes denotes but one action, which the girl performs; therefore the verb writes is of the singular number."—Ib., 45. "And when I say, Two men walk, is it not equally apparent, that walk is plural, because it expresses two actions?"—Ib., p. 47. "The subjunctive mood is formed by adding a conjunction to the indicative mood."—Beck's Gram., p. 16. "The possessive case should always be distinguished by the apostrophe."— Frost's El. of Gram., Rule 44th, p. 49. "'At these proceedings of the commons,'—Here of is the sign of the genitive or possessive case, and commons is of that case, governed of proceedings."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 95. "Here let it be observed again that, strictly speaking, no verbs have numbers nor persons, neither have nouns nor pronouns persons, when they refer to irrational creatures and inanimate things."—S. Barrett's Gram., p. 136. "The noun or pronoun denoting the person or thing addressed or spoken to, is in the nominative case independent."—Frost's El. of Gram., Rule 8th, p. 44. "Every noun, when addressed, becomes of the second person, and is in the nominative case absolute; as—'Paul, thou art beside thyself.'"—Jaudon's Gram., Rule 19th, p. 108. "Does the Conjunction join Words together? No; only Sentences."—British Gram., p. 103. "No; the Conjunction only joins sentences together."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 64. "Every Genitive has a Noun to govern it, expressed or understood; as, St. James's, Palace is understood; therefore one Genitive cannot govern another."—Ib., p. 111. "Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, belongs to a substantive, expressed or understood."— Murray's Gram., p. 161; Bacon's, 48; Alger's, 57; et al. "Every adjective qualifies a substantive expressed or understood."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 97. "Every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or understood."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 36. "Adjectives belong to the nouns which they describe."—Smith's New Gram., p. 137. "Adjectives must agree with the nouns, which they qualify."—Fisk's Murray, p. 101. "The Adjective must agree with its Substantive in Number."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 94. "Every adjective and participle belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 44. "Every Verb of the Infinitive Mood, supposes a verb before it expressed or understood."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 94. "Every Adverb has its Verb expressed or understood."—Ib., p. 94. "Conjunctions which connect Sentence to Sentence, are always placed betwixt the two Propositions or Sentences which they unite."—Ib., p. 88. "The words for all that, seem to be too low."—Murray's Gram., p. 213. "For all that seems to be too low and vulgar."—Priestley's Gram., p. 139. "The reader, or hearer, then, understands from and, that he is to add something."—J. Brown's E. Syntax, p. 124. "But and never, never connects one thing with another thing, nor one word with another word."—Ib., p. 122. "'Six, and six are twelve.' Here it is affirmed that, six is twelve!"—Ib., p. 120. "'John, and his wife have six children.' This is an instance of gross catachresis. It is here affirmed that John has six children, and that his wife has six children."—Ib., p. 122. "Nothing which is not right can be great."—Murray's Exercises, 8vo, p. 146: see Rambler, No. 185. "Nothing can be great which is not right."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 277. "The highest degree of reverence should be paid to youth."—Ib., p. 278. "There is, in many minds, neither knowledge nor understanding."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 151; Russell's, 84; Alger's, 54; Bacon's, 47; et al. "Formerly, what we call the objective cases of our pronouns, were employed in the same manner as our present nominatives are."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 164. "As it respects a choice of words and expressions, no rules of grammar can materially aid the learner."—S. S. Greene's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 202. "Whatever exists, or is conceived to exist, is a Noun."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §137. "As all men are not brave, brave is itself comparative."—Ib., §190.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VI.—OF ABSURDITIES.

(1.) "And sometimes two unaccented syllables follow each other."—Blair's Rhet., p. 384.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrase, "follow each other," is here an absurdity; it being impossible for two things to "follow each other," except they alternate, or whirl round. But, according to Critical Note 6th, "Absurdities, of every kind, are contrary to grammar; because they are contrary to reason, or good sense, which is the foundation of grammar." Therefore, a different expression should here be chosen; thus: "And sometimes two unaccented syllables come together." Or: "And sometimes one unaccented syllable follows an other."]

(2.) "What nouns frequently succeed each other?"—Sanborn's Gram., p. 65. (3.) "Words are derived from one another in various ways."—Ib., p. 288; Merchant's Gram., 78; Weld's, 2d Edition, 222. (4.) "Prepositions are derived from the two Latin words præ and pono, which signify before and place."—Mack's Gram., p. 86. (5.) "He was sadly laughed at for such conduct."—Bullion's E. Gram., p. 79. (6.) "Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun expressed or understood."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 212. (7.) "If he [Addison] fails in anything, it is in want of strength and precision, which renders his manner not altogether a proper model."—Blair's Rhet., p. 187. (8.) "Indeed, if Horace be deficient in any thing, it is in this, of not being sufficiently attentive to juncture and connexion of parts."—Ib., p. 401. (9.) "The pupil is now supposed to be acquainted with the nine sorts of speech, and their most usual modifications."—Taylor's District School, p. 204. (10.) "I could see, hear, taste, and smell the rose."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 156. (11.) "The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables; as in bilious, various, abstemious."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 13; Walker's Dict., Prin. 292, p. 37. (12.) "The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short in proper names; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; but not in Baal, Gaal."—Murray's Gram., p. 10. (13.) "Participles are sometimes governed by the article; for the present participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a substantive."—Ib., p. 192. (14.) "Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives and superlatives, by changing y into i."—Walker's Rhyming Dict., p. viii; Murray's Gram., 23; Merchant's Murray, 13; Fisk's, 44; Kirkham's, 23; Greenleaf's, 20; Wright's Gram., 28; et al. (15.) "But y preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not changed; as boy, boys."—Murray's Gram., p. 24; Merchant's, Fisk's, Kirkham's, Greenleaf's, et al. (16.) "But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely[455] changed in the additional syllable: as coy, coyly."—Murray's Gram. again, p. 24; Merchant's, 14; Fisk's, 45; Greenleaf's, 20; Wright's, 29; et al. (17.) "But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very rarely changed into i; as coy, COYLESS."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 24. (18.) "Sentences are of a twofold nature: Simple and Compound."—Wright's Gram., p. 123. (19.) "The neuter pronoun it is applied to all nouns and pronouns: as, It is he; it is she; it is they; it is the land."—Bucke's Gram., p. 92. (20.) "It is and it was, are often used in a plural construction; as, 'It was the heretics who first began to rail.'"—Merchant's Gram., p. 87. (21.) "It is and it was, are often, after the manner of the French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers: as, 'It was the heretics that first began to rail.' Smollett."—Priestley's Gram., p. 190; Murray's, 158; Smith's, 134; Ingersoll's, 210; Fisk's, 115; et al. (22.) "w and y, as consonants, have one sound."—Town's Spelling-Book, p. 9. (23.) "The conjunction as is frequently used as a relative."—Bucke's Gram., p. 93. (24.) "When several clauses succeed each other, the conjunction may be omitted with propriety."—Merchant's Gram., p. 97. (25.) "If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, 'Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 273; Merchant's, 151; Russell's, 115; Comly's, 152; Alger's, 80; Smith's, 190; et al. (26.) "The mind has difficulty in passing readily through so many different views given it, in quick succession, of the same object."—Blair's Rhet., p. 149. (27.) "The mind has difficulty in passing readily through many different views of the same object, presented in quick succession."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 341. (28.) "Adjective pronouns are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification."—Kirkham's Gram., the Compend, or Table. (29.) "A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea[456], must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural."—Ib., pp. 59 and 181: see also Lowth's Gram., p. 74; L. Murray's, 152; Comly's, 80; Lennie's, 87; Alger's, 54; Jaudon's, 96; Alden's, 81; Parker and Fox's, I, 76; II, 26; and others. (30.) "A noun or pronoun signifying possession, is governed by the noun it possesses."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 35. (31.) "A noun signifying possession, is governed by the noun which it possesses."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 24. (32.) "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun it possesses."—Goldsbury's Gram., p. 68. (33.) "The possessive case is governed by the person or thing possessed; as, 'this is his book.'"—P. E. Day's Gram., p. 81. (34.) "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun which it possesses."—Kirkham's Gram., Rule 12th, pp. 52 and 181; Frazer's Gram., 1844, p. 25; F. H. Miller's, 21. (35.) "Here the boy is represented as acting. He is, therefore, in the nominative case."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 41. (36.) "Some of the auxiliaries are themselves principal verbs, as: have, do, will, and am, or be."—Cooper's Grammars, both, p. 50. (37.) "Nouns of the male kind are masculine. Those of the female kind are feminine."—Beck's Gram., p. 6. (38.) "'To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's:' here to-day and yesterday are substantives."—Murray's Gram., p. 114; Ingersoll's, 50; et al. (39.) "In this example, to-day and yesterday are nouns in the possessive case."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 88. (40.) "An Indian in Britain would be much surprised to stumble upon an elephant feeding at large in the open fields."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 219. (41.) "If we were to contrive a new language, we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea: there would be no impropriety in calling oxen men, or rational beings by the name of oxen."—Murray's Gram., p. 139. (42.) "All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other."—Ib., p. 222; Kirkham's, 193; Ingersoll's, 275; Goldsbury's, 74; Hiley's, 110; Weld's, 193; Alger's, 71; Fisk's, 148; S. Putnam's, 95; Merchant's, 101; Merchant's Murray, 95.

(43.) "Full through his neck the weighty falchion sped,
          Along the pavement roll'd the mutt'ring head."
        —Odyssey, xxii, 365.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VII.—OF SELF-CONTRADICTION.

(1.) "Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would certainly stand better thus: 'The king, the lords, and the commons, form an excellent constitution.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 151; Ingersoll's, 239.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the first clause here quoted is contradicted by the last. But, according to Critical Note 7th, "Every writer or speaker should be careful not to contradict himself; for what is self-contradictory, is both null in argument, and bad in style." The following change may remove the discrepance: "Though 'The king with the lords and commons,' must have a singular rather than a plural verb, the sentence would certainly stand better thus: 'The king, the lords, and the commons, form an excellent constitution.'"]

(2.) "L has always a soft liquid sound; as in love, billow, quarrel. It is sometimes mute: as in half, talk, psalm."—Murray's Gram., p. 14; Fisk's, 40. (3.) "L has always a soft liquid sound; as in love, billow. It is often silent; as in half, talk, almond."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 22. (4.) "The words means and amends, though formerly used in the singular, as well as in the plural number, are now, by polite writers, restricted to the latter. Our most distinguished modern authors say, 'by this means,' as well as, by these means.'"—Wright's Gram., p. 150. (5.) "'A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy inflames his crimes.' Better thus: 'A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy his crimes.'"—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 325. "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy inflames his crimes"—Key, Vol. ii, p. 173. (6.) "The auxiliary have, in the perfect tense of the subjunctive mood, should be avoided."—Merchant's Gram., p. 97. "Subjunctive Mood, Perfect Tense. If I have loved, If thou hast loved," &c.—p. 51. (7.) "There is also an impropriety in governing both the indicative and subjunctive moods, with the same conjunction; as, 'If a man have a hundred sheep, and if one of them be gone astray,' &c. It should be, and one of them is gone astray, &c."—Ib., p. 97. (8.) "The rising series of contrasts convey inexpressible dignity and energy to the conclusion."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 79. (9.) "A groan or a shriek is instantly understood, as a language extorted by distress, a language which no art can counterfeit, and which conveys a meaning that words are utterly inadequate to express."—Porter's Analysis, p. 127. "A groan or shriek speaks to the ear, as the language of distress, with far more thrilling effect than words. Yet these may be counterfeited by art."—Ib., p. 147. (10.) "These words [book and pen] cannot be put together in such a way as will constitute plurality."—James Brown's English Syntax, p. 125. (11.) "Nor can the real pen, and the real book be expressed in two words in such a manner as will constitute plurality in grammar."—Ibid. (12.) "Our is an adjective pronoun of the possessive kind. Decline it."—Murray's Gram., p. 227. (13.) "This and that, and likewise their Plurals, are always opposed to each other in a Sentence."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 103. "When this or that is used alone, i.e. not opposed to each other, this is written or spoken of Persons or Things immediately present, and as it were before our Eyes, or nearest with relation to Place or Time. That is spoken or written of Persons or Things passed, absent and distant in relation to Time and Place."—Ibid. (14.) "Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all its variations."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 159. "Be is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every other situation, it is a principal verb."—Ib., p. 155. (15.) "A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 136. "The verbs, according to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative, agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person."—Ib., p. 164. (16.) "Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the relative, by their denoting the person of the nouns for which they stand."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 97. "Pronouns of the first person, do not agree in person with the nouns they represent."—Ib., p. 98. (17.) "Nouns have three cases, nominative, possessive, and objective."—Beck's Gram., p. 6. "Personal pronouns have, like nouns, two cases, nominative and objective."—Ib., p. 10. (18.). "In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its application: as, 'He was near falling.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 116. (19.) "Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, ashes, literati, minutiæ, SHEEP, DEER."—Blair's Gram., p. 43. "Some nouns are the same in both numbers, as, alms, couple, DEER, series, species, pair, SHEEP."—Ibid. "Among the inferior parts of speech there are some pairs or couples"—Ib., p. 94. (20.) "Concerning the pronominal adjectives, that can and can not, may and may not, represents its noun."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 336. (21.) "The article a is in a few instances employed in the sense of a preposition; as, Simon Peter said I go a [to] fishing."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 177; Abridg., 128. "'To go a fishing;' i.e. to go on a fishing voyage or business."—Weld's Gram., p. 192. (22.) "So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object."—Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 60.

(23.) "When first young Maro, in his boundless mind,
       A work t' outlast immortal Rome design'd."
        —Pope, on Crit., l. 130.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VIII.—OF SENSELESS JUMBLING.

"Number distinguishes them [viz., nouns], as one, or many, of the same kind, called the singular and plural."—Dr. Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric, p. 74.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the words of this text appear to be so carelessly put together, as to make nothing but jargon, or a sort of scholastic balderdash. But, according to Critical Note 8th, "To jumble together words without care for the sense, is an unpardonable negligence, and an abuse of the human understanding." I think the learned author should rather have said: "There are two numbers called the singular and the plural, which distinguish nouns as signifying either one thing, or many of the same kind."]

"Here the noun James Munroe is addressed, he is spoken to, it is here a noun of the second person."—Mack's Gram., p. 66. "The number and case of a verb can never be ascertained until its nominative is known."—Emmons's Gram., p. 36. "A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have the verb and pronoun agreeing with it either in the singular or plural number; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea."—Lowth's Gram., p. 75; Murray's, 152; Alger's, 54; Russell's, 55; Ingersoll's, 248; et al. "To express the present and past imperfect of the active and neuter verb, the auxiliary do is sometimes used: I do (now) love; I did (then) love."—Lowth's Gram., p. 40. "If these are perfectly committed, they will be able to take twenty lines for a lesson on the second day; and may be increased each day."—Osborn's Key, p. 4. "When c is joined with h (ch), they are generally sounded in the same manner: as in Charles, church, cheerfulness, and cheese. But foreign words (except in those derived from the French, as chagrin, chicanery, and chaise, in which ch are sounded like sh) are pronounced like k; as in Chaos, character, chorus, and chimera."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 10. "Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender."—Murray's Gram., p. 37; Comly's, 20; Bacon's, 13; A Teacher's, 8; Alger's, 16; Lennie's, 11; Fisk's, 56; Merchant's, 27; Kirkham's, 35; et al. "Words in the English language may be classified under ten general heads, the names of which classes are usually termed the ten parts of speech."—Nutting's Gram., p. 14. "'Mercy is the true badge of nobility.' Nobility is a noun of multitude, mas. and fem. gender, third person, sing. and in the obj. case, and governed by 'of:' RULE 31."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 161. "gh, are either silent, or have the sound of f, as in laugh."—Town's Spelling-Book, p. 10. "As many people as were destroyed, were as many languages or dialects lost and blotted out from the general catalogue."—Chazotte's Essay, p. 25. "The grammars of some languages contain a greater number of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in different forms."—Murray's Gram., 8vo. Vol. i, p. 95. "A COMPARISON OR SIMILE, is, when the resemblance between two objects is expressed in form, and generally pursued more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits."—Ib., p. 343. "In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for that, and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing."—Ib., p. 156; Priestley's Gram., 93; Smith's, 132; Merchant's, 87; Fisk's, 114; Ingersoll's, 220; et al. "Brown makes great ado concerning the adname principles of preceding works, in relation to the gender of pronouns."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 323. "The nominative precedes and performs the action of the verb."—Beck's Gram., p. 8. "The Primitive are those which cannot receive more simple forms than those which they already possess."—Wright's Gram., p. 28. "The long sound [of i] is always marked by the e final in monosyllables; as, thin, thine; except give, live."—Murray's Gram., p. 13; Fisk's, 39; et al. "But the third person or thing spoken of being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of gender."—Lowth's Gram., p. 21; L. Murray's, 51; et al. "Each of the diphthongal letters was doubtless, originally heard in pronouncing the words which contain them. Though this is not the case at present, with respect to many of them, these combinations still retain the name of diphthongs; but, to distinguish them, they are marked by the term improper."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 9; Fisk's, 37; et al. "A Mode is the form of, or manner of using a verb, by which the being, action, or passion is expressed "—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 32. "The word that is a demonstrative pronoun when it is followed immediately by a substantive, to which it is either joined, or refers, and which it limits or qualifies."—Lindley Murray's Gram., p. 54.

   "The guiltless woe of being past,
    Is future glory's deathless heir."—Sumner L. Fairfield.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IX.—OF WORDS NEEDLESS.

"A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing composition."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 7.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word composition is here needless. But, according to Critical Note 9th, "Words that are entirely needless, and especially such as injure or encumber the expression, ought in general to be omitted." The sentence would be better without this word, thus: "A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing."]

"And hence we infer, that there is no other dictator here but use."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 42. "Whence little else is gained, except correct spelling and pronunciation."—Town's Spelling-Book, p. 5. "The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on, with humble confidence."—Merchants School Gram., p. 76. "Shalt thou build me an house for me to dwell in?"—2 Sam., vii, 5. "The house was deemed polluted which was entered into by so abandoned a woman."—Blair's Rhet., p. 279. "The farther that he searches, the firmer will be his belief."—Keith's Evidences, p. 4. "I deny not, but that religion consists in these things."—Barclays Works, i, 321. "Except the king delighted in her, and that she were called by name."—Esther, ii, 14. "The proper method of reading these lines, is to read them according as the sense dictates."—Blair's Rhet., p. 386. "When any words become obsolete, or at least are never used, except as constituting part of particular phrases, it is better to dispense with their service entirely, and give up the phrases."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 185; Murray's Gram., p. 370. "Those savage people seemed to have no element but that of war."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. "Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in the nominative case."—J. Flint's Gram., p. 33. "The orator, according as circumstances require, will employ them all."—Blair's Rhet., p. 247. "By deferring our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows."—Murray's Key, ii, p. 166. "There is no doubt but that public speaking became early an engine of government."—Blair's Rhet., p. 245. "The different meaning of these two first words may not at first occur."—Ib., p. 225. "The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than him."—Murray's Gram., p. 214; Ingersoll's, 251; Smith's, 179; et al. "They have had a greater privilege than we have had."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 211. "Every thing should be so arranged, as that what goes before may give light and force to what follows."—Blair's Rhet., p. 311. "So as that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers."—UNIV. HIST.: Priestley's Gram., p. 139. "They have taken another and a shorter cut."—SOUTH: Joh. Dict. "The Imperfect Tense of a regular verb is formed from the present by adding d or ed to the present; as, 'I loved.'"—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 32. "The pronoun their does not agree in gender or number with the noun 'man,' for which it stands."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 182. "This mark denotes any thing of wonder, surprise, joy, grief, or sudden emotion."—Bucke's Gram., p. 19. "We are all accountable creatures, each for himself."—Murray's Key, p. 204; Merchant's, 195. "If he has commanded it, then I must obey."—Smith's New Gram., pp. 110 and 112. "I now present him with a form of the diatonic scale."—Dr. John Barber's Elocution, p. xi. "One after another of their favourite rivers have been reluctantly abandoned."—Hodgson's Tour. "Particular and peculiar are words of different import from each other."—Blair's Rhet., p. 196. "Some adverbs admit rules of comparison: as Soon, sooner, soonest."—Bucke's Gram., p. 76. "From having exposed himself too freely in different climates, he entirely lost his health."—Murray's Key. p. 200. "The Verb must agree with its Nominative before it in Number and Person."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 93. "Write twenty short sentences containing only adjectives."—Abbot's Teacher, p. 102. "This general inclination and tendency of the language seems to have given occasion to the introducing of a very great corruption."—Lowth's Gram., p. 60. "The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its Unity."—Murray's Gram., p. 311. "It is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting to insert their names."—Ib., p. vii. "The letters of the English Language, called the English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number."—Ib., p. 2; T. Smith's, 5; Fisk's, 10; Alger's, 9; et al. "A writer who employs antiquated or novel phraseology, must do it with design: he cannot err from inadvertence as he may do it with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 56. "The Vocative case, in some Grammars, is wholly omitted; why, if we must have cases, I could never understand the propriety of."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 45. "Active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb I have; passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb I am."—Ib., p. 57. "What word, then, may and be called? A Conjunction."—Smith's New Gram., p. 37. "Have they ascertained the person who gave the information?"—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 81.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE X.—OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS.

"All qualities of things are called adnouns, or adjectives."—Blair's
Gram., p. 10.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because this expression lacks two or three words which are necessary to the sense intended. But according to Critical Note 10th, "Words necessary to the sense, or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence, ought seldom, if ever, to be omitted." The sentence may be amended thus: "All words signifying concrete qualities of things, are called adnouns, or adjectives."]

"The—signifies the long or accented syllable, and the breve indicates a short or unaccented syllable."—Blair's Gram., p. 118. "Whose duty is to help young ministers."—N. E. Discipline, p. 78. "The passage is closely connected with what precedes and follows."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 255 "The work is not completed, but soon will be."—Smith's Productive Gram., p. 113. "Of whom hast thou been afraid or feared?"—Isaiah, lvii, 11. "There is a God who made and governs the world."—Butler's Analogy, p. 263. "It was this made them so haughty."—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 102. "How far the whole charge affected him is not easy to determine."— Ib., i, p. 189. "They saw, and worshipped the God, that made them."— Bucke's Gram., p. 157. "The errors frequent in the use of hyperboles, arise either from overstraining, or introducing them on unsuitable occasions."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 256. "The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns; as, 'He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham.' But before villages, single houses, and cities which are in distant countries, at is used; as, 'He lives at Hackney.'"—Ib., p. 204; Dr. Ash's Gram., 60; Ingersoll's, 232; Smith's, 170; Fisk's, 143; et al. "And, in such recollection, the thing is not figured as in our view, nor any image formed."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 86. "Intrinsic and relative beauty must be handled separately."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 336. "He should be on his guard not to do them injustice, by disguising, or placing them in a false light."—Blair's Rhet., p. 272. "In that work, we are frequently interrupted by unnatural thoughts."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 275. "To this point have tended all the rules I have given."—Blair's Rhet., p. 120. "To these points have tended all the rules which have been given."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 356. "Language, as written, or oral, is addressed to the eye, or to the ear."—Lit. Conv., p. 181. "He will learn, Sir, that to accuse and prove are very different."—Walpole. "They crowded around the door so as to prevent others going out."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 17. "One person or thing is singular number; more than one person or thing is plural number."—John Flint's Gram., p. 27. "According to the sense or relation in which nouns are used, they are in the NOMINATIVE or POSSESSIVE CASE, thus, nom. man; poss. man's."—Blair's Gram., p. 11. "Nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them, to which they belong."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 130. "A teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and verb."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 72. "And therefore the two ends, or extremities, must directly answer to the north and south pole."—HARRIS: Joh. Dict., w. Gnomon. "Walks or walketh, rides or rideth, stands or standeth, are of the third person singular."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 47. "I grew immediately roguish and pleasant to a degree, in the same strain."—SWIFT: Tattler, 31. "An Anapæst has the first syllables unaccented, and the last accented."— Blair's Gram., p. 119. "An Anapæst has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 219; Bullions's Principles, 170. "An Anapæst has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 254; Jamieson's Rhet., 305; Smith's New Gram., 188; Guy's Gram., 120; Merchant's, 167; Russell's, 109; Picket's, 226. "But hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and written."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 21. "They are considered by some prepositions."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 102. "When those powers have been deluded and gone astray."—Philological Museum, i, 642. "They will soon understand this, and like it."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 92. "They have been expelled their native country Romagna."—Leigh Hunt, on Byron, p. 18. "Future time is expressed two different ways."—Adam's Gram., p. 80; Gould's, 78. "Such as the borrowing from history some noted event."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 280. "Every Verb must agree with its Nominative in Number and Person."—Burke's Gram., p. 94. "We are struck, we know not how, with the symmetry of any thing we see."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 268. "Under this head, I shall consider every thing necessary to a good delivery."— Sheridan's Lect., p. 26. "A good ear is the gift of nature; it may be much improved, but not acquired by art."—Murray's Gram., p. 298. "'Truth,' A noun, neuter, singular, the nominative."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 73. "'Possess,' A verb transitive, present, indicative active,—third person plural."—Ibid., 73. "Fear is a noun, neuter, singular, and is the nominative to (or subject of) is."—Id., ib., p. 133. "Is is a verb, intrans., irregular—am, was, been; it is in the present, indicative, third person singular, and agrees with its nominative fear. Rule 1. 'A verb agrees,' &c."—Ibid., 133. "Ae in Gælic, has the sound of long a."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 29.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XI.—OF LITERARY BLUNDERS.

"Repeat some [adverbs] that are composed of the article a and nouns."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 89.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the grammatist here mistakes for the article a, the prefix or preposition a; as in "aside, ashore, afoot, astray," &c. But, according to Critical Note 11th, "Grave blunders made in the name of learning, are the strongest of all certificates against the books which contain them unreproved." The error should be corrected thus: "Repeat some adverbs that are composed of the prefix a, or preposition a, and nouns."]

"Participles are so called, because derived from the Latin word participium, which signifies to partake."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 18. "The possessive follows another noun, and is known by the sign of 's or of."—Beck's Gram., p. 8. "Reciprocal pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to the possessive; as, myself, yourselves."— Ib., p. 10. "The word self, and its plural selves, must be considered nouns, as they occupy the places of nouns, and stand for the names of them."—Wright's Gram., p. 61. "The Dactyl, rolls round, expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 231; Webster's Imp. Gram., p. 165; Frazee's Imp. Gram., p. 192. "Prepositions govern the objective case; as, John learned his lesson."—Frazee's Gram., p. 153. "Prosody primarily signified punctuation; and as the name implies, related to stopping by the way."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 103. "On such a principle of forming modes, there would be as many modes as verbs; and instead of four modes, we should have forty-three thousand, which is the number of verbs in the English language, according to Lowth."—Hallock's Gram., p. 76. "The following phrases are elliptical: 'To let out blood.' 'To go a hunting:' that is,' To go on a hunting excursion.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 129. "In Rhyme, the last syllable of every two lines has the same sound."—Id., Practical Lessons, p. 129. "The possessive case plural, ending in es, has the apostrophe, but omits the s; as, Eagles' wings."—Weld's Gram., p. 62; Abridg., p. 54. "Horses (plural) -mane, [should be written] horses' mane."—Weld', ib., pp. 62 and 54. "W takes its written form from the union of two v's, this being the form of the Roman capital letter which we call V."—Fowler's E. Gram., 1850, p. 157. "In the sentence, 'I saw the lady who sings,' what word do I say sings?"—J. Flint's Gram., p. 12. "In the sentence, 'this is the pen which John made,' what word do I say John made?"—Ibid. "'That we fall into no sin:' no, an adverb used idiomatically, instead of we do not fall into any sin."—Blair's Gram., p. 54. "'That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance:' all, a pronoun used for the whole."—Ibid. "'Let him be made to study.' What causes the sign to to be expressed before study? Its being used in the passive voice after be made."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 145. "The following Verbs have neither Preter-Tense nor Passive-participle, viz. Cast, cut, cost, shut, let, bid, shed, hurt, hit, put, &c."— Buchanan's Gram., p. 60. "The agreement, which every word has with the others in person, gender, and case, is called CONCORD; and that power which one person of speech has over another, in respect to ruling its case, mood, or tense, is called GOVERNMENT."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 83. "The word ticks tells what the noun watch does."— Sanborn's Gram., p. 15. "Breve ([~]) marks a short vowel or syllable, and the dash (—) a long."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 157; Lennie, 137. "Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor.' The first you is used in the nom. poss. and obj. case."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 103. "Ouy in bouy is a proper tripthong. Eau in flambeau is an improper tripthong."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 255. "'While I of things to come, As past rehearsing, sing.' POLLOK. That is, 'While I sing of things which are to come, as one sings of things which are past rehearsing.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 169. "A simple sentence has in it but one nominative, and one neuter verb."—Folker's Gram., p. 14. "An Irregular Verb is that which has its passed tense and perfect participle terminating differently; as, smite, smote, smitten."—Wright's Gram., p. 92. "But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly inserted before the relative; as, 'There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 213. "Two capitals in this way denote the plural number; L. D. Legis Doctor; LL. D. Legum Doctor."—Gould's Lat. Gram., p. 274. "Was any person besides the mercer present? Yes, both he and his clerk."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 188. "Adnoun, or Adjective, comes from the Latin, ad and jicio, to add to."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 69. "Another figure of speech, proper only to animated and warm composition, is what some critical writers call vision; when, in place of relating some thing that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing before our eyes. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Cataline: 'I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while with a savage joy he is triumphing in your miseries.'"—Blair's Rhet., p. 171. "Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only in animated and warm composition. It is produced when, instead of relating something that is past, we use the present tense," &c.— Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 352. "When several verbs follow one another, having the same nominative, the auxiliary is frequently omitted after the first through an ellipsis, and understood to the rest; as, 'He has gone and left me;' that is, 'He has gone, and has left me.' "—Comly's Gram., p. 94. "When I use the word pillar as supporting an edifice, I employ it literally."—Hiley's Gram., 3d Ed., p. 133. "The conjunction nor is often used for neither; as,

'Simois nor Xanthus shall be wanting there.'"—Ib., p. 129.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XII.—OF PERVERSIONS.

"In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth."—Murray's
Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 330; Hallock's Gram., p. 179; Melmoth, on
Scripture, p. 16.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because this reading is false in relation to the word "heavens;" nor is it usual to put a comma after the word "beginning." But, according to Critical Note 12th, "Proof-tests in grammar, if not in all argument, should be quoted literally; and even that which needs to be corrected, must never be perverted." The authorized text is this: "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth."—Gen., i, 1.]

"Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord?"—Murray's Gram., p. 335. "Great is the Lord, just and true are thy ways, thou king of saints."—Priestley's Gram., p. 171; L. Murray's, 168; Merchant's, 90; R. C. Smith's, 145; Ingersoll's, 194; Ensell's, 330; Fisk's, 104; et al. "Every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 137. "Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 211; Bullions's, 111 and 113; Everest's, 230; Smith's, 177; et al. "Whose foundation was overflown with a flood."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Job, xxii, 16. "Take my yoke upon ye, for my yoke is easy."—The Friend, Vol. iv, p. 150. "I will to prepare a place for you."—Weld's E. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 67. "Ye who are dead hath he quickened."—lb., p. 189; Imp. Ed., 195. "Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea."—Hart's Gram., p. 115. "Hitherto shalt thou come, and no farther."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 222. "Thine is the day and night."—Brown's Concordance, p. 82. "Faith worketh patience; and patience, experience; and experience, hope."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 282. "Soon shall the dust return to dust, and the soul, to God who gave it. BIBLE."—Ib., p. 166. "For, in the end, it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder. It will lead thee into destruction, and cause thee to utter perverse things. Thou wilt be like him who lieth down in the midst of the sea. BIBLE."—Ib., p. 167. "The memory of the just shall be honored: but the name of the wicked shall rot. BIBLE."—Ib., p. 168. "He that is slow in anger, is better than the mighty. He that ruleth his spirit, is better than he that taketh a city. BIBLE."—Ib., p. 72. "The Lord loveth whomsoever he correcteth; as the father correcteth the son in whom he delighteth. BIBLE."—Ib., p. 72. "The first future tense represents what is to take place hereafter. G. B."—Ib., p. 366. "Teach me to feel another's wo; [and] To hide what faults I see."—Ib., p. 197. "Thy speech bewrayeth thee; for thou art a Gallilean."—Murray's Ex., ii, p. 118. "Thy speech betrays thee; for thou art a Gallilean."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 250. "Strait is the gate, and narrow the way, that leads to life eternal."—Ib., Key, p. 172. "Straight is the gate," &c.—Ib., Ex., p. 36. "'Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayst be their king.' Neh., vi, 6."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 210. "'There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared.' Psalms, cxxx, 4."—Ib., p. 210. "But yesterday, the word, Cesar, might Have stood against the world."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 316. "The northeast spends its rage. THOMSON."—Joh. Dict., w. Effusive. "Tells how the drudging goblet swet. MILTON."—Churchill's Gram., p. 263. "And to his faithful servant hath in place Bore witness gloriously. SAM. AGON."—Ib., p. 266. "Then, if thou fallest, O Cromwell, Thou fallest a blessed martyr."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 190. "I see the dagger-crest of Mar, I see the Morays' silver star, Waves o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake came winding far!—SCOTT."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 143. "Each bird, and each insect, is happy in its kind."—Ib., p. 85. "They who are learning to compose and arrange their sentences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order. BLAIR."—Ib., p. 176; L. Murray's Gram., Title-page, 8vo and 12mo. "We, then, as workers together with you, beseech you also, that ye receive not the grace of God in vain."—James Brown's Eng. Syntax, p. 129. "And on the bounty of thy goodness calls."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 246. "Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds retentive to their own. COWPER."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 172. "Oh! let me listen to the word of life. THOMSON."—Ib., p. 155. "Save that from yonder ivy-mantled bower, &c. GRAY'S ELEGY."—Tooke's Div. of Purley, Vol. i, p. 116. "Weigh the mens wits against the ladies hairs. POPE."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 6. "Weigh the men's wits against the women's hairs. POPE."—Churchill's Gram., p. 214. "Prior to the publication of Lowth's excellent little grammar, the grammatical study of our own language, formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction. HILEY'S PREFACE."—Dr. Bullions's E. Gram., 1843, p. 189. "Let there be no strife betwixt me and thee."—Weld's Gram., p. 143.

   "What! canst thou not bear with me half an hour?—SHARP."
        —Ib., p. 185.

   "Till then who knew the force of those dire dreams.—MILTON."
        —Ib., p. 186.

   "In words, as fashions, the rule will hold,
    Alike fantastic, if too new or old:"
        —Murray's Gram., p. 136.

   "Be not the first, by whom the new is tried,
    Nor yet the last, to lay the old aside."
        —Bucke's Gram., p. 104.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIII.—OF AWKWARDNESS.

"They slew Varus, who was he that I mentioned before."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 194.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrase, "who was he that," is here prolix and awkward. But, according to Critical Note 13th, "Awkwardness, or inelegance of expression, is a reprehensible defect in style, whether it violate any of the common rules of syntax or not." This example may be improved thus: "They slew Varus, whom I mentioned before."]

"Maria rejected Valerius, who was he that she had rejected before."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 174. "The English in its substantives has but two different terminations for cases."—Lowth's Gram., p. 18. "Socrates and Plato were wise; they were the most eminent philosophers of Greece."—Ib., p. 175; Murray's Gram., 149; et al. "Whether one person or more than one, were concerned in the business, does not yet appear."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 184. "And that, consequently, the verb and pronoun agreeing with it, cannot with propriety, be ever used in the plural number."—Murray's Gram., p. 153; Ingersoll's, 249; et al. "A second help may be the conversing frequently and freely with those of your own sex who are like minded."—John Wesley. "Four of the semi-vowels, namely, l, m, n, r, are also distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were into their sounds."—Murray's Gram., p. 8; Churchill's, 5; Alger's, 11; et al. "Some conjunctions have their correspondent conjunctions belonging to them: so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence the latter answers to the former."—Lowth's Gram., p. 109: Adam's, 209; Gould's, 205; L. Murray's, 211; Ingersoll's, 268; Fisk's, 137; Churchill's, 153; Fowler's, 562; et al. "The mutes are those consonants, whose sounds cannot be protracted. The semi-vowels, such whose sounds can be continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of vowels, from which they derive their name."—Murray's Gram., p 9; et al. "The pronoun of the third person, of the masculine and feminine gender, is sometimes used as a noun, and regularly declined: as, 'The hes in birds.' BACON. 'The shes of Italy.' SHAK."—Churchill's Gram., p. 73. "The following examples also of separation of a preposition from the word which it governs, is improper in common writings."—C. Adams's Gram., p. 103. "The word whose begins likewise to be restricted to persons, but it is not done so generally but that good writers, and even in prose, use it when speaking of things."—Priestley's Gram., p. 99; L. Murray's, 157; Fisk's, 115; et al. "There are new and surpassing wonders present themselves to our views."—Sherlock. "Inaccuracies are often found in the way wherein the degrees of comparison are applied and construed."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 202. "Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of comparison are applied and construed."—Murray's Gram., p. 167; Smith's, 144; Ingersoll's, 193; et al. "The connecting circumstance is placed too remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeable."—Murray's Gram., p. 177. "Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the principal without an auxiliary verb."—Ib., p. 91. "The nearer that men approach to each other, the more numerous are their points of contact and the greater will be their pleasures or their pains."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 275. "This is the machine that he is the inventor of."—Nixon's Parser, p. 124. "To give this sentence the interrogative form, it should be expressed thus."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 279. "Never employ those words which may be susceptible of a sense different from the sense you intend to be conveyed."—Hiley's Gram., p. 152. "Sixty pages are occupied in explaining what would not require more than ten or twelve to be explained according to the ordinary method."—Ib., Pref., p. ix. "The present participle in -ing always expresses an action, or the suffering of an action, or the being, state, or condition of a thing as continuing and progressive."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 57. "The Present participle of all active verbs[457] has an active signification; as, James is building the house. In many of these, however, it has also a passive signification; as, the house was building when the wall fell."—Id., ib., 2d or 4th Ed., p. 57. "Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be analyzed to the young pupil by such questions as the following, viz."—Id., ib., p. 73. "Subsequent to that period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject."—Ib., New Ed., p. 189; Hiley's Preface, p. vi. "A definition of a word is an explanation in what sense the word is used, or what idea or object we mean by it, and which may be expressed by any one or more of the properties, effects, or circumstances of that object, so as sufficiently to distinguish it from other objects."—Hiley's Gram., p. 245.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIV.—OF IGNORANCE.

"What is an Asserter? It is the part of speech which asserts."—O. B.
Peirce's Gram., p. 20.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the term "Asserter" which is here put for Verb, is both ignorantly misspelled, and whimsically misapplied. But, according to Critical Note 14th, "Any use of words that implies ignorance of their meaning, or of their proper orthography, is particularly unscholarlike; and, in proportion to the author's pretensions to learning, disgraceful." The errors here committed might have been avoided thus: "What is a verb? It is a word which signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon." Or thus: "What is an assertor? Ans. 'One who affirms positively; an affirmer, supporter, or vindicator.'—Webster's Dict."]

"Virgil wrote the Ænead."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 56. "Which, to a supercilious or inconsiderate Japaner, would seem very idle and impertinent."—Locke, on Ed., p. 225. "Will not a look of disdain cast upon you, throw you into a foment?"—Life of Th. Say, p. 146. "It may be of use to the scholar, to remark in this place, that though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb, any other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood, may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 93. "When proper names have an article annexed to them, they are used as common names."—Ib., p. 36; Ingersoll's, 25; et al. "When a proper noun has an article annexed to it, it is used as a common noun."—Merchant's Gram., p. 25. "Seeming to disenthral the death-field of its terrors."—Ib., p. 109. "For the same reason, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 50. "It diminishes all possibility of being misunderstood."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 175. "Approximation to excellence is all that we can expect."—Ib., p. 42. "I have often joined in singing with musicianists at Norwich."—Music of Nature, p. 274. "When not standing in regular prosic order."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 281. "Disregardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 75. "Others begin to talk before their mouths are open, affixing the mouth-closing M to most of their words—as M-yes for Yes."—Music of Nature, p. 28. "That noted close of his, esse videatur, exposed him to censure among his cotemporaries."—Blair's Rhet., p. 127. "OWN. Formerly, a man's own was what he worked for, own being a past participle of a verb signifying to work."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 71. "As [requires] so: expressing a comparison of quality: as, 'As the one dieth, so dieth the other.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 212; R. C. Smith's, 177; and many others. "To obey our parents is a solemn duty."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part I, p. 67. "Most all the political papers of the kingdom have touched upon these things."—H. C. WRIGHT: Liberator, Vol. xiv, p. 22. "I shall take leave to make a few observations upon the subject."—Hiley's Gram., p. iii. "His loss I have endeavoured to supply, as far as additional vigilance and industry would allow."—Ib., p. xi. "That they should make vegetation so exhuberant as to anticipate every want."—Frazee's Gram., p. 43. "The quotors " " which denote that one or more words are extracted from another author."—Day's District School Gram., p. 112. "Ninevah and Assyria were two of the most noted cities of ancient history."—Ib., p. 32 and p. 88. "Ninevah, the capital of Assyria, is a celebrated ancient city."—Ib., p. 88. "It may, however, be rendered definite by introducing some definition of time; as, yesterday, last week, &c."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 40. "The last is called heroic measure, and is the same that is used by Milton, Young, Thompson, Pollock, &c."—Id., Practical Lessons, p. 129. "Perrenial ones must be sought in the delightful regions above."—Hallock's Gram., p. 194. "Intransitive verbs are those which are inseperable from the effect produced."—Cutler's Gram., p. 31. "Femenine gender, belongs to women, and animals of the female kind."—Ib., p. 15. "Woe! unto you scribes and pharasees."—Day's Gram., p. 74. "A pyrrick, which has both its syllables short."—Ib., p. 114. "What kind of Jesamine? a Jesamine in flower, or a flowery Jesamine."—Barrett's Gram., 10th Ed., p. 53. "Language, derived from 'linguæ,' the tongue, is the faculty of communicating our thoughts to each other, by proper words, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas."—Ib., p. 9. "Say none, not nara"—Staniford's Gram., p. 81. "ARY ONE, for either."—Pond's Larger Gram., p. 194. (See Obs. 24th, on the Syntax of Adverbs, and the Note at the bottom of the page.)

   "Earth loses thy patron for ever and aye;
    O sailor boy! sailor boy! peace to thy soul."
        —S. Barrett's Gram., 1837, p. 116.

    "His brow was sad, his eye beneath,
    Flashed like a halcyon from its sheath."
        —Liberator, Vol. 12, p. 24.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XV.—OF SILLINESS AND TRUISMS.

"Such is the state of man, that he is never at rest."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 57.

[FORMULE.—This is a remark of no wisdom or force, because it would be nearer the truth, to say, "Such is the state of man, that he must often rest," But, according to Critical Note 15th, "Silly remarks and idle truisms are traits of a feeble style, and when their weakness is positive, or inherent, they ought to be entirely omitted." It is useless to attempt a correction of this example, for it is not susceptible of any form worth preserving.]

"Participles belong to the nouns or pronouns to which they relate."—Wells's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 153. "Though the measure is mysterious, it is worthy of attention."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 221. "Though the measure is mysterious, it is not unworthy your attention."—Kirkham's Gram., pp. 197 and 227. "The inquietude of his mind made his station and wealth far from being enviable."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 250. "By rules so general and comprehensive as these are [,] the clearest ideas are conveyed."—Ib., p. 273. "The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the activity of its thoughts."—Ib., p. 185. "Not having known, or not having considered, the measures proposed, he failed of success."—Ib., p. 202. "Not having known or considered the subject, he made a crude decision."—Ib., p. 275. "Not to exasperate him, I spoke only a very few words."—Ib., p. 257. "These are points too trivial, to be noticed. They are objects with which I am totally unacquainted."—Ib., p. 275. "Before we close this section, it may afford instruction to the learners, to be informed, more particularly than they have been."—Murray's Gram., p. 110. "The articles are often properly omitted: when used, they should be justly applied, according to their distinct nature."—Ib., p. 170; Alger's, 60. "Any thing, which is done now, is supposed to be done at the present time."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 34. "Any thing which was done yesterday is supposed to be done in past time."—Ib., 34. "Any thing which may be done hereafter, is supposed to be done in future time."—Ib., 34. "When the mind compares two things in reference to each other, it performs the operation of comparing."—Ib., p. 244. "The persons, with whom you dispute, are not of your opinion."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 124. "But the preposition at is always used when it follows the neuter Verb in the same Case: as, 'I have been at London.'"—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 60. "But the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb to be: as, 'I have been at London.'"—L. Murray's Gram., p. 203; Ingersoll's, 231; Fisk's, 143; et al. "The article the has sometimes a different effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet."—Murray's Gram., p. 172. "The article the has, sometimes, a fine effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet."—Priestley's Gram., p. 151. "Some nouns have plurals belonging only to themselves."—Infant School Gram., p. 26. "Sentences are either simple or compound."—Lowth's Gram., p. 68. "All sentences are either simple or compound."—Gould's Adam's Gram., p. 155. "The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number."—Kirkham's Gram., Rule 2d, p. 156. "Where a riddle is not intended, it is always a fault in allegory to be too dark."—Blair's Rhet., p. 151; Murray's Gram., 343. "There may be an excess in too many short sentences also; by which the sense is split and broken."—Blair's Rhet., p. 101. "Are there any nouns you cannot see, hear, or feel, but only think of? Name such a noun."—Infant School Gram., p. 17. "Flock is of the singular number, it denotes but one flock—and in the nominative case, it is the active agent of the verb."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 58. "The article THE agrees with nouns of the singular or plural number."—Parker and Fox's Gram., p. 8. "The admiral bombarded Algiers, which has been continued."—Nixon's Parser, p. 128. "The world demanded freedom, which might have been expected."—Ibid. "The past tense represents an action as past and finished, either with or without respect to the time when."—Felton's Gram., p. 22. "That boy rode the wicked horse."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 42. "The snake swallowed itself."—Ib., p. 57. "Do is sometimes used when shall or should is omitted; as, 'if thou do repent.'"—Ib., p. 85. "SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. This mood has the tenses of the indicative."—Ib., p. 87. "As nouns never speak, they are never in the first person."—Davis's Practical Gram., p. 148. "Nearly all parts of speech are used more or less in an elliptical sense."—Day's District School Gram., p. 80. "RULE. No word in a period can have any greater extension than the other words or sections in the same sentence will give it."—Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 38 and p. 43. "Words used exclusively as Adverbs, should not be used as adjectives."—Clark's Practical Gram., p. 166. "Adjectives used in Predication, should not take the Adverbial form."—Ib., pp. 167 and 173.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XVI.—OF THE INCORRIGIBLE.

"And this state of things belonging to the painter governs it in the possessive case."—Murray's Gram., p. 195; Ingersoll's, 201; et al.

[FORMULE.—This composition is incorrigibly bad. The participle "belonging" which seems to relate to "things," is improperly meant to qualify "state." And the "state of things," (which state really belongs only to the things,) is absurdly supposed to belong to a person—i. e., "to the painter." Then this man, to whom the "state of things" is said to belong, is forthwith called "it," and nonsensically declared to be "in the possessive case." But, according to Critical Note 16th, "Passages too erroneous for correction, may be criticised, orally or otherwise, and then passed over without any attempt to amend them." Therefore, no correction is attempted here.]

"Nouns or pronouns, following the verb to be; or the words than, but, as; or that answer the question who? have the same case after as preceded them."—Beck's Gram., p. 29. "The common gender is when the noun may be either masculine or feminine."—Frost's Gram., p. 8. "The possessive is generally pronounced the same as if the s were added."—Alden's Gram., p. 11. "For, assuredly, as soon as men had got beyond simple interjections, and began to communicate themselves by discourse, they would be under a necessity of assigning names to the objects they saw around them, which in grammatical language, is called the invention of substantive nouns."—Blair's Rhet., p. 72. "Young children will learn to form letters as soon, if not readier, than they will when older."—Taylor's District School, p. 159. "This comparing words with one another, constitutes what is called the degrees of comparison."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 29. "Whenever a noun is immediately annexed to a preceding neuter verb, it expresses either the same notion with the verb, or denotes only the circumstance of the action."—Lowth's Gram., p. 73. "Two or more nouns or pronouns joined singular together by the conjunction and, must have verbs agreeing with them in the plural number."—Infant School Gram., p. 129. "Possessive and demonstrative pronouns agree with their nouns in number and case; as, 'my brother,' 'this slate, 'these slates.'"—Ib., p. 130. "Participles which have no relation to time are used either as adjectives or as substantives."—Maunder's Gram., p. 1. "They are in use only in some of their times and modes; and in some of them are a composition of times of several defective verbs, having the same signification."—Lowth's Gram., p. 59. "When words of the possessive case that are in apposition, follow one another in quick succession, the possessive sign should be annexed to the last only, and understood to the rest; as, 'For David, my servant's sake.'"—Comly's Gram., p. 92. "By this order, the first nine rules accord with those which respect the rules of concord; and the remainder include, though they extend beyond the rules of government."—Murray's Gram., p. 143. "Own and self, in the plural selves, are joined to the possessives, my, our, thy, your, his, her, their; as, my own hand, myself, yourselves; both of them expressing emphasis or opposition, as, 'I did it my own self,' that is, and no one else; the latter also forming the reciprocal pronoun, as, 'he hurt himself.'"—Lowth's Gram., p. 25. "A flowing copious style, therefore, is required in all public speakers; guarding, at the same time, against such a degree of diffusion, as renders them languid and tiresome; which will always prove the case, when they inculcate too much, and present the same thought under too many different views."—Blair's Rhet., p. 177. "As sentences should be cleared of redundant words, so also of redundant members. As every word ought to present a new idea, so every member ought to contain a new thought. Opposed to this, stands the fault we sometimes meet with, of the last member of a period being no other than the echo of the former, or the repetition of it in somewhat a different form." [458]—Ib., p. 111. "Which always refers grammatically to the substantive immediately preceding: [as,] 'It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our heavenly Father.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 311; Maunder's, p. 18; Blair's Rhet., p. 105. "The English adjectives, having but a very limited syntax, is classed with its kindred article, the adjective pronoun, under the eighth rule."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 143. "When a substantive is put absolutely, and does not agree with the following verb, it remains independent on the participle, and is called the case absolute, or the nominative absolute."—Ib., p. 195. "It will, doubtless, sometimes happen, that, on this occasion, as well as on many other occasions, a strict adherence to grammatical rules, would render the language stiff and formal: but when cases of this sort occur, it is better to give the expression a different turn, than to violate grammar for the sake of ease, or even of elegance."—Ib., p. 208. "Number, which distinguishes objects as singly or collectively, must have been coeval with the very infancy of language"—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 25. "The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 170; and others. "No language is perfect because it is a human invention."—Parker and Fox's Grammar, Part III, p. 112. "The participles, or as they may properly be termed, forms of the verb in the second infinitive, usually precedes another verb, and states some fact, or event, from which an inference is drawn by that verb; as, 'the sun having arisen, they departed.'"—Day's Grammar, 2nd Ed., p. 36. "They must describe what has happened as having done so in the past or the present time, or as likely to occur in the future."—The Well-Wishers' Grammar, Introd., p. 5. "Nouns are either male, female, or neither."—Fowle's Common School Grammar, Part Second, p. 12. "Possessive Adjectives express possession, and distinguish nouns from each other by showing to what they belong; as, my hat, John's hat."—Ib., p. 31.

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX.

LESSON I.—VARIOUS RULES.

"What is the reason that our language is less refined than that of Italy, Spain, or France?"—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 185. "What is the reason that our language is less refined than that of France?"—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 152. "'I believe your Lordship will agree with me, in the reason why our language is less refined than those of Italy, Spain, or France.' DEAN SWIFT. Even in this short sentence, we may discern an inaccuracy—'why our language is less refined than those of Italy, Spain, or France;' putting the pronoun those in the plural, when the antecedent substantive to which it refers is in the singular, our language."—Blair's Rhet., p. 228. "The sentence might have been made to run much better in this way; 'why our language is less refined than the Italian, Spanish, or French.'"—Ibid. "But when arranged in an entire sentence, which they must be to make a complete sense, they show it still more evidently."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 65. "This is a more artificial and refined construction than that, in which the common connective is simply made use of."—Ib., p. 127. "We shall present the reader with a list of Prepositions, which are derived from the Latin and Greek languages."—Ib., p. 120. "Relatives comprehend the meaning of a pronoun and conjunction copulative."—Ib., p. 126. "Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun, are not employed in the same part of the sentence as the noun which they represent."—Ib., p. 155; R. C. Smith's Gram., 131. "There is very seldom any occasion for a substitute in the same part where the principal word is present."—Murray's Gram., p. 155. "We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection."—Priestley's Gram., p. 98; Murray's, 157; Smith's, 133; and others. "The occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different."—Blair's Rhet., p. 95; Murray's Gram., 302; Jamieson's Rhet., 66. "I'll tell you who time ambles withal, who time trots withal, who time gallops withal and who he stands still withal. I pray thee, who doth he trot withal?"—Shakspeare. "By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view."—Addison. "The question may then be put, What does he more than mean?"—Blair's Rhet., p. 103. "The question might be put, what more does he than only mean?"—Ib., p. 204. "He is surprised to find himself got to so great a distance, from the object with which he at first set out."—Ib., p. 108. "He is surprised to find himself at so great a distance from the object with which he sets out."—Murray's Gram., p. 313. "Few precise rules can be given, which will hold without exception in all cases."—Ib., p. 267; Lowth's Gram., p. 115. "Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables according to certain laws."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 13. "Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syllables, according to certain laws."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 252; R. C. Smith's, 187; and others. "Charlotte, the friend of Amelia, to whom no one imputed blame, was too prompt in her own vindication."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 273. "Mr. Pitt, joining the war party in 1793, the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence, is the one which at once presents itself."—Brougham's Sketches, Vol. i, p. 57. "To the framing such a sound constitution of mind."—The American Lady, p. 132. "'I beseech you,' said St. Paul to his Ephesian converts, 'that ye walk worthy the vocation wherewith ye are called.'"—Ib., p. 208. "So as to prevent its being equal to that."—Booth's Introd., p. 88. "When speaking of an action's being performed."—Ib., p. 89. "And, in all questions of an action's being so performed, est is added to the second person."—Ib., p. 72. "No account can be given of this, than that custom has blinded their eyes."—Dymond's Essays, p. 269.

   "Design, or chance, make other wive;
    But nature did this match contrive."—Waller, p. 24.

LESSON II.—VARIOUS RULES.

"I suppose each of you think it is your own nail."—Abbott's Teacher, p. 58. "They are useless, from their being apparently based upon this supposition."—Ib., p. 71. "The form and manner, in which this plan may be adopted, is various."—Ib., p. 83. "Making intellectual effort, and acquiring knowledge, are always pleasant to the human mind."—Ib., p. 85. "This will do more than the best lecture which ever was delivered."—Ib., p. 90. "Doing easy things is generally dull work."—Ib., p. 92. "Such is the tone and manner of some teachers."—Ib., p. 118. "Well, the fault is, being disorderly at prayer time."—Ib., p. 153. "Do you remember speaking on this subject in school?"—Ib., p. 154. "The course above recommended, is not trying lax and inefficient measures."—Ib., p. 156. "Our community is agreed that there is a God."—Ib., p. 163. "It prevents their being interested in what is said."—Ib., p. 175. "We will also suppose that I call another boy to me, who I have reason to believe to be a sincere Christian."—Ib., p. 180. "Five minutes notice is given by the bell."—Ib., p. 211. "The Annals of Education gives notice of it."—Ib., p. 240. "Teacher's meetings will be interesting and useful."—Ib., p. 243. "She thought an half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties."—Ib., p. 257. "The difference between an honest and an hypocritical confession."—Ib., p. 263. "There is no point of attainment where we must stop."—Ib., p. 267. "Now six hours is as much as is expected of teachers."—Ib., p. 268. "How much is seven times nine?"—Ib., p. 292. "Then the reckoning proceeds till it come to ten hundred."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 170. "Your success will depend on your own exertions; see, then, that you are diligent."—Ib., p. 142. "Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense: If I am known, If thou art known. If he is known: etc."—Ib., p. 91. "If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved;" &c.—Ib., p. 85. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. They are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of a sentence without any reference to the structure of the other parts of it."—Ib., p. 35. "The Cardinals are those which simplify or denote number; as one, two, three."—Ib., p. 31. "More than one organ is concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant."—Ib., p. 21. "To extract from them all the Terms we make use in our Divisions and Subdivisions of the Art."—Holmes's Rhetoric, Pref. "And there was written therein lamentations, and mourning, and woe."—Ezekiel, ii, 10. "If I were to be judged as to my behaviour, compared with that of John's."—Josephus, Vol. 5, p. 172. "When the preposition to signifies in order to, it used to be preceded by for, which is now almost obsolete; What went ye out for to see."—Priestley's Gram., p. 132. "This makes the proper perfect tense, which, in English, is always expressed by the help of the auxiliary verb, 'I have written.'"—Blair's Rhet., p. 82. "Indeed, in the formation of character, personal exertion is the first, the second, and the third virtues."—Sanders, Spelling-Book, p. 93. "The reducing them to the condition of the beasts that perish."—Dymond's Essays, p. 67. "Yet this affords no reason to deny that the nature of the gift is not the same, or that both are not divine."—Ib., p. 68. "If God have made known his will."—Ib., p. 98. "If Christ have prohibited them, [i.e., oaths,] nothing else can prove them right."—Ib., p. 150 "That the taking them is wrong, every man who simply consults his own heart, will know."—Ib., p. 163. "These evils would be spared the world, if one did not write."—Ib., p. 168. "It is in a great degree our own faults."—Ib., p. 200. "It is worthy observation that lesson-learning is nearly excluded."—Ib., p. 212. "Who spares the aggressor's life even to the endangering his own."—Ib., p. 227. "Who advocates the taking the life of an aggressor."—Ib., p. 229. "And thence up to the intentionally and voluntary fraudulent."—Ib., p. 318. "'And the contention was so great among them, that they departed asunder, one from _an_other.'—Acts, xv. 39."—Rev. Matt. Harrison's English Lang., p. 235. "Here the man is John, and John is the man; so the words are the imagination and the fancy, and the imagination and the fancy are the words."—Harrison's E. Lang., p. 227. "The article, which is here so emphatic in the Greek, is lost sight of in our translation."—Ib., p. 223. "We have no less than thirty pronouns."—Ib., p. 166. "It will admit of a pronoun being joined to it."—Ib., p. 137. "From intercourse and from conquest, all the languages of Europe participate with each other."—Ib., p. 104. "It is not always necessity, therefore, that has been the cause of our introducing terms derived from the classical languages."—Ib., p. 100. "The man of genius stamps upon it any impression that he pleases."—Ib., p. 90. "The proportion of names ending in son preponderate greatly among the Dano-Saxon population of the North."—Ib., p. 43. "As a proof of the strong similarity between the English and the Danish languages."—Ib., p. 37. "A century from the time that Hengist and Horsa landed on the Isle of Thanet."—Ib., p. 27.

   "I saw the colours waving in the wind,
    And they within, to mischief how combin'd."—Bunyan.

LESSON III.—VARIOUS RULES.

"A ship expected: of whom we say, she sails well."—Ben Jonson's Gram., Chap. 10. "Honesty is reckoned little worth."—Paul's Accidence, p. 58. "Learn to esteem life as it ought."—Economy of Human Life, p. 118. "As the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady, so the highest joy toucheth us less deep than the smallest sorrow."—Ib., p. 152. "Being young is no apology for being frivolous."—Whiting's Elementary Reader, p. 117. "The porch was the same width with the temple."—Milman's Jews, Vol. i. p. 208. "The other tribes neither contributed to his rise or downfall."—Ib., Vol. i. p. 165. "His whole laws and religion would have been shaken to its foundation."—Ib., Vol. i. p. 109. "The English has most commonly been neglected, and children taught only the Latin syntax."—Lily's Gram., Pref., p. xi. "They are not taken notice of in the notes."—Ib., p. x. "He walks in righteousness, doing what he would be done to."—S. Fisher's Works, p. 14. "They stand independently on the rest of the sentence."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 151. "My uncle, with his son, were in town yesterday."—Lennie's Gram., p. 142. "She with her sisters are well."—Ib., p. 143. "His purse, with its contents, were abstracted from his pocket."—Ib., p. 143. "The great constitutional feature of this institution being, that directly the acrimony of the last election is over, the acrimony of the next begins."—Dickens's Notes, p. 27. "His disregarding his parents' advice has brought him into disgrace."—Farnum's Pract. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 19. "Error: Can you tell me the reason of his father making that remark?—Ib., p. 93. Cor.: Can you tell me the reason of his father's making that remark?"—See Farnum's Gram., Rule 12th. p. 76. "Error: What is the reason of our teacher detaining us so long?—Ib., p. 76. Cor.: What is the reason of our teacher's detaining us so long?"—See Ib. "Error: I am certain of the boy having said so. Correction: I am certain of the boy's having said so."—Exercises in Farnum's Gram., p. 76. "Which means any thing or things before-named; and that may represent any person or persons, thing or things, which have been speaking, spoken to or spoken of."—Dr. Perley's Gram., p. 9. "A certain number of syllables connected, form a foot. They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 252; C. Adams's, 121. "Asking questions with a principal verb—as, Teach I? Burns he, &c. are barbarisms, and carefully to be avoided."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 122. "Tell whether the 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 22d, or 23d Rules are to be used, and repeat the Rule."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part I, p. 4. "The resolution was adopted without much deliberation, which caused great dissatisfaction."—Ib., p. 71. "The man is now taken much notice of by the people thereabouts."—Edward's First Lessons in Gram., p. 42. "The sand prevents their sticking to one another."—Ib., p. 84. "Defective Verbs are those which are used only in some of their moods and tenses."—Murray's Gram., p. 108; Guy's, 42; Russell's, 46; Bacon's, 42; Frost's, 40; Alger's, 47; S. Putnam's, 47; Goldsbury's, 54; Felton's, 59; and others. "Defective verbs are those which want some of their moods and tenses."—Lennie's Gram., p. 47; Bullions, E. Gram., 65; Practical Lessons, 75. "Defective Verbs want some of their parts."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 78. "A Defective verb is one that wants some of its parts."—Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 1849, p. 101. "To the irregular verbs are to be added the defective; which are not only for the most part irregular, but also wanting in some of their parts."—Lowth's Gram., p. 59. "To the irregular verbs are to be added the defective; which are not only wanting in some of their parts, but are, when inflected, irregular."—Churchill's Gram., p. 112. "When two or more nouns succeed each other in the possessive case."—Farnum's Gram., 2d Ed., pp. 20 and 63. "When several short sentences succeed each other."—Ib., p. 113. "Words are divided into ten Classes, and are called PARTS OF SPEECH."—Ainsworth's Gram., p. 8. "A Passive Verb has its agent or doer always in the objective case, and is governed by a preposition."—Ib., p. 40. "I am surprised at your negligent attention." Ib., p. 43. "SINGULAR: Thou lovest or you love. You has always a plural verb."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 43. "How do you know that love is the first person? Ans. Because we is the first personal pronoun."—Id., ib., p. 47; Lennie's Gram., p. 26. "The lowing herd wind slowly round the lea."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 96. "Iambic verses have every second, fourth, and other even syllables accented."—Ib., p. 170. "Contractions are often made in poetry, which are not allowable in prose."—Ib., p. 179. "Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed."—Ib., p. 179. "It never presents to his mind but one new subject at the same time."—Felton's Gram., 1st edition, p. 6. "When the name of a quality is abstracted, that is separated from its substance, it is called an abstract noun."—Ib., p. 9. "Nouns are in the first person when speaking."—Ib., p. 9. "Which of the two brothers are graduates?"—Hallock's Gram., p. 59. "I am a linen draper bold, as you and all the world doth know."—Ib., p. 60. "O the bliss, the pain of dying!"—Ib., p. 127. "This do; take you censers, Korah, and all his company."—Numbers, xvi, 6. "There are two participles,—the present and perfect; as, reading, having read. Transitive verbs have an active and passive participle. Examples: ACTIVE, Present, Loving; Perfect, Having loved: PASSIVE, Present, Loved or being loved; Perfect, Having been loved."—S. S. Greene's Analysis, 1st Ed., p. 225.

   "O heav'n, in my connubial hour decree
    This man my spouse, or such a spouse as he."—Pope.

LESSON IV.—VARIOUS RULES.

"The Past Tenses represent a conditional past fact or event, and of which the speaker is uncertain."—Hiley's Gram., p. 89. "Care also should be taken that they are not introduced too abundantly."—Ib., p. 134. "Till they are become familiar to the mind."—Ib., Pref., p. v. "When once a particular arrangement and phraseology are become familiar to the mind."—Ib., p. vii. "I have furnished the student with the plainest and most practical directions which I could devise."—Ib., p. xiv. "When you are become conversant with the Rules of Grammar, you will then be qualified to commence the study of Style."—Ib., p. xxii. "C has a soft sound like s before e, i, and y, generally."—Murray's Gram., p. 10. "G before e, i, and y, is soft; as in genius, ginger, Egypt."—Ib., p. 12. "C before e, i, and y, generally sounds soft like s."—Hiley's Gram., p. 4. "G is soft before e, i, and y, as in genius, ginger, Egypt."—Ib., p. 4. "As a perfect Alphabet must always contain as many letters as there are elementary sounds in the language, the English Alphabet is therefore both defective and redundant."—Hiley's Gram., p. 5. "Common Nouns are the names given to a whole class or species, and are applicable to every individual of that class."—Ib., p. 11. "Thus an adjective has always a noun either expressed or understood."—Ib., p. 20. "First, let us consider emphasis; by this, is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we distinguish the accented syllable of some word, on which we design to lay particular stress, and to shew how it effects the rest of the sentence."—Blair's Rhet., p. 330. "By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence."—Murray's Gram., p. 242. "Such a simple question as this: 'Do you ride to town to-day,' is capable of no fewer than four different acceptations, according as the emphasis is differently placed on the words."—Blair's Rhet., p. 330; Murray's Gram., p. 242. "Thus, bravely, or 'in a brave manner,' is derived from brave-like."—Hiley's Gram., p. 51. "In the same manner, the different parts of speech are formed from each other generally by means of some affix."—Ib., p. 60. "Words derived from each other, are always, more or less, allied in signification."—Ib., p. 60. "When a noun of multitude conveys unity of idea the verb and pronoun should be singular. But when it conveys plurality of idea, the verb and pronoun must be plural."—Hiley's Gram., p. 71. "They have spent their whole time to make the sacred chronology agree with that of the profane."—Ib., p. 87. "'I have studied my lesson, but you have not;' that is, 'but you have not studied it.'"—Ib., p. 109. "When words follow each other in pairs, there is a comma between each pair."—Ib., p. 112; Bullions, 152; Lennie, 132. "When words follow each other in pairs, the pairs should be marked by the comma."—Farnum's Gram., p. 111. "His 'Studies of Nature,' is deservedly a popular work."—Univ. Biog. Dict., n. St. Pierre. "'Here lies his head, a youth to fortune and to fame unknown.' 'Youth,' here is in the possessive (the sign being omitted), and is in apposition with his.' The meaning is, 'the head of him, a youth.' &c."—Hart's E. Gram., p. 124. "The pronoun I, and the interjection O, should be written with a capital."—Weld's E. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 16. "The pronoun I always should be written with a capital letter."—Ib., p. 68. "He went from England to York."—Ib., p. 41. "An adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, to modify their meaning."—Ib., p. 51; "Abridged Ed.," 46. "Singular, signifies 'one person or thing.' Plural, (Latin plus,) signifies 'more than one.'"—Weld's Gram., p. 55. "When the present ends in e, d only is added to form the Imperfect and Perfect participle."—Ib., p. 82. "SYNÆRESIS is the contraction of two syllables into one; as, Seest for see-est, drowned for drown-ed"—Ib., p. 213. "Words ending in ee drop the final e on receiving an additional syllable beginning with e; as, see, seest, agree, agreed."—Ib., p, 227. "Monosyllables in f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel are doubled; as, staff, grass, mill."—Ib., p. 226. "Words ending ie drop the e and take y; as die, dying."—Ib., p. 226. "One number may be used for another; as, we for I, you for thou."—S. S. Greene's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 198. "STR~OB´ILE, n. A pericarp made up of scales that lie over each other. SMART."—Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dict.

   "Yet ever from the clearest source have ran
    Some gross allay, some tincture of the man."—Dr. Lowth.

LESSON V.—VARIOUS RULES.

"The possessive case is always followed by the noun which is the name of the thing possessed, expressed or understood."—Felton's Gram., p. 61; Revised Edition, pp. 64 and 86. "Hadmer of Aggstein was as pious, devout, and praying a Christian, as were Nelson, Washington, or Jefferson; or as are Wellington, Tyler, Clay, or Polk."—H. C. WRIGHT: Liberator, Vol. xv, p. 21. "A word in the possessive case is not an independent noun, and cannot stand by its self."—Wright's Gram., p. 130. "Mary is not handsome, but she is good-natured, which is better than beauty."—St. Quentin's Gram., p. 9. "After the practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at the end of every word."—Murray's Gram., p. 267; Hallock's, 224. "Neither Henry nor Charles dissipate his time."—Hallock's Gram., p. 166. "'He had taken from the Christians' abode thirty small castles.'—Knowles."—Ib., p. 61. "In whatever character Butler was admitted, is unknown."—Ib., p. 62. "How is the agent of a passive, and the object of an active verb often left?"—Ib., p. 88. "By subject is meant the word of which something is declared of its object."—Chandler's Gram., 1821, p. 103. "Care should also be taken that an intransitive verb is not used instead of a transitive: as, I lay, (the bricks) for, I lie down; I raise the house, for I rise; I sit down, for, I set the chair down, &c."—Ib., p. 114. "On them depend the duration of our Constitution and our country."—J. C. Calhoun at Memphis. "In the present sentence neither the sense nor the measure require what."—Chandler's Gram., 1821, p. 164. "The Irish thought themselves oppress'd by the Law that forbid them to draw with their Horses Tails."—Brightland's Gram., Pref., p. iii. "So willingly are adverbs, qualifying deceives."—Cutler's Gram., p. 90. "Epicurus for experiment sake confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons."—Ib., p. 116. "Derivative words are such as are compounded of other words, as common-wealth, good-ness, false-hood."—Ib., p. 12. "The distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost sight of."—Hart's Gram., p. 61. "The Tenses of the Subjunctive and the Potential Moods."—Ib., p. 80. "A triphthong is a union of three vowels uttered in like manner: as, uoy in buoy."—P. Davis's Practical Gram., p. xvi. "Common nouns are the names of a species or kind."—Ib., p. 8. "The superlative degree is a comparison between three or more."—Ib., p. 14. "An adverb is a word or phrase serving to give an additional idea of a verb, and adjective, article, or another adverb."—Ib., p. 36. "When several nouns in the possessive case succeed each other, each showing possession of the same noun, it is only necessary to add the sign of the possessive to the last: as, He sells men, women, and children's shoes. Dog. cat, and tiger's feet are digitated."—Ib., p. 72. "A rail-road is making should be A rail-road is being made. A school-house is building, should be A school-house is being built."—Ib., p. 113. "Auxiliaries are not of themselves verbs; they resemble in their character and use those terminational or other inflections in other languages, which we are obliged to use in ours to express the action in the mode, tense, &c., desired."—Ib., p. 158. "Please hold my horse while I speak to my friend."—Ib., p. 159. "If I say, 'Give me the book,' I ask for some particular book."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 39. "There are five men here."—Ib., p. 134. "In the active the object may be omitted; in the passive the name of the agent may be omitted."—Ib., p. 63. "The Progressive and the Emphatic forms give in each case a different shade of meaning to the verb."—Hart's Gram., p. 80. "That is a Kind of a Redditive Conjunction, when it answers to so and such."—W. Ward's Gram., p. 152. "He attributes to negligence your failing to succeed in that business."—Smart's Accidence, p. 36. "Does will and go express but our action?"—S. Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 58. "Language is the principle vehicle of thought. G. BROWN."—James Brown's English Syntax, p. 3. "Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to those that are numbered. Elder and eldest, to persons only; older and oldest, either to persons or things."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 20; Pract. Les., 25. "If there are any old maids still extant, while mysogonists are so rare, the fault must be attributable to themselves."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 286. "The second method used by the Greeks, has never been the practice of any part of Europe."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 64. "Neither consonant, nor vowel, are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity, when they close a sentence."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 54. "IRONY is a mode of speech expressing a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer intends to convey."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 196; 113th Ed., p. 212. "IRONY is the intentional use of words in a sense contrary to that which the writer or speaker intends to convey."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 215; Imp. Ed., 216. "The persons speaking, or spoken to, are supposed to be present."—Wells, p. 68. "The persons speaking and spoken to are supposed to be present."—Murray's Gram., p. 51. "A Noun is a word used to express the name of an object."—Wells's School Gram., pp. 46 and 47. "A syllable is a word, or such a part of a word as is uttered by one articulation."—Weld's English Gram., p. 15; "Abridged Ed.," p. 16.

   "Thus wondrous fair; thyself how wondrous then!
    Unspeakable, who sits above these heavens."
        —Cutler's Gram., p. 131.

   "And feel thy sovereign vital lamp; but thou
    Revisitest not these eyes, that roll in vain."
        —Felton's Gram., p. 133.

   "Before all temples the upright and pure."
        —Butler's Gram., p. 195.

   "In forest wild, in thicket, break or den."
        —Cutler's Gram., p. 130.

   "The rogue and fool by fits is fair and wise;
    And e'en the best, by fits, what they despise."
        —Pope's Ess., iii, 233.

CHAPTER XIV.—QUESTIONS.

ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.

PART THIRD, SYNTAX.

[Fist][The following questions, which embrace nearly all the important particulars of the foregoing code of Syntax, are designed not only to direct and facilitate class rehearsals, but also to develop the acquirements of those who may answer them at examinations more public.]

LESSON I.—DEFINITIONS. 1. Of what does Syntax treat? 2. What is the relation of words? 3. What is the agreement of words? 4. What is the government of words? 5. What is the arrangement of words? 6. What is a sentence? 7. How many and what are the principal parts of a sentence? 8. What are the other parts called? 9. How many kinds of sentences are there? 10. What is a simple sentence? 11. What is a compound sentence? 12. What is a clause, or member? 13. What is a phrase? 14. What words must be supplied in parsing? 15. How are the leading principles of syntax presented? 16. In what order are the rules of syntax arranged in this work?

LESSON II.—THE RULES.

1. To what do articles relate? 2. What case is employed as the subject of a finite verb? 3. What agreement is required between words in apposition? 4. By what is the possessive case governed? 5. What case does an active-transitive verb or participle govern? 6. What case is put after a verb or participle not transitive? 7. What case do prepositions govern? 8. When, and in what case, is a noun or pronoun put absolute in English? 9. To what do adjectives relate? 10. How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent? 11. How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun? 12. How does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents? 13. How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents?

LESSON III.—THE RULES.

14. How does a finite verb agree with its subject, or nominative? 15. How does a verb agree with a collective noun? 16. How does a verb agree with joint nominatives? 17. How does a verb agree with disjunctive nominatives? 18. What governs the infinitive mood? 19. What verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition to? 20. What is the regular construction of participles, as such? 21. To what do adverbs relate? 22. What do conjunctions connect? 23. What is the use of prepositions? 24. What is the syntax of interjections?

LESSON IV.—THE RULES.

1. What are the several titles, or subjects, of the twenty-four rules of syntax? 2. What says Rule 1st of Articles? 3. What says Rule 2d of Nominatives? 4. What says Rule 3d of Apposition? 5. What says Rule 4th of Possessives? 6. What says Rule 5th of Objectives? 7. What says Rule 6th of Same Cases? 8. What says Rule 7th of Objectives? 9. What says Rule 8th of the Nominative Absolute? 10. What says Rule 9th of Adjectives? 11. What says Rule 10th of Pronouns? 12. What says Rule 11th of Pronouns? 13. What says Rule 12th of Pronouns? 14. What says Rule 13th of Pronouns? 15. What says Rule 14th of Finite Verbs? 16. What says Rule 15th of Finite Verbs? 17. What says Rule 16th of Finite Verbs? 18. What says Rule 17th of Finite Verbs? 19. What says Rule 18th of Infinitives? 20. What says Rule 19th of Infinitives? 21. What says Rule 20th of Participles? 22. What says Rule 21st of Adverbs? 23. What says Rule 22d of Conjunctions? 24. What says Rule 23d of Prepositions? 25. What says Rule 24th of Interjections?

LESSON V.—THE ANALYZING OF SENTENCES.

1. What is it, "to analyze a sentence?" 2. What are the component parts of a sentence? 3. Can all sentences be divided into clauses? 4. Are there different methods of analysis, which may be useful? 5. What is the first method of analysis, according to this code of syntax? 6. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is self-existent and indestructible—even he, who, instead of seeing the traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty dimensions of materialism—even he, who would despoil creation of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a magnificence that fixes and overpowers him." 7. What is the second method of analysis? 8. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Fear naturally quickens the flight of guilt. Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course." 9. What is the third method of analysis? 10. How is the following example analyzed by this method? "Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment, that we are always impatient of the present. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking. From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity." 11. What is the fourth method of analysis? 12. How are the following sentences analyzed by this method? (1.) "Swift would say, 'The thing has not life enough in it to keep it sweet;' Johnson, 'The creature possesses not vitality sufficient to preserve it from putrefaction.'" (2.) "There is one Being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about us can take away." 13. What is said of the fifth method of analysis?

[Now, if the teacher choose to make use of any other method of analysis than full syntactical parsing, he may direct his pupils to turn to the next selection of examples, or to any other accurate sentences, and analyze them according to the method chosen.]

LESSON VI.—OF PARSING.

1. Why is it necessary to observe the sense, or meaning, of what we parse? 2. What is required of the pupil in syntactical parsing? 3. How is the following long example parsed in Praxis XII? "A young man studious to know his duty, and honestly bent on doing it, will find himself led away from the sin or folly in which the multitude thoughtlessly indulge themselves; but, ah! poor fallen human nature! what conflicts are thy portion, when inclination and habit—a rebel and a traitor—exert their sway against our only saving principle!"

[Now parse, in like manner, and with no needless deviations from the prescribed forms, the ten lessons of the Twelfth Praxis; or such parts of those lessons as the teacher may choose.]

LESSON VII.—THE RULES.

1. In what chapter are the rules of syntax first presented? 2. In what praxis are these rules first applied in parsing? 3. Which of the ten parts of speech is left without any rule of syntax? 4. How many and which of the ten have but one rule apiece? 5. Then, of the twenty-four rules, how many remain for the other three parts,—nouns, pronouns, and verbs? 6. How many of these seventeen speak of cases, and therefore apply equally to nouns and pronouns? 7. Which are these seven? 8. How many rules are there for the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents, and which are they? 9. How many rules are there for finite verbs, and which are they? 10. How many are there for infinitives, and which are they? 11. What ten chapters of the foregoing code of syntax treat of the ten parts of speech in their order? 12. Besides the rules and their examples, what sorts of matters are introduced into these chapters? 13. How many of the twenty-four rules of syntax are used both in parsing and in correcting? 14. Of what use are those which cannot be violated in practice? 15. How many such rules are there among the twenty-four? 16. How many and what parts of speech are usually parsed by such rules only?

LESSON VIII.—THE NOTES.

1. What is the essential character of the Notes which are placed under the rules of syntax? 2. Are the different forms of false construction as numerous as these notes? 3. Which exercise brings into use the greater number of grammatical principles, parsing or correcting? 4. Are the principles or doctrines which are applied in these different exercises usually the same, or are they different? 5. In etymological parsing, we use about seventy definitions; can these be used also in the correcting of errors? 6. For the correcting of false syntax, we have a hundred and fifty-two notes; can these be used also in parsing? 7. How many of the rules have no such notes under them? 8. What order is observed in the placing of these notes, if some rules have many, and others few or none? 9. How many of them are under the rule for articles? 10. How many of them refer to the construction of nouns? 11. How many of them belong to the syntax of adjectives? 12. How many of them treat of pronouns? 13. How many of them regard the use of verbs? 14. How many of them pertain to the syntax of participles? 15. How many of them relate to the construction of adverbs? 16. How many of them show the application of conjunctions? 17. How many of them expose errors in the use of prepositions? 18. How many of them speak of interjections?

[Now correct orally the examples of False Syntax placed under the several Rules and Notes; or so many texts under each head as the teacher may think sufficient.]

LESSON IX.—THE EXCEPTIONS.

1. In what exercise can there be occasion to cite and apply the Exceptions to the rules of syntax? 2. Are there exceptions to all the rules, or to how many? 3. Are there exceptions in reference to all the parts of speech, or to how many of the ten? 4. Do articles always relate to nouns? 5. Can the subject of a finite verb be in any other case than the nominative? 6. Are words in apposition always supposed to be in the same case? 7. Is the possessive case always governed by the name of the thing possessed? 8. Can an active-transitive verb govern any other case than the objective? 9. Can a verb or participle not transitive take any other case after it than that which precedes it? 10. Can a preposition, in English, govern any other case than the objective? 11. Can "the case absolute," in English, be any other than the nominative? 12. Does every adjective "belong to a substantive, expressed or understood," as Murray avers? 13. Can an adjective ever relate to any thing else than a noun or pronoun? 14. Can an adjective ever be used without relation to any noun, pronoun, or other subject? 15. Can an adjective ever be substituted for its kindred abstract noun? 16. Are the person, number, and gender of a pronoun always determined by an antecedent? 17. What pronoun is sometimes applied to animals so as not to distinguish their sex? 18. What pronoun is sometimes an expletive, and sometimes used with reference to an infinitive following it?

LESSON X.—THE EXCEPTIONS.

19. Does a singular antecedent ever admit of a plural pronoun? 20. Can a pronoun agree with its antecedent in one sense and not in an other? 21. If the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, must the pronoun always be plural? 22. If there are two or more antecedents connected by and, must the pronoun always be plural? 23. If there are antecedents connected by or or nor, is the pronoun always to take them separately? 24. Must a finite verb always agree with its nominative in number and person? 25. If the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, must the verb always be plural? 26. If there are two or more nominatives connected by and, must the verb always be plural? 21. If there are nominatives connected by or or nor, is the verb always to refer to them separately? 28. Does the preposition to before the infinitive always govern the verb? 29. Can the preposition to govern or precede any other mood than the infinitive? 30. Is the preposition to "understood" after bid, dare, feel, and so forth, where it is "superfluous and improper?" 31. How many and what exceptions are there to rule 20th, concerning participles? 32. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for adverbs? 33. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for conjunctions? 34. How many and what exceptions are there to the rule for prepositions? 35. Is there any exception to the 24th rule, concerning interjections?

LESSON XI.—THE OBSERVATIONS.

1. How many of the ten parts of speech in English are in general incapable of any agreement? 2. Can there be a syntactical relation of words without either agreement or government? 3. Is there ever any needful agreement between unrelated words? 4. Is the mere relation of words according to the sense an element of much importance in English syntax? 5. What parts of speech have no other syntactical property than that of simple relation? 6. What rules of relation are commonly found in grammars? 7. Of what parts is syntax commonly said to consist? 8. Is it common to find in grammars, the rules of syntax well adapted to their purpose? 9. Can you specify some that appear to be faulty? 10. Wherein consists the truth of grammatical doctrine, and how can one judge of what others teach? 11. Do those who speak of syntax as being divided into two parts, Concord and Government, commonly adhere to such division? 12. What false concords and false governments are cited in Obs. 7th of the first chapter? 13. Is it often expedient to join in the same rule such principles as must always be applied separately? 14. When one can condense several different principles into one rule, is it not expedient to do so? 15. Is it ever convenient to have one and the same rule applicable to different parts of speech? 16. Is it ever convenient to have rules divided into parts, so as to be double or triple in their form? 17. What instance of extravagant innovation is given in Obs. 12th of the first chapter?

LESSON XII.—THE OBSERVATIONS.

18. Can a uniform series of good grammars, Latin, Greek, English, &c., be produced by a mere revising of one defective book for each language? 19. Whose are "The Principles of English Grammar" which Dr. Bullions has republished with alterations, "on the plan of Murray's Grammar?" 20. Can praise and success entitle to critical notice works in themselves unworthy of it? 21. Do the Latin grammarians agree in their enumeration of the concords in Latin? 22. What is said in Obs. 16th, of the plan of mixing syntax with etymology? 23. Do not the principles of etymology affect those of syntax? 24. Can any words agree, or disagree, except in something that belongs to each of them? 25. How many and what parts of speech are concerned in government? 26. Are rules of government to be applied to the governing words, or to the governed? 27. What are gerundives? 28. How many and what are the principles of syntax which belong to the head of simple relation? 29. How many agreements, or concords, are there in English syntax? 30. How many rules of government are there in the best Latin grammars? 31. What fault is there in the usual distribution of these rules? 32. How many and what are the governments in English syntax? 33. Can the parsing of words be varied by any transposition which does not change their import? 34. Can the parsing of words be affected by the parser's notion of what constitutes a simple sentence? 35. What explanation of simple and compound sentences is cited from Dr. Wilson, in Obs. 25? 36. What notion had Dr. Adam of simple and compound sentences? 37. Is this doctrine consistent either with itself or with Wilson's? 38. How can one's notion of ellipsis affect his mode of parsing, and his distinction of sentences as simple or compound?

LESSON XIII.—ARTICLES.

1. Can one noun have more than one article? 2. Can one article relate to more than one noun? 3. Why cannot the omission of an article constitute a proper ellipsis? 4. What is the position of the article with respect to its noun? 5. What is the usual position of the article with respect to an adjective and a noun? 6. Can the relative position of the article and adjective be a matter of indifference? 7. What adjectives exclude, or supersede, the article? 8. What adjectives precede the article? 9. What four adverbs affect the position of the article and adjective? 10. Do other adverbs come between the article and the adjective? 11. Can any of the definitives which preclude an or a, be used with the adjective one? 12. When the adjective follows its noun, where stands the article? 13. Can the article in English, ever be placed after its noun? 14. What is the effect of the word the before comparatives and superlatives? 15. What article may sometimes be used in lieu of a possessive pronoun? 16. Is the article an or a always supposed to imply unity? 17. Respecting an or a, how does present usage differ from the usage of ancient writers? 18. Can the insertion or omission of an article greatly affect the import of a sentence? 19. By a repetition of the article before two or more adjectives, what other repetition is implied? 20. How do we sometimes avoid such repetition? 21. Can there ever be an implied repetition of the noun when no article is used?

LESSON XIV.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

1. In how many different ways can the nominative case be used? 2. What is the usual position of the nominative and verb, and when is it varied? 3. With what nominatives of the second person, does the imperative verb agree? 4. Why is it thought improper to put a noun in two cases at once? 5. What case in Latin and Greek is reckoned the subject of the infinitive mood? 6. Can this, in general, be literally imitated in English? 7. Do any English authors adopt the Latin doctrine of the accusative (or objective) before the infinitive? 8. Is the objective, when it occurs before the infinitive in English, usually governed by some verb, participle, or preposition? 9. What is our nearest approach to the Latin construction of the accusative before the infinitive? 10. What is apposition, and from whom did it receive this name? 11. Is there a construction of like cases, that is not apposition? 12. To which of the apposite terms is the rule for apposition to be applied? 13. Are words in apposition always to be parsed separately? 14. Wherein are the common rule and definition of apposition faulty? 15. Can the explanatory word ever be placed first? 16. Is it ever indifferent, which word be called the principal, and which the explanatory term? 17. Why cannot two nouns, each having the possessive sign, be put in apposition with each other? 18. Where must the sign of possession be put, when two or more possessives are in apposition? 19. Is it compatible with apposition to supply between the words a relative and a verb; as, "At Mr. Smith's [who is] the bookseller?" 20. How can a noun be, or seem to be, in apposition with a possessive pronoun? 21. What construction is produced by the repetition of a noun or pronoun? 22. What is the construction of a noun, when it emphatically repeats the idea suggested by a preceding sentence?

LESSON XV.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

23. Can words differing in number be in apposition with each other? 24. What is the usual construction of each other and one an other? 25. Is there any argument from analogy for taking each other and one an other for compounds? 26. Do we often put proper nouns in apposition with appellatives? 27. What preposition is often put between nouns that signify the same thing? 28. When is an active verb followed by two words in apposition? 29. Does apposition require any other agreement than that of case? 30. What three modes of construction appear like exceptions to Rule 4th? 31. In the phrase, "For David my servant's sake," which word is governed by sake, and which is to be parsed by the rule of apposition? 32. In the sentence, "It is man's to err," what is supposed to govern man's? 33. Does the possessive case admit of any abstract sense or construction? 34. Why is it reasonable to limit the government of the possessive to nouns only, or to words taken substantive? 35. Does the possessive case before a real participle denote the possessor of something? 36. What two great authors differ in regard to the correctness of the phrases, "upon the rule's being observed," and "of its being neglected?" 37. Is either of them right in his argument? 38. Is the distinction between the participial noun and the participle well preserved by Murray and his amenders? 39. Who invented the doctrine, that a participle and its adjuncts may be used as "one name" and in that capacity govern the possessive? 40. Have any popular authors adopted this doctrine? 41. Is the doctrine well sustained by its adopters, or is it consistent with the analogy of general grammar? 42. When one doubts whether a participle ought to be the governing word or the adjunct,—that is, whether he ought to use the possessive case before it or the objective,—what shall he do? 43, What is objected to the sentences in which participles govern the possessive case, and particularly to the examples given by Priestley, Murray, and others, to prove such a construction right? 44. Do the teachers of this doctrine agree among themselves? 45. How does the author of this work generally dispose of such government? 46. Does he positively determine, that the participle should never be allowed to govern the possessive case?

LESSON XVI.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

47. Are the distinctions of voice and of time as much regarded in participial nouns as in participles? 48. Why cannot an omission of the possessive sign be accounted a true ellipsis? 49. What is the usual position of the possessive case, and what exceptions are there? 50. In what other form can the meaning of the possessive case be expressed? 51. Is the possessive often governed by what is not expressed? 52. Does every possessive sign imply a separate governing noun? 53. How do compounds take the sign of possession? 54. Do we put the sign of possession always and only where the two terms of the possessive relation meet? 55. Can the possessive sign be ever rightly added to a separate adjective? 56. What is said of the omission of s from the possessive singular on account of its hissing sound? 57. What errors do Kirkham, Smith, and others, teach concerning the possessive singular? 58. Why is Murray's rule for the possessive case objectionable? 59. Do compounds embracing the possessive case appear to be written with sufficient uniformity? 60. What rules for nouns coming together are inserted in Obs. 31st on Rule 4th? 61. Does the compounding of words necessarily preclude their separate use? 62. Is there a difference worth notice, between such terms or things as heart-ease and heart's-ease; a harelip and a hare's lip; a headman and a headsman; a lady's-slipper and a lady's slipper? 63. Where usage is utterly unsettled, what guidance should be sought? 64. What peculiarities are noticed in regard to the noun side? 65. What peculiarities has the possessive case in regard to correlatives? 66. What is remarked of the possessive relation between time and action? 67. What is observed of nouns of weight, measure, or time, coming immediately together?

LESSON XVII.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

68. Are there any exceptions or objections to the old rule, "Active verbs govern the objective case?" 69. Of how many different constructions is the objective case susceptible? 70. What is the usual position of the objective case, and what exceptions are there? 71. Can any thing but the governing of an objective noun or pronoun make an active verb transitive? 72. In the sentence, "What have I to do with thee?" how are have and do to be parsed? 73. Can infinitives, participles, phrases, sentences, and parts of sentences, be really "in the objective case?" 74. In the sentence, "I know why she blushed," how is know to be parsed? 75. In the sentence, "I know that Messias cometh," how are know and that to be parsed? 76. In the sentence, "And Simon he surnamed Peter", how are Simon and Peter to be parsed? 77. In such sentences as, "I paid him the money,"—"He asked them the question," how are the two objectives to be parsed? 78. Does any verb in English ever govern two objectives that are not coupled? 79. Are there any of our passive verbs that can properly govern the objective case? 80. Is not our language like the Latin, in respect to verbs governing two cases, and passives retaining the latter? 81. How do our grammarians now dispose of what remains to us of the old Saxon dative case? 82. Do any reputable writers allow passive verbs to govern the objective case? 83. What says Lindley Murray about this passive government? 84. Why is the position, "Active verbs govern the objective case," of no use to the composer? 85. On what is the construction of same cases founded? 86. Does this construction admit of any variety in the position of the words? 87. Does an ellipsis of the verb or participle change this construction into apposition? 88. Is it ever right to put both terms before the verb? 89. What kinds of words can take different cases after them? 90. Can a participle which is governed by a preposition, have a case after it which is governed by neither? 91. How is the word man to be parsed in the following example? "The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither attempt to palliate, nor deny."

LESSON XVIII.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

92. In what kinds of examples do we meet with a doubtful case after a participle? 93. Is the case after the verb reckoned doubtful, when the subject going before is a sentence, or something not declinable by cases? 94. In the sentence, "It is certainly as easy to be a scholar, as a gamester," what is the case of scholar and gamester, and why? 95. Are there any verbs that sometimes connect like cases, and sometimes govern the objective? 96. What faults are there in the rules given by Lowth, Murray, Smith, and others, for the construction of like cases? 97. Can a preposition ever govern any thing else than a noun or a pronoun? 98. Is every thing that a preposition governs, necessarily supposed to have cases, and to be in the objective? 99. Why or wherein is the common rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case," defective or insufficient? 100. In such phrases as in vain, at first, in particular, how is the adjective to be parsed? 101. In such expressions as, "I give it up for lost,"—"I take it for granted," how is the participle to be parsed? 102. In such phrases as, at once, from thence, till now, how is the latter word to be parsed? 103. What peculiarity is there in the construction of nouns of time, measure, distance, or value? 104. What is observed of the words like, near, and nigh? 105. What is observed of the word worth? 106. According to Johnson and Tooke, what is worth, in such phrases as, "Wo worth the day?" 107. After verbs of giving, paying, and the like, what ellipsis is apt to occur? 108. What is observed of the nouns used in dates? 109. What defect is observable in the common rules for "the case absolute," or "the nominative independent?" 110. In how many ways is the nominative case put absolute? 111. What participle is often understood after nouns put absolute? 112. In how many ways can nouns of the second person be employed? 113. What is said of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and abbreviated sayings? 114. What is observed of such phrases as, "hand to hand,"—"face to face?" 115. What authors deny the existence of "the case absolute?"

LESSON XIX.—ADJECTIVES.

1. Does the adjective frequently relate to what is not uttered with it? 2. What is observed of those rules which suppose every adjective to relate to some noun? 3. To what does the adjective usually relate, when it stands alone after a finite verb? 4. Where is the noun or pronoun, when an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle? 5. What is observed of adjectives preceded by the and used elliptically? 6. What is said of the position of the adjective? 7. In what instances is the adjective placed after its noun? 8. In what instances may the adjective either precede or follow the noun? 9. What are the construction and import of the phrases, in particular, in general, and the like? 10. What is said of adjectives as agreeing or disagreeing with their nouns in number? 11. What is observed of this and that as referring to two nouns connected? 12. What is remarked of the use of adjectives for adverbs? 13. How can one determine whether an adjective or an adverb is required? 14. What is remarked of the placing of two or more adjectives before one noun? 15. How can one avoid the ambiguity which Dr. Priestley notices in the use of the adjective no?

LESSON XX.—PRONOUNS.

1. Can such pronouns as stand for things not named, be said to agree with the nouns for which they are substituted? 2. Is the pronoun we singular when it is used in lieu of I? 3. Is the pronoun you singular when used in lieu of thou or thee? 4. What is there remarkable in the construction of ourself and yourself? 5. Of what person, number, and gender, is the relative, when put after such terms of address as, your Majesty, your Highness, your Lordship, your Honour? 6. How does the English fashion of putting you for thou, compare with the usage of the French, and of other nations? 7. Do any imagine these fashionable substitutions to be morally objectionable? 8. What figures of rhetoric are liable to affect the agreement of pronouns with their antecedents? 9. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of personification? 10. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metaphor? 11. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of metonymy? 12. How does the pronoun agree with its noun in cases of synecdoche? 13. What is the usual position of pronouns, and what exceptions are there? 14. When a pronoun represents a phrase or sentence, of what person, number, and gender is it? 15. Under what circumstances can a pronoun agree with either of two antecedents? 16. With what does the relative agree when an other word is introduced by the pronoun it? 17. In the sentence, "It is useless to complain," what does it represent? 18. How are relative and interrogative pronouns placed? 19. What are the chief constructional peculiarities of the relative pronouns? 20. Why does the author discard the two special rules commonly given for the construction of relatives?

LESSON XXI.—PRONOUNS.

21. To what part of speech is the greatest number of rules applied in parsing? 22. Of the twenty-four rules in this work, how many are applicable to pronouns? 23. Of the seven rules for cases, how many are applicable to relatives and interrogatives? 24. What is remarked of the ellipsis or omission of the relative? 25. What is said of the suppression of the antecedent? 26. What is noted of the word which, as applied to persons? 27. What relative is applied to a proper noun taken merely as a name? 28. When do we employ the same relative in successive clauses? 29. What odd use is sometimes made of the pronoun your? 30. Under what figure of syntax did the old grammarians rank the plural construction of a noun of multitude? 31. Does a collective noun with a singular definitive before it ever admit of a plural verb or pronoun? 32. Do collective nouns generally admit of being made literally plural? 33. When joint antecedents are of different persons, with which person does the pronoun agree? 34. When joint antecedents differ in gender, of what gender is the pronoun? 35. Why is it wrong to say, "The first has a lenis, and the other an asper over them?" 36. Can nouns without and be taken jointly, as if they had it? 37. Can singular antecedents be so suggested as to require a plural pronoun, when only one of them is uttered? 38. Why do singular antecedents connected by or or nor appear to require a singular pronoun? 39. Can different antecedents connected by or be accurately represented by differing pronouns connected in the same way? 40. Why are we apt to use a plural pronoun after antecedents of different genders? 41. Do the Latin grammars teach the same doctrine as the English, concerning nominatives or antecedents connected disjunctively?

LESSON XXII.—VERBS.

1. What is necessary to every finite verb? 2. What is remarked of such examples as this: "The Pleasures of Memory was published in 1702?" 3. What is to be done with "Thinks I to myself," and the like? 4. Is it right to say with Smith, "Every hundred years constitutes a century?" 5. What needless ellipses both of nominatives and of verbs are commonly supposed by our grammarians? 6. What actual ellipsis usually occurs with the imperative mood? 7. What is observed concerning the place of the verb? 8. What besides a noun or a pronoun may be made the subject of a verb? 9. What is remarked of the faulty omission of the pronoun it before the verb? 10 When an infinitive phrase is made the subject of a verb, do the words remain adjuncts, or are they abstract? 11. How can we introduce a noun or pronoun before the infinitive, and still make the whole phrase the subject of a finite verb? 12. Can an objective before the infinitive become "the subject of the affirmation?" 13. In making a phrase the subject of a verb, do we produce an exception to Rule 14th? 14. Why is it wrong to say, with Dr. Ash, "The king and queen appearing in public was the cause of my going?" 15. What inconsistency is found in Murray, with reference to his "nominative sentences?" 16. What is Dr. Webster's ninth rule of syntax? 17. Why did Murray think all Webster's examples under this rule bad English? 18. Why are both parties wrong in this instance? 19. What strange error is taught by Cobbett, and by Wright, in regard to the relative and its verb? 20. Is it demonstrable that verbs often agree with relatives? 21. What is observed of the agreement of verbs in interrogative sentences? 22. Do we ever find the subjunctive mood put after a relative pronoun? 23. What is remarked of the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive mood, and of the limits of the latter?

LESSON XXIII.—VERBS.

24. In respect to collective nouns, how is it generally determined, whether they convey the idea of plurality or not? 25. What is stated of the rules of Adam, Lowth, Murray, and Kirkham, concerning collective nouns? 26. What is Nixon's notion of the construction of the verb and collective noun? 27. Does this author appear to have gained "a clear idea of the nature of a collective noun?" 28. What great difficulty does Murray acknowledge concerning "nouns of multitude?" 29. Does Murray's notion, that collective nouns are of different sorts, appear to be consistent or warrantable? 30. Can words that agree with the same collective noun, be of different numbers? 31. What is observed of collective nouns used partitively? 32. Which are the most apt to be taken plurally, collections of persons, or collections of things? 33. Can a collective noun, as such, take a plural adjective before it? 34. What is observed of the expressions, these people, these gentry, these folk? 35. What is observed of sentences like the following, in which there seems to be no nominative: "There are from eight to twelve professors?" 36. What rule does Dr. Webster give for such examples as the following: "There was more than a hundred and fifty thousand pounds?" 37. What grammarians teach, that two or more nouns connected by and, "always require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be in the plural number?" 38. Does Murray acknowledge or furnish any exceptions to this doctrine? 39. On what principle can one justify such an example as this: "All work and no play, makes Jack a dull boy?" 40. What is remarked of instances like the following: "Prior's Henry and Emma contains an other beautiful example?" 41. What is said of the suppression of the conjunction and? 42. When the speaker changes his nominative, to take a stronger one, what concord has the verb? 43. When two or more nominatives connected by and explain a preceding one, what agreement has the verb? 44. What grammarian approves of such expressions as, "Two and two is four?" 45. What is observed of verbs that agree with the nearest nominative, and are understood to the rest? 46. When the nominatives connected are of different persons, of what person is the verb?

LESSON XXIV.—VERBS.

47. What is the syntax of the verb, when one of its nominatives is expressed, and an other or others implied? 48. What is the syntax of the verb, when there are nominatives connected by as? 49. What is the construction when two nominatives are connected by as well as, but, or save? 50. Can words connected by with be properly used as joint nominatives? 51. Does the analogy of other languages with ours prove any thing on this point? 52. What does Cobbett say about with put for and? 53. What is the construction of such expressions as this: "A torch, snuff and all, goes out in a moment?" 54. Does our rule for the verb and disjunct nominatives derive confirmation from the Latin and Greek syntax? 55. Why do collective nouns singular, when connected by or or nor, admit of a plural verb? 56. In the expression, "I, thou, or he, may affirm," of what person and number is the verb? 57. Who says, "the verb agrees with the last nominative?" 58. What authors prefer "the nearest person," and "the plural number?" 59. What authors prefer "the nearest nominative, whether singular or plural?" 60. What author declares it improper ever to connect by or or nor any nominatives that require different forms of the verb? 61. What is Cobbett's "clear principle" on this head? 62. Can a zeugma of the verb be proved to be right, in spite of these authorities? 63. When a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers, connected by or or nor, with which of them does it commonly agree? 64. When does it agree with the remoter nominative? 65. When a noun is implied in an adjective of a different number, which word is regarded in the formation of the verb? 66. What is remarked concerning the place of the pronoun of the first person singular? 67. When verbs are connected by and, or, or nor, do they necessarily agree with the same nominative? 68. Why is the thirteenth rule of the author's Institutes and First Lines not retained as a rule in this work? 69. Are verbs often connected without agreeing in mood, tense, and form?

LESSON XXV.—VERBS.

70. What particular convenience do we find in having most of our tenses composed of separable words? 71. Is the connecting of verbs elliptically, or by parts, anything peculiar to our language? 72. What faults appear in the teaching of our grammarians concerning do used as a "substitute for other verbs?" 73. What notions have been entertained concerning the word to as used before the infinitive verb? 74. How does Dr. Ash parse to before the infinitive? 75. What grammarians have taught that the preposition to governs the infinitive mood? 76. Does Lowth agree with Murray in the anomaly of supposing to a preposition that governs nothing? 77. Why do those teach just as inconsistently, who forbear to call the to a preposition? 78. What objections are there to the rule, with its exceptions, "One verb governs an other in the infinitive mood?" 79. What large exception to this rule has been recently discovered by Dr. Bullions? 80. Are the countless examples of this exception truly elliptical? 81. Is the infinitive ever governed by a preposition in French, Spanish, or Italian? 82. What whimsical account of the English infinitive is given by Nixon? 83. How was the infinitive expressed in the Anglo-Saxon of the eleventh century? 84. What does Richard Johnson infer from the fact that the Latin infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition? 85. What reasons can be adduced to show that the infinitive is not a noun? 86. How can it be proved that to before the infinitive is a preposition? 87. What does Dr. Wilson say of the character and import of the infinitive? 88. To what other terms can the infinitive be connected? 89. What is the infinitive, and for what things may it stand? 90. Do these ten heads embrace all the uses of the infinitive? 91. What is observed of Murray's "infinitive made absolute?" 92. What is said of the position of the infinitive? 93. Is the infinitive ever liable to be misplaced?

LESSON XXVI.—VERBS.

94. What is observed of the frequent ellipses of the verb to be, supposed by Allen and others? 95. What is said of the suppression of to and the insertion of be; as, "To make himself be heard?" 96. Why is it necessary to use the sign to before an abstract infinitive, where it shows no relation? 97. What is observed concerning the distinction of voice in the simple infinitive and the first participle? 98. What do our grammarians teach concerning the omission of to before the infinitive, after bid, dare, feel, &c.? 99. How do Ingersoll, Kirkham, and Smith, agree with their master Murray, concerning such examples as, "Let me go?" 100. What is affirmed of the difficulties of parsing the infinitive according to the code of Murray? 101. How do Nutting, Kirkham, Nixon, Cooper, and Sanborn, agree with Murray, or with one an other, in pointing out what governs the infinitive? 102. What do Murray and others mean by "neuter verbs," when they tell us that the taking of the infinitive without to "extends only to active and neuter verbs?" 103. How is the infinitive used after bid? 104. How, after dare? 105. How, after feel? 106. How, after hear? 107. How, after let? 108. How, after make? 109. How, after need? 110. Is need ever an auxiliary? 111. What errors are taught by Greenleaf concerning dare and need or needs? 112. What is said of see, as governing the infinitive? 113. Do any other verbs, besides these eight, take the infinitive after them without to? 114. How is the infinitive used after have, help, and find? 115. When two or more infinitives occur in the same construction, must to be used with each? 116. What is said of the sign to after than or as?

LESSON XXVII.—PARTICIPLES.

1. What questionable uses of participles are commonly admitted by grammarians? 2. Why does the author incline to condemn these peculiarities? 3. What is observed of the multiplicity of uses to which the participle in ing may be turned? 4. What is said of the participles which some suppose to be put absolute? 5. How are participles placed? 6. What is said of the transitive use of such words as unbecoming? 7. What distinction, in respect to government, is to be observed between a participle and a participial noun? 8. What shall we do when of after the participial noun is objectionable? 9. What is said of the correction of those examples in which a needless article or possessive is put before the participle? 10. What is stated of the retaining of adverbs with participial nouns? 11. Can words having the form of the first participle be nouns, and clearly known to be such, when they have no adjuncts? 12. What strictures are made on Murray, Lennie, and Bullions, with reference to examples in which an infinitive follows the participial noun? 13. In what instances is the first participle equivalent to the infinitive? 14. What is said of certain infinitives supposed to be erroneously put for participles? 15. What verbs take the participle after them, and not the infinitive? 16. What is said of those examples in which participles seem to be made the objects of verbs? 17. What is said of the teaching of Murray and others, that, "The participle with its adjuncts may be considered as a substantive phrase?" 18. How does the English participle compare with the Latin gerund? 19. How do Dr. Adam and others suppose "the gerund in English" to become a "substantive," or noun? 20. How does the French construction of participles and infinitives compare with the English?

LESSON XXVIII.—PARTICIPLES.

21. What difference does it make, whether we use the possessive case before words in ing, or not? 22. What is said of the distinguishing or confounding of different parts of speech, such as verbs, participles, and nouns? 23. With how many other parts of speech does W. Allen confound the participle? 24. How is the distinguishing of the participle from the verbal noun inculcated by Allen, and their difference of meaning by Murray? 25. Is it pretended that the authorities and reasons which oppose the mixed construction of participles, are sufficient to prove such usage altogether inadmissible? 26. Is it proper to teach, in general terms, that the noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a participle should be put in the possessive case? 27. What is remarked of different cases used indiscriminately before the participle or verbal noun? 28. What say Crombie and others about this disputable phraseology? 29. What says Brown of this their teaching? 30. How do Priestley and others pretend to distinguish between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in ing? 31. What does Brown say of this doctrine? 32. If when a participle becomes an adjective it drops its regimen, should it not also drop it on becoming a noun? 33. Where the sense admits of a choice of construction in respect to the participle, is not attention due to the analogy of general grammar? 34. Does it appear that nouns before participles are less frequently subjected to their government than pronouns? 35. Why must a grammarian discriminate between idioms, or peculiarities, and the common mode of expression? 36. Is the Latin gerund, like the verbal in ing, sometimes active, sometimes passive; and when the former governs the genitive, do we imitate the idiom in English? 37. Is it agreed among grammarians, that the Latin gerund may govern the genitive of the agent? 38. What distinction between the participial and the substantive use of verbals in ing do Crombie and others propose to make? 39. How does this accord with the views of Murray, Lowth, Adam, and Brown?. 40. How does Hiley treat the English participle? 41. What further is remarked concerning false teaching in relation to participles?

LESSON XXIX.—ADVERBS.

1. What is replied to Dr. Adam's suggestion, "Adverbs sometimes qualify substantives?" 2. Do not adverbs sometimes relate to participial nouns? 3. If an adverbial word relates directly to a noun or pronoun, does not that fact constitute it an adjective? 4. Are such expressions as, "the then ministry," "the above discourse," good English, or bad—well authorized, or not? 5. When words commonly used as adverbs assume the construction of nouns, how are they to be parsed? 6. Must not the parser be careful to distinguish adverbs used substantively or adjectively, from such as may be better resolved by the supposing of an ellipsis? 7. How is an adverb to be parsed, when it seems to be put for a verb? 8. How are adverbs to be parsed in such expressions as, "Away with him?" 9. What is observed of the relation of conjunctive adverbs, and of the misuse of when? 10. What is said in regard to the placing of adverbs? 11. What suggestions are made concerning the word no? 12. What is remarked of two or more negatives in the same sentence? 13. Is that a correct rule which says, "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative?" 14. What is the dispute among grammarians concerning the adoption of or or nor after not or no? 15. What fault is found with the opinion of Priestley, Murray, Ingersoll, and Smith, that "either of them may be used with nearly equal propriety?" 16. How does John Burn propose to settle this dispute? 17. How does Churchill treat the matter? 18. What does he say of the manner in which "the use of nor after not has been introduced?" 19. What other common modes of expression are censured by this author under the same head? 20. How does Brown review these criticisms, and attempt to settle the question? 21. What critical remark is made on the misuse of ever and never? 22. How does Churchill differ from Lowth respecting the phrase, "ever so wisely," or "never so wisely?" 23. What is observed of never and ever as seeming to be adjectives, and being liable to contraction? 24. What strictures are made on the classification and placing of the word only? 25. What is observed of the term not but, and of the adverbial use of but? 26. What is noted of the ambiguous use of but or only? 27. What notions are inculcated by different grammarians about the introductory word there?

LESSON XXX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

1. When two declinable words are connected by a conjunction, why are they of the same case? 2. What is the power, and what the position, of a conjunction that connects sentences or clauses? 3. What further is added concerning the terms which conjunctions connect? 4. What is remarked of two or more conjunctions coming together? 5. What is said of and as supposed to be used to call attention? 6. What relation of case occurs between nouns connected by as? 7. Between what other related terms can as be employed? 8. What is as when it is made the subject or the object of a verb? 9. What questions are raised among grammarians, about the construction of as follow or as follows, and other similar phrases? 10. What is said of Murray's mode of treating this subject? 11. Has Murray written any thing which goes to show whether as follows can be right or not, when the preceding noun is plural? 12. What is the opinion of Nixon, and of Crombie? 13. What conjunction is frequently understood? 14. What is said of ellipsis after than or as? 15. What is suggested concerning the character and import of than and as? 16. Does than as well as as usually take the same case after it that occurs before it? 17. Is the Greek or Latin construction of the latter term in a comparison usually such as ours? 18. What inferences have our grammarians made from the phrase than whom? 19. Is than supposed by Murray to be capable of governing any other objective than whom? 20. What grammarian supposes whom after than to be "in the objective case absolute?" 21. How does the author of this work dispose of the example? 22. What notice is taken of O. B. Peirce's Grammar, with reference to his manner of parsing words after than or as? 23. What says Churchill about the notion that certain conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood? 24. What is said of the different parts of speech contained in the list of correspondents?

LESSON XXXI.—PREPOSITIONS.

1. What is said of the parsing of a preposition? 2. How can the terms of relation which pertain to the preposition be ascertained? 3. What is said of the transposition of the two terms? 4. Between what parts of speech, as terms of the relation, can a preposition be used? 5. What is said of the ellipsis of one or the other of the terms? 6. Is to before the infinitive to be parsed just as any other preposition? 7. What is said of Dr. Adam's "To taken absolutely?" 8. What is observed in relation to the exceptions to Rule 23d? 9. What is said of the placing of prepositions? 10. What is told of two prepositions coming together? 11. In how many and what ways does the relation of prepositions admit of complexity? 12. What is the difference between in and into? 13. What notice is taken of the application of between, betwixt, among, amongst, amid, amidst? 14. What erroneous remark have Priestley, Murray, and others, about two prepositions "in the same construction?" 15. What false doctrine have Lowth, Murray, and others, about the separating of the preposition from its noun? 16. What is said of the prepositions which follow averse and aversion, except and exception? 17. What is remarked concerning the use of of, to, on, and upon? 18. Can there be an inelegant use of prepositions which is not positively ungrammatical?

LESSON XXXII.—INTERJECTIONS.

1. Are all interjections to be parsed as being put absolute? 2. What is said of O and the vocative case? 3. What do Nixon and Kirkham erroneously teach about cases governed by interjections? 4. What say Murray, Ingersoll, and Lennie, about interjections and cases? 5. What is shown of the later teaching to which Murray's erroneous and unoriginal remark about "O, oh, and ah," has given rise? 6. What notice is taken of the application of the rule for "O, oh, and ah," to nouns of the second person? 7. What is observed concerning the further extension of this rule to nouns and pronouns of the third person? 8. What authors teach that interjections are put absolute, and have no government? 9. What is the construction of the pronoun in "Ah me!" "Ah him!" or any similar exclamation? 10. Is the common rule for interjections, as requiring certain cases after them, sustained by any analogy from the Latin syntax? 11. Can it be shown, on good authority, that O in Latin may be followed by the nominative of the first person or the accusative of the second? 12. What errors in the construction and punctuation of interjectional phrases are quoted from Fisk, Smith, and Kirkham? 13. What is said of those sentences in which an interjection is followed by a preposition or the conjunction that? 14. What is said of the place of the interjection? 15. What says O. B. Peirce about the name and place of the interjection? 16. What is offered in refutation of Peirce's doctrine?

[Now parse the six lessons of the Thirteenth Praxis; taking, if the teacher please, the Italic or difficult words only; and referring to the exceptions or observations under the rules, as often as there is occasion. Then proceed to the correction of the eighteen lessons of False Syntax contained in Chapter Twelfth, or the General Review.]

LESSON XXXIII.—GENERAL RULE.

1. Why were the general rule and the general or critical notes added to the foregoing code of syntax? 2. What is the general rule? 3. How many are there of the general or critical notes? 4. What says Critical Note 1st of the parts of speech? 5. What says Note 2d of the doubtful reference of words? 6. What says Note 3d of definitions? 7. What says Note 4th of comparisons? 8. What says Note 5th of falsities? 9. What says Note 6th of absurdities? 10. What says Note 7th of self-contradiction? 11. What says Note 8th of senseless jumbling? 12. What says Note 9th of words needless? 13. What says Note 10th of improper omissions? 14. What says Note 11th of literary blunders? 15. What says Note 12th of literary perversions? 16. What says Note 13th of literary awkwardness? 17. What says Note 14th of literary ignorance? 18. What says Note 15th of literary silliness? 19. What says Note 16th of errors incorrigible? 20. In what place are the rules, exceptions, notes, and observations, in the foregoing system of syntax, enumerated and described? 21. What suggestions are made in relation to the number of rules or notes, and the completeness of the system? 22. What is remarked on the place and character of the critical notes and the general rule? 23. What is noted in relation to the unamendable imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings?

[Now correct—(or at least read, and compare with the Key—) the sixteen lessons of False Syntax, arranged under appropriate heads, for the application of the General Rule; the sixteen others adapted to the Critical Notes; and the five concluding ones, for which the rules are various.]

CHAPTER XV.—FOR WRITING.

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX.

[Fist][When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in syntactical parsing, and has corrected orally, according to the formulas given, all the examples of false syntax designed for oral exercises, or so many of them as may be deemed sufficient; he should write out the following exercises, correcting them according to the principles of syntax given in the rules, notes, and observations, contained in the preceding chapters; but omitting or varying the references, because his corrections cannot be ascribed to the books which contain these errors.]

EXERCISE I.—ARTICLES.

"They are institutions not merely of an useless, but of an hurtful nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 344. "Quintilian prefers the full, the copious, and the amplifying style."—Ib., p. 247. "The proper application of rules respecting style, will always be best learned by the means of the illustration which examples afford."—Ib., p. 224. "He was even tempted to wish that he had such an one."—Infant School Gram., p. 41. "Every limb of the human body has an agreeable and disagreeable motion."—Kames, El. of Crit. i, 217. "To produce an uniformity of opinion in all men."—Ib., ii. 365. "A writer that is really an humourist in character, does this without design."—Ib., i. 303. "Addison was not an humourist in character."—Ib., i. 303. "It merits not indeed the title of an universal language."—Ib., i. 353. "It is unpleasant to find even a negative and affirmative proposition connected."—Ib., ii. 25. "The sense is left doubtful by wrong arrangement of members."—Ib., ii. 44. "As, for example, between the adjective and following substantive."—Ib., ii. 104. "Witness the following hyperbole, too bold even for an Hotspur."—Ib., 193. "It is disposed to carry along the good and bad properties of one to another."—Ib., ii. 197. "What a kind of a man such an one is likely to prove, is easy to foresee."—Locke, on Education, p. 47. "In propriety there cannot be such a thing as an universal grammar, unless there were such a thing as an universal language."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 47. "The very same process by which he gets at the meaning of any ancient author, carries him to a fair and a faithful rendering of the scriptures of the Old and New Testament."—Chalmers, Sermons, p. 16. "But still a predominancy of one or other quality in the minister is often visible."—Blair's Rhet., p. 19. "Among the ancient critics, Longinus possessed most delicacy; Aristotle, most correctness."—Ib., p. 20. "He then proceeded to describe an hexameter and pentameter verse."—Ward's Preface to Lily, p. vi. "And Alfred, who was no less able a negotiator than courageous a warrior, was unanimously chosen King."—Pinnock's Geog., p. 271. "An useless incident weakens the interest which we take in the action."—Blair's Rhet., p. 460. "This will lead into some detail; but I hope an useful one."—Ib., p. 234. "When they understand how to write English with due Connexion, Propriety, and Order, and are pretty well Masters of a tolerable Narrative Stile, they may be advanced to writing of Letters."—Locke, on Ed., p. 337. "The Senate is divided into the Select and Great Senate."—Hewitt's Student-Life in Germany, p. 28. "We see a remains of this ceremonial yet in the public solemnities of the universities."—Ib., p. 46.

   "Where an huge pollard on the winter fire,
    At an huge distance made them all retire."—Crabbe, Borough, p. 209.

EXERCISE II.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

"Childrens Minds are narrow, and weak, and usually susceptible but of one Thought at once."—Locke, on Ed., p. 297. "Rather for Example sake, than that ther is any Great Matter in it."—Right of Tythes, p. xvii. "The more that any mans worth is, the greater envy shall he be liable to."—Walker's Particles, p. 461. "He who works only for the common welfare is the most noble, and no one, but him, deserves the name."— Spurzheim, on Ed., p. 182. "He then got into the carriage, to sit with the man, whom he had been told was Morgan."—Stone, on Masonry, p. 480. "But, for such footmen as thee and I are, let us never desire to meet with an enemy."—Bunyan's P. P., p. 153. "One of them finds out that she is Tibulluses Nemesis."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 446. "He may be employed in reading such easy books as Corderius, and some of Erasmus' Colloques, with an English translation."—Burgh's Dignity, Vol. i, p. 150. "For my preface was to show the method of the priests of Aberdeen's procedure against the Quakers."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 235. "They signify no more against us, than Cochlæus' lies against Luther."—Ib., i, 236. "To justify Moses his doing obeisance to his father in law."—Ib., i, 241. "Which sort of clauses are generally included between two comma's."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 306. "Between you and I, she is but a cutler's wife."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 187. "In Edward the third, King of England's time."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 104. "The nominative case is the agent or doer."—Smith's New Gram., p. 11. "Dog is in the nominative case, because it is the agent, actor, or doer."—Ib. "The actor or doer is considered the naming or leading noun."—Ib. "The radical form of the principal verb is made use of."—Priestley's Gram., p. 24. "They would have the same right to be taken notice of by grammarians."—Ib., p. 30. "I shall not quarrel with the friend of twelve years standing."— Liberator, ix, 39. "If there were none living but him, John would be against Lilburne, and Lilburne against John."—Biog. Dict., w. Lilburne. "When a personal pronoun is made use of to relate to them."—Cobbett's Eng. Gram., ¶ 179. "The town was taken in a few hours time."—Goldsmith's Rome, p. 120. "You must not employ such considerations merely as those upon which the author here rests, taken from gratitude's being the law of my nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 296. "Our author's second illustration, is taken from praise being the most disinterested act of homage."—Ib., p. 301. "The first subdivision concerning praise being the most pleasant part of devotion, is very just and well expressed."—Ib. "It was a cold thought to dwell upon its disburdening the mind of debt."—Ib. "The thought which runs through all this passage, of man's being the priest of nature, and of his existence being calculated chiefly for this end, that he might offer up the praises of the mute part of the creation, is an ingenious thought and well expressed."—Ib., p. 297. "The mayor of Newyork's portrait."—Ware's English Grammar, p. 9.

   "Calm Temperance, whose blessings those partake
    Who hunger, and who thirst, for scribbling sake."
        —Pope, Dunciad, i, 50.

EXERCISE III.—ADJECTIVES.

"Plumb down he drops ten thousand fathom deep."—Milton, P. L., B. ii, 1, 933. "In his Night Thoughts, there is much energy of expression: in the three first, there are several pathetic passages."—Blair's Rhet., p. 403. "Learn to pray, to pray greatly and strong."—The Dial, Vol. ii, p. 215. "The good and the bad genius are struggling with one another."— Philological Museum, i, 490. "The definitions of the parts of speech, and application of syntax, should be given almost simultaneous."—Wilbur and Livingston's Gram., p. 6. "I had studied grammar previous to his instructing me."—Ib., p. 13. "So difficult it is to separate these two things from one another."—Blair's Rhet., p. 92. "New words should never be ventured upon, except by such whose established reputation gives them some degree of dictatorial power over language."—Ib., p. 94. "The verses necessarily succeed each other."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 142. "They saw that it would be practicable to express, in writing, the whole combinations of sounds which our words require."—Blair's Rhet., p. 68. "There are some Events, the Truth of which cannot appear to any, but such whose Minds are first qualify'd by some certain Knowledge."—Brightland's Gram., p. 242. "These Sort of Feet are in Latin called Iambics."—Fisher's Gram., p. 134. "And the Words are mostly so disposed, that the Accents may fall on every 2d, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th Syllables."—Ib., p. 135. "If the verse does not sound well and harmonious to the ear."—Ib., p. 136. "I gat me men-singers and women-singers, and the delights of the sons of men, as musical instruments, and that of all sorts."—Ecclesiastes, ii, 8. "No people have so studiously avoided the collision of consonants as the Italians."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 183. "And these two subjects must destroy one another."—Ib., p. 42. "Duration and space are two things in some respects the most like, and in some respects the most unlike to one another."—Ib., p. 103. "Nothing ever affected him so much, as this misconduct of his friend."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 155. "To see the bearing of the several parts of speech on each other."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 2. "Two or more adjectives following each other, either with or without a conjunction, qualify the same word."—Bullion's E. Gram., p. 75. "The two chapters which now remain, are by far the most important of any."— Student's Manual, p. 293. "That has been the subject of no less than six negotiations."—Pres. Jackson's Message, 1830. "His gravity makes him work cautious."—Steele, Spect., No. 534. "Grandeur, being an extreme vivid emotion, is not readily produced in perfection but by reiterated impressions."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 203. "Every object appears less than when viewed separately and independent of the series."—Ib., ii, 14. "An Organ is the best of all other musical instruments."—Dilworth's English Tongue, p. 94.

   "Let such teach others who themselves excel,
    And censure freely who have written well."—Pope, on Crit., l. 15.

EXERCISE IV.—PRONOUNS.

"You had musty victuals, and he hath holp to eat it."—SHAK.: Joh. Dict., w. Victuals. "Sometime am I all wound with adders, who, with cloven tongues, do hiss me into madness."—Beauties of Shak., p. 68. "When a letter or syllable is transposed, it is called METATHESIS."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 275. "When a letter or syllable is added to the beginning of a word, it is called PROSTHESIS."—Ib. "If a letter or syllable be taken from the beginning of a word, it is called APHÆRESIS."—Ib. "We can examine few, or rather no Substances, so far, as to assure ourselves that we have a certain Knowledge of most of its Properties."—Brightland's Gram., p. 244. "Who do you dine with?"—Fisher's Gram., p. 99. "Who do you speak to?"—Shakspeare. "All the objects of prayer are calculated to excite the most active and vivid sentiments, which can arise in the heart of man."—Adams's Rhet., i, 328. "It has been my endeavour to furnish you with the most useful materials, which contribute to the purposes of eloquence."—Ib., ii, 28. "All paraphrases are vicious: it is not translating, it is commenting."—Formey's Belles-Lettres, p. 163. "Did you never bear false witness against thy neighbour?"—SIR W. DRAPER: Junius, p. 40. "And they shall eat up thine harvest and thy bread: they shall eat up thy flocks and thine herds."—Jer., v, 17. "He was the spiritual rock who miraculously supplied the wants of the Israelites."— Gurney's Evidences, p. 53. "To cull from the mass of mankind those individuals upon which the attention ought to be most employed."— Rambler, No. 4. "His speech contains one of the grossest and most infamous calumnies which ever was uttered."—Merchant's Gram. Key, p. 198. "STROMBUS, i. m. A shell-fish of the sea, that has a leader whom they follow as their king. Plin."—Ainsworth's Dict., 4to. "Whomsoever will, let him come"—MORNING STAR: Lib., xi, 13. "Thy own words have convinced me (stand a little more out of the sun if you please) that thou hast not the least notion of true honour."—Fielding. "Whither art going, pretty Annette? Your little feet you'll surely wet."—L. M. Child. "Metellus, who conquered Macedon, was carried to the funeral pile by his four sons, one of which was the prætor."—Kennett's Roman Ant., p. 332. "That not a soldier which they did not know, should mingle himself among them."— Josephus, Vol. v, p. 170. "The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither males nor females."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 37. "And hence it is, that the most important precept, which a rhetorical teacher can inculcate respecting this part of discourse, is negative."—Adams's Rhet., ii, 97. "The meanest and most contemptible person whom we behold, is the offspring of heaven, one of the children of the Most High."— Scougal, p. 102. "He shall sit next to Darius, because of his wisdom, and shall be called Darius his cousin."—1 Esdras, iii, 7. "In 1757, he published his 'Fleece;' but he did not long survive it."—L. Murray, Seq., p. 252.

   "The sun upon the calmest sea
    Appears not half so bright as thee."—Prior.

EXERCISE V.—VERBS.

"The want of connexion here, as well as in the description of the prodigies that accompanied the death of Cæsar, are scarce pardonable."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 38. "The causes of the original beauty of language, considered as significant, which is a branch of the present subject, will be explained in their order."—Ib., Vol. ii, p. 6. "Neither of these two Definitions do rightly adjust the Genuine signification of this Tense."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 280. "In the earnest hope that they may prove as beneficial to other teachers as they have to the author."—John Flint's Gram., p. 3. "And then an example is given showing the manner in which the pupil should be required to classify."—Ib., p. 3. "Qu in English words are equivalent to kw."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 258. "Qu has the power of kw, therefore quit doubles the final consonant in forming its preterite."—Ib., p. 103. "The word pronoun or substantive can be substituted, should any teacher prefer to do it"—Ib., p. 132. "The three angles of a right-angled triangle were equal to two right angles in the days of Moses, as well as now."—GOODELL: Liberator, Vol. xi, p. 4. "But now two paces of the vilest earth is room enough."—Beaut. of Shak., p. 126. "Latin and French, as the World now goes, is by every one acknowledged to be necessary."—Locke, on Ed., p. 351. "These things, that he will thus learn by sight, and have by roat in his Memory, is not all, I confess, that he is to learn upon the Globes."—Ib., p. 321. "Henry: if John shall meet me, I will hand him your note."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 261. "They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they do at other times."—Blair's Rhet., p. 329. "Cato reminded him of many warnings he had gave him."—Goldsmith's Rome, i, 114. "The Wages is small. The Compasses is broken."—Fisher's Gram., p. 95. "Prepare thy heart for prayer, lest thou temptest God."—Life of Luther, p. 83. "That a soldier should fly is a shameful thing."—Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 155. "When there is two verbs which are together."—Woodworth's Gram., p. 27. "Interjections are words used to express some passion of the mind; and is followed by a note of admiration!"—Infant School Gram., p. 126. "And the king said, If he be alone, there is tidings in his mouth."—2 Samuel, xviii, 25. "The opinions of the few must be overruled, and submit to the opinions of the many."—Webster's Essays, p. 56. "One of the principal difficulties which here occurs, has been already hinted."—Blair's Rhet., p. 391. "With milky blood the heart is overflown."—Thomson, Castle of Ind. "No man dare solicit for the votes of hiz nabors."—Webster's Essays, p. 344. "Yet they cannot, and they have no right to exercise it."—Ib., p. 56. "In order to make it be heard over their vast theatres."—Blair's Rhet., p. 471. "Sometimes, however, the relative and its clause is placed before the antecedent and its clause."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 200.

   "Here thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey,
    Does sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea."
        —Kames, El. of Crit., i, 321.

EXERCISE VI.—PARTICIPLES.

"On the other hand, the degrading or vilifying an object, is done successfully by ranking it with one that is really low."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 50. "The magnifying or diminishing objects by means of comparison, proceeds from the same cause."—Ib., i, 239. "Gratifying the affection will also contribute to my own happiness."—Ib., i, 53. "The pronouncing syllables in a high or a low tone."—Ib., ii, 77. "The crowding into one period or thought different figures of speech, is not less faulty than crowding metaphors in that manner."—Ib., ii, 234. "To approve is acknowledging we ought to do a thing; and to condemn is owning we ought not to do it."—Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 39. "To be provoked that God suffers men to act thus, is claiming to govern the word in his stead."—Secker. "Let every subject be well understood before passing on to another."—Infant School Gram., p. 18. "Doubling the t in bigotted is apt to lead to an erroneous accentuation of the word on the second syllable."—Churchill's Gram., p. 22. "Their compelling the man to serve was an act of tyranny."—Webster's Essays, p. 54. "One of the greatest misfortunes of the French tragedy is, its being always written in rhyme."—Blair's Rhet., p. 469. "Horace entitles his satire 'Sermones,' and seems not to have intended rising much higher than prose put into numbers."—Ib., p. 402. "Feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, comforting the afflicted, yield more pleasure than we receive from those actions which respect only ourselves."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 238. "But when we attempt to go a step beyond this, and inquire what is the cause of regularity and variety producing in our minds the sensation of beauty, any reason we can assign is extremely imperfect."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29. "In an author's writing with propriety, his being free of the two former faults seems implied."—Ib., p. 94. "To prevent our being carried away by that torrent of false and frivolous taste."—Ib., p. 12. "When we are unable to assign the reasons of our being pleased."—Ib., p. 15. "An adjective will not make good sense without joining it to a noun."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 12. "What is said respecting sentences being inverted?"—Ib., p. 71. "Though he admits of all the other cases, made use of by the Latins."—Bicknell's Gram., p. viii. "This indeed, is accounting but feebly for its use in this instance."—Wright's Gram., p. 148. "The knowledge of what passes in the mind is necessary for the understanding the Principles of Grammar."—Brightland's Gram., p. 73. "By than's being used instead of as, it is not asserted that the former has as much fruit as the latter."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 207. "Thus much for the Settling your Authority over your Children."—Locke, on Ed., p. 58.

EXERCISE VII.—ADVERBS.

"There can scarce be a greater Defect in a Gentleman, than not to express himself well either in Writing or Speaking."—Locke, on Ed., p. 335. "She seldom or ever wore a thing twice in the same way."—Castle Rackrent, p. 84. "So can I give no reason, nor I will not."—Beauties of Shak., p. 45. "Nor I know not where I did lodge last night."—Ib., p. 270. "It is to be presumed they would become soonest proficient in Latin."—Burn's Gram., p. xi. "The difficulty of which has not been a little increased by that variety."—Ward's Pref. to Lily's Gram., p. xi. "That full endeavours be used in every monthly meeting to seasonably end all business or cases that come before them."—N. E. Discipline, p. 44. "In minds where they had scarce any footing before."—Spectator, No. 566. "The negative form is when the adverb not is used."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 61. "The interrogative form is when a question is asked."—Ibid. "The finding out the Truth ought to be his whole Aim."—Brightland's Gram., p. 239. "Mention the first instance when that is used in preference to who, whom, or which."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 96. "The plot was always exceeding simple. It admitted of few incidents."—Blair's Rhet., p. 470. "Their best tragedies make not a deep enough impression on the heart."—Ib., p. 472. "The greatest genius on earth, not even a Bacon, can be a perfect master of every branch."—Webster's Essays, p. 13. "The verb OUGHT is only used in the indicative [and subjunctive moods]."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 70. "It is still a greater deviation from congruity, to affect not only variety in the words, but also in the construction."— Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 28. "It has besides been found that, generally, students attend those lectures more carefully for which they pay."—Dr. Lieber, Lit. Conv., p. 65. "This book I obtained through a friend, it being not exposed for sale."—Woolsey, ib., p. 76. "Here there is no manner of resemblance but in the word drown."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 163. "We have had often occasion to inculcate, that the mind passeth easily and sweetly along a train of connected objects."—Ib., ii, 197. "Observe the periods when the most illustrious persons flourished."—Worcester's Hist., p. iv. "For every horse is not called Bucephalus, nor every dog Turk."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 15. "One can scarce avoid smiling at the blindness of a certain critic."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 257. "Provided always, that we run not into the extreme of pruning so very close, so as to give a hardness and dryness to style."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 92; Blair's, 111. "Agreement is when one word is like another in number, case, gender or person."—Frost's Gram., p. 43. "Government is when one word causes another to be in some particular number, person or case."—Ibid. "It seems to be nothing more than the simple form of the adjective, and to imply not either comparison or degree."—Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 47.

EXERCISE VIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

"The Indians had neither cows, horses, oxen, or sheep."—Olney's Introd. to Geog., p. 46. "Who have no other object in view, but, to make a show of their supposed talents."—Blair's Rhet., p. 344. "No other but these, could draw the attention of men in their rude uncivilized state."—Ib., p. 379. "That he shall stick at nothing, nor nothing stick with him."—Pope. "To enliven it into a passion, no more is required but the real or ideal presence of the object."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 110. "I see no more to be made of it but to-rest upon the final cause first mentioned."—Ib., i, 175. "No quality nor circumstance contributes more to grandeur than force."—Ib., i, 215. "It being a quotation, not from a poet nor orator, but from a grave author, writing an institute of law."—Ib., i, 233. "And our sympathy cannot be otherwise gratified but by giving all the succour in our power."—Ib., i, 362. "And to no verse, as far as I know, is a greater variety of time necessary."—Ib., ii, 79. "English Heroic verse admits no more but four capital pauses."—Ib., ii, 105. "The former serves for no other purpose but to make harmony."—Ib., 231. "But the plan was not perhaps as new as some might think it."—Literary Conv., p. 85. "The impression received would probably be neither confirmed or corrected."—Ib., p. 183. "Right is nothing else but what reason acknowledges."—Burlamaqui, on Law, p. 32. "Though it should be of no other use but this."—BP. WILKINS: Tooke's D. P., ii, 27. "One hope no sooner dies in us but another rises up."—Spect., No. 535. "This rule implies nothing else but the agreement of an adjective with a substantive."—Adams Latin Gram., p. 156; Gould's, 129. "There can be no doubt but the plan of exercise pointed out at page 132, is the best that can be adopted."—Blair's Gram., p. viii. "The exertions of this gentleman have done more than any other writer on the subject."—DR. ABERCROMBIE: Rec. in Murray's Gram., Vol. ii, p. 306. "No accidental nor unaccountable event ought to be admitted."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 273. "Wherever there was much fire and vivacity in the genius of nations."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 5. "I aim at nothing else but your safety."—Walker's Particles, p. 90. "There are pains inflicted upon man for other purposes except warning."—Wayland's Moral Sci., p. 122. "Of whom we have no more but a single letter remaining."—Campbell's Pref. to Matthew. "The publisher meant no more but that W. Ames was the author."—Sewel's History, Preface, p. xii. "Be neether bashful, nor discuver uncommon solicitude."—Webster's Essays, p. 403. "They put Minos to death, by detaining him so long in a bath, till he fainted."— Lempriere's Dict. "For who could be so hard-hearted to be severe?"— Cowley. "He must neither be a panegyrist nor a satirist."—Blair's Rhet., p. 353. "No man unbiassed by philosophical opinions, thinks that life, air, or motion, are precisely the same things."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Lang., i, 426. "Which I had no sooner drank, but I found a pimple rising in my forehead."—ADDISON: Sanborn's Gram., p. 182. "This I view very important, and ought to be well understood."—Osborn's Key, p. 5. "So that neither emphases, tones, or cadences should be the same."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 5.

   "You said no more but that yourselves must be
    The judges of the scripture sense, not we."—Dryden, p. 96.

EXERCISE IX.—PREPOSITIONS.

"To be entirely devoid of relish for eloquence, poetry, or any of the fine arts, is justly construed to be an unpromising symptom of youth."—Blair's Rhet., p. 14. "Well met, George, for I was looking of you."—Walker's Particles, p. 441. "There is another fact worthy attention."—Channing's Emancip., p. 49. "They did not gather of a Lord's-day, in costly temples."—The Dial, No. ii, p. 209. "But certain ideas have, by convention between those who speak the same language, been agreed to be represented by certain articulate sounds."—Adams's Rhet., ii, 271. "A careful study of the language is previously requisite, in all who aim at writing it properly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 91. "He received his reward in a small place, which he enjoyed to his death."—Notes to the Dunciad, B. ii, l. 283. "Gaddi, the pupil of Cimabue, was not unworthy his master."—Literary History, p. 268. "It is a new, and picturesque, and glowing image, altogether worthy the talents of the great poet who conceived it."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 100. "If the right does exist, it is paramount his title."—Angell, on Tide Waters, p. 237. "The most appropriate adjective should be placed nearest the noun."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 194. "Is not Mr. Murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a 'Philosophical Grammar?'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 39. "If it shall be found unworthy the approbation and patronage of the literary public."—Perley's Gram., p. 3. "When the relative is preceded by two words referring to the same thing, its proper antecedent is the one next it."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 101. "The magistrates commanded them to depart the city."—Sewel's Hist., p. 97. "Mankind act oftener from caprice than reason."—Murray's Gram., i, 272. "It can never view, clearly and distinctly, above one object at a time."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 65. "The theory of speech, or systematic grammar, was never regularly treated as a science till under the Macedonian kings."—Knight, on Greek Alph., p. 106. "I have been at London a year, and I saw the king last summer."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 198. "This is a crucifying of Christ, and a rebelling of Christ."—Waldenfield. "There is another advantage worthy our observation."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 26. "Certain conjunctions also require the subjunctive mood after them, independently on the sense."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 77. "If the critical reader will think proper to admit of it at all."—Priestley's Gram., p. 191. "It is the business of an epic poet to copy after nature."—Blair's Rhet., p. 427. "Good as the cause is, it is one from which numbers have deserted."— Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 222. "In respect of the images it will receive from matter."—Spectator, No. 413. "Instead of following on to whither morality would conduct it."—Dymond's Essays, p. 85. "A variety of questions upon subjects on which their feelings, and wishes, and interests, are involved."—Ib., p. 147. "In the Greek, Latin, Saxon, and German tongues, some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the Noun instead of by separate words and phrases."—Booth's Introd., p. 33. "Every teacher is bound during three times each week, to deliver a public lecture, gratis."—Howitt's Student-Life in Germany, p. 35. "But the professors of every political as well as religious creed move amongst each other in manifold circles."—Ib., p. 113.

EXERCISE X.—PROMISCUOUS.

"The inseparable Prepositions making no Sense alone, they are used only in Composition."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 66. "The English Scholar learns little from the two last Rules."—Ib., Pref., p. xi. "To prevent the body being stolen by the disciples."—Watson's Apology, p. 123. "To prevent the Jews rejoicing at his death."—Wood's Dict., p. 584. "After he had wrote the chronicles of the priesthood of John Hyrcanus."—Whiston's Josephus, v, 195. "Such words are sometimes parsed as a direct address, than which, nothing could be farther from the truth."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 89. "The signs of the tenses in these modes are as follows."—C. Adams's Gram., p. 33. "The signs of the tenses in the Potential mode are as follows."—Ibid. "And, if more promiscuous examples be found necessary, they may be taken from Mr. Murray's English Exercises."— Nesbit's Parsing, p. xvi. "One is a numeral adjective, the same as ten."—Ib., p. 95. "Nothing so much distinguishes a little mind as to stop at words."—MONTAGUE: Letter-Writer, p. 129. "But I say, again, What signifies words?"—Id., ib. "Obedience to parents is a divine command, given in both the Old and the New Testaments."—Nesbit's Parsing, p. 207. "A Compound Subject is a union of several Subjects to all which belong the same Attribute."—Fosdick's De Sacy, on General Gram., p. 22. "There are other languages in which the Conjunctive does not prevent our expressing the subject of the Conjunctive Proposition by a Pronoun."—Ib., p. 58. "This distinction must necessarily be expressed by language, but there are several different modes of doing it."—Ib., p. 64. "This action may be considered with reference to the person or thing upon whom the action falls."—Ib., p. 97. "There is nothing in the nature of things to prevent our coining suitable words."—Barnard's Gram., p. 41. "What kind of a book is this?"—Ib., p. 43. "Whence all but him had fled."—Ib., p. 58. "Person is a distinction between individuals, as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of."—Ib., p. 114. "He repented his having neglected his studies at college."—Emmons's Gram., p. 19. "What avails the taking so much medicine, when you are so careless about taking cold?"—Ib., p. 29. "Active transitive verbs are those where the action passes from the agent to the object."—Ib., p. 33. "Active intransitive verbs, are those where the action is wholly confined to the agent or actor."—Ibid. "Passive verbs express the receiving, or suffering, the action."—Ib., p. 34. "The pluperfect tense expresses an action or event that passed prior or before some other period of time specified in the sentence."—Ib., p. 42. "There is no doubt of his being a great statesman."—Ib., p. 64. "Herschell is the fartherest from the sun of any of the planets."—Fuller's Gram., p. 66. "There has not been introduced into the foregoing pages any reasons for the classifications therein adopted."—Ib., p. 80. "There must be a comma before the verb, as well as between each nominative case."—Ib., p. 98. "Yon, with former and latter, are also adjectives."—Brace's Gram., p. 17. "You was."—Ib., p. 32. "If you was."—Ib., p. 39. "Two words which end in ly succeeding each other are indeed a little offensive to the ear."—Ib., p. 85; Lennie's Gram., p. 102.

   "Is endless life and happiness despis'd?
    Or both wish'd here, where neither can be found?"—Young, p. 124.

EXERCISE XI.—PROMISCUOUS.

"Because any one of them is placed before a noun or pronoun, as you observe I have done in every sentence."—Rand's Gram., p. 74. "Might accompany is a transitive verb, because it expresses an action which effects the object me."—Gilbert's Gram., p. 94. "Intend is an intransitive verb because it expresses an action which does not effect any object."—Ib., p. 93. "Charles and Eliza were jealous of one another."—J. M. Putnam's Gram., p. 44. "Thus one another include both nouns."—Ibid. "When the antecedent is a child, that is elegantly used in preference to who, whom, or which."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 94. "He can do no more in words, but make out the expression of his will."—Bp. Wilkins. "The form of the first person plural of the imperative, love we, is grown obsolete."— Lowth's Gram., p. 38. "Excluding those verbs which are become obsolete."—Priestley's Gram., p. 47. "He who sighs for pleasure, the voice of wisdom can never reach, nor the power of virtue touch."—Wright's Athens, p. 64. "The other branch of wit in the thought, is that only which is taken notice of by Addison."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 312. "When any measure of the Chancellor was found fault with."—Professors' Reasons, p. 14. "Whether was formerly made use of to signify interrogation."— Murray's Gram., p. 54. "Under the article of Pronouns the following words must be taken notice of."—Priestley's Gram., p. 95. "In a word, we are afforded much pleasure, to be enabled to bestow our most unqualified approbation on this excellent work."—Wright's Gram., Rec., p. 4. "For Recreation is not being Idle, as every one may observe."—Locke, on Ed., p. 365. "In the easier valuing and expressing that sum."—Dilworth's Arith., p. 3. "Addition is putting together of two or more numbers."— Alexander's Arith., p. 8. "The reigns of some of our British Queens may fairly be urged in proof of woman being capable of discharging the most arduous and complicated duties of government."—West's Letters to Y. L., p. 43. "What is the import of that command to love such an one as ourselves?"—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 206. "It should seem then the grand question was, What is good?"—Harris's Hermes, p. 297. "The rectifying bad habits depends upon our consciousness of them."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 32. "To prevent our being misled by a mere name."— Campbell's Rhet., p. 168. "I was refused an opportunity of replying in the latter review."—Fowle's True English Gram., p. 10. "But how rare is such generosity and excellence as Howard displayed!"—M'Culloch's Gram., p. 39. "The noun is in the Nominative case when it is the name of the person or thing which acts or is spoken of."—Ib., p. 54. "The noun is in the Objective case when it is the name of the person or thing which is the object or end of an action or movement."—Ib., p. 54. "To prevent their being erased from your memory."—Mack's Gram., p. 17. "Pleonasm, is when a superfluous word is introduced abruptly."—Ib., p. 69.

   "Man feels his weakness, and to numbers run,
    Himself to strengthen, or himself to shun."—Crabbe, Borough, p. 137.

EXERCISE XII.—TWO ERRORS.

"Independent on the conjunction, the sense requires the subjunctive mood."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 77. "A Verb in past time without a sign is Imperfect tense."—C. Adams's Gram., p. 33. "New modelling your household and personal ornaments is, I grant, an indispensable duty."—West's Letters to Y. L., p. 58. "For grown ladies and gentlemen learning to dance, sing, draw, or even walk, is now too frequent to excite ridicule."—Ib., p. 123. "It is recorded that a physician let his horse bleed on one of the evil days, and it soon lay dead."—Constable's Miscellany, xxi. 99. "As to the apostrophe, it was seldom used to distinguish the genitive case till about the beginning of the present century, and then seems to have been introduced by mistake."—Dr. Ash's Gram., p. 23. "One of the relatives only varied to express the three cases."—Lowth's Gram., p. 24. "What! does every body take their morning draught of this liquor?"—Collier's Cebes. "Here, all things comes round, and bring the same appearances a long with them."—Collier's Antoninus, p. 103. "Most commonly both the relative and verb are elegantly left out in the second member."—Buchanan's Gram., p. ix. "A fair receipt of water, of some thirty or forty foot square."—Bacon's Essays, p. 127. "The old know more indirect ways of outwiting others, than the young."—Burgh's Dignity, i, 60. "The pronoun singular of the third person hath three genders."—Lowth's Gram., p. 21. "The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion."—Murray's Gram., p. 203. "It is called, understanding human nature, knowing the weak sides of men, &c."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 284. "Neither of which are taken notice of by this Grammar."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 279. "But certainly no invention is entitled to such degree of admiration as that of language."—Blair's Rhet., p. 54. "The Indians, the Persians, and Arabians, were all famous for their tales."—Ib., p. 374. "Such a leading word is the preposition and the conjunction."— Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 21. "This, of all others, is the most encouraging circumstance in these times."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 37. "The putting any constraint on the organs of speech, or urging them to a more rapid action than they can easily perform in their tender state, must be productive of indistinctness in utterance."—Ib., p. 35. "Good articulation is the foundation of a good delivery, in the same manner as the sounding the simple notes in music, is the foundation of good singing."—Ib., p. 33. "The offering praise and thanks to God, implies our having a lively and devout sense of his excellencies and of his benefits."—ATTERBURY: Blair's Rhet., p. 295. "The pause should not be made till the fourth or sixth syllable."—Blair, ib., p. 333. "Shenstone's pastoral ballad, in four parts, may justly be reckoned one of the most elegant poems of this kind, which we have in English."—Ib., p. 394. "What need Christ to have died, if heaven could have contained imperfect souls?"—Baxter. "Every person is not a man of genius, nor is it necessary that he should."—Seattle's Moral Science, i, 69. "They were alarmed from a quarter where they least expected."—Goldsmith's Greece, ii, 6.

   "If thou more murmur'st, I will rend an oak,
    And peg thee in his knotty intrails."—SHAK.: White's Verb, p. 94.

EXERCISE XIII.—TWO ERRORS.

"In consequence of this, much time and labor are unprofitably expended, and a confusion of ideas introduced into the mind, which, by never so wise a method of subsequent instruction, it is very difficult completely to remove."—Grenville's Gram., p. 3. "So that the restoring a natural manner of delivery, would be bringing about an entire revolution, in its most essential parts."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 170. "'Thou who loves us, will protect us still:' here who agrees with thou, and is nominative to the verb loves."—Alex. Murray's Gram., p. 67. "The Active voice signifies action; the Passive, suffering, or being the object of an action."—Adam's Latin Gram., p. 80; Gould's, 77. "They sudden set upon him, fearing no such thing."—Walker's Particles, p. 252. "That may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 110. "This is the distinguishing property of the church of Christ from all other antichristian assemblies or churches."—Barclay's Works, i, 533. "My lords, the course which the legislature formerly took with respect to the slave-trade, appears to me to be well deserving the attention both of the government and your lordships."—BROUGHAM: Antislavery Reporter, Vol. ii, p. 218. "We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen."—John, iii, 11. "This is a consequence I deny, and remains for him to prove."—Barclay's Works, iii, 329. "To back this, He brings in the Authority of Accursius, and Consensius Romanus, to the latter of which he confesses himself beholding for this Doctrine."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 343. "The compound tenses of the second order, or those in which the participle present is made use of."—Priestley's Gram., p. 24. "To lay the accent always on the same syllable, and the same letter of the syllable, which they do in common discourse."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 78. "Though the converting the w into a v is not so common as the changing the v into a w."—Ib., p. 46. "Nor is this all; for by means of accent, the times of pauses also are rendered quicker, and their proportions more easily to be adjusted and observed."—Ib., p. 72. "By mouthing, is meant, dwelling upon syllables that have no accent: or prolonging the sounds of the accented syllables, beyond their due proportion of time."—Ib., p. 76. "Taunt him with the license of ink; if thou thou'st him thrice, it shall not be amiss."—SHAK.: Joh. Dict., w. Thou. "The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young eagles shall eat it."—Prov., xxx, 17. "Copying, or merely imitating others, is the death of arts and sciences."—Spurzheim, on Ed., p. 170. "He is arrived at that degree of perfection, as to surprise all his acquaintance."—Ensell's Gram., p. 296. "Neither the King nor Queen are gone."—Buchanan's E. Syntax, p. 155. "Many is pronounced as if it were wrote manny."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., with Dict., p. 2.

   "And as the music on the waters float,
    Some bolder shore returns the soften'd note."
        —Crabbe, Borough, p. 118.

EXERCISE XIV.—THREE ERRORS.

"It appears that the Temple was then a building, because these Tiles must be supposed to be for the covering it."—Johnson's Gram. Com., p. 281. "It was common for sheriffs to omit or excuse the not making returns for several of the boroughs within their counties."—Brown's Estimate, Vol. ii, p. 132. "The conjunction as when it is connected with the pronoun, such, many, or same, is sometimes called a relative pronoun."—Kirkham's Gram., the Compend. "Mr. Addison has also much harmony in his style; more easy and smooth, but less varied than Lord Shaftesbury."—Blair's Rhet., p. 127; Jamieson's, 129. "A number of uniform lines having all the same pause, are extremely fatiguing; which is remarkable in French versification."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 104. "Adjectives qualify or distinguish one noun from another."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 13. "The words one, other, and none, are used in both numbers."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 107. "A compound word is made up of two or more words, usually joined by an hyphen, as summer-house, spirit-less, school-master."—Blair's Gram., p. 7. "There is an inconvenience in introducing new words by composition which nearly resembles others in use before; as, disserve, which is too much like deserve."—Priestley's Gram., p. 145. "For even in that case, the trangressing the limits in the least, will scarce be pardoned."—Sheridan's Lect., p. 119. "What other are the foregoing instances but describing the passion another feels."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 388. "'Two and three are five.' If each substantive is to be taken separately as a subject, then 'two is five,' and 'three is five.'"—Goodenow's Gram., p. 87. "The article a joined to the simple pronoun other makes it the compound another."— Priestley's Gram., p. 96. "The word another is composed of the indefinite article prefixed to the word other."—Murray's Gram., p. 57; et al. "In relating things that were formerly expressed by another person, we often meet with modes of expression similar to the following."—Ib., p. 191. "Dropping one l prevents the recurrence of three very near each other."—Churchill's Gram., p. 202. "Sometimes two or more genitive cases succeed each other; as, 'John's wife's father.'"—Dalton's Gram., p. 14. "Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case immediately succeed each other, in the following form: 'My friend's wife's sister.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 45.

EXERCISE XV.—MANY ERRORS.

"Number is of a two fold nature,—Singular and Plural: and comprehends, accordingly to its application, the distinction between them."—Wright's Gram., p. 37. "The former, Figures of Words, are commonly called Tropes, and consists in a word's being employed to signify something, which is different from its original and primitive meaning."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 337. "The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes, and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive meaning."—Blair's Rhet., p. 132. "A particular number of connected syllables are called feet, or measured paces."—Blair's Gram., p. 118. "Many poems, and especially songs, are written in the dactyl or anapæstic measure, some consisting of eleven or twelve syllables, and some of less."—Ib., p. 121. "A Diphthong makes always a long Syllable, unless one of the vowels be droped."— British Gram., p. 34. "An Adverb is generally employed as an attributive, to denote some peculiarity or manner of action, with respect to the time, place, or order, of the noun or circumstance to which it is connected."— Wright's Definitions, Philos. Gram., pp. 35 and 114. "A Verb expresses the action, the suffering or enduring, or the existence or condition of a noun."—Ib., pp. 35 and 64. "These three adjectives should be written our's, your's, their's."—Fowle's True Eng. Gram., p. 22. "Never was man so teized, or suffered half the uneasiness as I have done this evening."— Tattler, No. 160; Priestley's Gram., p. 200; Murray's, i, 223. "There may be reckoned in English four different cases, or relations of a substantive, called the subjective, the possessive, the objective, and the absolute cases."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 31. "To avoid the too often repeating the Names of other Persons or Things of which we discourse, the words he, she, it, who, what, were invented."—Brightland's Gram., p. 85. "Names which denote a number of the same things, are called nouns of multitude."—Infant School Gram., p. 21. "But lest he should think, this were too slightly a passing over his matter, I will propose to him to be considered these things following."—Barclay's Works, Vol. iii, p. 472. "In the pronunciation of the letters of the Hebrew proper names, we find nearly the same rules prevail as in those of Greek and Latin."—Walker's Key, p. 223. "The distributive pronominal adjectives each, every, either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs of the singular number only."—Lowth's Gram., p. 89. "Having treated of the different sorts of words, and their various modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word is derived from another."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 130.

EXERCISE XVI.—MANY ERRORS.

"A Noun with its Adjectives (or any governing Word with its Attendants) is one compound Word, whence the Noun and Adjective so joined, do often admit another Adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on; as, a Man, an old Man, a very good old Man, a very learned, judicious, sober Man."—British Gram., p. 195; Buchanan's, 79. "A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one compounded word; whence they often take another adjective, and sometimes a third, and so on: as, 'An old man; a good old man; a very learned, judicious, good old man.'"—L. Murray's Gram., p. 169; Ingersoll's, 195; and others. "But though this elliptical style be intelligible, and is allowable in conversation and epistolary writing, yet in all writings of a serious or dignified kind, is ungraceful."—Blair's Rhet., p. 112. "There is no talent so useful towards rising in the world, or which puts men more out of the reach of fortune, than that quality generally possessed by the dullest sort of people, and is, in common language, called discretion."—SWIFT: Blair's Rhet., p. 113. "Which to allow, is just as reasonable as to own, that 'tis the greatest ill of a body to be in the utmost manner maimed or distorted; but that to lose the use only of one limb, or to be impaired in some single organ or member, is no ill worthy the least notice."— SHAFTESBURY: ib., p. 115; Murray's Gram., p. 322. "If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a copulative conjunction, be of several persons, in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person, the second person takes place of the third, and the first of both."—Murray's Gram., p. 151; et al. "'The painter * * * cannot exhibit various stages of the same action.' In this sentence we see that the painter governs, or agrees with, the verb can, as its nominative case."—Ib., p. 195. "It expresses also facts which exist generally, at all times, general truths, attributes which are permanent, habits, customary actions, and the like, without the reference to a specific time."—Ib., p. 73; Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 71. "The different species of animals may therefore be considered, as so many different nations speaking different languages, that have no commerce with each other; each of which consequently understands none but their own."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 142. "It is also important to understand and apply the principles of grammar in our common conversation; not only because it enables us to make our language understood by educated persons, but because it furnishes the readiest evidence of our having received a good education ourselves."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 16.

EXERCISE XVII.—MANY ERRORS.

"This faulty Tumour in Stile is like an huge unpleasant Rock in a Champion Country, that's difficult to be transcended."—Holmes's Rhet., Book ii, p. 16. "For there are no Pelops's, nor Cadmus's, nor Danaus's dwell among us."—Ib., p. 51. "None of these, except will, is ever used as a principal verb, but as an auxiliary to some principal, either expressed or understood."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 134. "Nouns which signify either the male or female are common gender."—Perley's Gram., p. 11. "An Adjective expresses the kind, number, or quality of a noun."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part I, p. 9. "There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect tenses."—Ib., p. 18. "My refers to the first person singular, either gender. Our refers to the first person plural, either gender. Thy refers to the second person singular, either gender. Your refers to the second person plural, either gender. Their refers to the third person plural, either gender."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part II, p. 14. "Good use, which for brevity's sake, shall hereafter include reputable, national, and present use, is not always uniform in her decisions."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 44. "Nouns which denote but one object are considered in the singular number."—Edward's First Lessons in Gram., p. 35. "If, therefore, the example of Jesus should be plead to authorize accepting an invitation to dine on the sabbath, it should be plead just as it was."—Barnes's Notes: on Luke, xiv, 1. "The teacher will readily dictate what part may be omitted, the first time going through it."—Ainsworth's Gram., p. 4. "The contents of the following pages have been drawn chiefly, with various modifications, from the same source which has supplied most modern writers on this subject, viz. LINDLEY MURRAY'S GRAMMAR."—Felton's Gram., p. 3. "The term person in grammar distinguishes between the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of."—Ib., p. 9. "In my father's garden grow the Maiden's Blush and the Prince' Feather."—Felton, ib., p. 15. "A preposition is a word used to connect words with one another, and show the relation between them. They generally stand before nouns and pronouns."—Ib., p. 60. "Nouns or pronouns addressed are always either in the second person, singular or plural."—Hallock's Gram., p. 54. "The plural MEN not ending in s, is the reason for adding the apostrophie's."—T. Smith's Gram., p. 19. "Pennies denote real coin; pence, their value in computation."— Hazen's Gram., p. 24. "We commence, first, with letters, which is termed Orthography; secondly, with words, denominated Etymology; thirdly, with sentences, styled Syntax; fourthly, with orations and poems, called Prosody."—Barrett's Gram., p. 22. "Care must be taken, that sentences of proper construction and obvious import be not rendered obscure by the too free use of the ellipsis."—Felton's Grammar, Stereotype Edition, p. 80.

EXERCISE XVIII.—PROMISCUOUS.

"Tropes and metaphors so closely resemble each other that it is not always easy, nor is it important to be able to distinguish the one from the other."—Parker and Fox, Part III, p. 66. "With regard to relatives, it may be further observed, that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, particularly of the pronouns WHO, and THEY, and THEM, and THEIRS. When we find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no method left, but to throw the whole sentence into some other form."—Ib., p. 90; Murray's Gram., p. 311; Blair's Rhet., p. 106. "Do scholars acquire any valuable knowledge, by learning to repeat long strings of words, without any definite ideas, or several jumbled together like rubbish in a corner, and apparently with no application, either for the improvement of mind or of language?"— Cutler's Gram., Pref., p. 5. "The being officiously good natured and civil are things so uncommon in the world, that one cannot hear a man make professions of them without being surprised, or at least, suspecting the disinterestedness of his intentions."—FABLES: Cutler's Gram., p. 135. "Irony is the intentional use of words to express a sense contrary to that which the speaker or writer means to convey."—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part III, p. 68. "The term Substantive is derived from substare, to stand, to distinguish it from an adjective, which cannot, like the noun, stand alone."—Hiley's Gram., p. 11. "They have two numbers, like nouns, the singular and plural; and three persons in each number, namely, I, the first person, represents the speaker. Thou, the second person, represents the person spoken to. He, she, it, the third person, represents the person or thing spoken of."—Ib., p. 23. "He, She, It, is the Third Person singular; but he with others, she with others, or it with others, make each of them they, which is the Third Person plural."—White, on the English Verb, p. 97. "The words had I been, that is, the Third Past Tense of the Verb, marks the Supposition, as referring itself, not to the Present, but to some former period of time."—Ib., p. 88. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid a too frequent repetition of the same word."—Frazee's Improved Gram., p. 122.

   "That which he cannot use, and dare not show,
    And would not give—why longer should he owe?"—Crabbe.

PART IV.

PROSODY.

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and versification.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The word prosody, (from the Greek—[Greek: pros], to, and [Greek: dæ], song,) is, with regard to its derivation, exactly equivalent to accent, or the Latin accentus, which is formed from ad, to, and cantus, song: both terms, perhaps, originally signifying a singing with, or sounding to, some instrument or voice. PROSODIA, as a Latin word, is defined by Littleton, "Pars Grammaticæ quæ docet accentus, h. e. rationem atollendi et depremendi syllabas, tum quantitatem carundem." And in English, "The art of ACCENTING, or the rule of pronouncing syllables truly, LONG or SHORT."—Litt. Dict., 4to. This is a little varied by Ainsworth thus: "The rule of ACCENTING, or pronouncing syllables truly, whether LONG or SHORT."—Ains. Dict., 4to. Accent, in English, belongs as much to prose as to poetry; but some deny that in Latin it belongs to either. There is also much difficulty about the import of the word; since some prosodists identify accent with tone; some take it for the inflections of voice; some call it the pitch of vocal sounds; and some, like the authors just cited, seem to confound it with quantity,—"LONG or SHORT." [459]

OBS. 2.—"Prosody," says a late writer, "strictly denotes only that musical tone or melody which accompanies speech. But the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term."—Frost's Practical Grammar, p. 160. This remark is a note upon the following definition: "PROSODY is that part of grammar which treats of the structure of Poetical Composition."—Ibid. Agreeably to this definition, Frost's Prosody, with all the generality the author claims for it, embraces only a brief account of Versification, with a few remarks on "Poetical License." Of Pronunciation and the Figures of Speech, he takes no notice; and Punctuation, which some place with Orthography, and others distinguish as one of the chief parts of grammar, he exhibits as a portion of Syntax. Not more comprehensive is this part of grammar, as exhibited in the works of several other authors; but, by Lindley Murray, R. C. Smith, and some others, both Punctuation and Pronunciation are placed here; though no mention is made of the former in their subdivision of Prosody, which, they not very aptly say, "consists of two parts, Pronunciation and Versification." Dr. Bullions, no less deficient in method, begins with saying, "PROSODY consists of two parts; Elocution and Versification;" (Principles of E. Gram., p. 163;) and then absurdly proceeds to treat of it under the following six principal heads: viz., Elocution, Versification, Figures of Speech, Poetic License, Hints for Correct and Elegant Writing, and Composition.

OBS. 3.—If, in regard to the subjects which may be treated under the name of Prosody, "the usage of modern grammarians justifies an extremely general application of the term," such an application is certainly not less warranted by the usage of old authors. But, by the practice of neither, can it be easily determined how many and what things ought to be embraced under this head. Of the different kinds of verse, or "the structure of Poetical Compostion," some of the old prosodists took little or no notice; because they thought it their chief business, to treat of syllables, and determine the orthoëpy of words. The Prosody of Smetius, dated 1509, (my edition of which was published in Germany in 1691,) is in fact a pronouncing dictionary of the Latin language. After a brief abstract of the old rules of George Fabricius concerning quantity and accent, it exhibits, in alphabetic order, and with all their syllables marked, about twenty-eight thousand words, with a poetic line quoted against each, to prove the pronunciation just. The Prosody of John Genuensis, an other immense work, concluded by its author in 1286, improved by Badius in 1506, and printed at Lyons in 1514, is also mainly a Latin dictionary, with derivations and definitions as in other dictionaries. It is a folio volume of seven hundred and thirty closely-printed pages; six hundred of which are devoted to the vocabulary, the rest to orthography, accent, etymology, syntax, figures, points—almost everything but versification. Yet this vast sum of grammar has been entitled Prosody—"Prosodia seu Catholicon"—"Catholicon seu Universale Vocabularium ac Summa Grammatices."—See pp. 1 and 5.

CHAPTER I—PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation is the art of dividing literary composition, by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words; and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading.

The following are the principal points, or marks; namely, the Comma [,],
the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], the Dash [—], the
Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation [?], the Ecphoneme, or Note of
Exclamation [!], and the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, [()].

The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the Period, or Full Stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other four, vary according to the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may be equal to any of the foregoing.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to pause at a comma while they might count one; at a semicolon, one, two; at a colon, one, two, three; at a period, one, two, three, four. This may be of some use, as teaching them to observe the necessary stops, that they may catch the sense; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is immeasurable; and so may be the pause after a question or an exclamation.

OBS. 2.—The first four points take their names from the parts of discourse, or of a sentence, which are distinguished by them. The Period, or circuit, is a complete round of words, often consisting of several clauses or members, and always bringing out full sense at the close. The Colon, or member, is the greatest division or limb of a period, and is the chief constructive part of a compound sentence. The Semicolon, half member, or half limb, is the greatest division of a colon, and is properly a smaller constructive part of a compound sentence. The Comma, or segment, is a small part of a clause cut off, and is properly the least constructive part of a compound sentence. A simple sentence is sometimes a whole period, sometimes a chief member, sometimes a half member, sometimes a segment, and sometimes perhaps even less. Hence it may require the period, the colon, the semicolon, the comma, or even no point, according to the manner in which it is used. A sentence whose relatives and adjuncts are all taken in a restrictive sense, may be considerably complex, and yet require no division by points; as,

   "Thank him who puts me loath to this revenge
    On you who wrong me not for him who wrong'd."—Milton.

OBS. 3.—The system of punctuation now used in English, is, in its main features, common to very many languages. It is used in Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Dutch, German, and perhaps most of the tongues in which books are now written or printed. The Germans, however, make less frequent use of the comma than we; and the Spaniards usually mark a question or an exclamation doubly, inverting the point at the beginning of the sentence. In Greek, the difference is greater: the colon, expressed by the upper dot alone, is the only point between the comma and the period; the ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is hardly recognized, though some printers of the classics have occasionally introduced it; and the eroteme, or note of interrogation, retains in that language its pristine form, which is that of our semicolon. In Hebrew, a full stop is denoted by a heavy colon, or something like it; and this is the only pointing adopted, when the vowel points and the accents are not used.

OBS. 4.—Though the points in use, and the principles on which they ought to be applied, are in general well fixed, and common to almost all sorts of books; yet, through the negligence of editors, the imperfections of copy, the carelessness of printers, or some other means, it happens, that different editions and different versions of the same work are often found pointed very variously. This circumstance, provided the sense is still preserved, is commonly thought to be of little moment. But all writers will do well to remember, that they owe it to their readers, to show them at once how they mean to be read; and since the punctuation of the early printers was unquestionably very defective, the republishers of ancient books should not be over scrupulous about an exact imitation of it; they may, with proper caution, correct obvious faults.

OBS. 5.—The precise origin of the points, it is not easy to trace in the depth of antiquity. It appears probable, from ancient manuscripts and inscriptions, that the period is the oldest of them; and it is said by some, that the first system of punctuation consisted in the different positions of this dot alone. But after the adoption of the small letters, which improvement is referred to the ninth century, both the comma and the colon came into use, and also the Greek note of interrogation. In old books, however, the comma is often found, not in its present form, but in that of a straight stroke, drawn up and down obliquely between the words. Though the colon is of Greek origin, the practice of writing it with two dots we owe to the Latin authors, or perhaps to the early printers of Latin books. The semicolon was first used in Italy, and was not adopted in England till about the year 1600. Our marks for questions and exclamations were also derived from the same source, probably at a date somewhat earlier. The curves of the parenthesis have likewise been in use for several centuries. But the clash is a more recent invention: Lowth, Ash, and Ward,—Buchanan, Bicknell, and Burn,—though they name all the rest, make no mention of this mark; but it appears by their books, that they all occasionally used it.

OBS. 6—Of the colon it may be observed, that it is now much less frequently used than it was formerly; its place being usurped, sometimes by the semicolon, and sometimes by the period. For this ill reason, some late grammarians have discarded it altogether. Thus Felton: "The COLON is now so seldom used by good writers, that rules for its use are unnecessary."—Concise Manual of English Gram., p. 140. So Nutting: "It will be noticed, that the colon is omitted in this system; because it is omitted by the majority of the writers of the present age; three points, with the dash, being considered sufficient to mark the different lengths of the pauses."—Practical Grammar, p. 120. These critics, whenever they have occasion to copy such authors as Milton and Pope, do not scruple to mutilate their punctuation by putting semicolons or periods for all the colons they find. But who cannot perceive, that without the colon, the semicolon becomes an absurdity? It can no longer be a semicolon, unless the half can remain when the whole is taken away! The colon, being the older point of the two, and once very fashionable, is doubtless on record in more instances than the semicolon; and, if now, after both have been in common use for some hundreds of years, it be found out that only one is needed, perhaps it would be more reasonable to prefer the former. Should public opinion ever be found to coincide with the suggestions of the two authors last quoted, there will be reason to regret that Caxton, the old English typographer of the fifteenth century, who for a while successfully withstood, in his own country, the introduction of the semicolon, had not the power to prevent it forever. In short, to leave no literary extravagance unbroached, the latter point also has not lacked a modern impugner. "One of the greatest improvements in punctuation," says Justin Brenan, "is the rejection of the eternal semicolons of our ancestors. In latter times, the semicolon has been gradually disappearing, not only from the newspapers, but from books."—Brenan's "Composition and Punctuation familiarly Explained", p. 100; London, 1830. The colon and the semicolon are both useful, and, not unfrequently, necessary; and all correct writers will, I doubt not, continue to use both.

OBS. 7—Since Dr. Blair published his emphatic caution against too frequent a use of parentheses, there has been, if not an abatement of the kind of error which he intended to censure, at least a diminution in the use of the curves, the sign of a parenthesis. These, too, some inconsiderate grammarians now pronounce to be out of vogue. "The parenthesis is now generally exploded as a deformity."—Churchill's Gram., p. 362. "The Parenthesis, () has become nearly obsolete, except in mere references, and the like; its place, by modern writers, being usually supplied by the use of the comma, and the dash."—Nutting's Practical Gram., p. 126; Frazee's Improved Grammar, p. 187. More use may have been made of the curves than was necessary, and more of the parenthesis itself than was agreeable to good taste; but, the sign being well adapted to the construction, and the construction being sometimes sprightly and elegant, there are no good reasons for wishing to discard either of them; nor is it true, that the former "has become nearly obsolete."

OBS. 8—The name parenthesis is, which literally means a putting-in-between, is usually applied both to the curves, and to the incidental clause which they enclose. This twofold application of the term involves some inconvenience, if not impropriety. According to Dr. Johnson, the enclosed "sentence" alone is the parenthesis; but Worcester, agreeably to common usage, defines the word as meaning also "the mark thus ()." But, as this sign consists of two distinct parts, two corresponding curves, it seems more natural to use a plural name: hence L. Murray, when he would designate the sign only, adopted a plural expression; as, "the parenthetical characters,"—"the parenthetical marks." So, in another case, which is similar: "the hooks in which words are included," are commonly called crotchets or brackets; though Bucke, in his Classical Grammar, I know not why, calls the two "[ ] a Crotchet;" (p. 23;) and Webster, in his octavo Dictionary, defines a "Bracket, in printing," as Johnson does a "Crotchet" by a plural noun: "hooks; thus, [ ]." Again, in his grammars, Dr. Webster rather confusedly says: "The parenthesis () and hooks [] include a remark or clause, not essential to the sentence in construction."—Philosophical Gram., p. 219; Improved Gram., p. 154. But, in his Dictionary, he forgets both the hooks and the parenthesis that are here spoken of; and, with still worse confusion or inaccuracy, says: "The parenthesis is usually included in hooks or curved lines, thus, ()." Here he either improperly calls these regular little curves "hooks," or erroneously suggests that both the hooks and the curves are usual and appropriate signs of "the parenthesis." In Garner's quarto Dictionary, the French word Crochet, as used by printers, is translated, "A brace, a crotchet, a parenthesis;" and the English word Crotchet is defined, "The mark of a parenthesis, in printing, thus [ ]." But Webster defines Crotchet, "In printing, a hook including words, a sentence or a passage distinguished from the rest, thus []." This again is both ambiguous and otherwise inaccurate. It conveys no clear idea of what a crotchet is. One hook includes nothing. Therefore Johnson said: "Hooks in which words are included [thus]." But if each of the hooks is a crotchet, as Webster suggests, and almost every body supposes, then both lexicographers are wrong in not making the whole expression plural: thus, "Crotchets, in printing, are angular hooks usually including some explanatory words." But is this all that Webster meant? I cannot tell. He may be understood as saying also, that a Crotchet is "a sentence or a passage distinguished from the rest, thus [];" and doubtless it would be much better to call a hint thus marked, a crotchet, than to call it a parenthesis, as some have done. In Parker and Fox's Grammar, and also in Parker's Aids to English Composition, the term Brackets only is applied to these angular hooks; and, contrary to all usage of other authors, so far as I know, the name of Crotchets is there given to the Curves. And then, as if this application of the word were general, and its propriety indisputable, the pupil is simply told: "The curved lines between which a parenthesis is enclosed are called Crotchets."—Gram., Part III, p. 30; Aids, p. 40. "Called Crotchets" by whom? That not even Mr. Parker himself knows them by that name, the following most inaccurate passage is a proof: "The note of admiration and interrogation, as also the parenthesis, the bracket, and the reference marks, [are noted in the margin] in the same manner as the apostrophe."—Aids, p. 314. In some late grammars, (for example, Hazen's and Day's,) the parenthetic curves are called "the Parentheses" From this the student must understand that it always takes two parentheses to make one parenthesis! If then it is objectionable, to call the two marks "a parenthesis," it is much more so, to call each of them by that name, or both "the parentheses." And since Murray's phrases are both entirely too long for common use, what better name can be given them than this very simple one, the Curves?

OBS. 9.—The words eroteme and ecphoneme, which, like aposteme and philosopheme, are orderly derivatives from Greek roots[460], I have ventured to suggest as fitter names for the two marks to which they are applied as above, than are any of the long catalogue which other grammarians, each choosing for himself have presented. These marks have not unfrequently been called "the interrogation and the exclamation;" which names are not very suitable, because they have other uses in grammar. According to Dr. Blair, as well as L. Murray and others, interrogation and exclamation are "passionate figures" of rhetoric, and oftentimes also plain "unfigured" expressions. The former however are frequently and more fitly called by their Greek names erotesis and ecphonesis, terms to which those above have a happy correspondence. By Dr. Webster and some others, all interjections are called "exclamations;" and, as each of these is usually followed by the mark of emotion, it cannot but be inconvenient to call both by the same name.

OBS. 10.—For things so common as the marks of asking and exclaiming, it is desirable to have simple and appropriate names, or at least some settled mode of denomination; but, it is remarkable, that Lindley Murray, in mentioning these characters six times, uses six different modes of expression, and all of them complex: (1.) "Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation." (2.) "The point of Interrogation,?"—"The point of Exclamation,!" (3.) "The Interrogatory Point."—"The Exclamatory Point." (4.) "A note of interrogation,"—"The note of exclamation." (5.) "The interrogation and exclamation points." (6.) "The points of Interrogation and Exclamation."—Murray, Flint, Ingersoll, Alden, Pond. With much better taste, some writers denote them uniformly thus: (7.) "The Note of Interrogation,"—"The Note of Exclamation."—Churchill, Hiley. In addition to these names, all of which are too long, there may be cited many others, though none that are unobjectionable: (8.) "The Interrogative sign,"—"The Exclamatory sign."—Peirce, Hazen. (9.) "The Mark of Interrogation,"—"The Mark of Exclamation."—Ward, Felton, Hendrick. (10.) "The Interrogative point,"—"The Exclamation point."—T. Smith, Alger. (11.) "The interrogation point,"—"The exclamation point."—Webster, St. Quentin, S. Putnam. (12.) "A Note of Interrogation,"—"A Note of Admiration."—Coar, Nutting. (13.) "The Interrogative point,"—"The Note of Admiration, or of vocation."—Bucke. (14.) "Interrogation (?),"—"Admiration (!) or Exclamation."—Lennie, Bullions. (15.) "A Point of Interrogation,"—"A Point of Admiration or Exclamation."—Buchanan. (16.) "The Interrogation Point (?),"—"The Admiration Point (!)."—Perley. (17.) "An interrogation (?),"—"An exclamation (!)."—Cutler. (18.) "The interrogator?"—"The exclaimor!"—Day's Gram., p. 112. [The putting of "exclaimor" for exclaimer, like this author's changing of quoters to "quotors," as a name for the guillemets, is probably a mere sample of ignorance.] (19.) "Question point,"—"Exclamation point."—Sanborn, p. 272.

SECTION I.—THE COMMA.

The Comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connexion which admits no point.

RULE I.—SIMPLE SENTENCES.

A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma; as, "The weakest reasoners are the most positive."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 202. "Theology has not hesitated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma."—Tract on Tone, p. 4.

   "Then pain compels the impatient soul to seize
    On promis'd hopes of instantaneous ease."—Crabbe.

EXCEPTION.—LONG SIMPLE SENTENCES.

When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb; as, "Confession of sin without amendment, obtains no pardon."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 6. "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."—Murray's Gram., p. 268.

   "O that the tenor of my just complaint,[461]
    Were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant!"—Sandys.

RULE II.—SIMPLE MEMBERS.

The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma; as,

1. "Here stand we both, and aim we at the best."—Shak.

2. "I, that did never weep, now melt in woe."—Id.

3. "Tide life, tide death, I come without delay."—Id.

4. "I am their mother, who shall bar me from them?"—Id.

5. "How wretched, were I mortal, were my state!"—Pope.

6. "Go; while thou mayst, avoid the dreadful fate."—Id.

7. "Grief aids disease, remember'd folly stings, And his last sighs reproach the faith of kings."—Johnson.

EXCEPTION I.—RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES.

When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it; as, "For the things which are seen, are temporal; but the things which are not seen, are eternal."—2 Cor., iv, 18. "A letter is a character that expresses a sound without any meaning."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 3.

EXCEPTION II.—SHORT TERMS CLOSELY CONNECTED.

When the simple members are short, and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is generally omitted; as, "Honest poverty is better than wealthy fraud."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 11. "Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even or odd."—TAYLOR: Joh. Dict., w. Even. "It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things."—CAMPBELL: Murray's Gram., p 359.

EXCEPTION III.—ELLIPTICAL MEMBERS UNITED.

When two simple members are immediately united, through ellipsis of the relative, the antecedent, or the conjunction that, the comma is not inserted; as, "Make an experiment on the first man you meet."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 125. "Our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue."—Ib., p. 126. "It is certain we imagine before we reflect."—Ib., p. 359.

   "The same good sense that makes a man excel,
    Still makes him doubt he ne'er has written well."—Young.

RULE III.—MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also:[462] as,

1. "Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."—Beattie.

2. "Ah! what avails * * * * * * * * * All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?"—Id..

3. "Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless."—Shak.

4. "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there."—Young.

    5. ——"So eagerly the Fiend
       O'er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare,
       With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,
       And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies."—Milton.

RULE IV.—ONLY TWO WORDS.

When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma; as, "It is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms; for true power is to be got by arts and industry"—Spectator, No. 2.

"Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul."—Goldsmith.

EXCEPTION I.—TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS.

When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted; as, "I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable, and their diversion useful."—Spectator, No. 10. "Who is applied to persons, or things personified."—Bullions.

   "With listless eyes the dotard views the store,
    He views, and wonders that they please no more."—Johnson.

EXCEPTION II.—TWO TERMS CONTRASTED.

When two connected words or phrases are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted; as, "The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged."—Kames.

"Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand."—Beattie.

"'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too."—Goldsmith.

EXCEPTION III.—ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS.

When there is merely an alternative of names, or an explanatory change of terms, the comma is usually inserted; as, "We saw a large opening, or inlet."—W. Allen. "Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles?"—Cor., ix, 5.

EXCEPTION IV.—CONJUNCTION UNDERSTOOD.

When the conjunction is understood, the comma is inserted; and, if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term, the second requires a second comma: as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."—L. Murray, Gram., p. 269.

"To him the church, the realm, their pow'rs consign."—Johnson.

    "She thought the isle that gave her birth.
    The sweetest, wildest land on earth."—Hogg.

RULE V.—WORDS IN PAIRS.

When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma; as, "Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."—W. Allen. "But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as good a right to liberty as to life."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 313.

   "Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate,
    O'erspread with snares the crowded maze of fate."—Dr. Johnson.

RULE VI.—WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE.

Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, "The prince, his father being dead, succeeded."—"This done, we parted."—"Zaccheus, make haste and come down."—"His proctorship in Sicily, what did it produce?"—Cicero.

   "Wing'd with his fears, on foot he strove to fly,
    His steeds too distant, and the foe too nigh"
        —Pope, Iliad, xi, 440.

RULE VII.—WORDS IN APPOSITION.

Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma; as, "He that now calls upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe."—Johnson. "LOWTH, Dr. Robert, bishop of London, born in 1710, died in 1787."—Biog. Dict. "HOME, Henry, lord Kames."—Ib.

   "What next I bring shall please thee, be assur'd,
    Thy likeness, thy fit help, thy other self,
    Thy wish exactly to thy heart's desire."—Milton, P. L., viii, 450.

"And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers."—Byron.

EXCEPTION I.—COMPLEX NAMES.

When several words, in their common order, are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted; as, "Dr. Samuel Johnson,"—"Publius Gavius Cosanus."

EXCEPTION II.—CLOSE APPOSITION.

When a common and a proper name are closely united, the comma is not inserted; as, "The brook Kidron,"—"The river Don,"—"The empress Catharine,"—"Paul the Apostle."

EXCEPTION III.—PRONOUN WITHOUT PAUSE.

When a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted; as, "Ye men of Athens,"—"I myself,"—"Thou flaming minister,"—"You princes."

EXCEPTION IV.—NAMES ACQUIRED.

When a name acquired by some action or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted; as, "I made the ground my bed;"—"To make him king;"—"Whom they revered as God;"—"With modesty thy guide."—Pope.

RULE VIII.—ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as,

    1. ——————————————"Among the roots
      Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream,
      They frame the first foundation of their domes."—Thomson.

2. ————————————-"Up springs the lark, Shrill-voic'd and loud, the messenger of morn."—Id.

EXCEPTION.—ADJECTIVES RESTRICTIVE.

When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it; as,

    ——"And on the coast averse
    From entrance or cherubic watch."—Milton, P. L., B. ix, l. 68.

RULE IX.—FINITE VERBS.

Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required; as, "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge."—Murray.

   "Else all my prose and verse were much the same;
    This, prose on stilts; that, poetry fallen lame."—Pope.

EXCEPTION.—VERY SLIGHT PAUSE.

As the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule, if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight, it may be left unmarked, and the comma be used for the clauses; as, "When the profligate speaks of piety, the miser of generosity, the coward of valour, and the corrupt of integrity, they are only the more despised by those who know them."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 132.

RULE X.—INFINITIVES.

The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma; as, "One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 151. "To confess the truth, I was much in fault."—Murray's Gram., p. 271.

   "The Governor of all—has interposed,
    Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite
    The injurious trampler upon nature's law."—Cowper.

RULE XI.—PARTICIPLES.

Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, he set off by the comma; as, 1. "Law is a rule of civil conduct, prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong."—BLACKSTONE: Beattie's Moral Science, p. 346.

2. "Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, Lingering and list'ning wander'd down the vale."—Beattie.

3. "United, we stand; divided, we fall."—Motto.

4. "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance."

EXCEPTION.—PARTICIPLES RESTRICTIVE.

When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it; as,

   "A man renown'd for repartee,
    Will seldom scruple to make free
    With friendship's finest feeling."—Cowper.

RULE XII.—ADVERBS. Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, "We must not, however, confound this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world."—"Besides, the mind must be employed."—Gilpin. "Most unquestionably, no fraud was equal to all this."—Lyttelton. "But, unfortunately for us, the tide was ebbing already."

   "When buttress and buttress, alternately,
    Seem framed of ebon and ivory."—Scott's Lay, p. 33.

RULE XIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma; as, "But, by a timely call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded."—Johnson.

"They know the neck that joins the shore and sea, Or, ah! how chang'd that fearless laugh would be."—Crabbe.

RULE XIV.—PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma; as, "Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the ostentation of riches."—"By reading, we add the experience of others to our own."

   "In vain the sage, with retrospective eye,
    Would from th' apparent What conclude the Why."—Pope.

RULE XV.—INTERJECTIONS.

Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma; as, "For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north."—Jeremiah, i, 15. "O, 'twas about something you would not understand."—Columbian Orator, p. 221. "Ha, ha! you were finely taken in, then!"—Aikin. "Ha, ha, ha! A facetious gentleman, truly!"—Id.

"Oh, when shall Britain, conscious of her claim, Stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame?"—Pope.

RULE XVI.—WORDS REPEATED.

A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma; as, "Happy, happy, happy pair!"—Dryden. "Ay, ay, there is some comfort in that."—Shak. "Ah! no, no, no."—Dryden.

   "The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket,
    The moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well!"—Woodworth.

RULE XVII.—DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, say, reply, cry, or the like,) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, "'The book of nature,' said he, 'is before thee.'"—Hawkesworth. "I say unto all, Watch."—Mark. "'The boy has become a man,' means, 'he has grown to be a man.' 'Such conduct becomes a man,' means, 'such conduct befits him.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 116.

   "While man exclaims, 'See all things for my use!'
    'See man for mine!' replies a pamper'd goose."—Pope.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE COMMA.

UNDER RULE I.—OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

"Short, simple sentences should not be separated by a comma."—Felton's
Gram., 1st Ed., p. 135; 3d Ed., Stereotyped, p. 137.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because a needless comma is put after short, the sentence being simple. But, according to Rule 1st for the Comma, "A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma." Therefore, this comma should be omitted; thus, "Short simple sentences should not be separated by a comma." Or, much better: "A short simple sentence should rarely be divided by the comma." For such sentences, combined to form a period, should generally be separated; and even a single one may have some phrase that must be set off.]

"A regular and virtuous education, is an inestimable blessing."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 174. "Such equivocal expressions, mark an intention to deceive."—Ib., p. 256. "They are, This and that, with their plurals these and those."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 26; Practical Lessons, p. 3. "A nominative case and a verb, sometimes make a complete sentence; as, He sleeps."—Felton's Gram., p. 78. "Tense, expresses the action connected with certain relations of time; mood, represents it as farther modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionally, &c."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 37. "The word Noun, means name."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 14. "The present, or active participle, I explained then."—Ib., p. 97. "Are some verbs used, both transitively and intransitively?"—Cooper's Pt. and Pract. Gram., p. 54. "Blank verse, is verse without rhyme."—Hallock's Gram., p. 242. "A distributive adjective, denotes each one of a number considered separately."—Ib., p. 51.

   "And may at last my weary age,
    Find out the peaceful hermitage."
        —Murray's Gr., 12mo, p. 205; 8vo, 255.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES.

"A noun without an Article to limit it is taken in its widest sense."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 8; Practical Lessons, p. 10.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set before the verb is taken. But, according to the Exception to Rule 1st for the Comma, "When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used in stead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense."—Lennie's Gram., p. 6.]

"To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life marks a great mind."—Day's District School Gram., p. 84. "To love our Maker supremely and our neighbor as ourselves comprehends the whole moral law."—Ibid. "To be afraid to do wrong is true courage."—Ib., p. 85. "A great fortune in the hands of a fool is a great misfortune."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 89. "That he should make such a remark is indeed strange."—Farnum, Practical Gram., p. 30. "To walk in the fields and groves is delightful."—Id., ib. "That he committed the fault is most certain."—Id., ib. "Names common to all things of the same sort or class are called Common nouns; as, man, woman, day."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 12. "That it is our duty to be pious admits not of any doubt."—Id., E. Gram., p. 118. "To endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a great mind,"—Id., ib., p. 81. "The assisting of a friend in such circumstances was certainly a duty."—Id., ib., 81. "That a life of virtue is the safest is certain."—Hallock's Gram., p. 169. "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number."—Ib., p. 167.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"When the sun had arisen the enemy retreated."—Day's District School
Gram., p. 85.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma here separates the two simple members which compose the sentence. But, according to Rule 2d, "The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after arisen; thus, "When the sun had arisen, the enemy retreated."]

"If he become rich he may be less industrious."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 118. "The more I study grammar the better I like it."—Id., ib., p. 127. "There is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better servant than master."—Id., ib., p. 128. "The verb do, when used as an auxiliary gives force or emphasis to the expression."—Day's Gram., p. 39. "Whatsoever it is incumbent upon a man to do it is surely expedient to do well."—J. Q. Adams's Rhetoric, Vol. i, p. 46. "The soul which our philosophy divides into various capacities, is still one essence."—Channing, on Self-Culture, p. 15. "Put the following words in the plural and give the rule for forming it."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 19. "We will do it if you wish."—Id., ib., p. 29. "He who does well will be rewarded."—Id., ib., 29. "That which is always true is expressed in the present tense."—Id., ib., p. 119. "An observation which is always true must be expressed in the present tense."—Id., Prin. of E. Gram., p. 123. "That part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words is called SPELLING."—Day's Gram., p. 8. "A noun can never be of the first person except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person."—Ib., p. 14. "When two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object they require a singular verb and pronoun."—Ib., p. 80. "James has gone but he will return in a few days."—Ib., 89. "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and gender as the noun for which it stands."—Ib., 89 and 80. "Though he is out of danger he is still afraid."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 80. "She is his inferior in sense but his equal in prudence."—Ib., p. 81. "The man who has no sense of religion is little to be trusted."—Ib., 81. "He who does the most good has the most pleasure."—Ib., 81. "They were not in the most prosperous circumstances when we last saw them."—Ib., 81. "If the day continue pleasant I shall return."—Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 22; Ster. Ed., 24. "The days that are past are gone for ever."—Ib., pp. 89 and 92. "As many as are friendly to the cause will sustain it."—Ib., 89 and 92. "Such as desire aid will receive it."—Ib., 89 and 92. "Who gave you that book which you prize so much?"—Bullions, Pract. Lessons, p. 32. "He who made it now preserves and governs it."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 83.

   "Shall he alone, whom rational we call,
    Be pleased with nothing if not blessed with all?"
        —Felton's Gram., p. 126.

UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"Newcastle is the town, in which Akenside was born."—Bucke's Classical
Gram., p. 54.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because a needless comma here separates the restrictive relative which from its antecedent town. But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 2d, "When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it." Therefore, this comma Should be omitted; thus, "Newcastle is the town in which Akenside was born."]

"The remorse, which issues in reformation, is true repentance."—Campbell's Philos. of Rhet., p. 255. "Men, who are intemperate, are destructive members of community."—Alexander's Gram., p. 93. "An active-transitive verb expresses an action, which extends to an object."—Felton's Gram., pp. 16 and 22. "They, to whom much is given, will have much to answer for."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 188. "The prospect, which we have, is charming."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 143. "He is the person, who informed me of the matter."—Ib., p. 134; Cooper's Murray, 120. "These are the trees, that produce no fruit."—Ib., 134; and 120. "This is the book, which treats of the subject."—Ib., 134; and 120. "The proposal was such, as pleased me."—Cooper, Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 134. "Those, that sow in tears, shall reap in joy."—Id., ib., pp. 118 and 124; and Cooper's Murray, p. 141. "The pen, with which I write, makes too large a mark."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 71. "Modesty makes large amends for the pain, it gives the persons, who labour under it, by the prejudice, it affords every worthy person in their favour."—Ib., p. 80. "Irony is a figure, whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express."—Bucke's Gram., p. 108. "Catachresis is a figure, whereby an improper word is used instead of a proper one."—Ib., p. 109. "The man, whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 155.

UNDER RULE III.—OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

"John, James and Thomas are here: that is, John and James, &c."—Cooper's Plain and Practical Grammar, p. 153.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here used after James, or after Thomas, or again after John, in the latter clause; the three nouns being supposed to be in the same construction, and all of them nominatives to the verb are. But, according to Rule 3d for the Comma, "When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also." Therefore, the comma should be inserted after each; thus, "John, James, and Thomas, are here: that is, John, and James, and Thomas, are here."][463]

"Adverbs modify verbs adjectives and other adverbs."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 97. "To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number and Case."—Id., Practical Lessons, p. 12. "Wheat, corn, rye, and oats are extensively cultivated."—Id., ib., p. 13. "In many, the definitions, rules and leading facts are prolix, inaccurate and confused."—Finch's Report on Gram., p. 3. "Most people consider it mysterious, difficult and useless."—Ib., p. 3. "His father and mother, and uncle reside at Rome."—Farnum's Gram., p. 11. "The relative pronouns are who, which and that."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 29. "That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative and sometimes a conjunction."—Id., ib., p. 33. "Our reputation, virtue, and happiness greatly depend on the choice of our companions."—Day's Gram., p. 92. "The spirit of true religion is social, kind and cheerful."—Felton's Gram., p. 81. "Do, be, have and will are sometimes principal verbs."—Ib., p. 26. "John and Thomas and Peter reside at Oxford."—Webster, Philos. Gram., p. 142; Improved Gram., p. 96. "The most innocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful and the most durable."—Id., ib., pp. 215 and 151. "Love, joy, peace and blessedness are reserved for the good."—Id., ib., 215 and 151. "The husband, wife and children, suffered extremely."—Murray's Gram., 4th Am. Ed., 8vo, p. 269. "The husband, wife, and children suffer extremely."—Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 268. "He, you, and I have our parts assigned us."—Ibid.

   "He moaned, lamented, tugged and tried,
    Repented, promised, wept and sighed."—Felton's Gr., p. 108.

UNDER RULE IV.—OF ONLY TWO WORDS.

"Disappointments derange, and overcome, vulgar minds."—Murray's
Exercises, p. 15.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the two verbs here connected by and, are needlessly separated from each other, and from their object following. But, according to Rule 4th, "When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma." Therefore, these two commas should be omitted; thus, "Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds."]

"The hive of a city, or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is the least noise or buzz in it."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 171. "When a direct address is made, the noun, or pronoun, is in the nominative case independent."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 88. "The verbs love and teach, make loved, and taught, in the imperfect and participle."—Ib., p. 97. "Neither poverty, nor riches were injurious to him."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 133. "Thou, or I am in fault."—Wright's Gram., p. 136. "A verb is a word that expresses action, or being."—Day's District School Gram., pp. 11 and 61. "The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb, or a preposition."—Ib., pp. 17 and 19. "Verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive."—Ib., p. 41. "Verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive, or intransitive."—Ib., 41. "If a verb does not form its past indicative by adding d, or ed to the indicative present, it is said to be irregular."—Ib., 41. "The young lady is studying rhetoric, and logic."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 143. "He writes, and speaks the language very correctly."—Ib., p. 148. "Man's happiness, or misery, is, in a great measure, put into his own hands."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 183. "This accident, or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender."—Bullions, E. Gram., 1843, p. 195.

   "Grant that the powerful still the weak controul;
    Be Man the Wit, and Tyrant of the whole."
        —POPE: Brit. Poets, vi, 375.

UNDER EXCEPTION I.—TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS.

"Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the new world and the pride of modern philosophy."—Day's District School Gram., p. 88.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the words ornament and pride, each of which has adjuncts, are here connected by and without a comma before it. But, according to Exception 1st to Rule 4th, "When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted." Therefore, a comma should be set before and; thus, "Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World, and the pride of modern philosophy."]

"Levity and attachment to worldly pleasures, destroy the sense of gratitude to him."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 183. "In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives and the substantives which they qualify."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 100. "When a noun or pronoun is used to explain or give emphasis to a preceding noun or pronoun."—Day's Gram., p. 87. "Superior talents and briliancy of intellect do not always constitute a great man."—Ib., p. 92. "A word that makes sense after an article or the phrase speak of, is a noun."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 12. "All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables and four of three."—Hiley's Gram., p. 123. "He would not do it himself nor let me do it."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 113.[464] "The old writers give examples of the subjunctive mode and give other modes to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 352.

UNDER EXCEPTION II.—TWO TERMS CONTRASTED.

"We often commend as well as censure imprudently."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 214. "It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take little as to take much; to purloin a book, or a penknife, as to steal money; to steal fruit as to steal a horse; to defraud the revenue as to rob my neighbour; to overcharge the public as to overcharge my brother; to cheat the postoffice as to cheat my friend."—Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Edition, p. 254. "The classification of verbs has been and still is a vexed question."—Bullions, E. Grammar, Revised Edition, p. 200. "Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class and not common to all, are called Proper Nouns."—Id., Practical Lessons, p. 12. "A hero would desire to be loved as well as to be reverenced."—Day's Gram., p. 108. "Death or some worse misfortune now divides them."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 133. "Alexander replied, 'The world will not permit two suns nor two sovereigns.'"—Goldsmith's Greece, Vol. ii, p. 113.

   "From nature's chain, whatever link you strike,
    Tenth or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike."
        —Felton's Gram., p. 131.

UNDER EXCEPTION III.—ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS.

"Metre or Measure is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains."—Hiley's Gram., p. 123. "The Cæsura or division, is the pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two parts."—Ib., 123. "It is six feet or one fathom deep."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 113. "A BRACE is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or three lines which rhyme together."—Felton's Gram., p. 142. "There are four principal kinds of English verse or poetical feet."—Ib., p. 143. "The period or full stop denotes the end of a complete sentence."—Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 271. "The scholar is to receive as many jetons or counters as there are words in the sentence."—St. Quentin's Gram., p. 16. "That [thing] or the thing which purifies, fortifies also the heart."—Peirce's Gram., p. 74. "That thing or the thing which would induce a laxity in public or private morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should be regarded as the deadly Sirocco."—Ib., 74. "What is elliptically what thing or that thing which."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 99. "Demonstrate means show or point out precisely."—Ib., p. 139. "The man or that man, who endures to the end, shall be saved."—Hiley's Gram., p. 73. UNDER EXCEPTION IV.—A SECOND COMMA.

"Reason, passion answer one great end."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 152; Hiley's, p. 112. "Reason, virtue answer one great aim."—Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 194; Butler's, 204. "Every good gift, and every perfect gift is from above."—Felton's Gram., p. 90. "Every plant, and every tree produces others after its kind."—Day's Gram., p. 91. "James, and not John was paid for his services."—Ib., 91. "The single dagger, or obelisk [Dagger] is the second."—Ib., p. 113. "It was I, not he that did it."—St. Quentin's Gram., p. 152. "Each aunt, (and) each cousin hath her speculation."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 139. "'I shall see you when you come,' is equivalent to 'I shall see you then, or at that time when you come.'"—Butler's Pract. Gram., p. 121.

   "Let wealth, let honour wait the wedded dame,
    August her deed, and sacred be her fame."—Pope, p. 334.

UNDER RULE V.—OF WORDS IN PAIRS.

"My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows centre in you."—B. GREENLEAF: Sanborn's Gram., p. 268.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma here separates the second pair of nominatives from the verb. But, according to Rule 5th, "When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be inserted after sorrows; thus, "My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, centre in you."]

"This mood implies possibility, or liberty, will, or obligation."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 113. "Substance is divided into Body, and Spirit into Extended and Thinking."—Brightland's Gram., p. 253. "These consonants, [d and t,] like p, and b, f, and v, k, and hard g, and s, and z, are letters of the same organ."—Walkers Dict., p. 41: Principles, No. 358. "Neither fig nor twist pigtail nor cavendish have passed my lips since, nor ever shall they again."—Boston Cultivator, Vol. vii, p. 36. "The words WHOEVER, or WHOSOEVER, WHICHEVER, or WHICHSOEVER, and WHATEVER, or WHATSOEVER are called COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS."—Day's Gram., p. 23. "Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness govern the dative."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., 12th Ed., 215.

UNDER RULE VI.—OF WORDS ABSOLUTE.

"Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 135.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set after staff, which, with the noun rod, is put absolute by pleonasm. But, according to Rule 6th, "Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me."—Psalm xxiii, 4.]

"Depart ye wicked."—Wright's Gram., p. 70. "He saith to his mother, Woman behold thy son."—Gurney's Portable Evidences, p. 44. "Thou God seest me."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 9; Practical Lessons, p. 13. "Thou, God seest me."—Id., E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. 195. "John write me a letter. Henry go home."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 356. "John; write a letter. Henry; go home."—Ib., p. 317. "Now, G. Brown; let us reason together."—Ib., p. 326. "Smith: You say on page 11, the objective case denotes the object."—Ib., p. 344. "Gentlemen: will you always speak as you mean?"—Ib., p. 352. "John: I sold my books to William for his brothers."—Ib., p. 47. "Walter and Seth: I will take my things, and leave yours."—Ib., p. 69. "Henry: Julia and Jane left their umbrella, and took yours."—Ib., p. 73. "John; harness the horses and go to the mine for some coal. William; run to the store for a few pounds of tea."—Ib., p. 160. "The king being dead the parliament was dissolved."—Chandler's Gram., p. 119.

   "Cease fond nature, cease thy strife,
    And let me languish into life."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 173.

"Forbear great man, in arms renown'd, forbear."—Ib., p. 174.

    "Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind,
    Each prayer accepted and each wish resign'd."—Hiley's Gr., p. 123.

UNDER RULE VII.—WORDS IN APPOSITION.

"We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice," &c.—Hallock's Gram., p. 200.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set after the pronoun We, with which the word people, which has adjuncts, is in apposition. But, according to Rule 7th, "Words in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, an other comma should be here inserted; thus, "We, the people of the United States," &c.]

"The Lord, the covenant God of his people requires it."—Anti-Slavery Magazine, Vol. i, p. 73. "He as a patriot deserves praise."—Hallock's Gram., p. 124. "Thomson the watchmaker and jeweller from London, was of the party."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 128. "Every body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of the conqueror, is William duke of Normandy."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 33. "The words myself, thyself, himself, herself, and their plurals ourselves, yourselves, and themselves are called Compound Personal Pronouns."—Day's Gram., p. 22.

   "For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey,
    This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd,
    Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
    Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind?"—U. Poems, p. 68.

UNDER EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING APPOSITION.

"Smith and Williams' store; Nicholas, the emperor's army."—Day's Gram., p. 17. "He was named William, the conqueror."—Ib., p. 80. "John, the Baptist, was beheaded."—Ib., p. 87. "Alexander, the coppersmith, did me great harm."—Hart's Gram., p. 126. "A nominative in immediate apposition; as, 'The boy, Henry, speaks.'"—Smart's Accidence, p. 29. "A noun objective can be in apposition with some other; as, 'I teach the boy, Henry.'"—Ib., p. 30.

UNDER RULE VIII.—OF ADJECTIVES.

"But he found me, not singing at my work ruddy with health vivid with cheerfulness; but pale and dejected, sitting on the ground, and chewing opium."

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrases, "ruddy with health," and "vivid with cheerfulness," which begin with adjectives, are not here commaed. But, according to Rule 8th, "Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two other commas should be here inserted; thus, "But he found me, not singing at my work, ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness; but pale," &c.—Dr. Johnson.]

"I looked up, and beheld an inclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise, but of a small extent."—See Key. "A is an article, indefinite and belongs to 'book.'"—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 10. "The first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain eager for the combat."—Id., Lat. Gram., p. 296. "He [, the Indian chieftain, King Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil; a prince true to his subjects and indignant of their wrongs; a soldier daring in battle firm in adversity patient of fatigue, of hunger, of every variety of bodily suffering and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused."—See Key.

   "For thee, who mindful of th' unhonour'd dead
    Dost in these lines their artless tale relate."
        —Union Poems, p. 68.

    "Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest:
    Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood."
        —Day's Gram., p. 117.

    "Idle after dinner in his chair
    Sat a farmer ruddy, fat, and fair."
        —Hiley's Gram., p. 125.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING ADJECTIVES.

"When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name, it follows it; as Charles, the Great; Henry, the First; Lewis, the Gross."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 153; Improved Gram., p. 107. "Feed me with food, convenient for me."—Cooper's Practical Gram., p. 118. "The words and phrases, necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred."—Ingersoll's Gram., Pref., p. x. "The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which expresses action or being, unlimited by person, or number."—Day's Gram., p. 35. "A man, diligent in his business, prospers."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 113.

   "O wretched state! oh bosom, black as death!"
        —Hallock's Gram., p. 118.

    "O, wretched state! O, bosom, black as death!"
        —Singer's Shak., Vol. ii, p. 494.

UNDER RULE IX.—OF FINITE VERBS.

"The Singular denotes one; the Plural more than one."—Bullions, E.
Gram., p. 12; Pract. Lessons, p. 16; Lennie's Gram., p. 7.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here set after Plural, where the verb denotes is understood. But, according to Rule 9th, "Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required." Therefore, a comma should be inserted at the place mentioned; thus, "The Singular denotes one; the Plural, more than one."]

"The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon a pause longer than the comma; the colon longer than the semicolon; and the period longer than the colon."—Hiley's Gram., p. 111. "The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon a pause double that of the comma; the colon, double that of the semicolon; and the period, double that of the colon."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 151; Pract. Lessons, p. 127. "Who is applied only to persons; which to animals and things; what to things only; and that to persons, animals, and things."—Day's Gram., p. 23. "A or an is used before the singular number only; the before either singular or plural."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 10. "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil the better artist."—Day's Gram., p. 96. "Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist."—POPE'S PREFACE: British Poets, Vol. vi, p. viii. "Words are formed of syllables; syllables of letters."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 2. "The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE; and that of a passive verb the PASSIVE VOICE."—Frost's El. of E. Gram., p. 19. "The CONJUGATION of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE, and that of a passive verb the PASSIVE VOICE."—Smith's New. Gram., p. 171. "The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the objective the accusative."—L. Murray's Gram., 12mo, p. 44. "Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness to fewer virtues."—Kames, Art of Thinking, p. 40. "Orthography treats of Letters, Etymology of Words, Syntax of Sentences, and Prosody of Versification."—Hart's English Gram., p. 21.

   "Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood;
    Heaven those that love their foes, and do them good."—See Key.

UNDER RULE X.—OF INFINITIVES.

"His business is to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."—Bullions, E. Grammar, Revised Edition, p. 189.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma here divides to observe from the preceding verb. But, according to Rule 10th, "The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after is; thus, "His business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."]

"It is a mark of distinction to be made a member of this society."— Farnum's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 25; 2d Ed., p. 23. "To distinguish the conjugations let the pupil observe the following rules."—Day's D. S. Gram., p. 40. "He was now sent for to preach before the Parliament."— Life of Dr. J. Owen, p. 18. "It is incumbent on the young to love and honour their parents."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 83. "It is the business of every man to prepare for death."—Id., ib., 83. "It argued the sincerest candor to make such an acknowledgement."—Id., ib., p. 115. "The proper way is to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the second understood."—Ib., ib., p. 125. "ENEMY is a name. It is a term of distinction given to a certain person to show the character in which he is represented."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 23. "The object of this is to preserve the soft sound of c and g."—Hart's Gram., p. 29. "The design of grammar is to facilitate the reading, writing, and speaking of a language."—Barrett's Gram., 10th Ed., Pref., p. iii. "Four kinds of type are used in the following pages to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary."—Hart's Gram., p. 3.

UNDER RULE XI.—OF PARTICIPLES.

"The chancellor being attached to the king secured his crown."—Wright's
Gram., p. 114.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the phrase, "being attached to the king," is not commaed. But, according to Rule 11th, "Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, two commas should be here inserted; thus, "The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown."—Murray's Gram., p. 66.]

"The officer having received his orders, proceeded to execute them."— Day's Gram., p. 108. "Thus used it is in the present tense."—Bullions, E. Gram., Revised Ed., p. 33. "The Imperfect tense has three distinct forms corresponding to those of the present tense."—Id., ib., p. 40. "Every possessive case is governed by some noun denoting the thing possessed."—Id., ib., p. 87. "The word that used as a conjunction is preceded by a comma."—Id., ib., p. 154. "His narrative being composed upon such good authority, deserves credit."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., p. 97. "The hen being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the eagle."—Murray's Key, 8vo. p. 252. "Pronouns being used instead of nouns are subject to the same modifications."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 92. "When placed at the beginning of words they are consonants."—Hallock's Gram., p. 14. "Man starting from his couch, shall sleep no more."—Ib., p. 222. "His and her followed by a noun are possessive pronouns: not followed by a noun they are personal pronouns."—Bullions, Practical Lessons, p. 33.

   "He with viny crown advancing,
    First to the lively pipe his hand addressed."—Id., E. Gram., p. 83.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES.

"But when they convey the idea of many, acting individually, or separately, they are of the plural number."—Day's Gram., p. 15. "Two or more singular antecedents, connected by and require verbs and pronouns of the plural number."—Ib., pp. 80 and 91. "Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into i when a termination is added."—Butlers Gram., p. 11. "A noun, used without an article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest sense."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 30. "Two nouns, meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together."—Bucke's Gram., p. 89. "Each one must give an account to God for the use, or the abuse of the talents, committed to him."—Coopers Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 133. "Two vowels, united in one sound, form a diphthong."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 6. "Three vowels, united in one sound, form a triphthong."—Ib. "Any word, joined to an adverb, is a secondary adverb."—Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 68. "The person, spoken to, is put in the Second person. The person, spoken of, in the Third person."—Cutler's Gram., p. 14. "A man, devoted to his business, prospers."—Frost's Pr. Gram., p. 113.

UNDER RULE XII.—OF ADVERBS.

"So in indirect questions; as, 'Tell me when he will come.'"—Butler's
Gram., p. 121.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the adverb So is not set off by the comma. But according to Rule 12th, "Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be inserted after So; thus, "So, in indirect questions; as," &c.]

"Now when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, the verb is transitive."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p 37. "Agreeably to your request I send this letter."—Id., E. Gram., p. 141. "There seems therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a different classification."—Id., E. Gram., p. 199. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchantman, seeking goodly pearls."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Matt., xiii, 45. "Again the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net, that was cast into the sea."—Ib, ib., verse 47. "Cease however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers."—Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 171. "Time admits of three natural divisions, namely: Present, Past, and Future."—Day's Gram., p. 37. "There are three kinds of comparison, namely: regular, irregular, and adverbial."—Ib., p. 31. "There are five Personal Pronouns namely: I, thou, he, she, and it."—Ib., p. 22. "Nouns have three cases, viz. the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 16; P. Lessons, p. 19. "Hence in studying Grammar, we have to study words."—Frazee's Gram., p. 18. "Participles like Verbs relate to Nouns and Pronouns."—Miller's Ready Grammarian, p. 23. "The time of the participle like that of the infinitive is estimated from the time of the leading verb."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 97.

   "The dumb shall sing the lame his crutch forego,
    And leap exulting like the bounding roe."—Hiley's Gram., p. 123.

UNDER RULE XIII.—OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"But he said, Nay; lest while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and SMITH'S: Matt., xiii, 29.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is inserted after lest. But, according to Rule 13th, "Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after the word lest; thus, "But he said, Nay; lest, while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."—SCOTT'S BIBLE, ALGER'S, BRUCE'S.]

"Their intentions were good; but wanting prudence, they missed the mark at which they aimed."—Murray's Key, 8vo, Vol. ii, p. 221. "The verb be often separates the name from its attribute; as war is expensive."— Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 153. "Either and or denote an alternative; as 'I will take either road at your pleasure.'"—Ib., p. 63; Imp. Gram., 45. "Either is also a substitute for a name; as 'Either of the roads is good.'"—Webster, both Grams., 63 and 45. "But alas! I fear the consequence."—Day's Gram., p. 74. "Or if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent?"—Scott's Bible, and Smith's. "Or if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?"—Smiths Bible. "The infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case, as 'To enjoy is to obey.'—POPE."—Cutler's Gram., p. 62. "The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular, as book, books."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 12. "As 'I were to blame, if I did it.'"—Smart's Accidence, p. 16.

   "Or if it be thy will and pleasure
    Direct my plough to find a treasure."—Hiley's Gram., p. 124.

    "Or if it be thy will and pleasure,
    Direct my plough to find a treasure."—Hart's Gram., p. 185.

UNDER RULE XIV.—OF PREPOSITIONS.

"Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender, number, and person."—Butler's Practical Gram., pp. 141 and 148; Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 150.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the preposition in has not the comma before it, as the text requires. But, according to Rule 14th, "Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be here inserted; thus, "Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person." Or the words may be transposed, and the comma set before with; thus, "Pronouns agree in gender, number, and person, with the nouns for which they stand."]

"In the first two examples the antecedent is person, or something equivalent; in the last it is thing."—Butler, ib., p. 53. "In what character he was admitted is unknown."—Ib., p. 55. "To what place he was going is not known."—Ib., p. 55. "In the preceding examples John, Cæsar, and James are the subjects."—Ib., p. 59. "Yes is generally used to denote assent in the answer to a question."—Ib., p. 120. "That in its origin is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, to take"—Ib., p. 127. "But in all these sentences as and so are adverbs."—Ib., p. 127. "After an interjection or exclamatory sentence is placed the mark of exclamation."—Blair's Gram., p. 116. "Intransitive verbs from their nature can have no distinction of voice."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 30. "To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons."—Id., ib., p. 33; Pract. Lessons, p. 41. "As and so in the antecedent member of a comparison are properly adverbs."—Id., E. Gram., p. 113. "In the following Exercise point out the words in apposition."—Id., P. Lessons, p. 103. "In the following Exercise point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor."— Id., ib., p. 105. "Its is not found in the Bible except by misprint."—Hallock's Gram., p. 68. "No one's interest is concerned except mine."—Ib., p. 70. "In most of the modern languages there are four concords."—St. Quentin's Gen. Gram., p. 143. "In illustration of these remarks let us suppose a case."—Hart's Gram., p. 104. "On the right management of the emphasis depends the life of pronunciation."— Ib., p. 172; Murray's, 8vo, p. 242.

UNDER RULE XV.—OF INTERJECTIONS.

"Behold he is in the desert."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Matt., xxiv, 26.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the interjection Behold, which has usually a comma after it in Scripture, has here no point. But, according to Rule 15th, "Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma should be used; thus, "Behold, he is in the desert."—Common Bible.]

"And Lot said unto them, Oh not so my Lord."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Gen., xix, 18. "Oh let me escape thither, (is it not a little one?) and my soul shall live."—SCOTT: Gen., xix, 20. "Behold! I come quickly.—BIBLE."—Day's Gram., p. 74. "Lo! I am with you always."—Day's Gram., pp. 10 and 73. "And lo! I am with you always."—Ib., pp. 78 and 110. "And lo, I am with you alway."—SCOTT'S BIBLE, and BRUCE'S: Matt., xxviii, 20. "Ha! ha! ha! how laughable that is."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 83. "Interjections of Laughter,—Ha! he! hi! ho!"—Wright's Gram., p. 121.

UNDER RULE XVI.—OF WORDS REPEATED.

"Lend lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"—Example varied.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the repeated word lend has here no comma. But, according to Rule 16th, "A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma." In this instance, a comma is required after the former lend, but not after the latter; thus,

"Lend, lend your wings! I mount! I fly!"—Pope's Poems, p. 317.

]

"To bed to bed to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come come come.
What is done cannot be undone. To bed to bed to bed."—See Burgh's
Speaker, p. 130. "I will roar, that the duke shall cry, Encore encore let
him roar let him roar once more once more."—See ib., p. 136.

   "Vital spark of heav'nly flame,
    Quit oh quit this mortal frame."—Hiley's Gram., p. 126.

    "Vital spark of heav'nly flame,
    Quit, oh quit, this mortal frame!"—Bullions, E. Gr., p. 172.

    "O the pleasing pleasing Anguish,
    When we love, and when we languish."—Ward's Gram., p. 161.

    "Praise to God immortal praise
    For the love that crowns our days!"—Hiley's Gram., p. 124.

UNDER RULE XVII.—OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"Thus, of an infant, we say 'It is a lovely creature.'"—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 12.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because no comma is here inserted between say and the citation which follows. But, according to Rule 17th, "A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, say, reply, cry, or the like.) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma." Therefore, a comma should be put after say; as, "Thus, of an infant, we say, 'It is a lovely creature.'"]

"No being can state a falsehood in saying I am; for no one can utter it, if it is not true."—Cardell's Gram., 18mo, p. 118. "I know they will cry out against this and say 'should he pay, means if he should pay.'"—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 352. "For instance, when we say 'the house is building,' the advocates of the new theory ask, 'building what?' We might ask in turn, when you say 'the field ploughs well,' ploughs what? 'Wheat sells well,' sells what? If usage allows us to say 'wheat sells at a dollar' in a sense that is not active, why may it not also allow us to say 'wheat is selling at a dollar' in a sense that is not active?"—Hart's English Gram., p. 76. "Man is accountable, equals mankind are accountable."—S. Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 37. "Thus, when we say 'He may be reading,' may is the real verb; the other parts are verbs by name only."—Smart's English Accidence, p. 8. "Thus we say an apple, an hour, that two vowel sounds may not come together."—Ib., p. 27. "It would be as improper to say an unit, as to say an youth; to say an one, as to say an wonder."—Ib., p. 27. "When we say 'He died for the truth,' for is a preposition."—Ib., p. 28. "We do not say 'I might go yesterday,' but 'I might have gone yesterday.'"—Ib., p. 11. "By student, we understand one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academical citizenship; but, by bursché, we understand one who has already spent a certain time at the university."—Howitt's Student-Life in Germany, p. 27.

SECTION II.—THE SEMICOLON.

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so little dependent as those which require the colon.

RULE I.—COMPLEX MEMBERS.

When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon: as, "In the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor needs any mound to check its course."—Carter. "When the voice rises, the gesture naturally ascends; and when the voice makes the falling inflection, or lowers its pitch, the gesture follows it by a corresponding descent; and, in the level and monotonous pronunciation of the voice, the gesture seems to observe a similar limitation, by moving rather in the horizontal direction, without much varying its elevation."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 107.

   "The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me;
    But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it."—Addison.

RULE II.—SIMPLE MEMBERS.

When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon: as, "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."—Murray's Gram., p. 276. "Every thing grows old; every thing passes away; every thing disappears."—Hiley's Gram., p. 115. "Alexander asked them the distance of the Persian capital; what forces the king of Persia could bring into the field; what the Persian government was; what was the character of the king; how he treated his enemies; what were the most direct ways into Persia."—Whelpley's Lectures, p. 175.

   "A longer care man's helpless kind demands;
    That longer care contracts more lasting bands."—Pope.

RULE III.—OF APPOSITION, &C.

Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction, if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by the semicolon: as, "Pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Murray's Gram., p. 51. "Judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge, acknowledgement."—Butler's Gram., p. 11. "Do not the eyes discover humility, pride; cruelty, compassion; reflection, dissipation; kindness, resentment?"—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 159. "This rule forbids parents to lie to children, and children to parents; instructors to pupils, and pupils to instructors; the old to the young, and the young to the old; attorneys to jurors, and jurors to attorneys; buyers to sellers, and sellers to buyers."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 304.

   "Make, made; have, had; pay, paid; say, said; leave, left;
    Dream, dreamt; mean, meant; reave and bereave have reft."
        —Ward's Gr., p. 66.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE SEMICOLON.

UNDER RULE I.—OF COMPLEX MEMBERS.

"The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit, but they know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth."—Day's E. Gr., p. 72.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the two chief members which compose this period, are separated only by the comma after "fruit." But, according to Rule 1st for the Semicolon, "When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the pause after "fruit" should be marked by a semicolon.]

"But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon, and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 84. "For the sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant, and because most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more common form.'"—Ib., p. 192. "But if I say 'Will a man be able to carry this burden?' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed, the reference is not to number, but to the species, and the answer might be 'No; but a horse will.'"—Ib., p. 193. "In direct discourse, a noun used by a speaker or writer to designate himself, is said to be of the first person—used to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person, and when used to designate a person or thing spoken of, it is said to be of the third person."—Ib., p. 195. "Vice stings us, even in our pleasures, but virtue consoles us, even in our pains."—Day's Gram., p. 84. "Vice is infamous though in a prince, and virtue honorable though in a peasant."—Ib., p. 72. "Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a Noun, because 'A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing.'"—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 83.

   "This is the sword, with which he did the deed,
    And that the shield by which he was defended."—Bucke's Gram., p. 56.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenancee [sic—KTH], a chilling terror convulsed his frame; his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents."—Principles of Eloquence, p. 73.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the first pause in this sentence is not marked by a suitable point. But, according to Rule 2d for the Semicolon, "When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon." Therefore, the comma after "countenance" should be changed to a semicolon.]

"The Lacedemonians never traded—they knew no luxury—they lived in houses built of rough materials—they lived at public tables—fed on black broth, and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious."—Whelpley's Lectures, p. 167. "Government is the agent. Society is the principal."—Wayland's Moral Science, 1st Ed., p. 377. "The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the Noun and the Verb, to which was subsequently added, the Conjunction"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 191. "The first faint gleamings of thought in its mind are but the reflections from the parents' own intellect,—the first manifestations of temperament are from the contagious parental fountain,—the first aspirations of soul are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit."—Jocelyn's Prize Essay, p. 4. "Older and oldest refer to maturity of age, elder and eldest to priority of right by birth. Farther and farthest denote place or distance: Further and furthest, quantity or addition."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 148. "Let the divisions be natural, such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind, and as may aid your main design, and be easily remembered."—Goldsbury's Manual of Gram., p. 91.

   "Gently make haste, of labour not afraid:
    A hundred times consider what you've said."—Dryden's Art of Poetry.

UNDER RULE III.—OF APPOSITION, &c.

(1.) "Adjectives are divided into two classes: Adjectives denoting quality, and Adjectives denoting number."—Frost's Practical Gram., p. 31.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the colon after the word "classes," is not the most suitable sign of the pause required. But according to Rule 3d for the Semicolon, "Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, maybe separated by the semicolon." In this case, the semicolon should have been preferred to the colon.]

(2.) "There are two classes of adjectives—qualifying adjectives, and limiting adjectives."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 33. (3.) "There are three Genders, the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter."— Frost's Pract. Gram., p. 51; Hiley's Gram., p. 12; Alger's, 16; S. Putnam's, 14: Murray's, 8vo, 37; and others. (4.) "There are three genders: the MASCULINE, the FEMININE, and the NEUTER."—Murray's Gram., 12mo. p. 39; Jaudon's, 25. (5.) "There are three genders: The Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neuter."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 15. (6.) "The Singular denotes ONE, and the Plural MORE THAN ONE."—Hart's Gram., p. 40. (7.) "There are three Cases viz., the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective"—Hendrick's Gram., p. 7. (8.) "Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."— Kirkham's Gram., p. 41. (9.) "In English, nouns have three cases—the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 47. (10.) "Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, PROSODY."—Ib., p. 41. (11) "It is divided into four parts, viz. ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY."—L. Murray's Grammars all; T. Smith's Gram., p. 5. (12.) "It is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography—Etymology—Syntax—Prosody."—Bucke's Gram., p. 3. (13.) "It is divided into four parts, namely, Orthography. Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."—Day's Gram., p. 5. (14.) "It is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 11. (15.) "Grammar is divided into four parts: viz. Orthography, Etymology. Syntax and Prosody."—Chandler's Gram., p, 13. (16.) "It is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."—Cooper's Pl. and Pract. Gram., p. 1; Frost's Pract. Gram., 19. (17.) "English grammar has been usually divided into four parts, viz: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody."—Nutting's Gram., p. 13. (18.) "Temperance leads to happiness, intemperance to misery."—Hiley's Gram., p. 137 Hart's, 180. (19.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy his crimes."—Hiley's Gram., p. 137 (20.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues: an enemy his crimes."—Murray's Gram., 8vo., p. 325 (21.) "Many writers use a plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives, thus, 'The first and second pages are torn.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., 5th Ed., p. 145 (22.) "Of these, the Latin has six, the Greek, five, the German, four, the Saxon, six, the French, three, &c."—Id., ib., p. 196.

   "In (ing) it ends, when doing is express'd,
    In d, t, n, when suffering's confess'd."
        —Brightland's Gram., p. 93.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"In old books i is often used for j, v for u, vv for w, and ii or ij for y."—Hart's E. Gram., p. 22. "The forming of letters into words and syllables is also called Spelling."—Ib., p. 21. "Labials are formed chiefly by the lips, dentals by the teeth, palatals by the palate, gutturals by the throat, nasals by the nose, and linguals by the tongue."—Ib., p. 25. "The labials are p, b, f, v; the dentals t, d, s, z; the palatals g soft and j; the gutturals k, q, and c and g hard; the nasals m and n; and the linguals l and r."—Ib., p. 25. "Thus, 'the man having finished his letter, will carry it to the post office.'"—Ib., p. 75. "Thus, in the sentence 'he had a dagger concealed under his cloak,' concealed is passive, signifying being concealed; but in the former combination, it goes to make up a form, the force of which is active."—Ib., p. 75. "Thus, in Latin, 'he had concealed the dagger' would be 'pugionem abdiderat;' but 'he had the dagger concealed' would be 'pugionem abditum habebat.'"— Ib., p. 75. "Here, for instance, means 'in this place,' now, 'at this time,' &c."—Ib., p. 90. "Here when both declares the time of the action, and so is an adverb, and also connects the two verbs, and so is a conjunction."—Ib., p. 91. "These words were all no doubt originally other parts of speech, viz.: verbs, nouns, and adjectives."—Ib., p. 92. "The principal parts of a sentence are the subject, the attribute, and the object, in other words the nominative, the verb, and the objective."— Ib., p. 104. "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun, the adverb with the verb or adjective, pronouns with their antecedents, &c."—Ib., p. 104. "Between refers to two, among to more than two."—Ib., p. 120. "At is used after a verb of rest, to after a verb of motion."—Ib., p. 120. "Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and Neuter."—Lennie's Gram., p. 19; Bullions, Prin., 2d Ed., p. 29 "Verbs are divided into two classes: Transitive and Intransitive."—Hendrick's Gram., p. 28 "The Parts of Speech in the English language are nine, viz. The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition. Interjection and Conjunction."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 7 "Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are declined, the rest are indeclinable."—Id., ib., p. 7; Practical Lessons, p. 9. "The first expression is called the 'Active form.' The second the 'Passive form.'"—Welds Gram., 2d Ed., p. 83; Abridged, p. 66.

   "O 'tis a godlike privilege to save,
    And he that scorns it is himself a slave."—Cowper, Vol. i., p. 123

SECTION III.—THE COLON.

The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which require the period.

RULE I.—ADDITIONAL REMARKS.

When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted: as, "Avoid evil doers: in such society, an honest man may become ashamed of himself."—"See that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle: man of pleasure, behold thy image!"—Art of Thinking, p. 94. "Some things we can, and others we cannot do: we can walk, but we cannot fly."—Beanie's Moral Science, p. 112.

   "Remember Heav'n has an avenging rod:
    To smite the poor, is treason against God."—Cowper.

RULE II.—GREATER PAUSES.

When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed: as, "Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the virtuous can have friends."—"Unless the truth of our religion be granted, a Christian must be the greatest monster in nature: he must at the same time be eminently wise, and notoriously foolish; a wise man in his practice, and a fool in his belief: his reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium, while his conduct never swerves from the path of propriety."—Principles of Eloquence, p. 80.

   "A decent competence we fully taste;
    It strikes our sense, and gives a constant feast:
    More we perceive by dint of thought alone;
    The rich must labour to possess their own."—Young.

RULE III.—INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon; as, "In his last moments, he uttered these words: 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.'"—"At this the king hastily retorted: 'No put-offs, my lord; answer me presently.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 367. "The father addressed himself to them to this effect: 'O my sons, behold the power of unity!'"— Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. 85.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE COLON.

UNDER RULE I.—ADDITIONAL REMARKS.

"Of is a preposition, it expresses the relation between fear and Lord."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 133.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the additional remark in this sentence is not sufficiently separated from the main clause, by the comma after the word preposition. But, according to Rule 1st for the Colon, "When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted." Therefore, the colon should here be substituted for the comma.]

"Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man; that tends to excite pride, this discontentment."—Id., ib., p. 93; see also Lennie's Gram., p. 81; Murray's, 56; Ingersoll's 61; Alger's, 25; Merchant's, 44; Hart's, 137; et al. "Religion raises men above themselves, irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes; this binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth, that opens for them a prospect in the skies."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 98; Lennie's Gram., p. 81. "Love not idleness, it destroys many."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 71. "Children, obey your parents; honour thy father and mother, is the first commandment with promise."—Bullions, Pract. Lessons, p. 88. "Thou art my hiding place, and my shield, I hope in thy promises."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 56. "The sun shall not smite me by day nor the moon by night. The Lord will preserve from evil. He will save my soul.—BIBLE."—Ib., p. 57. "Here Greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered—the nations of antiquity—she is one of them."—Lennie's Gram., p. 79.

   "From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose
    I wake; how happy they who wake no more!"—Hallock's Gram., p. 216.

UNDER RULE II.—GREATER PAUSES.

"A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment; as, 'When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 147.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pause after enjoyment is marked only by a semicolon. But, according to Rule 2d for the Colon, "When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed." Therefore, the second semicolon here should be changed to a colon.]

"The Indicative mood simply declares a thing; as, He loves; He is loved; Or, it asks a question; as, Lovest thou me?"—Id., ib., p. 35; Pract. Lessons, p. 43; Lennie's Gr., p. 20. "The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing: as, 'He loves, he is loved:' or it asks a question: as, 'Does he love?' 'Is he loved?'"—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 63; 12mo, p. 63. "The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past; as, Cæsar came, and saw, and conquered; or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time, now entirely past; as, My father was coming home when I met him."—Bullions, P. L., p. 45; E. Gr., 39. "Some nouns have no plural; as, gold, silver, wisdom, health; others have no singular; as, ashes, shears, tongs; others are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, means, news"—Day's School Gram., p. 15. "The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in another; thus, in the sentence, 'He believes my story,' believes is transitive; but in this phrase, 'He believes in God,' it is intransitive."—Butler's Gram., p. 61. "Let the divisions be distinct; one part should not include another, but each should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place, and all the parts well fitted together and united, should present a whole."—Goldsbury's C. S. Gram., p. 91. "In the use of the transitive verb there are always three things implied,—the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. In the use of the intransitive there are only two—the subject or thing spoken of, and the state, or action attributed to it."—Bullions, E. Gram.

   "Why labours reason? instinct were as well;
    Instinct far better; what can choose, can err."
        —Brit. Poets, Vol. viii.

UNDER RULE III.—INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"The sentence may run thus; 'He is related to the same person, and is governed by him.'"—Hart's Gram.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the semicolon is here inserted, in an unusual manner, before a quotation not closely dependent. But, according to Rule 3d for the Colon, "A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon." Therefore, the colon should be here preferred.]

"Always remember this ancient proverb, 'Know thyself.'"—Hallock's Gram. "Consider this sentence. The boy runs swiftly."—Frazee's Gram., Stereotype Ed. 1st Ed. "The comparative is used thus; 'Greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out. Thus, 'Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity'"—Bullions, E. Gram. see Lennie's Gram. "Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allusion to the well known fable of Cadmus's sowing dragon's teeth;—'Every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant, the Carnatic is a country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever. They think they are talking to innocents, who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made.'"—Hiley's Gram., see also Hart's.

   "For sects he car'd not, 'they are not of us,
    Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.'"—Crabbe.

    "Habit with him was all the test of truth,
    'It must be right: I've done it from my youth.'
    Questions he answered in as brief a way,
    'It must be wrong—it was of yesterday.'"—Id., Borough.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"This would seem to say, 'I doubt nothing save one thing, namely, that he will fulfil his promise;' whereas, that is the very thing not doubted."—Bullions, E. Gram.. "The common use of language requires that a distinction be made between morals and manners, the former depend upon internal dispositions, the latter on outward and visible accomplishments."—Beattie's Moral Science. "Though I detest war in each particular fibre of my heart yet I honor the Heroes among our fathers who fought with bloody hand: Peacemakers in a savage way they were faithful to their light; the most inspired can be no more, and we, with greater light, do, it may be, far less."—Parker's Idea of a Church. "The Article the, like a, must have a substantive joined with it, whereas that, like one, may have it understood; thus, speaking of books, I may select one, and say, 'give me that;' but not, 'give me the;' 'give me one;' but not 'give me a.'"—Bullions's E. Gram.. "The Present tense has three distinct forms—the simple; as, I read; the emphatic; as, I do read; and the progressive; as, I am reading'."—Ib.. "The tenses in English are usually reckoned six. The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect."—Ib.. "There are three participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved."—L. Murray's Gram., 2d Edition; Alger's; Fisk's; Bacon's. "The Participles are three, the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved."—Hart's Gram.. "Will is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal verb, as, present, I will, past, I willed, &c."—Frazee's Gram., Ster. Ed.; Old Ed. "And both sounds of x are compound, one is that of gz, and the other, that of ks"—Ib., Ster. Ed. "The man is happy: he is benevolent: he is useful."—Cooper's Murray; Pl. and Pract. Gr. "The Pronoun stands instead of the noun; as, The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful.'"—L. Murray's Gram., 2d Ed. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word: as, 'The man is happy,' 'he is benevolent,' 'he is useful.'"—Ib.. "A pronoun is a word, used in the room of a noun, or as a substitute for one or more words, as: the man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram., his Abridg. of Mur. "A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class of beings, or things, as: animal; tree; insect; fish; fowl"—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram. "Nouns have three persons: the first; the second; and the third."—Ib.

   "(Eve) so saying, her rash hand in evil hour
    Forth reaching to the fruit; she pluck'd, she ate
    Earth felt the wound: and nature from her seat,
    Sighing through all her works, gave signs of wo,
    That all was lost."—Cooper's Pl. and Pr. Gram.

SECTION IV.—THE PERIOD.

The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an entire and independent sentence, whether simple or compound.

RULE I.—DISTINCT SENTENCES.

When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period: as, "Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm."—"The force of a true individual is felt through every clause and part of a right book; the commas and dashes are alive with it."—R. W. Emerson.

   "By frequent trying, TROY was won.
    All things, by trying, may be done."—Lloyd, p. 184.

RULE II.—ALLIED SENTENCES.

The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb: as, "The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are confined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."—Blair.

"And whether we shall meet again, I know not. Therefore our everlasting farewell take."—Shak., J. C.

RULE III.—ABBREVIATIONS.

The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them: as, A. D. for Anno Domini;—Pro tem. for pro tempore;—Ult. for ultimo;—i.e. for id est, that is;—Add., Spect, No. 285; i.e., Addison, in the Spectator, Number 285th.

   "Consult the statute; 'quart.' I think, it is,
    'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim. et quint. Eliz.'"—Pope, p. 399.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—It seems to be commonly supposed, whether correctly or not, that short sentences which are in themselves distinct, and which in their stated use must be separated by the period, may sometimes be rehearsed as examples, in so close succession as not to require this point: as, "But if thou wilt enter into life, keep the commandments. He saith unto him, Which? Jesus said, Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother: and, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."—SCOTT, ALGER, AND OTHERS: Matt., xix, 17, 18, 19. "The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns:—'My lesson is finished; Thy books are defaced; He loves his studies; She performs her duty; We own our faults; Your situation is distressing; I admire their virtues.'"—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 55. What mode of pointing is best adapted to examples like these, is made a very difficult question by the great diversity of practice in such cases. The semicolon, with guillemets, or the semicolon and a dash, with the quotation marks, may sometimes be sufficient; but I see no good reason why the period should not in general be preferred to the comma, the semicolon, or the colon, where full and distinct sentences are thus recited. The foregoing passage of Scripture I have examined in five different languages, ten different translations, and seventeen different editions which happened to be at hand. In these it is found pointed in twelve different ways. In Leusden's, Griesbach's, and Aitton's Greek, it has nine colons; in Leusden's Latin from Montanus, eight; in the common French version, six; in the old Dutch, five; in our Bibles, usually one, but not always. In some books, these commandments are mostly or wholly divided by periods; in others, by colons; in others, by semicolons; in others, as above, by commas. The first four are negative, or prohibitory; the other two, positive, or mandatory. Hence some make a greater pause after the fourth, than elsewhere between any two. This greater pause is variously marked by the semicolon, the colon, or the period; and the others, at the same time, as variously, by the comma, the semicolon, or the colon. Dr. Campbell, in his Four Gospels, renders and points the latter part of this passage thus: "Jesus answered, 'Thou shalt not commit murder. Thou shalt not commit adultery. Thou shalt not steal. Thou shalt not give false testimony. Honour thy father and mother; and love thy neighbour as thyself." But the corresponding passage in Luke, xviii 20, he exhibits thus: "Thou knowest the commandments. Do not commit adultery; do not commit murder; do not steal; do not give false testimony; honour thy father and thy mother." This is here given as present advice, referring to the commandments, but not actually quoting them; and, in this view of the matter, semicolons, not followed by capitals may be right. See the common reading under Rule XIV for Capitals, on page 166.

OBS. 2.—Letters written for numbers, after the manner of the Romans, though read as words, are never words in themselves; nor are they, except perhaps in one or two instances, abbreviations of words. C, a hundred, comes probably from Centum; and M, a thousand, is the first letter of Mille; but the others, I, V, X, L, D, and the various combinations of them all, are direct numerical signs, as are the Arabic figures. Hence it is not really necessary that the period should be set after them, except at the end of a sentence, or where it is suitable as a sign of pause. It is, however, and always has been, a prevalent custom, to mark numbers of this kind with a period, as if they were abbreviations; as, "While pope Sixtus V. who succeeded Gregory XIII. fulminated the thunder of the church against the king of Navarre."—Smollet's Eng., iii, 82. The period is here inserted where the reading requires only the comma; and, in my opinion, the latter point should have been preferred. Sometimes, of late, we find other points set after this period; as, "Otho II., surnamed the Bloody, was son and successor of Otho I.; he died in 983."—Univ. Biog. Dict. This may be an improvement on the former practice, but double points are not generally used, even where they are proper; and, if the period is not indispensable, a simple change of the point would perhaps sooner gain the sanction of general usage.

OBS. 3.—Some writers, judging the period to be wrong or needless in such cases, omit it, and insert only such points as the reading requires; as, "For want of doing this, Judge Blackstone has, in Book IV, Chap. 17, committed some most ludicrous errors."—Cobbett's Gram., Let. XIX, ¶ 251. To insert points needlessly, is as bad a fault as to omit them when they are requisite. In Wm. Day's "Punctuation Reduced to a System," (London, 1847,) we have the following obscure and questionable RULE: "Besides denoting a grammatical pause, the full point is used to mark contractions, and is requisite after every abbreviated word, as well as after numeral letters."—Page 102. This seems to suggest that both a pause and a contraction may be denoted by the same point. But what are properly called "contractions," are marked not by the period, but by the apostrophe, which is no sign of pause; and the confounding of these with words "abbreviated," makes this rule utterly absurd. As for the period "after numeral letters," if they really needed it at all, they would need it severally, as do the abbreviations; but there are none of them, which do not uniformly dispense with it, when not final to the number; and they may as well dispense with it, in like manner, whenever they are not final to the sentence.

OBS. 4.—Of these letters, Day gives this account: "M. denotes mille, 1,000; D., dimidium mille, half a thousand, or 500; C. centum, 100; L. represents the lower half of C., and expresses 50; X. resembles V. V., the one upright, the other inverted, and signifies 10; V. stands for 5, because its sister letter U is the fifth vowel; and I. signifies 1, probably because it is the plainest and simplest letter in the alphabet."—Day's Punctuation, p. 103. There is some fancy in this. Dr. Adam says, "The letters employed for this purpose [i.e., to express numbers.] were C. I. L. V. X."—Latin and Eng. Gram., p. 288. And again: "A thousand is marked thus CI[C-reverserd], which in later times was contracted into M. Five hundred is marked thus, I[C-reversed], or by contraction, D."—Ib. Day inserts periods thus: "IV. means 4; IX., 9; XL., 40; XC., 90; CD., 400; CM., 900."—Page 703. And again: "4to., quarto, the fourth of a sheet of paper; 8vo., octavo, the eighth part of a sheet of paper; 12mo., duodecimo, the twelfth of a sheet of paper; N. L., 8°., 9'., 10''., North latitude, eight degrees, nine minutes, ten seconds."—Page 104. But IV may mean 4, without the period; 4to or 8vo has no more need of it than 4th or 8th; and N. L. 8° 9' 10'' is an expression little to be mended by commas, and not at all by additional periods.

OBS. 5.—To allow the period of abbreviation to supersede all other points wherever it occurs, as authors generally have done, is sometimes plainly objectionable; but, on the other hand, to suppose double points to be always necessary wherever abbreviations or Roman numbers have pauses less than final, would sometimes seem more nice than wise, as in the case of Biblical and other references. A concordance or a reference Bible pointed on this principle, would differ greatly from any now extant. In such references, numbers are very frequently pointed with the period, with scarcely any regard to the pauses required in the reading; as, "DIADEM, Job 29. 14. Isa. 28. 5. and 62. 3. Ezek. 21. 26."—Brown's Concordance. "Where no vision is, the people perish, Prov. xxix. 18. Acts iv. 12. Rom. x. 14."—Brown's Catechism, p. 104. "What I urge from 1. Pet. 3. 21. in my Apology."—Barclay's Works, iii, 498. "I. Kings—II. Kings."—Alger's Bible, p. iv. "Compare iii. 45. with 1. Cor. iv. 13."—Scott's Bible, Pref. to Lam. Jer. "Hen. v. A. 4. Sc. 5."—Butler's Gram., p. 41. "See Rule iii. Rem. 10."—Ib., p. 162. Some set a colon between the number of the chapter and that of the verse; which mark serves well for distinction, where both numbers are in Arabic figures: as, "'He that formed the eye, shall he not see?'—Ps. 94: 9."—Wells's Gram., p. 126. "He had only a lease-hold title to his service. Lev. 25: 39, Exod. 21: 2."—True Amer., i. 29. Others adopt the following method which seems preferable to any of the foregoing: "Isa. Iv, 3; Ezek. xviii, 20; Mic. vi, 7."—Gurney's Essays, p. 133. Churchill, who is uncommonly nice about his punctuation, writes as follows: "Luke. vi, 41, 42. See also Chap. xv, 8; and Phil., iii. 12."—New Gram., p. 353.

OBS. 6.—Arabic figures used as ordinals, or used for the numeral adverbs, first, or firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c., are very commonly pointed with the period, even where the pause required after them is less than a full stop; as, "We shall consider these words, 1. as expressing resolution; and 2. as expressing futurity."—Butler's Gram., p. 106. But the period thus followed by a small letter, has not an agreeable appearance, and some would here prefer the comma, which is, undoubtedly, better suited to the pause, A fitter practice, however, would be, to change the expression thus: "We shall consider these words, 1st, as expressing resolution; and, 2dly, as expressing futurity."

OBS. 7.—Names vulgarly shortened, then written as they are spoken, are not commonly marked with a period; as, Ben for Benjamin. "O RARE BEN JOHNSON!"—Biog. Dict.

   "From whence the inference is plain,
    Your friend MAT PRIOR wrote with pain."
        —LLOYD: B. P., Vol. viii, p. 188.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE PERIOD.

UNDER RULE I.—DISTINCT SENTENCES.

"The third person is the position of the name spoken of; as, Paul and Silas were imprisoned, the earth thirsts, the sun shines."—Frazee's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 21; Ster. Ed., p. 23.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because three totally distinct sentences are here thrown together as examples, with no other distinction than what is made by two commas. But, according to Rule 1st for the Period, "When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period." Therefore, these commas should be periods; and, of course, the first letter of each example must be a capital.]

"Two and three and four make nine; if he were here, he would assist his father and mother, for he is a dutiful son; they live together, and are happy, because they enjoy each other's society; they went to Roxbury, and tarried all night, and came back the next day."—Goldsbury's Parsing Lessons in his Manual of E. Gram., p. 64.

"We often resolve, but seldom perform; she is wiser than her sister; though he is often advised, yet he does not reform; reproof either softens or hardens its object; he is as old as his classmates, but not so learned; neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him; let him that standeth, take heed lest he fall; he can acquire no virtue, unless he make some sacrifices."—Ibid.

   "Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd,
    Thy image, lovely Anna! hung portray'd,
    Th' unconscious figure, smiling all serene,
    Suspended in a golden chain was seen,"—S. Barrett's E. Gr., p. 92.

UNDER RULE II.—ALLIED SENTENCES.

"This life is a mere prelude to another, which has no limits, it is a little portion of duration. As death leaves us, so the day of judgment will find us."—Merchant's School Gram., p. 76.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pause after limits, which is sufficient for the period, is marked only by the comma. But, according to Rule 2d, "The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb." It would improve the passage, to omit the first comma, change the second to a period, and write the pronoun it with a capital. Judgment also might be bettered with an e, and another is properly two words.]

"He went from Boston to New York; he went from Boston; he went to New York; in walking across the floor, he stumbled over a chair."—Goldsbury's Manual of E. Gram., p. 62.

"I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house; during the heat of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a tree."—Id., ib.

"George came home, I saw him yesterday, here; the word him, can extend only to the individual George"—S. Barrett's E. Gram., 10th Ed., p. 45.

"Commas are often used now, where parentheses were formerly; I cannot, however, esteem this an improvement."—See the Key.

   "Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel
    Didst let them pass unnoticed, unimproved,
    And know, for that thou slumb'rest on the guard,
    Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar
    For every fugitive."
        —Hallock's Gram., p. 222; Enfield's Sp., p. 380.

UNDER RULE III.—OF ABBREVIATIONS.

"The term pronoun (Lat pronomen) strictly means a word used for, or instead of a noun."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 198.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the syllable here put for the word Latin, is not marked with a period. But, according to Rule 3d, "The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them." In this instance, a period should mark the abbreviation, and a comma be set after of. By analogy, in stead is also more properly two words than one.]

"The period is also used after abbreviations; as, A. D. P. S. G. W. Johnson."—Butler's Pract. Gram., p. 211. "On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes or parts of speech, viz: the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 191.

"'Metre is not confined to verse: there is a tune in all good prose; and Shakspeare's was a sweet one.'—Epea Pter, II, 61. Mr. H. Tooke's idea was probably just, agreeing with Aristotle's, but not accurately expressed."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 385.

"Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter college he took the degree of A. M; being intended for the established church of England, he entered into holy orders when young, and obtained the living of Brentford, near London, which he held ten or twelve years."—Div. of Purley, 1st Amer. Edition, Vol. i, p. 60.

   "I, nor your plan, nor book condemn,
    But why your name, and why A. M!"—Lloyd.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath, &c. Isaiah. lviii. 7."—Butler's Gram., p. 67. "'He that hath eeris of herynge, here he. Wiclif. Matt xi."—Butler's Gram., p. 76. "See General Rules for Spelling, iii., v., and vii."—Butler's Gram., p. 81. "'False witnesses did rise up.' Ps. xxxv. ii."—Butlers Gram., p. 105.

"An explicative sentence is used for explaining. An interrogative sentence for enquiring. An imperative sentence for commanding."—S. Barrett's Prin. of Language, p. 87. "In October, corn is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears; Susan labors with her needle for a livelihood; notwithstanding his poverty, he is a man of integrity."—Goldsbury's Parsing, Manual of E. Gram., p. 62.

"A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables; a dissyllable. A word of three syllables; a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables; a polysyllable."—Frazee's Improved Gram., 1st Ed., p. 15. "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable. A word of three syllables, a trissyllable. A word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable."—Frazee's Improved Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 17.

"If I say, 'if it did not rain, I would take a walk;' I convey the idea that it does rain, at the time of speaking, If it rained, or did it rain, in the present time, implies, it does not rain; If it did not rain, or did it not rain, in present time, implies that it does rain; thus in this peculiarity, an affirmative sentence always implies a negation, and a negative sentence an affirmation."—Frazee's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 61; Ster. Ed., 62. "If I were loved, and, were I loved, imply, I am not loved; if I were not loved, and, were I not loved, imply, I am loved; a negative sentence implies an affirmation; and an affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive."—Ib., Old Ed., p. 73; Ster. Ed., 72.

"What is Rule III.?"—Hart's Gram., p. 114. "How is Rule III. violated?"—Ib., p. 115. "How do you parse 'letter' in the sentence, 'James writes a letter'? Ans.—'Letter is a noun com., of the MASC. gend., in the 3d p., sing. num., and objective case, and is governed by the verb 'writes,' according to Rule III., which says. 'A transitive verb,' &c."—Ib., p. 114.[465]

   "Creation sleeps. 'T is as the general pulse
    Of life stood still, and nature made a pause;
    An awful pause! prophetic of her end,
    And let her prophecy be soon fulfilled;
    Fate drop the curtain; I can lose no more."—Hallock's Gram., p. 216.

SECTION V.—THE DASH.

The Dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of variable length; but sometimes it is a sign of faltering, or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking: as, "Then, after many pauses, and inarticulate sounds, he said: 'He was very sorry for it, was extremely concerned it should happen so—but—a—it was necessary—a—' Here lord E——— stopped him short, and bluntly demanded, if his post were destined for an other."—See Churchill's Gram., p. 170.

RULE I.—ABRUPT PAUSES.

A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash; as, 1. "'I must inquire into the affair; and if'—'And if!' interrupted the farmer." 2. "Whom I—But first 't is fit the billows to restrain."—Dryd. Virg. 3. "HERE LIES THE GREAT—False marble! where? Nothing but sordid dust lies here."—Young.

RULE II.—EMPHATIC PAUSES.

To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure or the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed; as, 1. "I pause for a reply.—None?—Then none have I offended.—I have done no more to Cæsar, than you should do to Brutus."—SHAKSPEARE: Enfields Speaker, p. 182.

2. "Tarry a little. There is something else.—
    This bond—doth give thee here—no jot of blood."
        —ID.: Burgh's Sp., p. 167.

3. "It thunders;—but it thunders to preserve."—Young.

4. "Behold the picture!—Is it like?—Like whom?"—Cowper.

RULE III.—FAULTY DASHES.

Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation; as, "Here Greece stands by itself as opposed to the other nations of antiquity—She was none of the other nations—She was more polished than they."—Lennie's Gram., p. 78. "Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of antiquity. She was none of the other nations: She was more polished than they."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 114. If this colon is sufficient, the capital after it is needless: a period would, perhaps, be better.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The dash does not appear to be always a rhetorical stop, or always intended to lengthen the pause signified by an other mark before it. As one instance of a different design, we may notice, that it is now very often employed between a text and a reference;—i.e., between a quotation and the name of the author of the book quoted;—in which case, as Wm. Day suggests, "it serves as a connecting mark for the two."—Day's Punctuation, p. 131. But this usage, being comparatively recent, is, perhaps, not so general or so necessary, that a neglect of it may properly be censured as false punctuation.

OBS. 2.—An other peculiar use of the dash, is its application to side-titles, to set them off from other words in the same line, as is seen often in this Grammar as well as in other works. Day says of this, "When the substance of a paragraph is given as a side-head, a dash is necessary to connect it with its relative matter."—Ibid. Wilson also approves of this usage, as well as of the others here named; saying, "The dash should be inserted between a title and the subject-matter, and also between the subject-matter, and the authority from which it is taken, when they occur in the same paragraph."—Wilson's Punctuation, Ed. of 1850, p. 139.

OBS. 3.—The dash is often used to signify the omission of something; and, when set between the two extremes of a series of numbers, it may represent all the intermediate ones; as, "Page 10-15;" i. e., "Page 10, 11, 12, &c. to 15."—"Matt, vi, 9-14."

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE DASH.

UNDER RULE I.—ABRUPT PAUSES.

"And there is something in your very strange story, that resembles … Does
Mr. Bevil know your history particularly?"—See Key.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the abrupt pause after resembles is here marked by three periods. But, according to Rule 1st for the Dash. "A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash." Therefore, the dash should be preferred to these points.]

"Sir, Mr. Myrtle, Gentlemen! You are friends; I am but a servant.
But."—See Key.

"Another man now would have given plump into this foolish story; but I? No, no, your humble servant for that."—See Key.

"Do not plunge thyself too far in anger lest thou hasten thy trial; which if Lord have mercy on thee for a hen!"—See Key.

   "But ere they came, O, let me say no more!
    Gather the sequel by that went before."—See Key.

UNDER RULE II.—EMPHATIC PAUSES.

"M, Malvolio; M, why, that begins my name."

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the pauses after M and Malvolio seem not to be sufficiently indicated here. But, according to Rule 2d for the Dash, "To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed." Therefore, a dash may be set after the commas and the semicolon, in this sentence.]

"Thus, by the creative influence of the Eternal Spirit, were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days, so admirably finished, an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty, that the adorable Architect himself pronounced it very good, and all the sons of God shouted for joy."—See Key.

"If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop remained in my country, I NEVER would lay down my arms; NEVER, NEVER, NEVER."—Columbian Orator, p. 265.

   "Madam, yourself are not exempt in this,
    Nor your son Dorset, Buckingham, nor you."—See Key.

UNDER RULE III.—FAULTY DASHES.

"—You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, said my uncle Toby, to my house,—and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter,—and we'll have an apothecary,—and the corporal shall be your nurse;—and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre."—STERNE: Enfield's Speaker, p. 306.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because all the dashes here quoted, except perhaps the last, are useless, or obviously substituted for more definite marks. But, according to Rule 3d, "Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation." Therefore, the first of these should be simply expunged; the second, third, and fourth, with their commas, should be changed to semicolons; and the last, with its semicolon, may well be made a colon.]

"He continued—Inferior artists may be at a stand, because they want materials."—HARRIS: Enfield's Speaker, p. 191. "Thus, then, continued he—The end in other arts is ever distant and removed."—Id., ib.

"The nouns must be coupled with and, and when a pronoun is used it must be plural, as in the example—When the nouns are disjoined the pronoun must be singular."—Lennie's Gram., 5th Ed., p. 57.

"Opinion is a noun or substantive common,—of the singular number,—neuter gender,—nominative case,—and third person."—Wright's Philos. Gram., p. 228.

   "The mountain—thy pall and thy prison—may keep thee;
    I shall see thee no more; but till death I will weep thee."
        —Felton's Gram., p. 146.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR

"If to accommodate man and beast, heaven and earth; if this be beyond me, 'tis not possible.—What consequence then follows? or can there be any other than this—if I seek an interest of my own, detached from that of others; I seek an interest which is chimerical, and can never have existence."—HARRIS: Enfield's Speaker, p. 139.

"Again—I must have food and clothing—Without a proper genial warmth, I instantly perish—Am I not related, in this view, to the very earth itself? To the distant sun, from whose beams I derive vigour?"—Id., ib., p. 140.

"Nature instantly ebb'd again—the film returned to its place—the pulse flutter'd—stopp'd—went on—throbb'd—stopp'd again—mov'd—stopp'd—shall I go on?—No."—STERNE: ib., p. 307.

"Write ten nouns of the masculine gender. Ten of the feminine. Ten of the neuter. Ten indefinite in gender."—Pardon Davis's Gram., p. 9.

"The Infinitive Mode has two tenses—the Indicative, six—the Potential, two—the Subjunctive, six, and the Imperative, one."—Frazee's Gram., Ster. Ed., p. 39; 1st Ed., 37. "Now notice the following sentences. John runs,—boys run—thou runnest."—Ib., Ster. Ed., p. 50; 1st Ed., p. 48.

"The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name—sometimes for an adjective—a sentence—a part of a sentence—and, sometimes for a whole series of propositions."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., 1st Ed., 12mo, p. 321.

   "The self-applauding bird, the peacock, see—
    Mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he!"—Cowper, i, 49.

SECTION VI.—THE EROTEME.

The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used to designate a question.

RULE I.—QUESTIONS DIRECT.

Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation; as, "Was it possible that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice? that the proudest and the most ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of humility? that a doctrine so pure as the Gospel should be the work of an uncommissioned pretender? that so perfect a system of morals should be established on blasphemy?"—Jerningham's Essay, p. 81.

   "In life, can love be bought with gold?
    Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?"—Johnson.

RULE II.—QUESTIONS UNITED.

When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only; as, 1. "When—under what administration—under what exigencies of war or peace—did the Senate ever before deal with such a measure in such a manner? Never, sir, never."—D. Webster, in Congress, 1846.

    2. "Canst thou, and honour'd with a Christian name,
       Buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame;
       Trade in the blood of innocence, and plead
       Expedience as a warrant for the deed?"—Cowper.

    3. "Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land?
       All fear, none aid you, and few understand."—Pope.

RULE III.—QUESTIONS INDIRECT.

When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation; as, "The Cyprians asked me why I wept."—Murray.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The value of the eroteme as a sign of pause, is stated very differently by different grammarians; while many of the vast multitude, by a strange oversight, say nothing about it. It is unquestionably variable, like that of the dash, or of the ecphoneme. W. H. Wells says, "The comma requires a momentary pause; the semicolon, a pause somewhat longer than the comma; the colon, a pause somewhat longer than the semicolon; and the period, a full stop. The note of interrogation, or the note of exclamation, may take the place of EITHER of these, and accordingly requires a pause of the same length as the point for which it is substituted."—Wells's School Gram., p. 175. This appears to be accurate in idea, though perhaps hardly so in language. Lindley Murray has stated it thus: "The interrogation and exclamation points are intermediate as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require."—Octavo Gram., p. 280. But Sanborn, in regard to his "Question Point," awkwardly says: "This pause is generally some longer than that of a period."—Analytical Gram., p. 271. Buchanan, as long ago as 1767, taught as follows: "The Pause after the two Points of Interrogation and Admiration ought to be equal to that of the Period, or a Colon at least."—English Syntax, p. 160. And J. S. Hart avers, that, "A question is reckoned as equal to a complete sentence, and the mark of interrogation as equal to a period."—Hart's English Gram., p. 166. He says also, that, "the first word after a note of interrogation should begin with a capital."—Ib., p. 162. In some instances, however, he, like others, has not adhered to these exceptionable principles, as may be seen by the false grammar cited below.

OBS. 2.—Sometimes a series of questions may be severally complete in sense, so that each may require the interrogative sign, though some or all of them may be so united in construction, as not to admit either a long intermediate pause or an initial capital; as, "Is there no honor in generosity? nor in preferring the lessons of conscience to the impulses of passion? nor in maintaining the supremacy of moral principle, and in paying reverence to Christian truth?"—Gannett. "True honour is manifested in a steady, uniform train of actions, attended by justice, and directed by prudence. Is this the conduct of the duellist? will justice support him in robbing the community of an able and useful member? and in depriving the poor of a benefactor? will it support him in preparing affliction for the widow's heart? in filling the orphan's eyes with tears?"—Jerningham's Essay, p. 113. But, in this latter example, perhaps, commas might be substituted for the second and fourth erotemes; and the word will might, in both instances, begin with a capital.

OBS. 3.—When a question is mentioned in its due form, it commonly retains the sign of interrogation, though not actually asked by the writer; and, except perhaps when it consists of some little interrogative word or phrase, requires the initial capital: as, "To know when this point ought to be used, do not say:[,] 'Is a question asked?' but, 'Does the sentence ask a question?'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 368. "They put their huge inarticulate question, 'What do you mean to do with us?' in a manner audible to every reflective soul in the kingdom."—Carlyle's Past and Present, p. 16. "An adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the question, How? how much? when? or where? as, in the phrase, 'He reads correctly,' the answer to the question, How does he read? is correctly."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 28. This passage, which, without ever arriving at great accuracy, has been altered by Murray and others in ways innumerable, is everywhere exhibited with five interrogation points. But, as to capitals and commas, as well as the construction of words, it would seem no easy matter to determine what impression of it is nearest right. In Flint's Murray it stands thus: "An adverb may generally be known by its answering the question, How? How much? When? or Where? As in the phrase, 'He reads correctly. The answer to the question, 'How does he read?' is, 'correctly.'" Such questions, when the pause is slight, do not, however, in all cases, require capitals: as,

   "Rosal. Which of the visors was it, that you wore?
    Biron. Where? when? what visor? why demand you this?"
                     Shakspeare, Love's Labour Lost, Act V, Sc. 2.

OBS. 4.—A question is sometimes put in the form of a mere declaration; its interrogative character depending solely on the eroteme, and the tone, or inflection of voice, adopted in the utterance: as, "I suppose, Sir, you are his apothecary?"—SWIFT: Burgh's Speaker, p. 85. "I hope, you have, upon no account, promoted sternutation by hellebore?"—Id., ib. "This priest has no pride in him?"—SINGER'S SHAK., Henry VIII, ii, 2.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE EROTEME.

UNDER RULE I.—QUESTIONS DIRECT.

"When will his ear delight in the sound of arms."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., 12mo, p. 59.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because here is a finished question with a period set after it. But, according to Rule 1st for the Eroteme, "Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation." Therefore, the eroteme, or note of interrogation, should here be substituted for the period.]

"When shall I, like Oscar, travel in the light of my steel."—Ib., p. 59. "Will Henry call on me while he shall be journeying South."—Peirce, ib., p. 133.

"An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used in asking a question; as, 'who is he, and what does he want?'"—Day's School Gram., p. 21. "Who is generally used when we would inquire for some unknown person or persons; as, who is that man."—Ib., p. 24. "Our fathers, where are they, and the prophets, do they live forever?"—Ib., p. 109.

"It is true, that some of our best writers have used than whom; but it is also true, that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical: then why not reject this too.—The sentences in the Exercises [with than who] are correct as they stand."—Lennie's Gram., 5th Ed., 1819, p. 79.

"When the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb to be? What does the combination form?"—Hallock's Gram., p. 88. "Those adverbs which answer to the question where, whither or whence, are called adverbs of place."—Ib., p. 116.

"Canst thou, by searching, find out God; Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection; It is high as heaven, what canst thou do? deeper than hell, what canst thou know?"—Blair's Rhet. p. 132.

   "Where, where, for shelter shall the guilty fly,
    When consternation turns the good man pale."—Ib., p. 222.

UNDER RULE II.—QUESTIONS UNITED.

"Who knows what resources are in store? and what the power of God may do for thee?"

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because an eroteme is set after store, where a comma would be sufficient. But, according to Rule 2d for the Eroteme, "When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only." Therefore, the comma should here be preferred, as the author probably wrote the text. See Key.]

"The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath he said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 353; 12mo, 277; Hiley's, 139; Hart's, 181. "Hath the Lord said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?"—Lennie's Gram., p. 113; Bullions's, 176.

   "Who calls the council, states the certain day?
    Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way."
        —Brit. Poets, vi, 376.

UNDER RULE III.—QUESTIONS INDIRECT.

"To be, or not to be?—that is the question."—Enfield's Sp., p. 367; Kirkham's Eloc., 123.[466]

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the note of interrogation is here set after an expression which has neither the form nor the nature of a direct question. But, according to Rule 3d for the Eroteme, "When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation." Therefore, the semicolon, which seems adapted to the pause, should here be preferred.]

"If it be asked, why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an accent? or why an emphasis alone, will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other, without pauses, as accent does words? the answer is obvious; that we are pre-acquainted with the sound of words, and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced, however rapidly; but we are not pre-acquainted with the meaning of sentences, which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker."—Sheridan's Rhet. Gram., p. lvi.

   "Cry, By your Priesthood tell me what you are?"
          —POPE: British Poets, London, 1800, Vol. vi, p. 411.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"Who else can he be. Where else can he go."—S. Barrett's Gram., 1845, p. 71. "In familiar language here, there and where are used for hither, thither and whither."—N. Butler's Gram., p. 183. "Take, for instance, this sentence, 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 106. "Take, for instance, the sentence before quoted. 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"—Ib., p. 110. "Under the same head are considered such sentences as these, 'he that heareth, let him hear,' 'Gad, a troop shall overcome him,' &c."—Ib., p. 108.

"TENSES are certain modifications of the verb which point out the distinctions of time."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 38; Pract. Les., p. 44. "Calm was the day and the scene delightful."—Id. E. Gr., p. 80. "The capital letters used by the Romans to denote numbers, were C. I. L. V. X. which are therefore called Numeral Letters. I, denotes one; V, five: X, ten; L, fifty; and C, a hundred."—Id., Lat. Gram., p. 56. "'I shall have written;' viz, at or before some future time or event."—Id., ib., p. 89. "In Latin words the liquids are l and r only. In Greek words l, r, m, n."—Id., ib., p. 277. "Each legion was divided into ten cohorts, each cohort into three maniples, and each maniple into two centuries."—Id., ib., p. 300. "Of the Roman literature previous to A. U. 514 scarcely a vestige remains."—Id., ib., p. 312.

   "And that, which He delights in must be happy.
    But when!—or where!—This world was made for Cæsar."
        —Burgh's Sp., p. 122.

    "And that which he delights in must be happy.
    But when, or where? This world was made for Cæsar."
        —Enfield's Sp., p. 321.

    "Look next on greatness. Say, where greatness lies?
    Where but among the heroes and the wise."
        —Burgh's Sp., p. 91.

    "Look next on greatness! say where greatness lies.
    Where, but among the heroes and the wise?"
        —Essay on Man, p. 51.

    "Look next on Greatness; say where Greatness lies:
    Where, but among the Heroes and the Wise?"
        —Brit. Poets, vi, 380.

SECTION VII—THE ECPHONEME.

The Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation, is used to denote a pause with some strong emotion of admiration, joy, grief, or other feeling; and, as a sign of great wonder, it is sometimes, though not very elegantly, repeated: as, "Grammatical consistency!!! What a gem!"—Peirce's Gram., p. 352.

RULE I.—INTERJECTIONS, &c.

Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation; as, "Hold! hold! Is the devil in you? Oh! I am bruised all over."—MOLIERE: Burgh's Speaker, p. 250.

   "And O! till earth, and seas, and heav'n decay,
    Ne'er may that fair creation fade away!"—Dr. Lowth.

RULE II.—INVOCATIONS.

After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point; as, "Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient unto the heavenly vision."—Acts, xxvi, 19.

   "Be witness thou, immortal Lord of all!
    Whose thunder shakes the dark aërial hall."—Pope.

RULE III.—EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.

Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation; as, "How madly have I talked!"—Young.

   "An Author! 'Tis a venerable name!
    How few deserve it, and what numbers claim!"
        —Id., Br. Po., viii, 401.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE ECPHONEME.

UNDER RULE I.—OF INTERJECTIONS, &c.

(1.) "O that he were wise."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 111.

[FORMULE. Not proper, because this strong wish, introduced by "O," is merely marked with a period. But, according to Rule 1st for the Ecphoneme, "Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, the pause after this sentence, should be marked with the latter sign; and, if the "O" be read with a pause, the same sign may be there also.]

(2.) "O that his heart was tender."—Exercises, ib., p. 111. (3.) "Oh, what a sight is here!"—Lennie's Gram., p. 48. (4.) "Oh! what a sight is here."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 71; (Obs. 2;) Pract. Les., p. 83. (5.) "O virtue! How amiable thou art."—Id.,, p. 71; Pract. Les., p. 82. (6.) "O virtue! how amiable thou art."—Day's Gram., p. 109. (7.) "O, virtue! how amiable thou art."—S. Putnam's Gram., p. 53. (8.) "Oh! virtue, how amiable thou art!"—Hallock's Gram., p. 191; O. B. Peirce's, 375. (9.) "O virtue! how amiable thou art!"—Hallock's Gram., p. 126. (10.) "Oh! that I had been more diligent."—Hart's Gram., p. 167; see Hiley's, 117. (11.) "O! the humiliation to which vice reduces us."—Farnum's Gram., p. 12; Murray's Ex., p. 5. (12.) "O! that he were more prudent."—Farnum's Gram., p. 81. (13.) "Ah! me."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 79. (14.) "Ah me!"—Ib., p. 122. (15.) "Lately alas I knew a gentle boy," &c.—The Dial, Vol. i, p. 71.

(16.) "Wo is me Alhama."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 190.

(17.) "Wo is me, Alhama."—Ibid., "113th Thousand," p. 206.

UNDER RULE II.—OF INVOCATIONS.

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore."—Kirkham's
Gram., p. 131; Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram., p. 158.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because the emphatic address in this sentence, is marked with a period after it. But, according to Rule 2d for the Ecphoneme, "After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point." Therefore, this period should be changed to the latter sign.]

"Cease a little while, O wind; stream, be thou silent a while; let my voice be heard around. Let my wanderer hear me. Salgar, it is Colma who calls. Here is the tree, and the rock. Salgar, my love, I am here. Why delayest thou thy coming? Lo, the calm moon comes forth. The flood is bright in the vale."—See Key.

   "Ah, stay not, stay not, guardless and alone;
    Hector, my lov'd, my dearest, bravest son."—See Key.

UNDER RULE III.—EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.

"How much better is wisdom than gold."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 153; Hiley, p. 113.

[FORMULE—Not proper, because this exclamatory sentence is pointed with a period at the end. But, according to Rule 3d for the Ecphoneme, "Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation." Therefore, this period should be changed to the latter sign.]

"O virtue! how amiable art thou."—Flint's Murray, p. 51. "At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness."—Day's Gram., p. 74. "Alas! how few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man."—Ib., p. 12. "Oh! how vain and transitory are all things here below."—Ib., p. 110.

   "And oh! what change of state, what change of rank,
    In that assembly everywhere was seen."—Day's Gram., p. 12.

    "And O! what change of state! what change of rank!
    In that assembly every where was seen!"—Pollok, B. ix, l. 781.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"O shame! where is thy blush."—S. Barren's Principles of Language, p. 86. "O shame, where is thy blush; John, give me my hat."—Ib., p. 98. "What! is Moscow in flames."—Ib., p. 86. "Ah! what happiness awaits the virtuous."—Ib., 86.

"Ah, welladay,—do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his point,—the poor soul will die."—STERNE: Enfield's Speaker, p. 306. "A well o'day! do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his point: the poor soul will die"—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 340.

"Will John return to-morrow."—S. Barrett's Gram., Tenth Ed., p. 55. "Will not John return to-morrow."—Ib., 55. "John! return to-morrow; Soldiers! stand firm."—Ib., 55. "If mea which means my is an adjective in Latin, why may not my be so called in English, and if my is an adjective, why not Barrett's"—Ib., p. 50.

"Oh? Absalom, my son."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 375. "Oh! STAR-EYED SCIENCE!! whither hast thou fled?"—Ib., p. 366. "Why do you tolerate your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense!"—Ib., p. 360. "Thus the declarative mode may be used in asking a question; as, what man is frail."—Ib., p. 358. "What connexion has motive wish, or supposition, with the term subjunctive!"—Ib., p. 348. "A grand reason, truly! for calling it a golden key."—Ib., p. 347. "What 'suffering'! the man who can say this, must be 'enduring.'"—Ib., p. 345. "What is Brown's Rule! in relation to this matter?"—Ib., p. 334.

"Alas! how short is life." "Thomas, study your book."—Day's District School Gram., p. 109. "As, 'alas!' how short is life; Thomas, study your book.'"—Ib., p. 82. "Who can tell us who they are."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 178. "Lord have mercy on my son; for he is a lunatic, etc."—Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 138; Ster. Ed., 140. "O, ye wild groves, O, where is now your bloom!"—Ib., p. 88; Ster. Ed., 91.

   "O who of man the story will unfold!"
        —Farnum's Gr., 2d Ed., p. 104.

    "Methought I heard Horatio say to-morrow.
    Go to I will not hear of it—to-morrow."
        —Hallock's Gr., 1st Ed., p. 221.

    "How his eyes languish? how his thoughts adore
    That painted coat which Joseph never wore?"
        —Love of Fame, p. 66.

SECTION VIII.—THE CURVES.

The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly belong; as, "Their enemies (and enemies they will always have) would have a handle for exposing their measures."—Walpole.

   "To others do (the law is not severe)
    What to thyself thou wishest to be done."—Beattie.

OBS.—The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of a comma, or greater.

RULE I.—THE PARENTHESIS.

A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be inclosed within curves, as a parenthesis; as, "For I know that in me, (that is, in my flesh,) dwelleth no good thing."—Rom., vii, 18.

   "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
    Virtue alone is happiness below."—Pope.

RULE II.—INCLUDED POINTS.

The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form: as, 1. "Now for a recompense in the same, (I speak as unto my children,) be ye also enlarged."—2 Cor., vi, 13.

2. "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is:
    (For nature never gravitates to nought:)
    That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here."—Young.

3. "Night visions may befriend: (as sung above:)
    Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt
    Of things impossible! (could sleep do more?)
    Of joys perpetual in perpetual change!"—Young.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—ERRORS CONCERNING THE CURVES.

UNDER RULE I.—OF THE PARENTHESIS.

"Another is composed of the indefinite article an, which, etymologically means one and other, and denotes one other."—Hallock's Gram., p. 63.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the parenthetic expression, "which etymologically means one," is not sufficiently separated from the rest of the passage. But, according to Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis." Therefore, the curves should be here inserted; and also, by Rule 2d, a comma at the word one.]

"Each mood has its peculiar Tense, Tenses (or Times)."—Bucke's Gram., p. 58.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the expression, "or Times," which has not the nature of a parenthesis, is here marked with curves. But, according to Rule 1st for the Curves, "A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed within curves, as a parenthesis." Therefore, these marks should be omitted; and a comma should be set after the word "Tenses," by Rule 3d.]

"In some very ancient languages, as the Hebrew, which have been employed chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner, without aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods, this pronoun [the relative] occurs not so often."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 127.

"Before I shall say those Things, (O conscript Fathers) about the Public
Affairs, which are to be spoken at this Time; I shall lay before you, in
few Words, the Motives of the Journey, and the Return."—Brightland's
Gram., p. 149.

   "Of well-chose Words some take not care enough.
    And think they should be (like the Subject) rough."
        —Ib., p. 173.

    "Then having shewed his wounds, he'd sit (him) down."
        —Bullions, E. Gram., p. 32.

UNDER RULE II.—OF INCLUDED POINTS.

"Then Jael smote the Nail into his Temples, and fastened it to the Ground: (for he was fast asleep and weary) so he died. OLD TEST."—Ward's Gram., p. 17.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because this parenthesis is not marked as terminating with a pause equal to that which precedes it. But, according to Rule 2d above, "The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form." Therefore, a colon should be inserted within the curve after weary.]

"Every thing in the Iliad has manners (as Aristotle expresses it) that is, every thing is acted or spoken."—Pope, Pref. to Homer, p. vi.

"Those nouns, that end in f. or fe (except some few I shall mention presently), form plurals by changing those letters into ves: as, thief, thieves; wife, wives."—Bucke's Gram., p. 35.

"As, requires as; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. As,—so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be. So,—as; (with a negative expressing inequality) He is not so wise as his brother. So.—that; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I cannot walk."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 113; Pract. Les., p. 112.

   "A captious question, sir (and yours is one,)
    Deserves an answer similar, or none."—Cowper, ii. 228.

MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite referring to the same thing, must be of the same case; §61, as, Alexander is a student."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 75. "When the objective is a relative or interrogative, it comes before the verb that governs it. §40, R. 9. (Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary.)"—Id., ib., p. 90. "It is generally improper (except in poetry,) to omit the antecedent to a relative; and always to omit a relative when of the nominative case."—Id., ib., p. 130. "In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative (or subject) expressed or understood."—Id., ib., p. 87; Pract. Lessons, p. 91. "Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed by prepositions understood; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives without a governing word, §50. Rem. 6 and Rule; as, He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 80. "When should is used instead of ought, to express present duty, §20, 4, it may be followed by the present; as, 'You should study that you may become learned.'"—Id., ib., p. 123. "The indicative present is frequently used after the words, when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action; (§24, I, 4,) as, 'When he comes, he will be welcome.'"—Id., ib., p. 124. "The relative is parsed by stating its gender, number, case, and antecedent, (the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent) thus, 'The boy who.' 'Who' is a relative pronoun, masculine, singular, the nominative, and refers to 'boy' as its antecedent."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 31.

   "Now, now, I seize, I clasp thy charms,
    And now you burst; ah! cruel from my arms."

Here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second plural. It would have been better thus,

   "Now, now I seize, I clasp your charms,
    And now you burst; ah! cruel from my arms."
        —J. Burn's Gram., p. 193.

SECTION IX.—THE OTHER MARKS.

There are also several other marks, which are occasionally used for various purposes, as follow:—

I. ['] The APOSTROPHE usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word: as, "The girl's regard to her parents' advice;"—'gan, lov'd, e'en, thro'; for began, loved, even, through. It is sometimes used in pluralizing a mere letter or sign; as, Two a's—three 6's.[467]

II. [-] The HYPHEN connects the parts of many compound words, especially such as have two accents; as, ever-living. It is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syllables; as, con-tem-plate. Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word are can led forward to the next line.

III. ["] The DIÆRESIS, or DIALYSIS, placed over either of two contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong; as, Danäe, aërial.

IV. ['] The ACUTE ACCENT marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation; as, e'qual, equal'ity. It is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short vowel; as, "Fáncy:" (Murray:) or to denote the rising inflection of the voice; as, "Is it hé?"

V. [`] The GRAVE ACCENT is used in opposition to the acute, to distinguish an open or long vowel; as, "Fàvour:" (Murray:) or to denote the falling inflection of the voice; as, "Yès; it is hè" It is sometimes placed over a vowel to show that it is not to be suppressed in pronunciation; as,

   "Let me, though in humble speech,
    Thy refinèd maxims teach."—Amer. Review, May, 1848.

VI. [^] The CIRCUMFLEX generally denotes either the broad sound of a or an unusual sound given to some other vowel; as in âll, hêir, machîne. Some use it to mark a peculiar wave of the voice, and when occasion requires, reverse it; as, "If you said s=o, then I said sô."

VII. [[~]] The BREVE, or STENOTONE, is used to denote either the close, short, shut sound of a vowel, or a syllable of short quantity; as, l~ive, to have life,—r~av'en, to devour,[468]—c~al~am~us, a reed.

VIII. [=] The MACRON, or MACROTONE,[469] is used to denote either the open, long, primal sound of a vowel, or a syllable of long quantity; as, l=ive, having life,—r=a'ven, a bird,—=e'qu=ine, of a horse.

IX. [——] or [* * * *] or [….] The ELLIPSIS, or SUPPRESSION, denotes the omission of some letters or words: as, K—g, for King; c****d, for coward; d….d, for damned.

X. [^] The CARET, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. XI [{}] The BRACE serves to unite a triplet; or, more frequently, to connect several terms with something to which they are all related. XII. [§] The SECTION marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge references.

XIII. [¶] The PARAGRAPH (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forwards or backwards. The paragraphs of books being in some instances numbered, this character may occasionally be used, in lieu of the word paragraph, to shorten references.

XIV. [""] The GUILLEMETS, or QUOTATION POINTS, distinguish words that are exhibited as those of an other author or speaker. A quotation within a quotation, is usually marked with single points; which, when both are employed, are placed within the others: as, "And again he saith, 'Rejoice, ye Gentiles, with his people.'"—Rom., xv, 10.

XV. [[]] The CROTCHETS, or BRACKETS, generally inclose some correction or explanation, but sometimes the sign or subject to be explained; as, "He [Mr. Maurice] was of a different opinion."—Allen's Gram., p. 213.

XVI. [Fist] The INDEX, or HAND, points out something remarkable, or what the reader should particularly observe.

XVII. [*] The ASTERISK, or STAR, [Dagger] the OBELISK, or DAGGER, [Double dagger] the DIESIS, or DOUBLE DAGGER, and [||] the PARALLELS, refer to marginal notes. The SECTION also [§], and the PARAGRAPH [¶], are often used for marks of reference, the former being usually applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth note on a page; for, by the usage of printers, these signs are commonly introduced in the following order: 1, *; 2, [Dagger]; 3, [Double dagger]; 4, §; 5, ||; 6, ¶; 7, **; 8, [Dagger][Dagger]; &c. Where many references are to be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the numerical figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the same purpose.

XVIII. [[Asterism]] The ASTERISM, or THREE STARS, a sign not very often used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note, without giving it a particular reference.

XIX. [,] The CEDILLA is a mark borrowed from the French, by whom it is placed under the letter c, to give it the sound of s, before a or o; as in the words, "façade," "Alençon." In Worcester's Dictionary, it is attached to three other letters, to denote their soft sounds: viz., "[,G] as J; [,S] as Z; [,x] as gz."

[Fist][Oral exercises in punctuation should not be confined to the correction of errors. An application of its principles to points rightly inserted, is as easy a process as that of ordinary syntactical parsing, and perhaps as useful. For this purpose, the teacher may select a portion of this grammar, or of any well-pointed book, to which the foregoing rules and explanations may be applied by the pupil, as reasons for the points that occur.]

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PUNCTUATION.—MIXED EXAMPLES OF ERROR.

"The principal stops are the following:—

The Comma (,) the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period, or fall stop (.) the note of interrogation (?) the note of exclamation (!) the parenthesis () and the dash (—) [.]"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 151; Pract. Les., p. 127. "The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks employed, are the Comma (,); Semicolon (;); Colon (:); Period (.); Interrogation (?); Exclamation (!)."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 3.

"Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game; you chide me, says the youth, for a trifling fault. Custom, replied the philosopher, is no trifle. And, adds Montagnie, he was in the right; for our vices begin in infancy."—Home's Art of Thinking, (N. Y. 1818,) p. 54.

"A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died? 'My father,' says the skipper, my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were all drowned. 'Well,' replies the merchant, and are not you afraid of being drowned too?'"—Ib., p. 135.

"The use of inverted comma's derives from France, where one Guillemet was the author of them; [and] as an acknowledgement for the improvement his countrymen call them after his name GUILLEMETS."—History of Printing, (London, 1770,) p. 266.

"This, however, is seldem [sic—KTH] if ever done unless the word following the possessive begins with s; thus we do not say, 'the prince' feather,' but, 'the prince's feather.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 17. "And this phrase must mean the feather of the prince but princesfeather written as one word is the name of a plant: a species of amaranth."—See Key.

"Böëthius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honour his country could bestow."—Ingersoll's Gram. 12mo., p. 279. "Boethius soon had," &c.—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. ii., p. 83.

"When an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced, it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a semicolon or a colon; as, 'The scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words; God is love.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 116. "Either the colon or semicolon may be used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced; as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim; Know thyself.' 'The scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: God is love.'"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 155.

"The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon [, must begin with a capital]; as, always remember this ancient maxim: 'Know thyself.'"— Bullions, E. Gram., p. 159; Lennie's Gram., p. 106. [Lennie has "Always" with a capital.] "The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form: as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim: Know thyself.' 'Our great lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 284. "8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form. EXAMPLES.—'Always remember this ancient maxim, 'Know thyself.' 'Our great Lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"—Weld's Gram., Abridged., p. 17

"Tell me in whose house do you live."—N. Butler's Gram., p. 55. "He, that acts wisely, deserves praise."—Ib., p. 50 "He, who steals my purse, steals trash."—Ib., p. 51. "The antecedent is sometimes omitted, as, 'Who steals my purse, steals trash;' that is, he who, or person who."—Ib., p. 51. "Thus, 'Whoever steals my purse steals trash;' 'Whoever does no good does harm.'"—Ib., p. 53 "Thus, 'Whoever sins will suffer.' This means that any one without exception who sins will suffer."—Ib., p. 53.

"Letters form syllables, syllables words, words sentences, and sentences, combined and connected form discourse."—Cooper's Plain and Practical Gram., p. 1. "A letter which forms a perfect sound, when uttered by itself, is called a vowel, as: a, e, i."—Ib., p. 1. "A proper noun is the name of an individual, as: John; Boston: Hudson; America."—Ib., p. 17.

"Many men have been capable of doing a wise thing, more a cunning thing, but very few a generous thing."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 96. "In the place of an ellipsis of the verb a comma must be inserted."—Ib., p. 121. "A common noun unlimited by an article is sometimes understood in its broadest acceptation: thus, 'Fishes swim' is understood to mean all fishes. 'Man is mortal,' all men."—Ib., p. 13.

"Thus those sounds formed principally by the throat are called gutturals. Those formed principally by the palate are called palatals. Those formed by the teeth, dentals—those by the lips, labials—those by the nose, nasals, &c."—P. Davis's Gram., p. 113.

"Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, Good, better, best. Bad, worse, worst. Little, less, least."—Felton's Gram., 1st Ed., p. 63; Ster. Ed., p. 66.

"Under the fourth head of grammar, therefore, four topics will be considered, viz. PUNCTUATION, ORTHOEPY, FIGURES, and VERSIFICATION."— Hart's Gram., p. 161.

   "Direct her onward to that peaceful shore,
    Where peril, pain and death are felt no more!"
    Falconer's Poems, p. 136; Barrett's New Gram., p. 94

BAD ENGLISH BADLY POINTED.

LESSON I.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also, and such, too, is often their origin and their end."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 191.

"Traverse, (to cross.) To deny what the opposite party has alleged. To traverse an indictment, &c. is to deny it."—Id., ib., p. 216.

"The Ordinal [numerals] denote the order or succession in which any number of persons or things is mentioned, as first, second, third, fourth, &c."—Hiley's Gram., p. 22.

"Nouns have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD. The First person is the speaker, the Second is the one spoken to, the Third is the one spoken of."—Hiley's Gram., p. 44.

"Nouns have three cases, NOMINATIVE, POSSESSIVE, and OBJECTIVE. The relation indicated by the case of a noun includes three ideas, viz: those of subject, object, and ownership."—Ib., p. 45.

"In speaking of animals that are of inferior size, or whose sex is not known or not regarded, they are often considered as without sex: thus, we say of a cat 'it is treacherous,' of an infant 'it is beautiful,' of a deer 'it was killed.'"—Ib., p. 39.

"When this or these, that or those, refers to a preceding sentence; this, or these, refers to the latter member or term; that, or those, to the former."—Churchill's Gram., p. 136; see Lowth's Gram., p. 102.

"The rearing of them [i. e. of plants] became his first care, their fruit his first food, and marking their kinds his first knowledge."—N. Butler's Gram., p. 44.

"After the period used with abbreviations we should employ other points, if the construction demands it; thus, after Esq. in the last example, there should be, besides a period, a comma."—Ib., p. 212.

"In the plural, the verb is the same in all the persons; and hence the principle in Rem. 5, under Rule iii. [that the first or second person takes precedence,] is not applicable to verbs."—Ib., p. 158.

"Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute will and power: that is called freedom, this, tyranny."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 190.

"A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, which can be known, or mentioned, as: George; London; America; goodness; charity."—Cooper's Plain and Pract. Gram., p. 17.

"Etymology treats of the classification of words; their various modifications and derivations."—Day's School Gram., p. 9. "To punctuate correctly implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases, as well as of all their corresponding connexions"—W. Day's Punctuation, p. 31.

"All objects which belong to neither the male nor female kind are called neuter."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 57. "All objects, which belong to neither the male nor female kind, are said to be of the neuter gender."—Weld's Gram., Abridged, p. 51.

"The Analysis of the Sounds in the English language presented in the preceding statements are sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue it further can consult Dr. Rush's admirable work, 'The Philosophy of the Human Voice.'"—Fowlers E. Gram., 1850, §65. "Nobody confounds the name of w or y with their sound or phonetic import."—Ib., §74.

   "Order is Heaven's first law; and this confest,
    Some are and must be, greater than the rest."—Ib., p. 96.

LESSON II.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative is formed by adding -er to the positive; and the Superlative by adding -est; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 19.

"In monosyllables the comparative is formed by adding er or r to the positive, and the superlative by adding est or st; as, tall, taller, tallest; wise, wiser, wisest."—Id., Pract. Les., p. 24.

"By this method the confusion and unnecessary labor occasioned by studying grammars in these languages, constructed on different principles is avoided, the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of another, and an opportunity is furnished to the enquiring student of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and seeing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., Pref. to 5th Ed., p. vii.

"No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can easily master, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given out."—Id., ib., p. viii. "The acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured by repeated revisals."—Id., ib., p. viii.

"The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus; I, the first personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), singular, the nominative. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the possessive, &c."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 23: Pract. Les., p. 28.

"When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms; as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has also a general meaning, expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when the office, occupation, profession, &c., and not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is used only when the discrimination, of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said 'the Poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste,' the term 'Poet' clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry."—Id., E. Gram., p. 12; his Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 24.

"Nouns and pronouns, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same cases."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 78. "Verbs, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same moods and tenses, and, when in the subjunctive present, they must be in the same form."—Ib., p. 112.

"This will habituate him to reflection—exercise his judgment on the meaning of the author, and without any great effort on his part, impress indelibly on his memory, the rules which he is required to give. After the exercises under the rule have been gone through as directed in the note page 96, they may be read over again in a corrected state the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made, or they may be presented in writing at the next recitation."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., 2d Ed. Revised and Cor., p. viii.

   "Man, but for that, no action could attend
    And but for this, be thoughtful to no end."
        —O. B. Peirce's Gram., Pref. p. 5.

LESSON III.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"'Johnson the bookseller and stationer,' indicates that the bookseller and the stationer are epithets belonging to the same person; 'the bookseller and the stationer' would indicate that they belong to different persons."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 127.

"Past is an adjective; passed, the past tense or perfect participle of the verb, and they ought not, as is frequently done, to be confounded with each other."—Id., ib., p. 148.

"Not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection and arrangement of the words, gives English poetry a character, which separates it widely from common prose."—Id., ib., p. 178.

"Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds—men prepared for the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements, have labored for ages to improve and perfect it, and nothing is hazarded in asserting, that should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long before another equal in beauty, stability and usefulness, be produced in its stead."—Id., ib., p. 191.

"The Article The, on the other hand, is used to restrict, and is therefore termed Definite. Its proper office is to call the attention to a particular individual or class, or to any number of such, and is used with nouns in either the singular or plural number."—Id., ib., p. 193.

"Hence also the infinitive mood, a participle, a member of a sentence, or a proposition, forming together the subject of discourse, or the object of a verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, are in construction, regarded as nouns, and are usually called 'substantive phrases;' as 'To play is pleasant,' 'His being an expert dancer is no recommendation,' 'Let your motto be Honesty is the best policy.'"—Id., ib., p. 194.

"In accordance with his definition, Murray has divided verbs into three classes, Active, Passive, and Neuter, and includes in the first class transitive verbs only, and in the last all verbs used intransitively"—Id., ib., p. 200.

"Moreover, as the name of the speaker or the person spoken to is seldom expressed, (the pronouns I and thou being used in its stead,) a noun is very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and almost never in either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun personified."—Bullions, Pract. Les., p. 13.

"In using the above exercises it will save much time, which is all important, if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the nouns in the fewest words possible, and to say them always in the same order as above."—Id., ib., p. 21.

"In any phrase or sentence the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase 'What kind of,' to the noun in the form of a question; as, What kind of a horse? What kind of a stone? What kind of a way? The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective."—Id., ib., p. 22.

"In the following exercise let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the adjectives; and tell how he knows them to be so."—Id., ib., p. 23.

"In the following sentences point out the improper ellipsis. Show why it is improper, and correct it."—Id., ib., p. 124.

"SINGULAR PRONOUNS. PLURAL PRONOUNS.

1. I—am being smitten. 1. We—are being smitten. 2. Thou—art being smitten. 2. Ye or you—are being smitten. 3. He—is being smitten. 3. They—are being smitten."

Wright's Philos. Gram., p. 98.

CHAPTER II—UTTERANCE.

Utterance Is the art or act of vocal expression. It includes the principles of articulation, of pronunciation, and of elocution.

SECTION I.—OF ARTICULATION.

Articulation is the forming of words; by the voice, with reference to their component letters and sounds.

ARTICLE I.—OF THE DEFINITION.

Articulation differs from pronunciation, in having more particular regard to the elements of words, and in not embracing accent[470]. A recent author defines it thus: "ARTICULATION is the act of forming, with the organs of speech, the elements of vocal language."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 16. And again: "A good articulation is the perfect utterance of the elements of vocal language."—Ibid.

An other describes it more elaborately thus: "ARTICULATION, in language, is the forming of the human voice, accompanied by the breath, in some few consonants, into the simple and compound sounds, called vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, by the assistance of the organs of speech; and the uniting of those vowels, consonants, and diphthongs, together, so as to form syllables and words, and constitute spoken language."—Bolles's Dict., Introd., p. 7.

ARTICLE II—OF GOOD ARTICULATION.

Correctness in articulation is of such importance, that without it speech or reading becomes not only inelegant, but often absolutely unintelligible. The opposite faults are mumbling, muttering, mincing, lisping, slurring, mouthing, drawling, hesitating, stammering, misreading, and the like. "A good articulation consists in giving every letter in a syllable its due proportion of sound, according to the most approved custom of pronouncing it; and in making such a distinction between the syllables of which words are composed, that the ear shall without difficulty acknowledge their number; and perceive, at once, to which syllable each letter belongs. Where these points are not observed, the articulation is proportionably defective."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar, p. 50.

Distinctness of articulation depends, primarily, upon the ability to form the simple elements, or sounds of letters, by the organs of speech, in the manner which the custom of the language demands; and, in the next place, upon the avoidance of that precipitancy of utterance, which is greater than the full and accurate play of the organs will allow. If time be not given for the full enunciation of any word which we attempt to speak, some of the syllables will of course be either lost by elision or sounded confusedly.

Just articulation gives even to a feeble voice greater power and reach than the loudest vociferation can attain without it. It delivers words from the lips, not mutilated, distorted, or corrupted, but as the acknowledged sterling currency of thought;—"as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight."—Austin's Chironomia, p. 38.

OBS.—The principles of articulation constitute the chief exercise of all those who are learning either to speak or to read. So far as they are specifically taught in this work, they will be found in those sections which treat of the powers of the letters.

SECTION II.—OF PRONUNCIATION.

Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, or delivery, is the utterance of words taken separately. The correct pronunciation of words, or that part of grammar which teaches it, is frequently called Orthoëpy.

Pronunciation, or orthoëpy, requires a knowledge of the just powers of the letters in all their combinations; of the distinction of quantity in vowels and syllables; and of the force and seat of the accent.

ARTICLE I—OF THE POWERS OF LETTERS.

The JUST POWERS of the letters, are those sounds which are given to them by the best readers. These are to be learned, as reading is learned, partly from example, and partly from such books as show or aid the pronunciation of words.

It is to be observed, however, that considerable variety, even in the powers of the letters, is produced by the character and occasion of what is uttered. It is noticed by Walker, that, "Some of the vowels, when neither under the accent, nor closed by a consonant, have a longer or a shorter, an opener or a closer sound, according to the solemnity or familiarity, the deliberation or rapidity of our delivery."—Pronouncing Dict., Preface, p. 4. In cursory speech, or in such reading as imitates it, even the best scholars utter many letters with quicker and obscurer sounds than ought ever to be given them in solemn discourse. "In public speaking," says Rippingham, "every word should be uttered, as though it were spoken singly. The solemnity of an oration justifies and demands such scrupulous distinctness. That careful pronunciation which would be ridiculously pedantic in colloquial intercourse, is an essential requisite of good elocution."—Art of Public Speaking, p. xxxvii.

ARTICLE II—OF QUANTITY.

QUANTITY, or TIME in pronunciation, is the measure of sounds or syllables in regard to their duration; and, by way of distinction, is supposed ever to determine them to be either long or short.[471]

The absolute time in which syllables are uttered, is very variable, and must be different to suit different subjects, passions, and occasions; but their relative length or shortness may nevertheless be preserved, and generally must be, especially in reciting poetry.

Our long syllables are chiefly those which, having sounds naturally capable of being lengthened at pleasure, are made long by falling under some stress either of accent or of emphasis. Our short syllables are the weaker sounds, which, being the less significant words, or parts of words, are uttered without peculiar stress.

OBS.—As quantity is chiefly to be regarded in the utterance of poetical compositions, this subject will be farther considered under the head of Versification.

ARTICLE III.—OF ACCENT.

ACCENT, as commonly understood, is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distinguished from and above the rest; as, gram'-mar, gram-ma'-ri-an.

Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables accented; and sometimes a compound word has two accents, nearly equal in force; as, e'ven-hand'ed, home'-depart'ment.[472]

Besides the chief or primary accent, when the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinctness, we often give a secondary or less forcible accent to an other syllable; as, to the last of tem'-per-a-ture', and to the second of in dem'-ni-fi-ca'-tion.

"Accent seems to be regulated, in a great measure, by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is generally on the root; in words from the learned languages, it is generally on the termination; and if to these we add the different accent we lay on some words, to distinguish them from others, we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation; namely, the radical, the terminational, and the distinctive."—Walker's Principles, No. 491; L. Murray's Grammar, 8vo, p. 236.

A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a clear articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed accent, and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, distinguish the elegant speaker.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The pronunciation of the English language is confessedly very difficult to be mastered. Its rules and their exceptions are so numerous, that few become thoroughly acquainted with any general system of them. Nor, among the different systems which have been published, is there any which is worthy in all respects to be accounted a STANDARD. And, if we appeal to custom, the custom even of the best speakers is far from an entire uniformity. Perhaps the most popular directory on this subject is Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary. The "Principles of English Pronunciation," which this author has furnished, occupy fifty-six closely-printed octavo pages, and are still insufficient for the purpose of teaching our orthoëpy by rule. They are, however, highly valuable, and ought to be consulted by every one who wishes to be master of this subject. In its vocabulary, or stock of words, this Dictionary is likewise deficient. Other lexicographers have produced several later works, of high value to the student; and, though no one has treated the subject of pronunciation so elaborately as did Walker, some may have given the results of their diligence in a form more useful to the generality of their consulters. Among the good ones, is the Universal and Critical Dictionary of Joseph E. Worcester.

OBS. 2.—Our modern accentuation of Greek or Latin words is regulated almost wholly by the noted rule of Sanctius, which Walker has copied and Englished in the Introduction to his Key, and of which the following is a new version or paraphrase, never before printed:

RULE FOR THE ACCENTING OF LATIN.

    One syllable has stress of course,
    And words of two the first enforce;
    In longer words the penult guides,
    Its quantity the point decides;
    If long, 'tis there the accent's due,
    If short, accent the last but two;
    For accent, in a Latin word,
    Should ne'er go higher than the third.

This rule, or the substance of it, has become very important by long and extensive use; but it should be observed, that stress on monosyllables is more properly emphasis than accent; and that, in English, the accent governs quantity, rather than quantity the accent.

SECTION III.—OF ELOCUTION.

Elocution is the graceful utterance of words that are arranged into sentences, and that form discourse.

Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones.

ARTICLE I—OF EMPHASIS.

EMPHASIS is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are thereby distinguished from the rest as being more especially significant.[473]

As accent enforces a syllable, and gives character to a word; so emphasis distinguishes a word, and often determines the import of a sentence. The right placing of accent, in the utterance of words, is therefore not more important, than the right placing of emphasis, in the utterance of sentences. If no emphasis be used, discourse becomes vapid and inane; if no accent, words can hardly be recognized as English.

"Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllable is fixed, in words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when [the] words are [ar]ranged in[to] sentences; the long being changed into short, the short into long, according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning: and, as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of the quantity."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 246.[474] "Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and syllables, but also, in particular cases, the sent of the accent. This is demonstrable from the following examples: 'He shall _in_crease, but I shall _de_crease.' 'There is a difference between giving and _for_giving.' 'In this species of composition, _plaus_ibility is much more essential than _prob_ability.' In these examples, the emphasis requires the accent to be placed on syllables to which it does not commonly belong."—Ib., p. 247.

In order to know what words are to be made emphatic, the speaker or reader must give constant heed to the sense of what he utters; his only sure guide, in this matter, being a just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiment which he is about to pronounce. He must also guard against the error of multiplying emphatic words too much; for, to overdo in this way, defeats the very purpose for which emphasis is used. To manage this stress with exact propriety, is therefore one of the surest evidences both of a quick understanding, and of a delicate and just taste.

ARTICLE II.—OF PAUSES.

Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible and pleasing.

Pauses are of three kinds: first, distinctive or sentential pauses,—such as form the divisions required by the sense; secondly, emphatic or rhetorical pauses,—such as particularly call the hearer's attention to something which has been, or is about to be, uttered; and lastly, poetical or harmonic pauses,—such as are peculiar to the utterance of metrical compositions.

The duration of the distinctive pauses should be proportionate to the degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse. The shortest are long enough for the taking of some breath; and it is proper, thus to relieve the voice at every stop, if needful. This we may do, slightly at a comma, more leisurely at a semicolon, still more so at a colon, and completely at a period.

Pauses, whether in reading or in public discourse, ought always to be formed after the manner in which we naturally form them in ordinary, sensible conversation; and not after the stiff, artificial manner which many acquire at school, by a mere mechanical attention to the common punctuation.

Forced, unintentional pauses, which accidentally divide words that ought to be spoken in close connexion, are always disagreeable; and, whether they arise from exhaustion of breath, from a habit of faltering, or from unacquaintance with the text, they are errors of a kind utterly incompatible with graceful elocution.

Emphatic or rhetorical pauses, the kind least frequently used, may be made immediately before, or immediately after, something which the speaker thinks particularly important, and on which he would fix the attention of his audience. Their effect is similar to that of a strong emphasis; and, like this, they must not be employed too often.

The harmonic pauses, or those which are peculiar to poetry, are of three kinds: the final pause, which marks the end of each line; the cæsural or divisional pause, which commonly divides the line near the middle; and the minor rests, or demi-cæsuras, which often divide it still further.

In the reading of poetry, these pauses ought to be observed, as well as those which have reference to the sense; for, to read verse exactly as if it were prose, will often rob it of what chiefly distinguishes it from prose. Yet, at the same time, all appearance of singsong, or affected tone, ought to be carefully guarded against.

ARTICLE III.—OF INFLECTIONS.

INFLECTIONS are those peculiar variations of the human voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from one note, key, or pitch, into an other. The passage of the voice from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising or upward inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher to a lower or graver note, is called tbe falling or downward inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in the following examples: 1. The rising, "Do you mean to gó?" 2. The falling, "When will you gò?"

In general, questions that may be answered by yes or no, require the rising inflection; while those which demand any other answer, must be uttered with the falling inflection. These slides of the voice are not commonly marked in writing, or in our printed books; but, when there is occasion to note them, we apply the acute accent to the former, and the grave accent to the latter.[475]

A union of these two inflections upon the same syllable, is called a circumflex, a wave, or a "circumflex inflection." When the slide is first downward and then upward, it is called the rising circumflex, or "the gravo-acute circumflex;" when first upward and then downward, it is denominated the falling circumflex, or "the acuto-grave circumflex." Of these complex inflections of the voice, the emphatic words in the following sentences may be uttered as examples: "And it shall go h~ard but I will ûse the information."—"Ô! but he pa~used upon the brink."

When a passage is read without any inflection, the words are uttered in what is called a monotone; the voice being commonly pitched at a grum note, and made to move for the time, slowly and gravely, on a perfect level.

"Rising inflections are far more numerous than falling inflections; the former constitute the main body of oral language, while the latter are employed for the purposes of emphasis, and in the formation of cadences. Rising inflections are often emphatic; but their emphasis is weaker than that of falling inflections."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 50.

"Writers on Elocution have given numerous rules for the regulation of inflections; but most of these rules are better calculated to make bad readers than good ones. Those founded on the construction of sentences might, perhaps, do credit to a mechanic, but they certainly do none to an elocutionist."—Ib., p. 51.

"The reader should bear in mind that a falling inflection gives more importance to a word than a rising inflection. Hence it should never be employed merely for the sake of variety; but for emphasis and cadences. Neither should a rising inflection be used for the sake of mere 'harmony,' where a falling inflection would better express the meaning of the author. The sense should, in all cases, determine the direction of inflections."—Ib.

Cadence is a fall of the voice, which has reference not so much to pitch as to force, though it may depress both; for it seems to be generally contrasted with emphasis,[476] and by some is reprehended as a fault. "Support your voice steadily and firmly," says Rippingham, "and pronounce the concluding words of the sentence with force and vivacity, rather than with a languid cadence."—Art of Speaking, p. 17. The pauses which L. Murray denominates the suspending and the closing pause, he seems to have discriminated chiefly by the inflections preceding them, if he can be said to have distinguished them at all. For he not only teaches that the former may sometimes be used at the close of a sentence, and the latter sometimes where "the sense is not completed;" but, treating cadence merely as a defect, adds the following caution: "The closing pause must not be confounded with that fall of the voice, or cadence, with which many readers uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and inflections of the voice at the close of a sentence, ought to be diversified, according to the general nature of the discourse, and the particular construction and meaning of the sentence."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 250; 12mo, p. 200.

ARTICLE IV.—OF TONES.

Tones are those modulations of the voice which depend upon the feelings of the speaker. They are what Sheridan denominates "the language of emotions." And it is of the utmost importance, that they be natural, unaffected, and rightly adapted to the subject and to the occasion; for upon them, in a great measure, depends all that is pleasing or interesting in elocution.

"How much of the propriety, the force, and [the] grace of discourse, must depend on these, will appear from this single consideration; that to almost every sentiment we utter, more especially to every strong emotion, nature has adapted some peculiar tone of voice; insomuch, that he who should tell another that he was angry, or much grieved, in a tone that did not suit such emotions, instead of being believed, would be laughed at."—Blair's Rhet., p. 333.

"The different passions of the mind must be expressed by different tones of the voice. Love, by a soft, smooth, languishing voice; anger, by a strong, vehement, and elevated voice; joy, by a quick, sweet, and clear voice; sorrow, by a low, flexible, interrupted voice; fear, by a dejected, tremulous, hesitating voice; courage, by a full, bold, and loud voice; and perplexity, by a grave and earnest voice. In exordiums, the voice should be low, yet clear; in narrations, distinct; in reasoning, slow; in persuasions, strong: it should thunder in anger, soften in sorrow, tremble in fear, and melt in love."—Hiley's Gram., p. 121.

OBS.—Walker observes, in his remarks on the nature of Accent and Quantity, "As to the tones of the passions, which are so many and various, these, in the opinion of one of the best judges in the kingdom, are qualities of sound, occasioned by certain vibrations of the organs of speech, independent on [say of] high, low, loud, soft, quick, slow, forcible, or feeble: which last may not improperly be called different quantities of sound."—Walker's Key, p. 305.

CHAPTER III.—FIGURES.

A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation from the ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or application, of words. There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously employed, they both strengthen and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in poetry than in prose; and several of them are merely poetic licenses.

SECTION I.—FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

A Figure of Orthography is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. The principal figures of Orthography are two; namely, Mi-me'-sis and Ar'-cha-ism.

EXPLANATIONS.

I. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling, or the taking of one word for another; as, "Maister, says he, have you any wery good weal in you vâllet?"—Columbian Orator, p. 292. "Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, captain Gower."—Shak. "I will description the matter to you, if you be capacity of it."—Id.

"Perdigious! I can hardly stand." —LLOYD: Brit. Poets, Vol. viii, p. 184.

II. An Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography; as, "Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe a hotte stomake."—T. PAYNEL: Tooke's Diversions, ii, 132. "He hath holpen his servant Israel."—Luke, i, 54.

   "With him was rev'rend Contemplation pight,
    Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue."—Beattie.

OBS.—Among the figures of this section, perhaps we might include the foreign words or phrases which individual authors now and then adopt in writing English; namely, the Scotticisms, the Gallicisms, the Latinisms, the Grecisms, and the like, with which they too often garnish their English style. But these, except they stand as foreign quotations, in which case they are exempt from our rules, are in general offences against the purity of our language; and it may therefore be sufficient, just to mention them here, without expressly putting any of them into the category of grammatical figures.

SECTION II.—FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from the ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely, A-phoer'-e-sis, Pros'-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, Di-oer'-e-sis, Syn-oer'-e-sis, and Tme'-sis.

EXPLANATIONS.

I. Aphæresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word: as, 'gainst, for against; 'gan, for began; 'neath, for beneath; 'thout, for without.

II. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a word: as, _a_down, for down; _ap_paid, for paid; _be_strown, for strown; _ev_anished, for vanished; _y_clad, for clad.

III. Syn'copè is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word: as, med'cine, for medicine; e'en, for even; o'er, for over; conq'ring, for conquering; se'nnight, for sevennight.

IV. Apoc'opè is the elision of some of the final letters of a word: as, tho' for though; th', for the; t'other, for the other; thro', for through.

V. Parago'gè is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word: as, Johnny, for John; deary, for dear; withouten, for without.

VI. Diæresis is the separating of two vowels that might be supposed to form a diphthong: as, coöperate, not cooperate; aëronaut, not æronaut; or'thoëpy, not orthoepy.

VII. Synæresis is the sinking of two syllables into one: as, seest, for sëest; tacked, for tack-ed; drowned, for drown-ed; spoks't, for spok-est; show'dst, for show-edst; 'tis, for it is; I'll, for I will.

VIII. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound, or between two words which should be united if they stood together: as, "On which side soever."—Rolla. "To us ward;" "To God ward."—Bible. "The assembling of ourselves together."—Id. "With what charms soe'er she will."—Cowper. "So new a fashion'd robe."—Shak. "Lament the live day long."—Burns.

OBS.—In all our pronunciation, except that of the solemn style, such verbal or participial terminations as can be so uttered, are usually sunk by synæresis into mere modifications of preceding syllables. The terminational consonants, if not uttered with one vowel, must be uttered with an other. When, therefore, a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation, (whether retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected with it, necessarily fall into an other syllable: thus, tried, triest, sued, suest, loved, lovest, mov'd, mov'st, are monosyllables; and studied, studiest, studi'dst, argued, arguest, argu'dst, are dissyllables; except in solemn discourse, in which the e is generally retained and made vocal.

SECTION III.—FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of Syntax are five; namely, El-lip'-sis, Ple'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, En-al'-la-ge, and Hy-per'-ba-ton. EXPLANATIONS.

I. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning. Such words are said, in technical phrase, to be understood;[477] because they are received as belonging to the sentence, though they are not uttered.

Of compound sentences, a vast many are more or less elliptical; and sometimes, for brevity's sake, even the most essential parts of a simple sentence, are suppressed;[478] as, "But more of this hereafter."—Harris's Hermes, p. 77. This means, "But I shall say more of this hereafter." "Prythee, peace."—Shak. That is, "I pray thee, hold thou thy peace."

There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or even of a whole clause, when this repeats what precedes; but the omission of mere articles or interjections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis, because these parts of speech, wherever they are really necessary to be recognized, ought to be expressed.

EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS SUPPLIED.

1. Of the ARTICLE:—"A man and [a] woman."—"The day, [the] month, and [the] year."—"She gave me an apple and [a] pear, for a fig and [an] orange."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 170.

2. Of the NOUN:—"The common [law] and the statute law."—"The twelve [apostles]."—"The same [man] is he."—"One [book] of my books."—"A dozen [bottles] of wine."—"Conscience, I say; not thine own [conscience], but [the conscience] of the other."—1 Cor., x, 29. "Every moment subtracts from [our lives] what it adds to our lives."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 8. "Bad actions mostly lead to worse" [actions].—Ib., p. 5.

3. Of the ADJECTIVE:—"There are subjects proper for the one, and not [proper] for the other."—Kames. "A just weight and [a just] balance are the Lord's."—Prov., xvi, 11. True ellipses of the adjective alone, are but seldom met with.

4. Of the PRONOUN:—"Leave [thou] there thy gift before the altar, and go [thou] thy way; first be [thou] reconciled to thy brother, and then come [thou] and offer [thou] thy gift,"—Matt., v, 24. "Love [ye] your enemies, bless [ye] them that curse you, do [ye] good to them that hate you."—Ib., v. 44. "Chastisement does not always immediately follow error, but [it] sometimes comes when [it is] least expected."— Dillwyn, Ref., p. 31. "Men generally put a greater value upon the favours [which] they bestow, than upon those [which] they receive."—Art of Thinking, p. 48. "Wisdom and worth were all [that] he had."—Allen's Gram., p. 294.

5. Of the VERB:—"The world is crucified unto me, and I [am crucified] unto the world."—Gal., vi, 14. "Hearts should not [differ], though heads may, differ."—Dillwyn, p. 11. "Are ye not much better than they" [are]?—Matt., vi, 26. "Tribulation worketh patience; and patience [worketh] experience; and experience [worketh] hope."—Romans, v, 4. "Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits [are engraved] on sand."—Art of Thinking, p. 41. "To whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spoke].—Milton.

6. Of the PARTICIPLE:—"That [being] o'er, they part."—"Animals of various natures, some adapted to the wood, and some [adapted] to the wave."—Melmoth, on Scripture, p. 13.

   "His knowledge [being] measured to his state and place,
    His time [being] a moment, and a point [being] his space."—Pope.

7. Of the ADVERB:—"He can do this independently of me, if not [independently] of you."

   "She shows a body rather than a life;
    A statue, [rather] than a breather."
        —Shak., Ant. and Cleo., iii, 3.

8. Of the CONJUNCTION:—"But the fruit of the Spirit is love, [and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long suffering, [and] gentleness, [and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] temperance."—Gal., v, 22. The repetition of the conjunction is called Polysyndeton; and the omission of it, Asyndeton.

9. Of the PREPOSITION:—"It shall be done [on] this very day."—"We shall set off [at] some time [in] next month."—"He departed [from] this life."—"He gave [to] me a book."—"We walked [through] a mile."—"He was banished [from] the kingdom."—W. Allen. "He lived like [to] a prince."—Wells.

10. Of the INTERJECTION:—"Oh! the frailty, [oh!] the wickedness of men."—"Alas for Mexico! and [alas] for many of her invaders!"

11. Of PHRASES or CLAUSES:—"The active commonly do more than they are bound to do; the indolent [commonly do] less" [than they are bound to do].—"Young men, angry, mean less than they say; old men, [angry, mean] more" [than they say].—"It is the duty of justice, not to injure men; [it is the duty] of modesty, not to offend them."—W. Allen.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Grammarians in general treat of ellipsis without defining it; and exhibit such rules and examples as suppose our language to be a hundred-fold more elliptical than it really is.[479] This is a great error, and only paralleled by that of a certain writer elsewhere noticed, who denies the existence of all ellipsis whatever. (See Syntax, Obs. 24th on Rule 22d.) Some have defined this figure in a way that betrays a very inaccurate notion of what it is: as, "ELLIPSIS is when one or more words are wanting to complete the sense."—Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 235; Gould's, 229. "ELLIPSIS is the omission of one or more words necessary to complete the sense."—Bullions, Lat. Gram., p. 265. These definitions are decidedly worse than none; because, if they have any effect, they can only mislead. They absurdly suggest that every elliptical sentence lacks a part of its own meaning! Ellipsis is, in fact, the mere omission or absence of certain suggested words; or of words that may be spared from utterance, without defect in the sense. There never can be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the construction or necessary to the sense; for to say what we mean and nothing more, never can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words. As a figure of Syntax, therefore, the ellipsis can only be of such words as are so evidently suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had written them.

OBS. 2.—To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where it really occurs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the parser's or reader's ignorance of the principles of syntax. There never can be either a general uniformity or a self-consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions of grammar, till the true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained; so that the writer shall distinguish it from a blundering omission that impairs the sense, and the reader or parser be barred from an arbitrary insertion of what would be cumbrous and useless. By adopting loose and extravagant ideas of the nature of this figure, some pretenders to learning and philosophy have been led into the most whimsical and opposite notions concerning the grammatical construction of language. Thus, with equal absurdity, Cardell and Sherman, in their Philosophic Grammars, attempt to confute the doctrines of their predecessors, by supposing ellipses at pleasure. And while the former teaches, that prepositions do not govern the objective case, but that every verb is transitive, and governs at least two objects, expressed or understood, its own and that of a preposition: the latter, with just as good an argument, contends that no verb is transitive, but that every objective case is governed by a preposition expressed or understood. A world of nonsense for lack of a definition!

II. PLEONASM is the introduction of superfluous words; as, "But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it."—Gen., ii, 17. This figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it more strongly; as, "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear."—Bible. "All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth."—Id. "There shall not be left one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down."—Id. "I know thee who thou art."—Id. A Pleonasm, as perhaps in these instances, is sometimes impressive and elegant; but an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst faults of bad writing.

OBS.—Strong passion is not always satisfied with saying a thing once, and in the fewest words possible; nor is it natural that it should be. Hence repetitions indicative of intense feeling may constitute a beauty of the highest kind, when, if the feeling were wanting, or supposed to be so, they would be reckoned intolerable tautologies. The following is an example, which the reader may appreciate the better, if he remembers the context: "At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay down; at her feet he bowed, he fell; where he bowed, there he fell down dead."—Judges, v, 27.

III. SYLLEPSIS is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term; it is therefore in general connected with some figure of rhetoric: as "The Word was made flesh, and dwelt amongst us, and we beheld his glory."—John, i, 14. "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them."—Acts, viii, 5. "The city of London have expressed their sentiments with freedom and firmness."—Junius, p. 159. "And I said [to backsliding Israel,] after she had done all these things, Turn thou unto me; but she returned not: and her treacherous sister Judah saw it."—Jer., iii, 7. "And he surnamed them Boanerges, which is, The sons of thunder."—Mark, iii, 17.

"While Evening draws her crimson curtains round."—Thomson, p. 63.

"The Thunder raises his tremendous voice."—Id., p. 113.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—To the parser, some explanation of that agreement which is controlled by tropes, is often absolutely necessary; yet, of our modern grammarians, none appear to have noticed it; and, of the oldest writers, few, if any, have given it the rank which it deserves among the figures of syntax. The term Syllepsis literally signifies conception, comprehension, or taking-together. Under this name have been arranged, by the grammarians and rhetoricians, many different forms of unusual or irregular agreement; some of which are quite too unlike to be embraced in the same class, and not a few, perhaps, too unimportant or too ordinary to deserve any classification as figures. I therefore omit some forms of expression which others have treated as examples of Syllepsis, and define the term with reference to such as seem more worthy to be noticed as deviations from the ordinary construction of words. Dr. Webster, allowing the word two meanings, explains it thus: "SYLLEPSIS, n. [Gr. syllæpsis.] 1. In grammar, a figure by which we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words import, and construe them according to the intention of the author; otherwise called substitution.[480] 2. The agreement of a verb or adjective, not with the word next to it, but with the most worthy in the sentence."—American Dict.

OBS. 2.—In short, Syllepsis is a conception of which grammarians have conceived so variously, that it has become doubtful, what definition or what application of the term is now the most appropriate. Dr. Prat, in defining it, cites one notion from Sanctius, and adds an other of his own, thus: "SYLLEPSIS, id est, Conceptio, est quoties Generibus, aut Numeris videntur voces discrepare. Sanct. l. 4. c. 10. Vel sit Comprehensio indignioris sub digniore."—Prat's Lat. Gram., Part ii, p. 164. John Grant ranks it as a mere form or species of Ellipsis, and expounds it thus: "Syllepsis is when the adjective or verb, joined to different substantives, agrees with the more worthy."—Institutes of Lat. Gram., p. 321. Dr. Littleton describes it thus: "SYLLLEPSIS [sic—KTH],—A Grammatical figure where two Nominative Cases singular of different persons are joined to a Verb plural."—Latin Dict., 4to. By Dr. Morell it is explained as follows: "SYLLEPSIS,—A grammatical figure, where one is put for many, and many for one, Lat. Conceptio."—Morell's Ainsworth's Dict., 4to, Index Vitand. IV. Enállagè is the use of one part of speech, or of one modification, for an other. This figure borders closely upon solecism; and, for the stability of the language, it should be sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it which can appeal to good authority: as,

1. "You know that you are Brutus, that say this."—Shak.

2. "They fall successive[ly], and successive[ly] rise."—Pope.

3. "Than whom [who] a fiend more fell is nowhere found."—Thomson.

4. "Sure some disaster has befell" [befallen].—Gay.

5. "So furious was that onset's shock, Destruction's gates at once unlock" [unlocked].—Hogg.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Enallage is a Greek word, signifying commutation, change, or exchange. "Enallage, in a general sense, is the change of words, or of their accidents, one for another."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 322. The word Antimeria, which literally expresses change of parts, was often used by the old grammarians as synonymous with Enallage; though, sometimes, the former was taken only for the substitution of one part of speech for an other, and the latter, only, or more particularly, for a change of modification—as of mood for mood, tense for tense, or number for number. The putting of one case for an other, has also been thought worthy of a particular name, and been called Antiptosis. But Enallage, the most comprehensive of these terms, having been often of old applied to all such changes, reducing them to one head, may well be now defined as above, and still applied, in this way, to all that we need recognize as figures. The word Enallaxis, preferred by some, is of the same import. "ENALLAXIS, so called by Longinus, or ENALLAGE, is an Exchange of Cases, Tenses, Persons, Numbers, or Genders."—Holmes's Rhet., Book i, p. 57.

   "An ENALLAXIS changes, when it pleases,
    Tenses, or Persons, Genders, Numbers, Cases."—Ib., B. ii, p. 50.

OBS. 2.—Our most common form of Enallage is that by which a single person is addressed in the plural number. This is so fashionable in our civil intercourse, that some very polite grammarians improperly dispute its claims to be called a figure; and represent it as being more ordinary, and even more literal than the regular phraseology; which a few of them, as we have seen, would place among the archaisms. The next in frequency, (if indeed it can be called a different form,) is the practice of putting we for I, or the plural for the singular in the first person. This has never yet been claimed as literal and regular syntax, though the usages differ in nothing but commonness; both being honourably authorized, both still improper on some occasions, and, in both, the Enallage being alike obvious. Other varieties of this figure, not uncommon in English, are the putting of adjectives for adverbs, of adverbs for nouns, of the present tense for the preterit, and of the preterit for the perfect participle. But, in the use of such liberties, elegance and error sometimes approximate so nearly, there is scarcely an obvious line between them, and grammarians consequently disagree in making the distinction.

OBS. 3.—Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considered solecisms; otherwise, the rules of grammar would be of no use or authority. Despauter, an ancient Latin grammarian, gave an improper latitude to this figure, or to a species of it, under the name of Antiptosis; and Behourt and others extended it still further. But Sanctius says, "Antiptosi grammaticorum nihil imperitius, quod figmentum si esset verum, frustra quæreretur, quem casum verba regerent." And the Messieurs De Port Royal reject the figure altogether. There are, however, some changes of this kind, which the grammarian is not competent to condemn, though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of construction.

V. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, "He wanders earth around."—Cowper "Rings the world with the vain stir."—Id. "Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you."—Acts, xvii, 23. "'Happy', says Montesquieu, 'is that nation whose annals are tiresome.'"—Corwin, in Congress, 1847. This figure is much employed in poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, strength, and vivacity upon composition. But care should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity, absurdity or solecism.

OBS.—A confused and intricate arrangement of words, received from some of the ancients the name of Syn'chysis, and was reckoned by them among the figures of grammar. By some authors, this has been improperly identified with Hyper'baton, or elegant inversion; as may be seen under the word Synchysis in Littleton's Dictionary, or in Holmes's Rhetoric, at page 58th. Synchysis literally means confusion, or commixtion; and, in grammar, is significant only of some poetical jumble of words, some verbal kink or snarl, which cannot be grammatically resolved or disentangled: as,

"Is piety thus and pure devotion paid?" —Milton, P. L., B. xi, l. 452.

   "An ass will with his long ears fray
    The flies that tickle him away;
    But man delights to have his ears
    Blown maggots in by flatterers."
        —Butler's Poems, p. 161.

SECTION IV.—FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation from the ordinary application of words. Several of this kind of figures are commonly called Tropes, i.e., turns; because certain words are turned from their original signification to an other.[481]

Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction, occur in almost every kind of composition. They are mostly founded on some similitude or relation of things, which, by the power of imagination, is rendered conducive to ornament or illustration.

The principal figures of Rhetoric are sixteen; namely, Sim'-i-le,
Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-gor-y, Me-ton'-y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le,
Vis'-ion, A-pos'-tro-phe, Per-son'-i-fi-ca'-tion, Er-o-te'-sis,
Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-tith'-e-sis, Cli'-max, I'-ro-ny, A-poph'-a-sis, and
On-o-ma-to-poe'-ia.

EXPLANATIONS.

I. A Simile is a simple and express comparison; and is generally introduced by like, as, or so: as, "Such a passion is like falling in love with a sparrow flying over your head; you have but one glimpse of her, and she is out of sight."—Colliers Antoninus. "Therefore they shall be as the morning cloud, and as the early dew that passeth away; as the chaff that is driven with the whirlwind out of the floor, and as the smoke out of the chimney."—Hosea, xiii.

   "At first, like thunder's distant tone,
    The rattling din came rolling on."—Hogg.

    "Man, like the generous vine, supported lives;
    The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives."—Pope.

OBS.—Comparisons are sometimes made in a manner sufficiently intelligible, without any express term to point them out. In the following passage, we have a triple example of what seems the Simile, without the usual sign—without like, as, or so: "Away with all tampering with such a question! Away with all trifling with the man in fetters! Give a hungry man a stone, and tell what beautiful houses are made of it;—give ice to a freezing man, and tell him of its good properties in hot weather;—throw a drowning man a dollar, as a mark of your good will;—but do not mock the bondman in his misery, by giving him a Bible when he cannot read it."—FREDERICK DOUGLASS: Liberty Bell, 1848.

II. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses or suggests the resemblance of two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute, adjunct, or action, of the one, directly to the other; as,

1. "The LORD is my rock, and my fortress."—Psal., xviii 1.

2. "His eye was morning's brightest ray."—Hogg.

3. "An angler in the tides of fame."—Id., Q. W.

4. "Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow."—Langhorne.

5. "Wild fancies in his moody brain Gambol'd unbridled and unbound."—Hogg, Q. W.

6. "Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo."—Thomson.

OBS.—A Metaphor is commonly understoood [sic—KTH] to be only the tropical use of some single word, or short phrase; but there seem to be occasional instances of one sentence, or action, being used metaphorically to represent an other. The following extract from the London Examiner has several figurative expressions, which perhaps belong to this head: "In the present age, nearly all people are critics, even to the pen, and treat the gravest writers with a sort of taproom familiarity. If they are dissatisfied, they throw a short and spent cigar in the face of the offender; if they are pleased, they lift the candidate off his legs, and send him away with a hearty slap on the shoulder. Some of the shorter, when they are bent to mischief, dip a twig in the gutter, and drag it across our polished boots: on the contrary, when they are inclined to be gentle and generous, they leap boisterously upon our knees, and kiss us with bread-and-butter in their mouths."—WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR.

III. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root; and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars."—Psalms, lxxx, 8-10.

OBS.—The Allegory, agreeably to the foregoing definition of it, includes most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called parables; it includes also the better sort of fables. The term allegory is sometimes applied to a true history in which something else is intended, than is contained in the words literally taken. See an instance in Galatians, iv, 24. In the Scriptures, the term fable denotes an idle and groundless story: as, in 1 Timothy, iv, 7; and 2 Peter, i, 16. It is now commonly used in a better sense. "A fable may be defined to be an analogical narrative, intended to convey some moral lesson, in which irrational animals or objects are introduced as speaking."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 280.

IV. A Metonymy is a change of names between things related. It is founded, not on resemblance, but on some such relation as that of cause and effect, of progenitor and posterity, of subject and adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container and thing contained, or of sign and thing signified: as, (1.) "God is our salvation;" i.e., Saviour. (2.) "Hear, O Israel;" i.e. O ye descendants of Israel. (3.) "He was the sigh of her secret soul;" i.e., the youth she loved. (4.) "They smote the city;" i.e., the citizens. (5.) "My son, give me thy heart;" i.e., affection. (6.) "The sceptre shall not depart from Judah;" i.e., kingly power. (7.) "They have Moses and the prophets;" i.e., their writings. See Luke, xvi, 29.

V. Synecdoche, (that is, Comprehension,) is the naming of a part for the whole, or of the whole for a part; as, (1.) "This roof [i.e., house] protects you." (2.) "Now the year [i.e., summer] is beautiful." (3.) "A sail [i.e., a ship or vessel] passed at a distance." (4.) "Give us this day our daily bread;" i.e., food. (5.) "Because they have taken away my Lord, [i.e., the body of Jesus,] and I know not where they have laid him."—John. (6.) "The same day there were added unto them about three thousand souls;" i.e., persons.—Acts. (7.) "There went out a decree from Cæsar Augustus, that all the world [i.e., the Roman empire] should be taxed."—Luke, ii, 1.

VI. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth; as, "My little finger shall be thicker than my father's loins."—2 Chron., x, 10. "When I washed my steps with butter, and the rock poured me out rivers of oil."—Job, xxix, 6.

   "The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread,
    And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed."—Dryden.

VII. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and present to his senses; as,

   "I see the dagger-crest of Mar!
    I see the Moray's silver star
    Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war,
    That up the lake comes winding far!"—Scott, L. L., vi, 15.

VIII. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the subject, into an animated address; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death! where is thy sting? O Grave! where is thy victory?"—1 Cor., xv, 55.

IX. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities; as,

1. "The Worm, aware of his intent, Harangued him thus, right eloquent."—Cowper.

2. "Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears!"—Rogers.

3. "Hark! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease!"—Idem.

X. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confidently to assert the reverse of what is asked; as, "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him?"—Job, xl, 9. "He that planted the ear, shall he not hear? he that formed the eye, shall he not see?"—Psalms, xciv, 9.

XI. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some violent emotion of the mind; as, "O liberty!—O sound once delightful to every Roman ear!—O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship!—once sacred—now trampled upon."—Cicero. "And I said, O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest."—Psalms, lv, 6.

XII. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten their effect by contrast; as, "I will talk of things heavenly, or things earthly; things moral, or things evangelical; things sacred, or things profane; things past, or things to come; things foreign, or things at home; things more essential, or things circumstantial; provided that all be done to our profit."—Bunyan, P. P., p. 90.

   "Contrasted faults through all his manners reign;
    Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, vain;
    Though grave, yet trifling; zealous, yet untrue;
    And e'en in penance, planning sins anew."—Goldsmith.

XIII. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more and more important and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more minute and particular; as, "And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, charity."—2 Peter, i, 5.

XIV. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood; as, "We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest man would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life."—Cicero. "No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you."—Job, xii, 2. "They must esteem learning very much, when they see its professors used with such little ceremony!"—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 150.

XV. Apophasis, or Paralipsis,[482] is a figure in which the speaker or writer pretends to omit what at the same time he really mentions; as, "I Paul have written it with mine own hand, I will repay it; albeit I do not say to thee, how thou owest unto me even thine own self besides."—Philemon, 19.

XVI. Onomatopoeia is the use of a word, phrase, or sentence, the sound of which resembles, or intentionally imitates, the sound of the thing signified or spoken of: as, "Of a knocking at the door, Rat a tat tat."—J. W. GIBBS: in Fowler's Gram., p. 334. "Ding-dong! ding-dong! Merry, merry, go the bells, Ding-dong! ding-dong!"—H. K. White. "Bow'wow n. The loud bark of a dog. Booth."—Worcester's Dict. This is often written separately; as, "Bow wow."—Fowler's Gram., p. 334. The imitation is better with three sounds: "Bow wow wow." The following verses have been said to exhibit this figure:

   "But when loud surges lash the sounding shore,
    The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar."
        —Pope, on Crit., l. 369.

OBS.—The whole number of figures, which I have thought it needful to define and illustrate in this work, is only about thirty. These are the chief of what have sometimes been made a very long and minute catalogue. In the hands of some authors, Rhetoric is scarcely anything else than a detail of figures; the number of which, being made to include almost every possible form of expression, is, according to these authors, not less than two hundred and forty. Of their names, John Holmes gives, in his index, two hundred and fifty-three; and he has not all that might be quoted, though he has more than there are of the forms named, or the figures themselves. To find a learned name for every particular mode of expression, is not necessarily conducive to the right use of language. It is easy to see the inutility of such pedantry; and Butler has made it sufficiently ridiculous by this caricature:

   "For all a rhetorician's rules
    Teach nothing but to name his tools."—Hudibras, P. i, C. i, l. 90.

SECTION V.—EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

PRAXIS XIV.—PROSODICAL.

In the Fourteenth Praxis, are exemplified the several Figures of Orthography, of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric, which the parser may name and define; and by it the pupil may also be exercised in relation to the principles of Punctuation, Utterance, Analysis, or whatever else of Grammar, the examples contain.

LESSON I.—FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

MIMESIS AND ARCHAISM.

"I ax'd you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a wessel for Wenice, loading her with warious keinds of prowisions, and wittualling her for a long woyage; and I want several undred weight of weal, wenison, &c., with plenty of inyons and winegar, for the preserwation of ealth."—Columbian Orator, p. 292.

"God bless you, and lie still quiet (says I) a bit longer, for my shister's afraid of ghosts, and would die on the spot with the fright, was she to see you come to life all on a sudden this way without the least preparation."—Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent, p. 143.

"None [else are] so desperately evill, as they that may bee good and will not: or have beene good and are not."—Rev. John Rogers, 1620. "A Carpenter finds his work as hee left it, but a Minister shall find his sett back. You need preach continually."—Id.

   "Here whilom ligg'd th' Esopus of his age,
    But call'd by Fame, in soul ypricked deep."—Thomson.

    "It was a fountain of Nepenthe rare,
    Whence, as Dan Homer sings, huge pleasaunce grew."—Id.

LESSON II.—FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.

APHÆRESIS, PROSTHESIS, SYNCOPE, APOCOPE, PARAGOGE, DIÆRESIS, SYNÆRESIS, AND TMESIS.

   "Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast,
    Burst down like torrent from its crest."—Scott.

    "'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap
    Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffus'd."—Dyer.

    "Alas! alas! how impotently true
    Th' aërial pencil forms the scene anew."—Cawthorne.

    "Here a deformed monster joy'd to won,
    Which on fell rancour ever was ybent."—Lloyd.

"Withouten trump was proclamation made."—Thomson.

    "The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case,
    Let fall adown his silver beard some tears.
    'Certes,' quoth he, 'it is not e'en in grace,
    T' undo the past and eke your broken years."—Id.

    "Vain tamp'ring has but foster'd his disease;
    'Tis desp'rate, and he sleeps the sleep of death."—Cowper.

    "'I have a pain upon my forehead here'—
    'Why that's with watching; 'twill away again.'"—Shakspeare.

    "I'll to the woods, among the happier brutes;
    Come, let's away; hark! the shrill horn resounds."—Smith.

"What prayer and supplication soever be made."—Bible. "By the grace of God, we have had our conversation in the world, and more abundantly to you ward."—Ib.

LESSON III.—FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

FIGURE I.—ELLIPSIS.

   "And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn,
    And [—] villager [—] abroad at early toil."—Beattie.

"The cottage curs at [—] early pilgrim bark."—Id.

    "'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears,
    Our most important [—] are our earliest years."—Cowper.

    "To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye,
    He looks on nature's [—] and on fortune's course."—Akenside.

    "For longer in that paradise to dwell,
    The law [—] I gave to nature him forbids."—Milton.

"So little mercy shows [—] who needs so much."—Cowper.

    "Bliss is the same [—] in subject, as [—] in king;
    In [—] who obtain defence, and [—] who defend."—Pope.

    "Man made for kings! those optics are but dim
    That tell you so—say rather, they [—] for him."—Cowper.

    "Man may dismiss compassion from his heart,
    But God will never [———-]."—Id.

"Vigour [—] from toil, from trouble patience grows."—Beattie.

    "Where now the rill melodious, [—] pure, and cool,
    And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd?"—Id.

    "How dead the vegetable kingdom lies!
    How dumb the tuneful [——————]!"—Thomson.

    "Self-love and Reason to one end aspire,
    Pain [—] their aversion, pleasure [—] their desire;
    But greedy that its object would devour,
    This [—] taste the honey, and not wound the flower."—Pope.

LESSON IV.—FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

FIGURE II.—PLEONASM.

"According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay, fury to his adversaries, recompense to his enemies; to the islands he will repay recompense."—Isaiah, lix, 18. "Open to me, my sister, my love, my dove, my undefiled: for my head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the night."—Song of Sol., v, 2. "Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke: turn thou me, and I shall be turned; for thou art the Lord my God."—Jer., xxxi, 18. "Consider the lilies of the field how they grow."—Matt., vi, 28. "He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord."—2 Cor., x, 17.

"He too is witness, noblest of the train That wait on man, the flight-performing horse."—Cowper.

FIGURE III.—SYLLEPSIS.

"'Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called Cephas:' which is, by interpretation a stone."—John, i, 42. "Thus saith the Lord of hosts, 'Behold, I will break the bow of Elam, the chief of their might.'"—Jer., xlix, 35. "Behold, I lay in Sion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence: and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed."—Rom., ix, 33.

   "Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast,
    Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppressed."—Cowper.

    "Knowledge is proud that he has learn'd so much;
    Wisdom is humble that he knows no more."—Id.

"For those the race of Israel oft forsook Their living strength, and unfrequented left His righteous altar, bowing lowly down To bestial gods."—Milton, Paradise Lost, B. i, l. 432.

LESSON V.—FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

FIGURE IV.—ENALLAGE.

   "Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself
    Are much condemned to have an itching palm,
    To sell and mart your offices for gold."—Shakspeare.

    "Come, Philomelus; let us instant go,
    O'erturn his bow'rs, and lay his castle low."—Thomson.

    "Then palaces shall rise; the joyful son
    Shall finish what the short-liv'd sire begun"—Pope.

    "Such was that temple built by Solomon,
    Than whom none richer reign'd o'er Israel."—Author.

    "He spoke: with fatal eagerness we burn,
    And quit the shores, undestin'd to return."—Day.

"Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes."—Thomson.

"Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted gay."—Id.

"'I've lost a day'—the prince who nobly cried, Had been an emperor without his crown."—Young.

FIGURE V.—HYPERBATON.

"Such resting found the sole of unblest feet."—Milton.

"Yet, though successless, will the toil delight."—Thomson.

    "Where, 'midst the changeful scen'ry ever new,
    Fancy a thousand wondrous forms descries."—Beattie.

    "Yet so much bounty is in God, such grace,
    That who advance his glory, not their own,
    Them he himself to glory will advance."—Milton.

    "No quick reply to dubious questions make;
    Suspense and caution still prevent mistake."—Denham.

LESSON VI.—FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

FIGURE I.—SIMILE.

"Human greatness is short and transitory, as the odour of incense in the fire."—Dr. Johnson. "Terrestrial happiness is of short continuance: the brightness of the flame is wasting its fuel, the fragrant flower is passing away in its own odours."—Id. "Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains; and thy smile, as the dawn of the vernal day."—Id.

   "Plants rais'd with tenderness are seldom strong;
    Man's coltish disposition asks the thong;
    And, without discipline, the fav'rite child,
    Like a neglected forester, runs wild."—Cowper.

    "As turns a flock of geese, and, on the green,
    Poke out their foolish necks in awkward spleen,
    (Ridiculous in rage!) to hiss, not bite,
    So war their quills, when sons of dullness write."—Young.

    "Who can unpitying see the flowery race,
    Shed by the morn, their new-flush'd bloom resign,
    Before th' unbating beam? So fade the fair,
    When fevers revel through their azure veins."—Thomson.

FIGURE II.—METAPHOR.

"Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant gale."—Ossian. "Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the bosom of winds. The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling head."—Id. "Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he acquired the power; as the hand of time scattered snow upon his head, the freeziny influence [sic—KTH] extended to his bosom."—Hawkesworth. "The sun grew weary of gilding the palaces of Morad; the clouds of sorrow gathered round his head; and the tempest of hatred roared about his dwelling."—Dr. Johnson.

LESSON VII.—FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

FIGURE III.—ALLEGORY.

"But what think ye? A certain man had two sons; and he came to the first, and said, 'Son, go work to-day in my vineyard.' He answered and said, 'I will not;' but afterward he repented, and went. And he came to the second, and said likewise. And he answered and said, 'I go, sir;' and went not. Whether of them twain did the will of his father? They say unto him, 'The first.'"—Matt., xxi, 28-31.

FIGURE IV.—METONYMY.

"Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death."—Hervey. "'Be all the dead forgot,' said Foldath's bursting wrath. 'Did not I fail in the field?'"—Ossian.

"Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke."—Gray.

    "Firm in his love, resistless in his hate,
    His arm is conquest, and his frown is fate."—Day.

    "At length the world, renew'd by calm repose,
    Was strong for toil; the dappled morn arose."—Parnell.

    "What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme,
    The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam!
    Of hearing, from the life that fills the flood,
    To that which warbles through the vernal wood!"—Pope.

FIGURE V.—SYNECDOCHE.

"'Twas then his threshold first receiv'd a guest."—Parnell.

    "For yet by swains alone the world he knew,
    Whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew."—Id.

    "Flush'd by the spirit of the genial year,
    Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom
    Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round."—Thomson.

LESSON VIII.—FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

FIGURE VI.—HYPERBOLE.

"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill."—Ossian.

   "At which the universal host up sent
    A shout, that tore Hell's concave, and beyond
    Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night."—Milton.

    "Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood
    Clean from my hand? No; this my hand will rather
    The multitudinous seas incarnadine,
    Making the green one red!"—Shakspeare.

FIGURE VII.—VISION.

"How mighty is their defence who reverently trust in the arm of God! How powerfully do they contend who fight with lawful weapons! Hark! 'Tis the voice of eloquence, pouring forth the living energies of the soul; pleading, with generous indignation and holy emotion, the cause of injured humanity against lawless might, and reading the awful destiny that awaits the oppressor!—I see the stern countenance of despotism overawed! I see the eye fallen, that kindled the elements of war! I see the brow relaxed, that scowled defiance at hostile thousands! I see the knees tremble, that trod with firmness the embattled field! Fear has entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into violence! The tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to the weakness of humanity!—Behold! and tell me, is that power contemptible which can thus find access to the sternest hearts?"—Author.

FIGURE VIII.—APOSTROPHE.

   "Yet still they breathe destruction, still go on,
    Inhumanly ingenious to find out
    New pains for life, new terrors for the grave;
    Artificers of death! Still monarchs dream
    Of universal empire growing up
    From universal ruin. Blast the design,
    Great God of Hosts! nor let thy creatures fall
    Unpitied victims at Ambition's shrine."—Porteus.

LESSON IX.—FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

FIGURE IX.—PERSONIFICATION.

   "Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd!
    Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain'd!
    Without you, what were man? A grov'ling herd,
    In darkness, wretchedness, and want, enchain'd."—Beattie.

    "Let cheerful Mem'ry, from her purest cells,
    Lead forth a godly train of Virtues fair,
    Cherish'd in early youth, now paying back
    With tenfold usury the pious care."—Porteus.

FIGURE X.—EROTESIS.

"He that chastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct? He that teacheth man knowledge, shall not he know?"—Psalms, xciv, 10. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil."—Jeremiah, xiii, 23.

FIGURE XI.—ECPHONESIS. "O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people! O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men, that I might leave my people, and go from them!"—Jeremiah, ix, 1.

FIGURE XII.—ANTITHESIS.

"On this side, modesty is engaged; on that, impudence: on this, chastity; on that, lewdness: on this, integrity; on that, fraud: on this, piety; on that, profaneness: on this, constancy; on that, fickleness: on this, honour; on that, baseness: on this, moderation; on that, unbridled passion."—Cicero.

   "She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies,
    Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise;
    Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes;
    Fear made her devils, and weak hope her gods."—Pope.

LESSON X.—FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

FIGURE XIII.—CLIMAX.

"Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened conscience; and when they are approved, they are commended to practice; and when they are practised, they become easy; and when they become easy, they afford pleasure; and when they afford pleasure, they are done frequently; and when they are done frequently, they are confirmed by habit: and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature."—Inst., p. 246.

   "Weep all of every name: begin the wo,
    Ye woods, and tell it to the doleful winds;
    And doleful winds, wail to the howling hills;
    And howling hills, mourn to the dismal vales;
    And dismal vales, sigh to the sorrowing brooks;
    And sorrwing brooks, weep to the weeping stream;
    And weeping stream, awake the groaning deep;
    And let the instrument take up the song,
    Responsive to the voice—harmonious wo!"—Pollok, B. vi, l. 115.

FIGURE XIV.—IRONY.

"And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, 'Cry aloud; for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in [on] a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked!' "—1 Kings, xviii, 27.

"After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years; and ye shall know my breach of promise."—Numbers, xiv, 34.

   "Some lead a life unblamable and just,
    Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust;
    They never sin—or if (as all offend)
    Some trivial slips their daily walk attend,
    The poor are near at hand, the charge is small,
    A slight gratuity atones for all."—Cowper.

FIGURE XV.—APOPHASIS, OR PARALIPSIS.

I say nothing of the notorious profligacy of his character; nothing of the reckless extravagance with which he has wasted an ample fortune; nothing of the disgusting intemperance which has sometimes caused him to reel in our streets;—but I aver that he has not been faithful to our interests,—has not exhibited either probity or ability in the important office which he holds.

FIGURE XVI.—ONOMATOPOEIA.

[Fist][The following lines, from Swift's Poems, satirically mimick the imitative music of a violin.]

   "Now slowly move your fiddle-stick;
    Now, tantan, tantantivi, quick;
    Now trembling, shivering, quivering, quaking,
    Set hoping hearts of Lovers aching."

    "Now sweep, sweep the deep.
    See Celia, Celia dies,
    While true Lovers' eyes
    Weeping sleep, Sleeping weep,
    Weeping sleep, Bo-peep, bo-peep."

CHAPTER IV.—VERSIFICATION.

Versification is the forming of that species of literary composition which is called verse; that is, poetry, or poetic numbers.

SECTION I.—OF VERSE.

Verse, in opposition to prose, is language arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm—language so ordered as to produce harmony, by a due succession of poetic feet, or of syllables differing in quantity or stress.

DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES.

The rhythm of verse is its relation of quantities; the modulation of its numbers; or, the kind of metre, measure, or movement, of which it consists, or by which it is particularly distinguished.

The quantity of a syllable, as commonly explained, is the relative portion of time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable is considered to be either long or short. A long syllable is usually reckoned to be equal to two short ones.

In the construction of English verse, long quantity coincides always with the primary accent, generally also with the secondary, as well as with emphasis; and short quantity, as reckoned by the poets, is found only in unaccented syllables, and unemphatical monosyllabic words.[483]

The quantity of a syllable, whether long or short, does not depend on what is called the long or the short sound of a vowel or diphthong, or on a supposed distinction of accent as affecting vowels in some cases and consonants in others, but principally on the degree of energy or loudness with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of time is employed.

The open vowel sounds, which are commonly but not very accurately termed long, are those which are the most easily protracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables; while, on the other hand, no vowel sound, that occurs under the usual stress of accent or of emphasis, is either so short in its own nature, or is so "quickly joined to the succeeding letter," that the syllable is not one of long quantity.

Most monosyllables, in English, are variable in quantity, and may be made either long or short, as strong or weak sounds suit the sense and rhythm; but words of greater length are, for the most part, fixed, their accented syllables being always long, and a syllable immediately before or after the accent almost always short.

One of the most obvious distinctions in poetry, is that of rhyme and blank verse. Rhyme is a similarity of sound, combined with a difference: occurring usually between the last syllables of different lines, but sometimes at other intervals; and so ordered that the rhyming syllables begin differently and end alike. Blank verse is verse without rhyme.

The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. Double rhyme adds one short syllable; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are redundant in iambic and anapestic verses; in lines of any other sort, they are generally, if not always, included in the measure.

A Stanza is a combination of several verses, or lines, which, taken together, make a regular division of a poem. It is the common practice of good versifiers, to form all stanzas of the same poem after one model. The possible variety of stanzas is infinite; and the actual variety met with in print is far too great for detail.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Verse, in the broadest acceptation of the term, is poetry, or metrical language, in general. This, to the eye, is usually distinguished from prose by the manner in which it is written and printed. For, in very many instances, if this were not the case, the reader would be puzzled to discern the difference. The division of poetry into its peculiar lines, is therefore not a mere accident. The word verse, from the Latin versus, literally signifies a turning. Each full line of metre is accordingly called a verse; because, when its measure is complete, the writer turns to place another under it. A verse, then, in the primary sense of the word with us, is, "A line consisting of a certain succession of sounds, and number of syllables."—Johnson, Walker, Todd, Bottes, and others. Or, according to Webster, it is, "A poetic line, consisting of a certain number of long and short syllables, disposed according to the rules of the species of poetry which the author intends to compose."—See American Dict., 8vo.

OBS. 2.—If to settle the theory of English verse on true and consistent principles, is as difficult a matter, as the manifold contrarieties of doctrine among our prosodists would indicate, there can be no great hope of any scheme entirely satisfactory to the intelligent examiner. The very elements of the subject are much perplexed by the incompatible dogmas of authors deemed skillful to elucidate it. It will scarcely be thought a hard matter to distinguish true verse from prose, yet is it not well agreed, wherein the difference consists: what the generality regard as the most essential elements or characteristics of the former, some respectable authors dismiss entirely from their definitions of both verse and versification. The existence of quantity in our language; the dependence of our rhythms on the division of syllables into long and short; the concurrence of our accent, (except in some rare and questionable instances,) with long quantity only; the constant effect of emphasis to lengthen quantity; the limitation of quantity to mere duration of sound; the doctrine that quantity pertains to all syllables as such, and not merely to vowel sounds; the recognition of the same general principles of syllabication in poetry as in prose; the supposition that accent pertains not to certain letters in particular, but to certain syllables as such; the limitation of accent to stress, or percussion, only; the conversion of short syllables into long, and long into short, by a change of accent; our frequent formation of long syllables with what are called short vowels; our more frequent formation of short syllables with what are called long or open vowels; the necessity of some order in the succession of feet or syllables to form a rhythm; the need of framing each line to correspond with some other line or lines in length; the propriety of always making each line susceptible of scansion by itself: all these points, so essential to a true explanation of the nature of English verse, though, for the most part, well maintained by some prosodists, are nevertheless denied by some, so that opposite opinions may be cited concerning them all. I would not suggest that all or any of these points are thereby made doubtful; for there may be opposite judgements in a dozen cases, and yet concurrence enough (if concurrence can do it) to establish them every one.

OBS. 3.—An ingenious poet and prosodist now living,[484] Edgar Allan Poe, (to whom I owe a word or two of reply,) in his "Notes upon English Verse," with great self-complacency, represents, that, "While much has been written upon the structure of the Greek and Latin rhythms, comparatively nothing has been done as regards the English;" that, "It may be said, indeed, we are without a treatise upon our own versification;" that "The very best" definition of versification[485] to be found in any of "our ordinary treatises on the topic," has "not a single point which does not involve an error;" that, "A leading deft in each of these treatises is the confining of the subject to mere versification, while metre, or rhythm, in general, is the real question at issue;" that, "Versification is not the art, but the act'—of making verses;" that, "A correspondence in the length of lines is by no means essential;" that "Harmony" produced "by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity," does not include "melody;" that "A regular alternation, as described, forms no part of the principle of metre:" that "There is no necessity of any regularity in the succession of feet;" that, "By consequence," he ventures to "dispute the essentiality of any alternation, regular or irregular, of syllables long and short:" that, "For anything more intelligible or more satisfactory than this definition [i. e., G. Brown's former definition of versification,] we shall look in vain in any published treatise upon the subject;" that, "So general and so total a failure can be referred only to some radical misconception;" that, "The word verse is derived (through versus from the Latin verto, I turn,) and * * * * it can be nothing but this derivation, which has led to the error of our writers upon prosody;" that, "It is this which has seduced them into regarding the line itself—the versus, or turning—as an essential, or principle of metre;" that, "Hence the term versification has been employed as sufficiently general, or inclusive, for treatises upon rhythm in general;" that, "Hence, also, [comes] the precise catalogue of a few varieties of English lines, when these varieties are, in fact, almost without limit;" that, "I," the aforesaid Edgar Allan Poe, "shall dismiss entirely, from the consideration of the principle of rhythm, the idea of versification, or the construction of verse;" that, "In so doing, we shall avoid a world of confusion;" that, "Verse is, indeed, an afterthought, or an embellishment, or an improvement, rather than an element of rhythm;" that, "This fact has induced the easy admission, into the realms of Poesy, of such works as the 'Télémaque' of Fenelon;" because, forsooth, "In the elaborate modulation of their sentences, THEY FULFIL THE IDEA OF METRE."—The Pioneer, a Literary and Critical Magazine (Boston, March, 1843,) Vol. I, p. 102 to 105.

OBS. 4.—"Holding these things in view," continues this sharp connoisseur, "the prosodist who rightly examines that which constitutes the external, or most immediately recognisable, form of Poetry, will commence with the definition of Rhythm. Now rhythm, from the Greek [Greek: arithmos], number, is a term which, in its present application, very nearly conveys its own idea. No more proper word could be employed to present the conception intended; for rhythm, in prosody, is, in its last analysis, identical with time in music. For this reason," says he, "I have used, throughout this article, as synonymous with rhythm, the word metre from [Greek: metron], measure. Either the one or the other may be defined as the arrangement of words into two or more consecutive, equal, pulsations of time. These pulsations are feet. Two feet, at least, are requisite to constitute a rhythm; just as, in mathematics, two units are necessary to form [a] number.[486] The syllables of which the foot consists, when the foot is not a syllable in itself, are subdivisions of the pulsations. No equality is demanded in these subdivisions. It is only required that, so far as regards two consecutive feet at least, the sum of the times of the syllables in one, shall be equal to the sum of the times of the syllables in the other. Beyond two pulsations there is no necessity for equality of time. All beyond is arbitrary or conventional. A third or fourth pulsation may embody half, or double, or any proportion of the time occupied in the two first. Rhythm being thus understood, the prosodist should proceed to define versification as the making of verses, and verse as the arbitrary or conventional isolation of rhythm into masses of greater or less extent."—Ib., p. 105.

OBS. 5.—No marvel that all usual conceptions and definitions of rhythm, of versification, and of verse, should be found dissatisfactory to the critic whose idea of metre is fulfilled by the pompous prose of Fenelon's Télémaque. No right or real examination of this matter can ever make the most immediately recognizable form of poetry to be any thing else than the form of verse—the form of writing in specific lines, ordered by number and chime of syllables, and not squared by gage of the composing-stick. And as to the derivation and primitive signification of rhythm, it is plain that in the extract above, both are misrepresented. The etymology there given is a gross error; for, "the Greek [Greek: arithmos], number," would make, in English, not rhythm, but arithm, as in arithmetic. Between the two combinations, there is the palpable difference of three or four letters in either six; for neither of these forms can be varied to the other, but by dropping one letter, and adding an other, and changing a third, and moving a fourth. Rhythm is derived, not thence, but from the Greek [Greek: rhythmos]; which, according to the lexicons, is a primitive word, and means, rhythmus, rhythm, concinnity, modulation, measured tune, or regular flow, and not "number."

OBS. 6.—Rhythm, of course, like every other word not misapplied, "conveys its own idea;" and that, not qualifiedly, or "very nearly," but exactly. That this idea, however, was originally that of arithmetical number, or is nearly so now, is about as fanciful a notion, as the happy suggestion added above, that rhythm in lieu of arithm or number, is the fittest of words, because "rhythm in prosody is time in music!" Without dispute, it is important to the prosodist, and also to the poet or versifier, to have as accurate an idea as possible of the import of this common term, though it is observable that many of our grammarians make little or no use of it. That it has some relation to numbers, is undeniable. But what is it? Poetic numbers, and numbers in arithmetic, and numbers in grammar, are three totally different sorts of things. Rhythm is related only to the first. Of the signification of this word, a recent expositor gives the following brief explanation: "RHYTHM, n. Metre; verse; numbers. Proportion applied to any motion whatever."—Bolles's Dictionary, 8vo. To this definition, Worcester prefixes the following: "The consonance of measure and time in poetry, prose composition, and music;—also in dancing."—Universal and Critical Dict. In verse, the proportion which forms rhythm—that is, the chime of quantities—is applied to the sounds of syllables. Sounds, however, may be considered as a species of motion, especially those which are rhythmical or musical.[487] It seems more strictly correct, to regard rhythm as a property of poetic numbers, than to identify it with them. It is their proportion or modulation, rather than the numbers themselves. According to Dr. Webster, "RHYTHM, or RHYTHMUS, in music [is] variety in the movement as to quickness or slowness, or length and shortness of the notes; or rather the proportion which the parts of the motion have to each other."—American Dict. The "last analysis" of rhythm can be nothing else than the reduction of it to its least parts. And if, in this reduction, it is "identical with time," then it is here the same thing as quantity, whether prosodical or musical; for, "The time of a note, or syllable, is called quantity. The time of a rest is also called quantity; because rests, as well as notes are a constituent of rhythm."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 64. But rhythm is, in fact, neither time nor quantity; for the analysis which would make it such, destroys the relation in which the thing consists.

SECTION II.—OF ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

Accent and Quantity have already been briefly explained in the second chapter of Prosody, as items coming under the head of Pronunciation. What we have to say of them here, will be thrown into the form of critical observations; in the progress of which, many quotations from other writers on these subjects, will be presented, showing what has been most popularly taught.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Accent and quantity are distinct things;[488] the former being the stress, force, loudness, or percussion of voice, that distinguishes certain syllables from others; and the latter, the time, distinguished as long or short, in which a syllable is uttered. But, as the great sounds which we utter, naturally take more time than the small ones, there is a necessary connexion between quantity and accent in English,—a connexion which is sometimes expounded as being the mere relation of cause and effect; nor is it in fact much different from that. "As no utterance can be agreeable to the ear, which is void of proportion; and as all quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, depends upon a due observation of the accent; it is a matter of absolute necessity to all, who would arrive at a good and graceful delivery, to be master of that point. Nor is the use of accent in our language confined to quantity alone; but it is also the chief mark by which words are distinguished from mere syllables. Or rather I may say, it is the very essence of words, which without that, would be only so many collections of syllables."—Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, p. 61. "As no utterance which is void of proportion, can be agreeable to the ear; and as quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, greatly depends on a due attention to the accent; it is absolutely necessary for every person, who would attain a just and pleasing delivery, to be master of that point."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 241; 12mo, 194.

OBS. 2.—In the first observation on Prosody, at page 770, and in its marginal notes, was reference made to the fact, that the nature and principles of accent and quantity are involved in difficulty, by reason of the different views of authors concerning them. To this source of embarrassment, it seems necessary here again to advert; because it is upon the distinction of syllables in respect to quantity, or accent, or both, that every system of versification, except his who merely counts, is based. And further, it is not only requisite that the principle of distinction which we adopt should be clearly made known, but also proper to consider which of these three modes is the best or most popular foundation for a theory of versification. Whether or wherein the accent and quantity of the ancient languages, Latin and Greek, differed from those of our present English, we need not now inquire. From the definitions which the learned lexicographers Littleton and Ainsworth give to prosodia, prosody, it would seem that, with them, "the art of accenting" was nothing else than the art of giving to syllables their right quantity, "whether long or short." And some have charged it as a glaring error, long prevalent among English grammarians, and still a fruitful source of disputes, to confound accent with quantity in our language.[489] This charge, however, there is reason to believe, is sometimes, if not in most cases, made on grounds rather fanciful than real; for some have evidently mistaken the notion of concurrence or coincidence for that of identity. But, to affirm that the stress which we call accent, coincides always and only with long quantity, does not necessarily make accent and quantity to be one and the same thing. The greater force or loudness which causes the accented syllable to occupy more time than any other, is in itself something different from time. Besides, quantity is divisible,—being either long or short: these two species of it are acknowledged on all sides, and some few prosodists will have a third, which they call "common." [490] But, of our English accent, the word being taken in its usual acceptation, no such division is ever, with any propriety, made; for even the stress which we call secondary accent, pertains to long syllables rather than to short ones; and the mere absence of stress, which produces short quantity, we do not call accent.[491]

OBS. 3.—The impropriety of affirming quantity to be the same as accent, when its most frequent species occurs only in the absence of accent, must be obvious to every body; and those writers who anywhere suggest this identity, must either have written absurdly, or have taken accent in some sense which includes the sounds of our unaccented syllables. The word sometimes means, "The modulation of the voice in speaking."—Worcester's Dict., w. Accent. In this sense, the lighter as well as the more impressive sounds are included; but still, whether both together, considered as accents, can be reckoned the same as long and short quantities, is questionable. Some say, they cannot; and insist that they are yet as different, as the variable tones of a trumpet, which swell and fall, are different from the merely loud and soft notes of the monotonous drum. This illustration of the "easy Distinction betwixt Quantity and Accent" is cited with commendation, in Brightland's Grammar, on page 157th;[492] the author of which grammar, seems to have understood Accent, or Accents, to be the same as Inflections—though these are still unlike to quantities, if he did so. (See an explanation of Inflections in Chap. II, Sec. iii, Art. 3, above.) His exposition is this: "Accent is the rising and falling of the Voice, above or under its usual Tone. There are three Sorts of Accents, an Acute, a Grave, and an Inflex, which is also call'd a Circumflex. The Acute, or Sharp, naturally raises the Voice; and the Grave, or Base, as naturally falls it. The Circumflex is a kind of Undulation, or Waving of the Voice."—Brightland's Gram., Seventh Ed., Lond., 1746, p. 156.

OBS. 4.—Dr. Johnson, whose great authority could not fail to carry some others with him, too evidently identifies accent with quantity, at the commencement of his Prosody. "PRONUNCIATION is just," says he, "when every letter has its proper sound, and when every syllable has its proper accent, or which in English versification is the same, its proper quantity."— Johnson's Gram., before Dict., 4to, p. 13; John Burn's Gram., p. 240; Jones's Prosodial Gram., before Dict., p. 10. Now our most common notion of accent—the sole notion with many—and that which the accentuation of Johnson himself everywhere inculcates—is, that it belongs not to "every syllable," but only to some particular syllables, being either "a stress of voice on a certain syllable," or a small mark to denote such stress.—See Scott's Dict., or Worcester's. But Dr. Johnson, in the passage above, must have understood the word accent agreeably to his own imperfect definition of it; to wit, as "the sound given to the syllable pronounced."—Joh. Dict. An unaccented syllable must have been to him a syllable unpronounced. In short he does not appear to have recognized any syllables as being unaccented. The word unaccented had no place in his lexicography, nor could have any without inconsistencey. [sic—KTH] It was unaptly added to his text, after sixty years, by one of his amenders, Todd or Chalmers; who still blindly neglected to amend his definition of accent. In these particulars, Walker's dictionaries exhibit the same deficiencies as Johnson's; and yet no author has more frequently used the words accent and unaccented, than did Walker.[493] Mason's Supplement, first published in 1801, must have suggested to the revisers of Johnson the addition of the latter term, as appears by the authority cited for it: "UNA'CCENTED, adj. Not accented. 'It being enough to make a syllable long, if it be accented, and short, if it be unaccented.' Harris's Philological Inquiries."—Mason's Sup.

OBS. 5—This doctrine of Harris's, that long quantity accompanies the accent, and unaccented syllables are short, is far from confounding or identifying accent with quantity, as has already been shown; and, though it plainly contradicts some of the elementary teaching of Johnson, Sheridan, Walker, Murray, Webster, Latham, Fowler, and others, in regard to the length or shortness of certain syllables, it has been clearly maintained by many excellent authors, so that no opposite theory is better supported by authority. On this point, our language stands not alone; for the accent controls quantity in some others.[494] G H. Noehden, a writer of uncommon ability, in his German Grammar for Englishmen, defines accent to be, as we see it is in English, "that stress which marks a particular syllable in speaking;" and recognizing, as we do, both a full accent and a partial one, or "demi-accent," presents the syllables of his language as being of three conditions: the "accented," which "cannot be used otherwise than as long;" the "half-accented" which "must be regarded as ambiguous, or common;" and the "accentless," which "are in their nature short."—See Noehden's Gram., p. 87. His middle class, however, our prosodists in general very properly dispense with. In Fiske's History of Greek Literature, which is among the additions to the Manual of Classical Literature from the German of Eschenburg, are the following passages: "The tone [i.e. accent] in Greek is placed upon short syllables as well as long; in German, it accompanies regularly only long syllables."—"In giving an accent to a syllable in an English word we thereby render it a long syllable, whatever may be the sound given to its vowel, and in whatever way the syllable may be composed; so that as above stated in relation to the German, an English accent, or stress in pronunciation, accompanies only a long syllable."—Manual of Class. Lit., p. 437. With these extracts, accords the doctrine of some of the ablest of our English grammarians. "In the English Pronunciation," says William Ward, "there is a certain Stress of the Voice laid on some one syllable at least, of every Word of two or more Syllables; and that Syllable on which the Stress is laid may be considered long. Our Grammarians have agreed to consider this Stress of the Voice as the Accent in English; and therefore the Accent and long Quantity coincide in our Language."—Ward's Practical Gram., p. 155. As to the vowel sounds, with the quantity of which many prosodists have greatly puzzled both themselves and their readers, this writer says, "they may be made as long, or as short, as the Speaker pleases."—Ib., p. 4.

OBS. 6.—From the absurd and contradictory nature of many of the principles usually laid down by our grammarians, for the discrimination of long quantity and short, it is quite apparent, that but very few of them have well understood either the distinction itself or their own rules concerning it. Take Fisher for an example. In Fisher's Practical Grammar, first published in London in 1753,—a work not unsuccessful, since Wells quotes the "28th edition" as appearing in 1795, and this was not the last—we find, in the first place, the vowel sounds distinguished as long or short thus: "Q. How many Sounds has a Vowel? A. Two in general, viz. 1. A LONG SOUND, When the Syllable ends with a Vowel, either in Monosyllables, or in Words of more Syllables; as, t=ake, w=e, =I, g=o, n=il; or, as, N=ature, N=ero, N=itre, N=ovice, N=uisance. 2. A SHORT SOUND, When the Syllable ends with a Consonant, either in Monosyllables, or others; as H~at, h~er, b~it, r~ob, T~un; or, as B~arber, b~itten, B~utton."—See p. 5. To this rule, the author makes needless exceptions of all such words as balance and banish, wherein a single consonant between two vowels goes to the former; because, like Johnson, Murray, and most of our old grammarians, he divides on the vowel; falsely calls the accented syllable short; and imagines the consonant to be heard twice, or to have "a double Accent." On page 35th, he tells us that, "Long and short Vowels, and long and short Syllables, are synonimous [—synonymous, from [Greek: synonymos]—] Terms;" and so indeed have they been most erroneously considered by sundry subsequent writers; and the consequence is, that all who judge by their criteria, mistake the poetic quantity, or prosodical value, of perhaps one half the syllables in the language. Let each syllable be reckoned long that "ends with a Vowel," and each short that "ends with a Consonant," and the decision will probably be oftener wrong than right; for more syllables end with consonants than with vowels, and of the latter class a majority are without stress and therefore short. Thus the foregoing principle, contrary to the universal practice of the poets, determines many accented syllables to be "short;" as the first in "barber, bitten, button, balance, banish;—" and many unaccented ones to be "long;" as the last in sofa, specie, noble, metre, sorrow, daisy, valley, nature, native; or the first in around, before, delay, divide, remove, seclude, obey, cocoon, presume, propose, and other words innumerable.

OBS. 7.—Fisher's conceptions of accent and quantity, as constituting prosody, were much truer to the original and etymological sense of the words, than to any just or useful view of English versification: in short, this latter subject was not even mentioned by him; for prosody, in his scheme, was nothing but the right pronunciation of words, or what we now call orthoëpy. This part of his Grammar commences with the following questions and answers:

"Q. What is the Meaning of the Word PROSODY? A. It is a Word borrowed from the Greek; which, in Latin, is rendered Accentus, and in English Accent. "Q. What do you mean by Accent? A. Accent originally signified a Modulation of the Voice, or chanting to a musical Instrument; but is now generally used to signify Due Pronunciatian, i.e. the pronouncing [of] a syllable according to its Quantity, (whether it be long or short,) with a stronger Force or Stress of Voice than the other Syllables in the same Word; as, a in able, o in above, &c. "Q. What is Quantity? A. Quantity is the different Measure of Time in pronouncing Syllables, from whence they are called long or short. "Q. What is the Proportion between a long and a short Syllable? A. Two to one; that is, a long Syllable is twice as long in pronouncing as a short one; as, Hate, Hat. This mark (=) set over a Syllable, shows that it is long, and this (~) that it is short; as, r=ecord, r~ecord. "Q. How do you know long and short Syllables? A. A Syllable is long or short according to the Situation of the Vowel, i.e. it is generally long when it ends with a Vowel, and short when with a Consonant; as, F=a- in Favour, and M~an- in Manner."—Fisher's Practical Gram., p. 34.

Now one grand mistake of this is, that it supposes syllabication to fix the quantity, and quantity to determine the accent; whereas it is plain, that accent controls quantity, so far at least that, in the construction of verse, a syllable fully accented cannot be reckoned short. And this mistake is practical; for we see, that, in three of his examples, out of the four above, the author himself misstates the quantity, because he disregards the accent: the verb re-cord', being accented on the second syllable, is an iambus; and the nouns rec'-ord and man'-ner, being accented on the first, are trochees; and just as plainly so, as is the word f=av~our. But a still greater blunder here observable is, that, as a "due pronunciation" necessarily includes the utterance of every syllable, the explanation above stolidly supposes all our syllables to be accented, each "according to its Quantity, (whether it be long or short,)" and each "with a stronger Force or Stress of Voice, than the other Syllables!" Absurdity akin to this, and still more worthy to be criticised, has since been propagated by Sheridan, by Walker, and by Lindley Murray, with a host of followers, as Alger, D. Blair, Comly, Cooper, Cutler, Davenport, Felton, Fowler, Frost, Guy, Jaudon, Parker and Fox, Picket, Pond, Putnam, Russell, Smith, and others.

OBS. 8.—Sheridan was an able and practical teacher of English pronunciation, and one who appears to have gained reputation by all he undertook, whether as an actor, as an elocutionist, or as a lexicographer. His publications that refer to that subject, though now mostly superseded by others of later date, are still worthy to be consulted. The chief of them are, his Lectures on Elocution, his Lectures on the Art of Reading, his Rhetorical Grammar, his Elements of English, and his English Dictionary. His third lecture on Elocution, and many pages of the Rhetorical Grammar, are devoted to accent and quantity—subjects which he conceived to have been greatly misrepresented by other writers up to his time.[495] To this author, as it would seem, we owe the invention of that absurd doctrine, since copied into a great multitude of our English grammars, that the accent on a syllable of two or more letters, belongs, not to the whole of it, but only to some ONE LETTER; and that according to the character of this letter, as vowel or consonant, the same stress serves to lengthen or shorten the syllable's quantity! Of this matter, he speaks thus: "The great distinction of our accent depends upon its seat; which may be either upon a vowel or a consonant. Upon a vowel, as in the words, glóry, fáther, hóly. Upon a consonant, as in the words, hab'it, bor'row, bat'tle. When the accent is on the vowel, the syllable is long; because the accent is made by dwelling upon the vowel. When it is on the consonant, the syllable is short;[496] because the accent is made by passing rapidly over the vowel, and giving a smart stroke of the voice to the following consonant. Obvious as this point is, it has wholly escaped the observation of all our grammarians and compilers of dictionaries; who, instead of examining the peculiar genius of our tongue, implicitly and pedantically have followed the Greek method of always placing the accentual mark over a vowel."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 51. The author's reprehension of the old mode of accentuation, is not without reason; but his "great distinction" of short and long syllables is only fit to puzzle or mislead the reader. For it is plain, that the first syllables of hab'it, bor'row, and bat'tle, are twice as long as the last; and, in poetry, these words are trochees, as well as the other three, glo'ry, fa'ther, and ho'ly.

OBS. 9.—The only important distinction in our accent, is that of the primary and the secondary, the latter species occurring when it is necessary to enforce more syllables of a word than one; but Sheridan, as we see above, after rejecting all the old distinctions of rising and falling, raising and depressing, acute and grave, sharp and base, long and short, contrived a new one still more vain, which he founded on that of vowels and consonants, but "referred to time, or quantity." He recognized, in fact, a vowel accent and a consonant accent; or, in reference to quantity, a lengthening accent and a shortening accent. The discrimination of these was with him "THE GREAT DISTINCTION of our accent." He has accordingly mentioned it in several different places of his works, and not always with that regard to consistency which becomes a precise theorist. It led him to new and variant ways of defining accent; some of which seem to imply a division of consonants from their vowels in utterance, or to suggest that syllables are not the least parts of spoken words. And no sooner has he told us that our accent is but one single mode of distinguishing a syllable, than he proceeds to declare it two. Compare the following citations: "As the pronunciation of English words is chiefly regulated by accent, it will be necessary to have a precise idea of that term. Accent with us means no more than a certain stress of the voice upon one letter of a syllable, which distinguishes it from all the other letters in a word."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 39. Again: "Accent, in the English language, means a certain stress of the voice upon a particular letter of a syllable which distinguishes it from the rest, and, at the same time, distinguishes the syllable itself to which it belongs from the others which compose the word."—Same work, p. 50. Again: "But as our accent consists in stress only, it can just as well be placed on a consonant as [on] a vowel."—Same, p. 51. Again: "By the word accent, is meant the stress of the voice on one letter in a syllable."—Sheridan's Elements of English, p. 55. Again: "The term [accent] with us has no reference to inflexions of the voice, or musical notes, but only means a peculiar manner of distinguishing one syllable of a word from the rest, denominated by us accent; and the term for that reason [is] used by us in the singular number.—This distinction is made by us in two ways; either by dwelling longer upon one syllable than the rest; or by giving it a smarter percussion of the voice in utterance. Of the first of these, we have instances in the words, gl=ory, f=ather, h=oly; of the last, in bat'tle, hab'it, bor'row. So that accent, with us, is not referred to tune, but to time; to quantity, not quality; to the more equable or precipitate motion of the voice, not to the variation of notes or inflexions."—Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, p. 56; Flint's Murray's Gram., p. 85.

OBS. 10.—How "precise" was Sheridan's idea of accent, the reader may well judge from the foregoing quotations; in four of which, he describes it as "a certain stress," "the stress," and "stress only," which enforces some "letter;" while, in the other, it is whimsically made to consist in two different modes of pronouncing "syllables"—namely, with equability, and with precipitance—with "dwelling longer," and with "smarter percussion"—which terms the author very improperly supposes to be opposites: saying, "For the two ways of distinguishing syllables by accent, as mentioned before, are directly opposite, and produce quite contrary effects; the one, by dwelling on the syllable, necessarily makes it long; the other, by the smart percussion—of the voice, as necessarily makes it short"—Ib., p. 57. Now it is all a mistake, however common, to suppose that our accent, consisting as it does, in stress, enforcement, or "percussion of voice," can ever shorten the syllable on which it is laid; because what increases the quantum of a vocal sound, cannot diminish its length; and a syllable accented will always be found longer as well as louder, than any unaccented one immediately before or after it. Though weak sounds may possibly be protracted, and shorter ones be exploded loudly, it is not the custom of our speech, so to deal with the sounds of syllables.

OBS. 11.—Sheridan admitted that some syllables are naturally and necessarily short, but denied that any are naturally and necessarily long. In this, since syllabic length and shortness are relative to each other, and to the cause of each, he was, perhaps, hardly consistent. He might have done better, to have denied both, or neither. Bating his new division of accent to subject it sometimes to short quantity, he recognized very fully the dependence of quantity, long or short, whether in syllables or only in vowels, upon the presence or absence of accent or emphasis. In this he differed considerably from most of the grammarians of his day; and many since have continued to uphold other views. He says, "It is an infallible rule in our tongue that no vowel ever has a long sound in an unaccented syllable."—Lectures on Elocution, p. 60. Again: "In treating of the simple elements or letters, I have shown that some, both vowels and consonants, are naturally short; that is, whose sounds cannot possibly be prolonged; and these are the [short or shut] sounds of ~e, ~i, and ~u, of vocal sounds; and three pure mutes, k, p, t, of the consonant; as in the words beck, lip, cut. I have shown also, that the sounds of all the other vowels, and of the consonant semivowels, may be prolonged to what degree we please; but at the same time it is to be observed, that all these may also be reduced to a short quantity, and are capable of being uttered in as short a space of time as those which are naturally short. So that they who speak of syllables as absolutely in their own nature long, the common cant of prosodians, speak of a nonentity: for though, as I have shown above, there are syllables absolutely short, which cannot possibly be prolonged by any effort of the speaker, yet it is in his power to shorten or prolong the others to what degree he pleases."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 52. And again: "I have already mentioned that when the accent is on the vowel, it of course makes the syllable long; and when the accent is on the consonant, the syllable may be either long or short, according to the nature of the consonant, or will of the speakers. And as all unaccented syllables are short, the quantity of our syllables is adjusted by the easiest and simplest rule in the world, and in the exactest proportion."—Lect. on Elocution, p. 66.

OBS. 12.—This praise of our rule for the adjustment of quantity, would have been much more appropriate, had not the rule itself been greatly mistaken, perplexed, and misrepresented by the author. If it appear, on inspection, that "beck, lip, cut," and the like syllables, are twice as long when under the accent, as they are when not accented, so that, with a short syllable annexed or a long one prefixed, they may form trochees; then is it not true, that such syllables are either always necessarily and inherently short, or always, "by the smart percussion of the voice, as necessarily made short;" both of which inconsistent ideas are above affirmed of them. They may not be so long as some other long syllables; but, if they are twice as long as the accompanying short ones, they are not short. And, if not short, then that remarkable distinction in accent, which assumes that they are so, is as needless as it is absurd and perplexing. Now let the words, beck'on, lip'ping, cut'ter, be properly pronounced, and their syllables be compared with each other, or with those of lim'beck, fil'lip, Dr=a'cut; and it cannot but be perceived, that beck, lip, and cut, like other syllables in general, are lengthened by the accent, and shortened only in its absence; so that all these words are manifestly trochees, as all similar words are found to be, in our versification. To suppose "as many words as we hear accents," or that "it is the laying of an accent on one syllable, which constitutes a word," and then say, that "no unaccented syllable or vowel is ever to be accounted long," as this enthusiastic author does in fact, is to make strange scansion of a very large portion of the trissyllables and polysyllables which occur in verse. An other great error in Sheridan's doctrine of quantity, is his notion that all monosyllables, except a few small particles, are accented; and that their quantity is determined to be long or short by the seat or the mode of the accent, as before stated. Now, as our poetry abounds with monosyllables, the relative time of which is adjusted by emphasis and cadence, according to the nature and importance of the terms, and according to the requirements of rhythm, with no reference to this factitious principle, no conformity thereto but what is accidental, it cannot but be a puzzling exercise, when these difficulties come to be summed up, to attempt the application of a doctrine so vainly conceived to be "the easiest and simplest rule in the world!"

OBS. 13.—Lindley Murray's principles of accent and quantity, which later grammarians have so extensively copied, were mostly extracted from Sheridan's; and, as the compiler appears to have been aware of but few, if any, of his predecessor's errors, he has adopted and greatly spread well-nigh all that have just been pointed out; while, in regard to some points, he has considerably increased the number. His scheme, as he at last fixed it, appears to consist essentially of propositions already refuted, or objected to, above; as any reader may see, who will turn to his definition of accent, and his rules for the determination of quantity. In opposition to Sheridan, who not very consistently says, that, "All unaccented syllables are short," this author appears to have adopted the greater error of Fisher, who supposed that the vowel sounds called long and short, are just the same as the long and short syllabic quantities. By this rule, thousands of syllables will be called long, which are in fact short, being always so uttered in both prose and poetry; and, by the other, some will occasionally be called short, which are in fact long, being made so by the poet, under a slight secondary accent, or perhaps none. Again, in supposing our numerous monosyllables to be accented, and their quantity to be thereby fixed, without excepting "the particles, such as a, the, to, in, &c.," which were excepted by Sheridan, Murray has much augmented the multitude of errors which necessarily flow from the original rule. This principle, indeed, he adopted timidly; saying, as though he hardly believed the assertion true: "And some writers assert, that every monosyllable of two or more letters, has one of its letters thus distinguished."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 236; 12mo, 189. But still he adopted it, and adopted it fully, in his section on Quantity; for, of his twelve words, exemplifying syllabic time so regulated, no fewer than nine are monosyllables. It is observable, however, that, in some instances, it is not one letter, but two, that he marks; as in the words, "m=o=od, h=o=use."—Ib., p. 239; 12mo, 192. And again, it should be observed, that generally, wherever he marks accent, he follows the old mode, which Sheridan and Webster so justly condemn; so that, even when he is speaking of "the accent on the consonant," the sign of stress, as that of time, is set over a vowel: as, "Sádly, róbber."—Ib., 8vo, 240; 12mo, 193. So in his Spelling-Book, where words are often falsely divided: as, "Vé nice," for Ven'-ice; "Há no ver," for Han'o-ver; &c.—See p. 101.

OBS. 14.—In consideration of the great authority of this grammarian, now backed by a score or two of copyists and modifiers, it may be expedient to be yet more explicit. Of accent Murray published about as many different definitions, as did Sheridan; which, as they show what notions he had at different times, it may not be amiss for some, who hold him always in the right, to compare. In one, he describes it thus: "Accent signifies that stress of the voice, which is laid on one syllable, to distinguish it from the rest."—Murray's Spelling-Book, p. 138. He should here have said, (as by his examples it would appear that he meant,) "on one syllable of a word;" for, as the phrase now stands, it may include stress on a monosyllable in a sentence; and it is a matter of dispute, whether this can properly be called accent. Walker and Webster say, it is emphasis, and not accent. Again, in an other definition, which was written before he adopted the notion of accent on consonants, of accent on monosyllables, or of accent for quantity in the formation of verse, he used these words: "Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain vowel or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word presúme, the stress of the voice must be on the second syllable, súme, which takes the accent."—Murray's Gram., Second Edition, 12mo, p. 161. In this edition, which was published at York, in 1796, his chief rules of quantity say nothing about accent, but are thus expressed: [1.] "A vowel or syllable is long, when the vowel or vowels contained in it are slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters; as, 'F=all, b=ale, m=o=od, h=o=use, f=eature.' [2.] A syllable is short, when the vowel is quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as, '~art, b~onn~et, h~ung~er.'"—Ib., p. 166. Besides the absurdity of representing "a vowel" as having "vowels contained in it," these rules are made up of great faults. They confound syllabic quantities with vowel sounds. They suppose quantity to be, not the time of a whole syllable, but the quick or slow junction of some of its parts. They apply to no syllable that ends with a vowel sound. The former applies to none that ends with one consonant only; as, "mood" or the first of "feat-ure." In fact, it does not apply to any of the examples given; the final letter in each of the other words being silent. The latter rule is worse yet: it misrepresents the examples; for "bonnet" and "hunger" are trochees, and "art," with any stress on it, is long.

OBS. 15.—In all late editions of L. Murray's Grammar, and many modifications of it, accent is defined thus: "Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice, on a certain letter OR syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word presúme, the stress of the voice must be on the letter u, AND [the] second syllable, sume, which takes the accent."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 235; 12mo, 188; 18mo, 57; Alger's, 72; Bacon's, 52; Comly's, 168; Cooper's, 176; Davenport's, 121; Felton's, 134; Frost's El., 50; Fisk's, 32; Merchant's, 145; Parker and Fox's, iii, 44; Pond's, 197; Putnam's, 96; Russell's, 106; R. O. Smith's, 186. Here we see a curious jumble of the common idea of accent, as "stress laid on some particular syllable of a word," with Sheridan's doctrine of accenting always "a particular letter of a syllable,"—an idle doctrine, contrived solely for the accommodation of short quantity with long, under the accent. When this definition was adopted, Murray's scheme of quantity was also revised, and materially altered. The principles of his main text, to which his copiers all confine themselves, then took the following form:

"The quantity of a syllable, is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as LONG or SHORT.

"A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; which occasions it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters: as, 'F=all, b=ale, m=o=od, h=o=use, f=eature.'

"A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which occasions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter: as, '~ant, b=onn~et, h=ung~er.'

"A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it: thus, 'M=ate' and 'N=ote' should be pronounced as slowly again as 'M~at' and 'N~ot.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 239; 12mo, 192; 18mo, 57; Alger's, 72; D. C. Allen's, 86; Bacon's, 52; Comly's, 168; Cooper's, 176; Cutler's, 165; Davenport's, 121; Felton's, 134; Frost's El., 50; Fisk's, 32; Maltby's, 115; Parker and Fox's, iii, 47; Pond's, 198; S. Putnam's, 96; R. C. Smith's, 187; Rev. T. Smith's, 68.

Here we see a revival and an abundant propagation of Sheridan's erroneous doctrine, that our accent produces both short quantity and long, according to its seat; and since none of all these grammars, but the first two of Murray's, give any other rules for the discrimination of quantities, we must infer, that these were judged sufficient. Now, of all the principles on which any have ever pretended to determine the quantity of syllables, none, so far as I know, are more defective or fallacious than these. They are liable to more objections than it is worth while to specify. Suffice it to observe, that they divide certain accented syllables into long and short, and say nothing of the unaccented; whereas it is plain, and acknowledged even by Murray and Sheridan themselves, that in "ant, bonnet, hunger" and the like, the unaccented syllables are the only short ones: the rest can be, and here are, lengthened.[497]

OBS. 16.—The foregoing principles, differently expressed, and perchance in some instances more fitly, are found in many other grammars, and in some of the very latest; but they are everywhere a mere dead letter, a record which, if it is not always untrue, is seldom understood, and never applied in any way to practice. The following are examples:

(1.) "In a long syllable, the vowel is accented; in a short syllable [,] the consonant; as [,] r=oll, p=oll; t~op, c~ut."—Rev. W. Allen's Gram., p. 222. (2.) "A syllable or word is long, when the accent is on the vowel: as n=o, l=ine, l=a, m=e; and short, when on the consonant: as n~ot, l~in, L~atin, m~et."—S. Barrett's Grammar, ("Principles of Language,") p. 112.

(3.) "A syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel, as, P=all, s=ale, m=o=use, cr=eature. A syllable is short when the accent is placed on the consonant; as great´, let´ter, mas´ter."—Rev. D. Blair's Practical Gram., p. 117.

(4.) "When the stress is on the vowel, the measure of quantity is long: as, Máte, fáte, complàin, pláyful, un der míne. When the stress is on a consonant, the quantity is short: as, Mat´, fat´, com pel´, prog´ress, dis man´tle."—Pardon Davis's Practical Gram., p. 125.

(5.) "The quantity of a syllable is considered as long or short. It is long when the accent is on the vowel; as, F=all, b=ale, m=ood, ho=use, f=eature. It is short when the accent is placed on the consonant; as, Mas´ter, let´ter."—Guy's School Gram., p. 118; Picket's Analytical School Gram., 2d Ed., p. 224.

(6.) "A syllable is long when the accent is on the vowel; and short, when the accent is on the consonant. A long syllable requires twice the time in pronouncing it that a short one does. Long syllables are marked thus =; as, t=ube; short syllables, thus ~; as, m~an."—Hiley's English Gram., p. 120.

(7.) "When the accent is on a vowel, the syllable is generally long; as =aleho=use, am=usement, f=eatures. But when the accent is on a consonant, the syllable is mostly short; as, h~ap'py, m~an'ner. A long syllable requires twice as much time in the pronunciation, as a short one; as, h=ate, h~at; n=ote, n~ot; c=ane, c~an; f=ine, f~in."—Jaudon's Union Gram., p. 173.

(8.) "If the syllable be long, the accent is on the vowel; as, in b=ale, m=o=od, educ=ation; &c. If short, the accent is on the consonant; as, in ~ant, b~onnet, h~unger, &c."—Merchant's American School Gram., p. 145.

The quantity of our unaccented syllables, none of these authors, except Allen, thought it worth his while to notice. But among their accented syllables, they all include words of one syllable, though most of them thereby pointedly contradict their own definitions of accent. To find in our language no short syllables but such as are accented, is certainly a very strange and very great oversight. Frazee says, "The pronunciation of an accented syllable requires double the time of that of an unaccented one."—Frazee's Improved Gram., p. 180. If so, our poetical quantities are greatly misrepresented by the rules above cited. Allen truly says, "Unaccented syllables are generally short; as, r~etúrn, túrn~er."— Elements of E. Gram., p. 222. But how it was ever found out, that in these words we accent only the vowel u, and in such as hunter and bluntly, some one of the consonants only, he does not inform us.

OBS. 17.—As might be expected, it is not well agreed among those who accent single consonants and vowels, what particular letter should receive the stress and the mark. The word or syllable "ant," for example, is marked "an´t" by Alger, Bacon, and others, to enforce the n; "ant´" by Frost, Putnam, and others, to enforce the t; "~ant" by Murray, Russell, and others, to show, as they say, "the accent on the consonant!" But, in "A´NTLER," Dr. Johnson accented the a; and, to mark the same pronunciation, Worcester now writes, "~ANT´LER;" while almost any prosodist, in scanning, would mark this word "~antl~er" and call it a trochee.[498] Churchill, who is in general a judicious observer, writes thus: "The leading feature in the English language, on which it's melody both in prose and verse chiefly depends, is it's accent. Every word in it of more than one syllable has one of it's syllables distinguished by this from the rest; the accent being in some cases on the vowel, in others on the consonant that closes the syllable; on the vowel, when it has it's long sound; on the consonant, when the vowel is short."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 181. But to this, as a rule of accentuation, no attention is in fact paid nowadays. Syllables that have long vowels not final, very properly take the sign of stress on or after a consonant or a mute vowel; as, =an´gel, ch=am´ber, sl=ay´er, b=ead´roll, sl=ea´zy, sl=e=ep´er, sl=e=eve´less, l=ive´ly, m=ind´ful, sl=ight´ly, sl=id´ing, b=old´ness, gr=oss´ly, wh=ol´ly, =use´less.—See Worcester's Dict.

OBS. 18.—It has been seen, that Murray's principles of quantity were greatly altered by himself, after the first appearance of his grammar. To have a full and correct view of them, it is necessary to notice something more than his main text, as revised, with which all his amenders content themselves, and which he himself thought sufficient for his Abridgement. The following positions, which, in some of his revisals, he added to the large grammar, are therefore cited:—

(1.) "Unaccented syllables are generally short: as, '~admíre, bóldn~ess, sínn~er.' But to this rule there are many exceptions: as, 'áls=o, éx=ile, gángr=ene, úmp=ire, f=oretáste,' &c.

(2.) "When the accent is on the consonant, the syllable is often more or less short, as it ends with a single consonant, or with more than one: as, 'Sádly, róbber; persíst, mátchless.'

(3.) "When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the syllable may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi-vowel: as, 'Cur´, can´, f~ulfil´' but when the accent falls on a mute, the syllable cannot be lengthened in the same manner: as, 'Búbble, cáptain, tótter.'"—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 240; 12mo, 193.

(4.) "In this work, and in the author's Spelling-book, the vowels e and o, in the first syllable of such words as, behave, prejudge, domain, propose; and in the second syllable of such as pulley, turkey, borrow, follow; are considered as long vowels. The second syllables in such words as, baby, spicy, holy, fury, are also considered as long syllables."—Ib., 8vo, p. 241.

(5.) "In the words scarecrow, wherefore, both the syllables are unquestionably long, but not of equal length. We presume therefore, that the syllables under consideration, [i.e., those which end with the sound of e or o without accent,] may also be properly styled long syllables, though their length is not equal to that of some others."—Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 241.

OBS. 19.—Sheridan's "infallible rule, that no vowel ever has a long sound in an unaccented syllable," is in striking contrast with three of these positions, and the exact truth of the matter is with neither author. But, for the accuracy of his doctrine, Murray appeals to "the authority of the judicious Walker," which he thinks sufficient to prove any syllable long whose vowel is called so; while the important distinction suggested by Walker, in his Principles, No. 529, between "the length or shortness of the vowels," and "that quantity which constitutes poetry," is entirely overlooked. It is safe to affirm, that all the accented syllables occurring in the examples above, are long; and all the unaccented ones, short: for Murray's long syllables vary in length, and his short ones in shortness, till not only the just proportion, but the actual relation, of long and short, is evidently lost with some of them. Does not match in "match´less," sad in "sad´ly," or bub in "bub´ble," require more time, than so in "al´so," key in "tur´key," or ly in "ho´ly"? If so, four of the preceding positions are very faulty. And so, indeed, is the remaining one; for where is the sense of saying, that "when the accent falls on a mute, the syllable cannot be lengthened by dwelling upon the semi-vowel"? This is an apparent truism, and yet not true. For a semivowel in the middle or at the beginning of a syllable, may lengthen it as much as if it stood at the end. "Cur" and "can," here given as protracted syllables, are certainly no longer by usage, and no more susceptible of protraction, than "mat" and "not," "art" and "ant," which are among the author's examples of short quantity. And if a semivowel accented will make the syllable long, was it not both an error and a self-contradiction, to give "b~onnet" and "h~unger" as examples of quantity shortened by the accent? The syllable man has two semivowels; and the letter l, as in "ful fil´," is the most sonorous of consonants; yet, as we see above, among their false examples of short syllables accented, different authors have given the words "man" and "man´ner," "disman´tle" and "com pel´," "mas´ter" and "let´ter," with sundry other sounds which may easily be lengthened. Sanborn says, "The breve distinguishes a short syllable; as, m~anner."—Analytical Gram., p. 273. Parker and Fox say, "The Breve (thus ~) is placed over a vowel to indicate its short sound; as, St. H~elena."—English Gram., Part iii, p. 31. Both explanations of this sign are defective; and neither has a suitable example. The name "St. H~l=e´n~a," as pronounced by Worcester, and as commonly heard, is two trochees; but "Hel´ena," for Helen, having the penult short, takes the accent on the first syllable, which is thereby made long, though the vowel sound is called short. Even Dr. Webster, who expressly notes the difference between "long and short vowels" and "long and short syllables," allows himself, on the very same page, to confound them: so that, of his three examples of a short syllable,—"th~at, not, m~elon,"—all are erroneous; two being monosyllables, which any emphasis must lengthen; and the third,—the word "m~el´on,"—with the first syllable marked short, and not the last! See Webster's Improved Gram., p. 157.

OBS. 20.—Among the latest of our English Grammars, is Chandler's new one of 1847. The Prosody of this work is fresh from the mint; the author's old grammar of 1821, which is the nucleus of this, being "confined to Etymology and Syantax." [sic—KTH] If from anybody the public have a right to expect correctness in the details of grammar, it is from one who has had the subject so long and so habitually before him. "Accent" says this author, "is the stress on a syllable, or letter."—Chandler's Common School Gram., p. 188. Now, if our less prominent words and syllables require any force at all, a definition so loose as this, may give accent to some words, or to all; to some syllables, or to all; to some letters, or to all—except those which are silent! And, indeed, whether the stress which distinguishes some monosyllables from others, is supposed by the writer to be accent, or emphasis, or both, it is scarcely possible to ascertain from his elucidations. "The term emphasis," says he, "is used to denote a fuller sound of voice after certain words that come in antithesis; that is, contrast. 'He can write, but he cannot read.' Here, read and write are antithetical (that is, in contrast), and are accented, or emphasized."—P. 189. The word "after" here may be a misprint for the word upon; but no preposition really suits the connexion: the participle impressing or affecting would be better. Of quantity, this work gives the following account: "The quantity of a syllable is that time which is required to pronounce it. A syllable may be long or short. Hate is long, as the vowel a is elongated by the final e; hat is short, and requires about half the time for pronunciation which is used for pronouncing hate. So of ate, at; bate, bat; cure, cur. Though unaccented syllables are usually short, yet many of those which are accented are short also. The following are short: _ád_vent, _sin´_ner, _sup´_per. In the following, the unaccented syllables are long: ál_so_, éx_ile_, gán_grene_, úm_pire_. It maybe remarked, that the quantity of a syllable is short when the accent is on a consonant; as, art´, bon´net, hun´ger. The hyphen (-), placed over a syllable, denotes that it is long: n=áture. The breve (~) over a syllable, denotes that it is short; as, d~etr=áct."—Chandler's Common School Gram., p. 189. This scheme of quantity is truly remarkable for its absurdity and confusion. What becomes of the elongating power of e, without accent or emphasis, as in jun´cate, pal´ate, prel´ate? Who does not know that such syllables as "at, bat, and cur" are often long in poetry? What more absurd, than to suppose both syllables short in such words as, "~advent, sin´ner, sup´per," and then give "serm~on, f=ilt~er, sp=ir~it, g=ath~er," and the like, for regular trochees, with "the first syllable long, and the second short," as does this author? What more contradictory and confused, than to pretend that the primal sound of a vowel lengthens an unaccented syllable, and accent on the consonant shortens an accented one, as if in "âl´so" the first syllable must be short and the second long, and then be compelled, by the evidence of one's senses to mark "ech~o" as a trochee, and "détract" as an iambus? What less pardonable misnomer, than for a great critic to call the sign of long quantity a "hyphen"?

OBS. 21.—The following suggestions found in two of Dr. Webster's grammars, are not far from the truth: "Most prosodians who have treated particularly of this subject, have been guilty of a fundamental error, in considering the movement of English verse as depending on long and short syllables, formed by long and short vowels. This hypothesis has led them into capital mistakes. The truth is, many of those syllables which are considered as long in verse, are formed by the shortest vowels in the language; as, strength, health, grand. The doctrine that long vowels are necessary to form long syllables in poetry is at length exploded, and the principles which regulate the movement of our verse, are explained; viz. accent and emphasis. Every emphatical word, and every accented syllable, will form what is called in verse, a long syllable. The unaccented syllables, and unemphatical monosyllabic words, are considered as short syllables."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 222; Improved Gram., 158. Is it not remarkable, that, on the same page with this passage, the author should have given the first syllable of "melon" as an example of short quantity?

OBS. 22.—If the principle is true, which every body now takes for granted, that the foundation of versifying is some distinction pertaining to syllables; it is plain, that nothing can be done towards teaching the Art of Measuring Verses, till it be known upon what distinction in syllables our scheme of versification is based, and by what rule or rules the discrimination is, or ought to be, made. Errors here are central, radical, fundamental. Hence the necessity of these present disquisitions. Without some effectual criticism on their many false positions, prosodists may continue to theorize, dogmatize, plagiarize, and blunder on, as they have done, indefinitely, and knowledge of the rhythmic art be in no degree advanced by their productions, new or old. For the supposition is, that in general the consulters of these various oracles are persons more fallible still, and therefore likely to be misled by any errors that are not expressly pointed out to them. In this work, it is assumed, that quantity, not laboriously ascertained by "a great variety of rules applied from the Greek and Latin Prosody," but discriminated on principles of our own—quantity, dependent in some degree on the nature and number of the letters in a syllable, but still more on the presence or absence of stress—is the true foundation of our metre. It has already been stated, and perhaps proved, that this theory is as well supported by authority as any; but, since Lindley Murray, persuaded wrong by the positiveness of Sheridan, exchanged his scheme of feet formed by quantities, for a new one of "feet formed by accents"—or, rather, for an impracticable mixture of both, a scheme of supposed "duplicates of each foot"—it has been becoming more and more common for grammarians to represent the basis of English versification to be, not the distinction of long and short quantities, but the recurrence of accent at certain intervals. Such is the doctrine of Butler, Felton, Fowler, S. S. Greene, Hart, Hiley, R. C. Smith, Weld, Wells, and perhaps others. But, in this, all these writers contradict themselves; disregard their own definitions of accent; count monosyllables to be accented or unaccented; displace emphasis from the rank which Murray and others give it, as "the great regulator of quantity;" and suppose the length or shortness of syllables not to depend on the presence or absence of either accent or emphasis; and not to be of much account in the construction of English verse. As these strictures are running to a great length, it may be well now to introduce the poetic feet, and to reserve, for notes under that head, any further examination of opinions as to what constitutes the foundation of verse.

SECTION III.—OF POETIC FEET.

A verse, or line of poetry., consists of successive combinations of syllables, called feet. A poetic foot, in English, consists either of two or of three syllables, as in the following examples:

1. "C=an t=y | -r~ants b=ut | b~y t=y | -r~ants c=on | -qu~ered
                                               b=e?"—Byron.

2. "H=ol~y, | h=ol~y, | h=ol~y! | =all th~e | s=aints ~a | -d=ore
                                               th~ee."—Heber.

3. "And th~e br=eath | ~of th~e D=e | -~it~y c=ir | -cl~ed th~e
                                               ro=om."—Hunt.

4. "H=ail t~o th~e | chi=ef wh~o ~in | tr=i~umph ~ad |-v=anc~es!"—Scott.

EXPLANATIONS AND DEFINITIONS.

Poetic feet being arbitrary combinations, contrived merely for the measuring of verses, and the ready ascertainment of the syllables that suit each rhythm, there is among prosodists a perplexing diversity of opinion, as to the number which we ought to recognize in our language. Some will have only two or three; others, four; others, eight; others, twelve. The dozen are all that can be made of two syllables and of three. Latinists sometimes make feet of four syllables, and admit sixteen more of these, acknowledging and naming twenty-eight in all. The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl.

1. The Iambus, or Iamb, is a poetic foot consisting of a short syllable and a long one; as, b~etr=ay, c~onf=ess, d~em=and, ~intent, d~egr=ee.

2. The Trochee, or Choree, is a poetic foot consisting of a long syllable and a short one; as, h=atef~ul, p=ett~ish, l=eg~al, m=eas~ure, h=ol~y.

3. The Anapest is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables and one long one; as, c~ontr~av=ene, ~acqu~i=esce, ~imp~ort=une.

4. The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable and two short ones; as, l=ab~our~er, p=oss~ibl~e, w=ond~erf~ul.

These are our principal feet, not only because they are oftenest used, but because each kind, with little or no mixture, forms a distinct order of numbers, having a peculiar rhythm. Of verse, or poetic measure, we have, accordingly, four principal kinds, or orders; namely, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and Dactylic; as in the four lines cited above.

The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more exact and complete is the chime of the verse. But exactness being difficult, and its sameness sometimes irksome, the poets generally indulge some variety; not so much, however, as to confound the drift of the rhythmical pulsations: or, if ever these be not made obvious to the reader, there is a grave fault in the versification.

The secondary feet, if admitted at all, are to be admitted only, or chiefly, as occasional diversifications. Of this class of feet, many grammarians adopt four; but they lack agreement about the selection. Brightland took the Spondee, the Pyrrhic, the Moloss, and the Tribrach. To these, some now add the other four; namely, the Amphibrach, the Amphimac, the Bacchy, and the Antibacchy.

Few, if any, of these feet are really necessary to a sufficient explanation of English verse; and the adopting of so many is liable to the great objection, that we thereby produce different modes of measuring the same lines. But, by naming them all, we avoid the difficulty of selecting the most important; and it is proper that the student should know the import of all these prosodical terms.

5. A Spondee is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables; as, c=old n=ight, p=o=or s=ouls, ~am~en, shr=ovet=ide.

6. A Pyrrhic is a poetic foot consisting of two short syllables; as, presumpt-|~uo~us, perpet-|~u~al, unhap-|p~il~y, inglo-|r~io~us.

7. A Moloss is a poetic foot consisting of three long syllables; as, De~ath's p=ale h=orse,—gre=at wh=ite thr=one,—d=eep d=amp v=a=ult.

8. A Tribrach is a poetic foot consisting of three short syllables; as, prohib-|~it~or~y, unnat-|~ur~all~y, author-|~it~at~ive, innum-|~er~abl~e.

9. An Amphibrach is a poetic foot of three syllables, having both sides short, the middle long; as, ~impr=ud~ent, c~ons=id~er, tr~ansp=ort~ed.

10. An Amphimac, Amphimacer, or Cretic, is a poetic foot of three syllables, having both sides long, the middle short; as, w~ind~ingsh=eet, l=ife-~est=ate, s=oul-d~is~eased.

11. A Bacchy is a poetic foot consisting of one short syllable and two long ones; as, th=e wh=ole w~orld,—~a gre=at v=ase,—=of p=ure g=old.

12. An Antibacchy, or Hypobacchy, is a poetic foot consisting of two long syllables and a short one; as, kn=ight-s=erv~ice, gl=obe-d=ais~y, gr=ape-flow~er, g=old-b=eat~er.

Among the variegations of verse, one emphatic syllable is sometimes counted for a foot. "When a single syllable is [thus] taken by itself, it is called a Cæsura, which is commonly a long syllable." [499]

FOR EXAMPLE:—

   "Keeping | time, | time, | time,
    In a | sort of | Runic | rhyme,
    To the | tintin| -nabu| -lation that so | musi| -cally | wells
    From the | bells, | bells, | bells, | bells,
    Bells, | bells, | bells."
        —EDGAR A. POE: Union Magazine, for Nov. 1849; Literary World,
          No. 143.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—In defining our poetic feet, many late grammarians substitute the terms accented and unaccented for long and short, as did Murray, after some of the earlier editions of his grammar; the only feet recognized in his second edition being the Iambus, the Trochee, the Dactyl, and the Anapest, and all these being formed by quantities only. This change has been made on the supposition, that accent and long quantity, as well as their opposites, nonaccent and short quantity, may oppose each other; and that the basis of English verse is not, like that of Latin or Greek poetry, a distinction in the time of syllables, not a difference in quantity, but such a course of accenting and nonaccenting as overrides all relations of this sort, and makes both length and shortness compatible alike with stress or no stress. Such a theory, I am persuaded, is untenable. Great authority, however, may be quoted for it, or for its principal features. Besides the several later grammarians who give it countenance, even "the judicious Walker," who, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, as before cited, very properly suggests a difference between "that quantity which constitutes poetry," and the mere "length or shortness of vowels," when he comes to explain our English accent and quantity, in his "Observations on the Greek and Latin Accent and Quantity," finds "accent perfectly compatible with either long or short quantity;" (Key, p. 312;) repudiates that vulgar accent of Sheridan and others, which "is only a greater force upon one syllable than another;" (Key, p. 313;) prefers the doctrine which "makes the elevation or depression of the voice inseparable from accent;" (Key, p. 314;) holds that, "unaccented vowels are frequently pronounced long when the accented vowels are short;" (Key, p. 312;) takes long or short vowels and long or short syllables to be things everywhere tantamount; saying, "We have no conception of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels, as they are pronounced long or short;" (ibid.;) and again: "Such long quantity" as consonants may produce with a close or short vowel, "an English ear has not the least idea of. Unless the sound of the vowel be altered, we have not any conception of a long or short syllable."—Walker's Key, p. 322; and Worcester's Octavo Dict., p. 935.

OBS. 2.—In the opinion of Murray, Walker's authority should be thought sufficient to settle any question of prosodial quantities. "But," it is added, "there are some critical writers, who dispute the propriety of his arrangement."—Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 241. And well there may be; not only by reason of the obvious incorrectness of the foregoing positions, but because the great orthoëpist is not entirely consistent with himself. In his "Preparatory Observations," which introduce the very essay above cited, he avers that, "the different states of the voice," which are indicated by the comparative terms high and low, loud and soft, quick and slow, forcible and feeble, "may not improperly be called quantities of sound."—Walker's Key, p. 305. Whoever thinks this, certainly conceives of quantity as arising from several other things than "the nature of the vowels." Even Humphrey, with whom, "Quantity differs materially from time," and who defines it, "the weight, or aggregate quantum of sounds," may find his questionable and unusual "conception" of it included among these.

OBS. 3.—Walker must have seen, as have the generality of prosodists since, that such a distinction as he makes between long syllables and short, could not possibly be the basis of English versification, or determine the elements of English feet; yet, without the analogy of any known usage, and contrary to our customary mode of reading the languages, he proposes it as applicable—and as the only doctrine conceived to be applicable—to Greek or Latin verse. Ignoring all long or short quantity not formed by what are called long or short vowels,[500] he suggests, "as a last refuge," (§25,) the very doubtful scheme of reading Latin and Greek poetry with the vowels conformed, agreeably to this English sense of long and short vowel sounds, to the ancient rules of quantity. Of such words as fallo and ambo, pronounced as we usually utter them, he says, "nothing can be more evident than the long quantity of the final vowel though without the accent, and the short quantity of the initial and accented syllable."—Obs. on Greek and Lat. Accent, §23; Key, p. 331. Now the very reverse of this appears to me to be "evident." The a, indeed, may be close or short, while the o, having its primal or name sound, is called long; but the first syllable, if fully accented, will have twice the time of the second; nor can this proportion be reversed but by changing the accent, and misplacing it on the latter syllable. Were the principle true, which the learned author pronounces so "evident," these, and all similar words, would constitute iambic feet; whereas it is plain, that in English they are trochees; and in Latin,—where "o final is common,"—either trochees or spondees. The word ambo, as every accurate scholar knows, is always a trochee, whether it be the Latin adjective for "both," or the English noun for "a reading desk, or pulpit."

OBS. 4.—The names of our poetic feet are all of them derived, by change of endings, from similar names used in Greek, and thence also in Latin; and, of course, English words and Greek or Latin, so related, are presumed to stand for things somewhat similar. This reasonable presumption is an argument, too often disregarded by late grammarians, for considering our poetic feet to be quantitative, as were the ancient,—not accentual only, as some will have them,—nor separately both, as some others absurdly teach. But, whatever may be the difference or the coincidence between English verse and Greek or Latin, it is certain, that, in our poetic division of syllables, strength and length must always concur, and any scheme which so contrasts accent with long quantity, as to confound the different species of feet, or give contradictory names to the same foot, must be radically and grossly defective. In the preceding section it has been shown, that the principles of quantity adopted by Sheridan, Murray, and others, being so erroneous as to be wholly nugatory, were as unfit to be the basis of English verse, as are Walker's, which have just been spoken of. But, the puzzled authors, instead of reforming these their elementary principles, so as to adapt them to the quantities and rhythms actually found in our English verse, have all chosen to assume, that our poetical feet in general differ radically from those which the ancients called by the same names; and yet the coincidence found—the "exact sameness of nature" acknowledged—is sagely said by some of them to duplicate each foot into two distinct sorts for our especial advantage; while the difference, which they presume to exist, or which their false principles of accent and quantity would create, between feet quantitative and feet accentual, (both of which are allowed to us,) would implicate different names, and convert foot into foot—iambs, trochees, spondees, pyrrhics, each species into some other—till all were confusion!

OBS. 5.—In Lindley Murray's revised scheme of feet, we have first a paragraph from Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar, suggesting that the ancient poetic measures were formed of syllables divided "into long and short," and affirming, what is not very true, that, for the forming of ours, "In English, syllables are divided into accented and unaccented."—Rhet. Gram., p. 64; Murray's Gram., 8vo, 253; Hart's Gram., 182; and others. Now some syllables are accented, and others are unaccented; but syllables singly significant, i.e., monosyllables, which are very numerous, belong to neither of these classes. The contrast is also comparatively new; our language had much good poetry, long before accented and unaccented were ever thus misapplied in it. Murray proceeds thus: "When the feet are formed by accent on vowels, they are exactly of the same nature as ancient feet, and have the same just quantity in their syllables. So that, in this respect, we have all that the ancients had, and something which they had not. We have in fact duplicates of each foot, yet with such a difference, as to fit them for different purposes, to be applied at our pleasure."—Ib., p. 253. Again: "We have observed, that English verse is composed of feet formed by accent; and that when the accent falls on vowels, the feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity."—Ib., p. 258. And again: "From the preceding view of English versification, we may see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in our heroic measure, but we have, as before observed, duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure,[501] and which make different impressions on the ear; an opulence peculiar to our language, and which may be the source of a boundless variety."—Ib., p. 259.

OBS. 6.—If it were not dullness to overlook the many errors and inconsistencies of this scheme, there should be thought a rare ingenuity in thus turning them all to the great advantage and peculiar riches of the English tongue! Besides several grammatical faults, elsewhere noticed, these extracts exhibit, first, the inconsistent notion—of "duplicates with a difference;" or, as Churchill expresses it, of "two distinct species of each foot;" (New Gram., p. 189;) and here we are gravely assured withal, that these different sorts, which have no separate names, are sometimes forsooth, "exactly of the same nature"! Secondly, it is incompatibly urged, that, "English verse is composed of feet formed by accent," and at the same time shown, that it partakes largely of feet "formed by quantity." Thirdly, if "we have all that the ancients had," of poetic feet, and "duplicates of each," "which they had not" we are encumbered with an enormous surplus; for, of the twenty-eight Latin feet,[502] mentioned by Dr. Adam and others, Murray never gave the names of more than eight, and his early editions acknowledged but four, and these single, not "duplicates"—unigenous, not severally of "two species." Fourthly, to suppose a multiplicity of feet to be "a copious stock of materials" for versification, is as absurd as to imagine, in any other case, a variety of measures to be materials for producing the thing measured. Fifthly, "our heroic measure" is iambic pentameter, as Murray himself shows; and, to give to this, "all the ancient poetic feet," is to bestow most of them where they are least needed. Sixthly, "feet differing in measure," so as to "make different impressions on the ear," cannot well be said to "agree in movement," or to be "exactly of the same nature!"

OBS. 7.—Of the foundation of metre, Wells has the following account: "The quantity of a syllable is the relative time occupied in its pronunciation. A syllable may be long in quantity, as fate; or short, as let. The Greeks and Romans based their poetry on the quantity of syllables; but modern versification depends chiefly upon accent, the quantity of syllables being almost wholly disregarded."—School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 185. Again: "Versification is a measured arrangement of words[,] in which the accent is made to recur at certain regular intervals. This definition applies only to modern verse. In Greek and Latin poetry, it is the regular recurrence of long syllables, according to settled laws, which constitutes verse."—Ib., p. 186. The contrasting of ancient and modern versification, since Sheridan and Murray each contrived an example of it, has become very common in our grammars, though not in principle very uniform; and, however needless where a correct theory prevails, it is, to such views of accent and quantity as were adopted by these authors, and by Walker, or their followers, but a necessary counterpart. The notion, however, that English verse has less regard to quantity than had that of the old Greeks or Romans, is a mere assumption, originating in a false idea of what quantity is; and, that Greek or Latin verse was less accentual than is ours, is another assumption, left proofless too, of what many authors disbelieve and contradict. Wells's definition of quantity is similar to mine, and perhaps unexceptionable; and yet his idea of the thing, as he gives us reason to think, was very different, and very erroneous. His examples imply, that, like Walker, he had "no conception of quantity arising from any thing but the nature of the vowels,"—no conception of a long or a short syllable without what is called a long or a short vowel sound. That "the Greeks and Romans based their poetry on quantity" of that restricted sort,—on such "quantity" as "fate" and "let" may serve to discriminate,—is by no means probable; nor would it be more so, were a hundred great modern masters to declare themselves ignorant of any other. The words do not distinguish at all the long and short quantities even of our own language; much less can we rely on them for an idea of what is long or short in other tongues. Being monosyllables, both are long with emphasis, both short without it; and, could they be accented, accent too would lengthen, as its absence would shorten both. In the words phosphate and streamlet, we have the same sounds, both short; in lettuce and fateful, the same, both long. This cannot be disproved. And, in the scansion of the following stanza from Byron, the word "Let" twice used, is to be reckoned a long syllable, and not (as Wells would have it) a short one:

   "Cavalier! and man of worth!
    Let these words of mine go forth;
    Let the Moorish Monarch know,
    That to him I nothing owe:
      Wo is me, Alhama!"

OBS. 8.—In the English grammars of Allen H. Weld, works remarkable for their egregious inaccuracy and worthlessness, yet honoured by the Boston school committee of 1848 and '9, the author is careful to say, "Accent should not be confounded with emphasis. Emphasis is a stress of voice on a word in a sentence, to mark its importance. Accent is a stress of voice on a syllable in a word." Yet, within seven lines of this, we are told, that, "A verse consists of a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to certain rules."—Weld's English Grammar, 2d Edition, p. 207; "Abridged Edition," p. 137. A doctrine cannot be contrived, which will more evidently or more extensively confound accent with emphasis, than does this! In English verse, on an average, about three quarters of the words are monosyllables, which, according to Walker, "have no accent," certainly none distinguishable from emphasis; hence, in fact, our syllables are no more "divided into accented and unaccented" as Sheridan and Murray would have them, than into emphasized and unemphasized, as some others have thought to class them. Nor is this confounding of accent with emphasis at all lessened or palliated by teaching with Wells, in its justification, that, "The term accent is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on monosyllabic words."—Wells's School Gram., p. 185; 113th Ed., §273. What better is this, than to apply the term emphasis to the accenting of syllables in poetry, or to all the stress in question, as is virtually done in the following citation? "In English, verse is regulated by the emphasis, as there should be one emphatic syllable in every foot; for it is by the interchange of emphatick and non-emphatick syllables, that verse grateful to the ear is formed."—Thomas Coar's E. Gram., p. 196. In Latin poetry, the longer words predominate, so that, in Virgil's verse, not one word in five is a monosyllable; hence accent, if our use of it were adjusted to the Latin quantities, might have much more to do with Latin verse than with English. With the following lines of Shakspeare, for example, accent has, properly speaking, no connexion;

   "Good friend, thou hast no cause to say so yet;
    But thou shalt have; and creep time ne'er so slow,
    Yet it shall come, for me to do thee good.
    I had a thing to say,—But let it go."—King John, Act iii, Sc. 3.

OBS. 9.—T. O. Churchill, after stating that the Greek and Latin rhythms are composed of syllables long and short, sets ours in contrast with them thus: "These terms are commonly employed also in speaking of English verse, though it is marked, not by long and short, but by accented and unaccented syllables; the accented syllables being accounted long; the unaccented, short."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 183. This, though far from being right, is very different from the doctrine of Murray or Sheridan; because, in practice, or the scansion of verses, it comes to the same results as to suppose all our feet to be "formed by quantity." To account syllables long or short and not believe them to be so, is a ridiculous inconsistency: it is a shuffle in the name of science.

OBS. 10.—Churchill, though not apt to be misled by others' errors, and though his own scanning has no regard to the principle, could not rid himself of the notion, that the quantity of a syllable must depend on the "vowel sound." Accordingly he says, "Mr. Murray justly observes, that our accented syllables, or those reckoned long:, may have either a long or [a] short vowel sound, so that we have two distinct species of each foot."—New Gram., p. 189. The obvious impossibility of "two distinct species" in one,—or, as Murray has it, of "duplicates fitted for different purposes,"—should have prevented the teaching and repeating of this nonsense, propound it who might. The commender himself had not such faith in it as is here implied. In a note, too plainly incompatible with this praise, he comments thus: "Mr. Murray adds, that this is 'an opulence peculiar to our language, and which may be the source of a boundless variety:' a point, on which, I confess, I have long entertained doubts. I am inclined to suspect that the English mode of reading verse is analogous to that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Dion. Hal., de Comp., Verb. §xi, speaks of the rhythm of verse differing from the proper measure of the syllables, and often reversing it: does not this imply, that the ancients, contrary to the opinion of the learned author of Metronariston, read verse as we do?"—Churchill's New Gram., p. 393, note 329.

OBS. 11.—The nature, chief sources, and true distinction of quantity, at least as it pertains to our language, I have set forth with clearness, first in the short chapter on Utterance, and again, more fully in this, which treats of Versification; but that the syllables, long and short, of the old Greek and Latin poets, or the feet they made of them, are to be expounded on precisely the same principles that apply to ours. I have not deemed it necessary to affirm or to deny. So far as the same laws are applicable, let them be applied. This important property of syllables,—their quantity, or relative time,—which is the basis of all rhythm, is, as my readers have seen, very variously treated, and in general but ill appreciated, by our English prosodists, who ought, at least in this their own province, to understand it all alike, and as it is; and so common among the erudite is the confession of Walker, that "the accent and quantity of the ancients" are, to modern readers, "obscure and mysterious," that it will be taken as a sign of arrogance and superficiality, to pretend to a very certain knowledge of them. Nor is the difficulty confined to Latin and Greek verse: the poetry of our own ancestors, from any remote period, is not easy of scansion. Dr. Johnson, in his History of the English Language, gave examples, with this remark: "Of the Saxon poetry some specimen is necessary, though our ignorance of the laws of their metre and the quantities of their syllables, which it would be very difficult, perhaps impossible, to recover, excludes us from that pleasure which the old bards undoubtedly gave to their contemporaries."

OBS. 12.—The imperfect measures of "the father of English poetry," are said by Dryden to have been adapted to the ears of the rude age which produced them. "The verse of Chaucer," says he, "I confess, is not harmonious to us; but it is like the eloquence of one whom Tacitus commends, it was auribus istius temporis accommodata:' they who lived with him, and sometime after him, thought it musical; and it continues so even in our judgment, if compared with the numbers of Lidgate and Gower, his contemporaries: there is the rude sweetness of a Scotch tune in it, which is natural and pleasing, though not perfect. It is true, I cannot go so far as he who published the last edition of him; for he would make us believe that the fault is in our ears, and that there were really ten syllables in a verse where we find but nine: but this opinion is not worth confuting; it is so gross and obvious an error, that common sense (which is a rule in every thing but matters of faith and revelation) must convince the reader that equality of numbers in every verse, which we call Heroic, was either not known, or not always practised in Chaucer's age. It were an easy matter to produce some thousands of his verses, which are lame for want of half a foot, and sometimes a whole one, and which no pronunciation can make otherwise. We can only say, that he lived in the infancy of our poetry, and that nothing is brought to perfection at the first."—British Poets, Vol. iii, p. 171.

OBS. 13.—Dryden appears to have had more faith in the ears of his own age than in those of an earlier one; but Poe, of our time, himself an ingenious versifier, in his Notes upon English Verse, conveys the idea that all ears are alike competent to appreciate the elements of metre. "Quantity," according to his dogmatism, "is a point in the investigation of which the lumber of mere learning may be dispensed with, if ever in any. Its appreciation" says he, "is universal. It appertains to no region, nor race, nor era in especial. To melody and to harmony the Greeks hearkened with ears precisely similar to those which we employ, for similar purposes, at present; and a pendulum at Athens would have vibrated much after the same fashion as does a pendulum in the city of Penn."—The Pioneer, Vol. i. p. 103. Supposing here not even the oscillations of the same pendulum to be more uniform than are the nature and just estimation of quantity the world over, this author soon after expounds his idea of the thing as follows: "I have already said that all syllables, in metre, are either long or short. Our usual prosodies maintain that a long syllable is equal, in its time, to two short ones; this, however, is but an approach to the truth. It should be here observed that the quantity of an English syllable has no dependence upon the sound of its vowel or dipthong [diphthong], but [depends] chiefly upon accentuation. Monosyllables are exceedingly variable, and, for the most part, may be either long or short, to suit the demand of the rhythm. In polysyllables, the accented ones [say, syllables] are always long, while those which immediately precede or succeed them, are always short. Emphasis will render any short syllable long."—Ibid., p. 105. In penning the last four sentences, the writer must have had Brown's Institutes of English Grammar before him, and open at page 235.

OBS. 14.—Sheridan, in his Rhetorical Grammar, written about 1780, after asserting that a distinction of accent, and not of quantity, marks the movement of English verse, proceeds as follows: "From not having examined the peculiar genius of our tongue, our Prosodians have fallen into a variety of errors; some having adopted the rules of our neighbours, the French; and others having had recourse to those of the ancients; though neither of them, in reality, would square with our tongue, on account of an essential difference between them. [He means, "between each language and ours," and should have said so.] With regard to the French, they measured verses by the number of syllables whereof they were composed, on account of a constitutional defect in their tongue, which rendered it incapable of numbers formed by poetic feet. For it has neither accent nor quantity suited to the purpose; the syllables of their words being for the most part equally accented; and the number of long syllables being out of all proportion greater than that of the short. Hence for a long time it was supposed, as it is by most people at present, that our verses were composed, not of feet, but syllables; and accordingly they are denominated verses often, eight, six, or four syllables, even to this day. Thus have we lost sight of the great advantage which our language has given us over the French, in point of poetic numbers, by its being capable of a geometrical proportion, on which the harmony of versification depends; and blindly reduced ourselves to that of the arithmetical kind which contains no natural power of pleasing the ear. And hence like the French, our chief pleasure in verse arises from the poor ornament of rhyme."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 64.

OBS. 15.—In a recent work on this subject, Sheridan is particularly excepted, and he alone, where Hallam, Johnson, Lord Kames, and other "Prosodians" in general, are charged with "astonishing ignorance of the first principles of our verse;" and, at the same time, he is as particularly commended of having "especially insisted on the subject of Quantity."—Everett's English Versification, Preface, p. 6. That the rhetorician was but slenderly entitled to these compliments, may plainly appear from the next paragraph of his Grammar just cited; for therein he mistakingly represents it as a central error, to regard our poetic feet as being "formed by quantity" at all. "Some few of our Prosodians," says he, "finding this to be an error, and that our verses were really composed of feet, not syllables, without farther examination, boldly applied all the rules of the Latin prosody to our versification; though scarce any of them answered exactly, and some of them were utterly incompatible with the genius of our tongue. Thus because the Roman feet were formed by quantity, they asserted the same of ours, denominating all the accented syllables long; whereas I have formerly shewn, that the accent, in some cases, as certainly makes the syllable on which it is laid, short, as in others it makes it long. And their whole theory of quantity, borrowed from the Roman, in which they endeavour to establish the proportion of long and short, as immutably fixed to the syllables of words constructed in a certain way, at once falls to the ground; when it is shewn, that the quantity of our syllables is perpetually varying with the sense, and is for the most part regulated by EMPHASIS: which has been fully proved in the course of Lectures on the Art of reading Verse; where it has been also shewn, that this very circumstance has given us an amazing advantage over the ancients in the point of poetic numbers."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 64.

OBS. 16.—The lexicographer here claims to have "shewn" or "proved," what he had only affirmed, or asserted. Erroneously taking the quality of the vowel for the quantity of the syllable, he had suggested, in his confident way, that short quantity springs from the accenting of consonants, and long quantity, from the accenting of vowels—a doctrine which has been amply noticed and refuted in a preceding section of the present chapter. Nor is he, in what is here cited, consistent with himself. For, in the first place, nothing comes nearer than this doctrine of his, to an "endeavour to establish the proportion of long and short, as immutably fixed to the syllables of words constructed in a certain way"! Next, although he elsewhere contrasts accent and emphasis, and supposes them different, he either confounds them in reference to verse, or contradicts himself by ascribing to each the chief control over quantity. And, lastly, if our poetic feet are not quantitative, not formed of syllables long and short, as were the Roman, what "advantage over the ancients," can we derive from the fact, that quantity is regulated by stress, whether accent or emphasis?

OBS. 17.—We have, I think, no prosodial treatise of higher pretensions than Erastus Everett's "System of English Versification," first published in 1848. This gentleman professes to have borrowed no idea but what he has regularly quoted. "He mentions this, that it may not be supposed that this work is a compilation. It will be seen," says he, "how great a share of it is original; and the author, having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets, has the best reason for being confident of their correctness."—Preface, p. 5. Of the place to be filled by this System, he has the following conception: "It is thought to supply an important desideratum. It is a matter of surprise to the foreign student, who attempts the study of English poetry and the structure of its verse, to find that we have no work on which he can rely as authority on this subject. In the other modern languages, the most learned philologers have treated of the subject of versification, in all its parts. In English alone, in a language which possesses a body of poetical literature more extensive, as well as more valuable than any other modern language, not excepting the Italian, the student has no rules to guide him, but a few meagre and incorrect outlines appended to elementary text-books." Then follows this singularly inconsistent exception: "We must except from this remark two works, published in the latter part of the sixteenth century. But as they were written before the poetical language of the English tongue was fixed, and as the rules of verse were not then settled, these works can be of little practical utility."—Preface, p. 1. The works thus excepted as of reliable authority without practical utility, are "a short tract by Gascoyne," doubtless George Gascoigne's 'Notes of Instruction concerning the making of Verse or Rhyme in English,' published in 1575, and Webbe's 'Discourse of English Poetry,' dated 1586, neither of which does the kind exceptor appear to have ever seen! Mention is next made, successively, of Dr. Carey, of Dryden, of Dr. Johnson, of Blair, and of Lord Kames. "To these guides," or at least to the last two, "the author is indebted for many valuable hints;" yet he scruples not to say, "Blair betrays a paucity of knowledge on this subject;"—"Lord Kames has slurred over the subject of Quantity," and "shown an unpardonable ignorance of the first principles of Quantity in our verse;"—and, "Even Dr. Johnson speaks of syllables in such a manner as would lead us to suppose that he was in the same error as Kames. These inaccuracies," it is added, "can be accounted for only from the fact that Prosodians have not thought Quantity of sufficient importance to merit their attention."—See Preface, p. 4-6.

OBS. 18.—Everett's Versification consists of seventeen chapters, numbered consecutively, but divided into two parts, under the two titles Quantity and Construction. Its specimens of verse are numerous, various, and beautiful. Its modes of scansion—the things chiefly to be taught—though perhaps generally correct, are sometimes questionable, and not always consonant with the writer's own rules of quantity. From the citations above, one might expect from this author such an exposition of quantity, as nobody could either mistake or gainsay; but, as the following platform will show, his treatment of this point is singularly curt and incomplete. He is so sparing of words as not even to have given a definition of quantity. He opens his subject thus: "VERSIFICATION is the proper arrangement of words in a line according to their quantity, and the disposition of these lines in couplets, stanzas, or in blank verse, in such order, and according to such rules, as are sanctioned by usage.—A FOOT is a combination of two or more syllables, whether long or short.—A LINE is one foot, or more than one.—The QUANTITY of each word depends on its accent. In words of more than one syllable, all accented syllables are long, and all unaccented syllables are short. Monosyllables are long or short, according to the following Rules:—1st. All Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, and Participles are long.—2nd. The articles are always short.—3rd, The Pronouns are long or short, according to emphasis.—4th. Interjections and Adverbs are generally long, but sometimes made short by emphasis.—5th. Prepositions and Conjunctions are almost always short, but sometimes made long by emphasis."—English Versification, p. 13. None of these principles of quantity are unexceptionable; and whoever follows them implicitly, will often differ not only from what is right, but from their author himself in the analysis of verses. Nor are they free from important antagonisms. "Emphasis," as here spoken of, not only clashes with "accent," but contradicts itself, by making some syllables long and some short; and, what is more mysteriously absurd, the author says, "It frequently happens that syllables long by QUANTITY become short by EMPHASIS."—Everett's Eng. Versif., 1st Ed., p. 99. Of this, he takes the first syllable of the following line, namely, "the word bids," to be an example:

"B~ids m~e l=ive b~ut t=o h=ope f~or p~ost=er~it~y's pr=aise."

OBS. 19.—In the American Review, for May, 1848, Everett's System of Versification is named as "an apology and occasion"—not for a critical examination of this or any other scheme of prosody—but for the promulgation of a new one, a rival theory of English metres, "the principles and laws" of which the writer promises, "at an other time" more fully "to develop." The article referred to is entitled, "The Art of Measuring Verses." The writer, being designated by his initials, "J. D. W.," is understood to be James D. Whelpley, editor of the Review. Believing Everett's principal doctrines to be radically erroneous, this critic nevertheless excuses them, because he thinks we have nothing better! "The views supported in the work itself," says his closing paragraph, "are not, indeed, such as we would subscribe to, nor can we admit the numerous analyses of the English metres which it contains to be correct; yet, as it is as complete in design and execution as anything that has yet appeared on the subject, and well calculated to excite the attention, and direct the inquiries, of English scholars, to the study of our own metres, we shall even pass it by without a word of criticism."—American Review, New Series, Vol. I, p. 492.

OBS. 20.—Everett, although, as we have seen, he thought proper to deny that the student of English versification had any well authorized "rules to guide him," still argues that, "The laws of our verse are just as fixed, and may be as clearly laid down, if we but attend to the usage of the great Poets, as are the laws of our syntax."—Preface, p. 7. But this critic, of the American Review, ingenious though he is in many of his remarks, flippantly denies that our English Prosody has either authorities or principles which one ought to respect; and accordingly cares so little whom he contradicts, that he is often inconsistent with himself. Here is a sample: "As there are no established authorities in this art, and, indeed, no acknowledged principles—every rhymester being permitted to invent his own method, and write by instinct or imitation—the critic feels quite at liberty to say just what he pleases, and offer his private observations as though these were really of some moment."—Am. Rev., Vol. i, p. 484. In respect to writing, "to invent," and to "imitate," are repugnant ideas; and so are, after a "method," and "by instinct." Again, what sense is there in making the "liberty" of publishing one's "private observations" to depend on the presumed absence of rivals? That the author did not lack confidence in the general applicability of his speculations, subversive though they are of the best and most popular teaching on this subject, is evident from the following sentence: "We intend, also, that if these principles, with the others previously expressed, are true in the given instances, they are equally true for all languages and all varieties of metre, even to the denial that any poetic metres, founded on other principles, can properly exist."—Ib., p. 491

OBS. 21.—J. D. W. is not one of those who discard quantity and supply accent in expounding the nature of metre; and yet he does not coincide very nearly with any of those who have heretofore made quantity the basis of poetic numbers. His views of the rhythmical elements being in several respects peculiar, I purpose briefly to notice them here, though some of the peculiarities of this new "Art of Measuring Verses," should rather be quoted under the head of Scanning, to which they more properly belong. "Of every species of beauty," says this author, "and more especially of the beauty of sounds, continuousness is the first element; a succession of pulses of sound becomes agreeable, only when the breaks or intervals cease to be heard." Again: "Quantity, or the division into measures of time, is a second element of verse; each line must be stuffed out with sounds, to a certain fullness and plumpness, that will sustain the voice, and force it to dwell upon the sounds."—Rev., p. 485. The first of these positions is subsequently contradicted, or very largely qualified, by the following: "So, the line of significant sounds, in a verse, is also marked by accents, or pulses, and divided into portions called feet. These are necessary and natural for the very simple reason that continuity by itself is tedious; and the greatest pleasure arises from the union of continuity with variety. [That is, with "interruption," as he elsewhere calls it!] In the line,

'Full màny a tàle theír mùsic tèlls,'

there are at least four accents or stresses of the voice, with faint pauses after them, just enough to separate the continuous stream of sound into these four parts, to be read thus:

Fullman—yataleth—eirmus—ictells,[503]

by which, new combinations of sound are produced, of a singularly musical character. It is evident from the inspection of the above line, that the division of the feet by the accents is quite independent of the division of words by the sense. The sounds are melted into continuity, and re-divided again in a manner agreeable to the musical ear."—Ib., p. 486. Undoubtedly, the due formation of our poetic feet occasions both a blending of some words and a dividing of others, in a manner unknown to prose; but still we have the authority of this writer, as well as of earlier ones, for saying, "Good verse requires to be read with the natural quantites [sic—KTH] of the syllables," (p. 487,) a doctrine with which that of the redivision appears to clash. If the example given be read with any regard to the cæsural pause, as undoubtedly it should be, the th of their cannot be joined, as above, to the word tale; nor do I see any propriety in joining the s of music to the third foot rather than to the fourth. Can a theory which turns topsyturvy the whole plan of syllabication, fail to affect "the natural quantities of syllables?"

OBS. 22—Different modes of reading verse, may, without doubt, change the quantities of very many syllables. Hence a correct mode of reading, as well as a just theory of measure, is essential to correct scansion, or a just discrimination of the poetic feet. It is a very common opinion, that English verse has but few spondees; and the doctrine of Brightland has been rarely disputed, that, "Heroic Verses consist of five short, and five long Syllables intermixt, but not so very strictly as never to alter that order."—Gram., 7th Ed., p. 160.[504] J. D. W., being a heavy reader, will have each line so "stuffed out with sounds," and the consonants so syllabled after the vowels, as to give to our heroics three spondees for every two iambuses; and lines like the following, which, with the elisions, I should resolve into four iambuses, and without them, into three iambuses and one anapest, he supposes to consist severally of four spondees:—

   "'When coldness wraps this suffering clay,
    Ah! whither strays the immortal mind?'

[These are] to be read," according to this prosodian,

   "Whencoldn—esswrapsth—issuff'r—ingclay,
    Ah! whith—erstraysth'—immort—almind?"

"The verse," he contends, "is perceived to consist of six [probably he meant to say eight] heavy syllables, each composed of a vowel followed by a group of consonantal sounds, the whole measured into four equal feet. The movement is what is called spondaic, a spondee being a foot of two heavy sounds. The absence of short syllables gives the line a peculiar weight and solemnity suited to the sentiment, and doubtless prompted by it."—American Review, Vol. i, p. 487. Of his theory, he subsequently says: "It maintains that good English verse is as thoroughly quantitative as the Greek, though it be much more heavy and spondaic."—Ib., p. 491.[505]

OBS. 23—For the determining of quantities and feet, this author borrows from some old Latin grammar three or four rules, commonly thought inapplicable to our tongue, and, mixing them up with other speculations, satisfies himself with stating that the "Art of Measuring Verses" requires yet the production of many more such! But, these things being the essence of his principles, it is proper to state them in his own words: "A short vowel sound followed by a double consonantal sound, usually makes a long quantity;[506] so also does a long vowel like y in beauty, before a consonant. The metrical accents, which often differ from the prosaic, mostly fall upon the heavy sounds; which must also be prolonged in reading, and never slurred or lightened, unless to help out a bad verse. In our language the groupings of the consonants furnish a great number of spondaic feet, and give the language, especially its more ancient forms, as in the verse of Milton and the prose of Lord Bacon, a grand and solemn character. One vowel followed by another, unless the first be naturally made long in the reading, makes a short quantity, as in th[=e] old. So, also, a short vowel followed by a single short consonant, gives a short time or quantity, as in tö give. [Fist] A great variety of rules for the detection of long and short quantities have yet to be invented, or applied from the Greek and Latin prosody. In all languages they are of course the same, making due allowance for difference of organization; but it is as absurd to suppose that the Greeks should have a system of prosody differing in principle from our own, as that their rules of musical harmony should be different from the modern. Both result from the nature of the ear and of the organ of speech, and are consequently the same in all ages and nations."—Am. Rev., Vol. i, p. 488.

OBS. 24.—QUANTITY is here represented as "time" only. In this author's first mention of it, it is called, rather less accurately, "the division into measures of time." With too little regard for either of these conceptions, he next speaks of it as including both "time and accent." But I have already shown that "accents or stresses" cannot pertain to short syllables, and therefore cannot be ingredients of quantity. The whole article lacks that clearness which is a prime requisite of a sound theory. Take all of the writer's next paragraph as an example of this defect: "The two elements of musical metre, time and accent, both together constituting quantity, are equally elements of the metre of verse. Each iambic foot or metre, is marked by a swell of the voice, concluding abruptly in an accent, or interruption, on the last sound of the foot; or, [omit this 'or:' it is improper,] in metres of the trochaic order, in such words as dandy, handy, bottle, favor, labor, it [the foot] begins with a heavy accented sound, and declines to a faint or light one at the close. The line is thus composed of a series of swells or waves of sound, concluding and beginning alike. The accents, or points at which the voice is most forcibly exerted in the feet, being the divisions of time, by which a part of its musical character is given to the verse, are usually made to coincide, in our language, with the accents of the words as they are spoken; which [coincidence] diminishes the musical character of our verse. In Greek hexameters and Latin hexameters, on the contrary, this coincidence is avoided, as tending to monotony and a prosaic character."—Ibid.

OBS. 25.—The passage just cited represents "accent" or "accents" not only as partly constituting quantity, but as being, in its or their turn, "the divisions of time;"—as being also stops, pauses, or "interruptions" of sound else continuous;—as being of two sorts, "metrical" and "prosaic," which "usually coincide," though it is said, they "often differ," and their "interference" is "very frequent;"—as being "the points" of stress "in the feet," but not always such in "the words," of verse;—as striking different feet differently, "each iambic foot" on the latter syllable and every trochee on the former, yet causing, in each line, only such waves of sound as conclude and begin "alike;"—as coinciding with the long quantities and "the prosaic accents," in iambics and trochaics, yet not coinciding with these always;—as giving to verse "a part of its musical character," yet diminishing that character, by their usual coincidence with "the prose accents;"—as being kept distinct in Latin and Greek, "the metrical" from "the prosaic" and their "coincidence avoided," to make poetry more poetical,—though the old prosodists, in all they say of accents, acute, grave, and circumflex, give no hint of this primary distinction! In all this elementary teaching, there seems to be a want of a clear, steady, and consistent notion of the things spoken of. The author's theory led him to several strange combinations of words, some of which it is not easy, even with his whole explanation before us, to regard as other than absurd. With a few examples of his new phraseology, Italicized by myself, I dismiss the subject: "It frequently happens that word and verse accent fall differently."—P. 489. "The verse syllables, like the verse feet, differ in the prosaic and [the] metrical reading of the line."—Ib. "If we read it by the prosaic syllabication, there will be no possibility of measuring the quantities."—Ib. "The metrical are perfectly distinct from the prosaic properties of verse."—Ib. "It may be called an iambic dactyl, formed by the substitution of two short for one long time in the last portion of the foot. Iambic spondees and dactyls are to be distinguished by the metrical accent falling on the last syllable."—P. 491.

SECTION IV.—THE KINDS OF VERSE.

The principal kinds of verse, or orders of poetic numbers, as has already been stated, are four; namely, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and Dactylic. Besides these, which are sometimes called "the simple orders" being unmixed, or nearly so, some recognize several "Composite orders" or (with a better view of the matter) several kinds of mixed verse, which are said to constitute "the Composite order." In these, one of the four principal kinds of feet must still be used as the basis, some other species being inserted therewith, in each line or stanza, with more or less regularity.

PRINCIPLES AND NAMES.

The diversification of any species of metre, by the occasional change of a foot, or, in certain cases, by the addition or omission of a short syllable, is not usually regarded as sufficient to change the denomination, or stated order, of the verse; and many critics suppose some variety of feet, as well as a studied diversity in the position of the cæsural pause, essential to the highest excellence of poetic composition.

The dividing of verses into the feet which compose them, is called Scanning, or Scansion. In this, according to the technical language of the old prosodists, when a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be catalectic; when the measure is exact, the line is acatalectic; when there is a redundant syllable, it forms hypermeter.

Since the equal recognition of so many feet as twelve, or even as eight, will often produce different modes of measuring the same lines; and since it is desirable to measure verses with uniformity, and always by the simplest process that will well answer the purpose; we usually scan by the principal feet, in preference to the secondary, where the syllables give us a choice of measures, or may be divided in different ways.

A single foot, especially a foot of only two syllables, can hardly be said to constitute a line, or to have rhythm in itself; yet we sometimes see a foot so placed, and rhyming as a line. Lines of two, three, four, five, six, or seven feet, are common; and these have received the technical denominations of dim'eter, trim'eter, tetram'eter, pentam'eter, hexam'eter, and heptam'eter. On a wide page, iambics and trochaics may possibly be written in octom'eter; but lines of this measure, being very long, are mostly abandoned for alternate tetrameters.

ORDER I.—IAMBIC VERSE.

In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, and the odd ones are short. Any short syllable added to a line of this order, is supernumerary; iambic rhymes, which are naturally single, being made double by one, and triple by two. But the adding of one short syllable, which is much practised in dramatic poetry, may be reckoned to convert the last foot into an amphibrach, though the adding of two cannot. Iambics consist of the following measures:—

MEASURE I.—IAMBIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER.

Psalm XLVII, 1 and 2.

   "O =all | y~e p=eo | -pl~e, cl=ap | y~our h=ands, | ~and w=ith | tr~i=um
                                              | -ph~ant v=oi | -c~es s=ing;
    No force | the might | -=y power | withstands | of God, | the u
                                               | -niver | -sal King."
       See the "Psalms of David, in Metre," p. 54.

Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or exchanged for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines, rhyming alternately, and each commencing with a capital; but sometimes, the second line and the fourth are still commenced with a small letter: as,

   "Your ut | -most skill | in praise | be shown,
    for Him | who all | the world | commands,
    Who sits | upon | his right | -eous throne,
    and spreads | his sway | o'er heath | -en lands."
        Ib., verses 7 and 8; Edition bound with Com. Prayer,
            N. Y., 1819.

An other Example.

   "The hour | is come | —the cher | -ish'd hour,
    When from | the bus | -y world | set free,
    I seek | at length | my lone | -ly bower,
    And muse | in si | -lent thought | on thee."
        THEODORE HOOK'S REMAINS: The Examiner, No. 82.

MEASURE II.—IAMBIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER.

Example I.—Hat-Brims.

   "It's odd | how hats | expand [ their brims | as youth | begins
                                                          | to fade,
    As if | when life | had reached | its noon, | it want | -ed them
                                                          | for shade."
        OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES: From a Newspaper.

Example II.—Psalm XLII, 1.

   "As pants | the hart | for cool | -ing streams, | when heat | -ed in
                                                             | the chase;
    So longs | my soul, | O God, | for thee, | and thy | refresh
                                                             | -ing grace."
        EPISCOPAL PSALM-BOOK: The Rev. W. Allen's Eng. Gram., p. 227.

Example III.—The Shepherd's Hymn.

   "Oh, when | I rove | the des | -ert waste, | and 'neath | the hot
                                                              | sun pant,
    The Lord | shall be | my Shep | -herd then, | he will | not let
                                                              | me want;
    He'll lead | me where | the past | -ures are | of soft | and shad
                                                              | -y green,
    And where | the gen | -tle wa | -ters rove, | the qui | -et hills
                                                              | between.

    And when | the sav | -age shall | pursue, | and in | his grasp
                                                              | I sink,
    He will | prepare | the feast | for me, | and bring | the cool
                                                              | -ing drink,
    And save | me harm | -less from | his hands, and strength | -en me
                                                              | in toil,
    And bless | my home | and cot | -tage lands, and crown | my head
                                                              | with oil.

    With such | a Shep | -herd to | protect, | to guide | and guard
                                                              | me still,
    And bless | my heart | with ev | -'ry good, | and keep | from ev
                                                              | -'ry ill,
    Surely | I shall | not turn | aside, | and scorn | his kind
                                                              | -ly care,
    But keep | the path | he points | me out, | and dwell | for ev
                                                              | -er there."
        W. GILMORE SIMMS: North American Reader, p. 376.

Example IV.—"The Far, Far Fast."—First six Lines.

   "It was | a dream | of earl | -y years, | the long | -est and
                                                            | the last,
    And still | it ling | -ers bright | and lone | amid | the drear
                                                            | -y past;
    When I | was sick | and sad | at heart | and faint | with grief
                                                            | and care,
    It threw | its ra | -diant smile | athwart | the shad | -ows of
                                                            | despair:
    And still | when falls | the hour | of gloom | upon | this way
                                                            | -ward breast,
    Unto | THE FAR, | FAR EAST | I turn | for sol | -ace and | for rest."
        Edinburgh Journal; and The Examiner,

Example V.—"Lament of the Slave."—Eight Lines from thirty-four.

   "Behold | the sun | which gilds | yon heaven, how love | -ly it
                                                              | appears!
    And must | it shine | to light | a world | of war | -fare and
                                                              | of tears?
    Shall hu | -man pas | -sion ev | -er sway | this glo | -rious world
                                                              | of God,
    And beau | -ty, wis | -dom, hap | -piness, | sleep with | the tram
                                                              | -pled sod?
    Shall peace | ne'er lift | her ban | -ner up, | shall truth | and rea
                                                              | -son cry,
    And men | oppress | them down | with worse | than an | -cient tyr
                                                              | -anny?
    Shall all | the les | -sons time | has taught, | be so | long taught
                                                              | in vain;
    And earth | be steeped | in hu | -man tears, | and groan | with hu
                                                              | -man pain?"
        ALONZO LEWIS: Freedom's Amulet, Dec. 6, 1848.

Example VI.—"Greek Funeral Chant."—First four of sixty-four Lines.

   "A wail | was heard | around | the bed, | the death | -bed of
                                                              | the young;
    Amidst | her tears, | the Fu | -neral Chant | a mourn | -ful moth
                                                              | -er sung.
    'I-an | -this dost | thou sleep?— | Thou sleepst!— | but this
                                                      | is not | the rest,
    The breath | -ing, warm, | and ros | -y calm, | I've pil | -low'd on
                                                            | my breast!'"
        FELICIA HEMANS: Poetical Works, Vol. ii, p. 37.

Everett observes, "The Iliad was translated into this measure by CHAPMAN, and the Æneid by PHAER."—Eng. Versif., p. 68. Prior, who has a ballad of one hundred and eighty such lines, intimates in a note the great antiquity of the verse. Measures of this length, though not very uncommon, are much less frequently used than shorter ones. A practice has long prevailed of dividing this kind of verse into alternate lines of four and of three feet, thus:—

   "To such | as fear | thy ho | -ly name,
      myself | I close | -ly join;
    To all | who their | obe | -dient wills
      to thy | commands | resign."
        Psalms with Com. Prayer: Psalm cxix, 63.

This, according to the critics, is the most soft and pleasing of our lyric measures. With the slight change of setting a capital at the head of each line, it becomes the regular ballad-metre of our language. Being also adapted to hymns, as well as to lighter songs, and, more particularly, to quaint details of no great length, this stanza, or a similar one more ornamented with rhymes, is found in many choice pieces of English poetry. The following are a few popular examples:—

   "When all | thy mer | -cies, O | my God!
      My ris | -ing soul | surveys,
    Transport | -ed with | the view | I'm lost
      In won | -der, love, | and praise."
        Addison's Hymn of Gratitude.

    "John Gil | -pin was | a cit | -izen
      Of cred | -it and | renown,
    A train | -band cap | -tain eke | was he
      Of fam | -ous Lon | -don town."
        Cowper's Poems, Vol. i, p. 275.

    "God pros | -per long | our no | -ble king,
      Our lives | and safe | -ties all;
    A wo | -ful hunt | -ing once | there did
      In Chev | -y Chase | befall,"
        Later Reading of Chevy Chase.

    "Turn, An | -geli | -na, ev | -er dear,
      My charm | -er, turn | to see
    Thy own, | thy long | -lost Ed | -win here,
      Restored | to love | and thee."
        Goldsmith's Poems, p. 67.

    "'Come back! | come back!' | he cried | in grief,
       Across | this storm | -y wa_ter_:
    'And I'll | forgive | your High | -land chief,
       My daugh | -ter!—oh | my daugh_ter_!
    'Twas vain: | the loud | waves lashed | the shore,
       Return | or aid | prevent_ing_:—
     The wa | -ters wild | went o'er | his child,—
       And he | was left | lament_ing_."—Campbell's Poems, p. 110.

The rhyming of this last stanza is irregular and remarkable, yet not unpleasant. It is contrary to rule, to omit any rhyme which the current of the verse leads the reader to expect. Yet here the word "shore" ending the first line, has no correspondent sound, where twelve examples of such correspondence had just preceded; while the third line, without previous example, is so rhymed within itself that one scarcely perceives the omission. Double rhymes are said by some to unfit this metre for serious subjects, and to adapt it only to what is meant to be burlesque, humorous, or satiric. The example above does not confirm this opinion, yet the rule, as a general one, may still be just. Ballad verse may in some degree imitate the language of a simpleton, and become popular by clownishness, more than by elegance: as,

   "Father | and I | went down | to the camp
      Along | with cap | -tain Goodwin,
    And there | we saw | the men | and boys
      As thick | as hast | -y pudding;

    And there | we saw | a thun | -dering gun,—
      It took | a horn | of powder,—
    It made | a noise | like fa | -ther's gun,
      Only | a na | -tion louder."
        Original Song of Yankee Doodle.

Even the line of seven feet may still be lengthened a little by a double rhyme: as,

    How gay | -ly, o | -ver fell | and fen, | yon sports | -man light
                                                         | is dashing!
    And gay | -ly, in | the sun | -beams bright, | the mow |—er's blade
                                                         | is flashing!

Of this length, T. O. Churchill reckons the following couplet; but by the general usage of the day, the final ed is not made a separate syllable:—

   "With hic | and hoec, | as Pris | -cian tells, | sacer | -dos was
                                                         | de_cli | -n~ed_;
    But now | its gen | -der by | the pope | far bet | -ter is | de_fi
                                                         | -n~ed_."
        Churchill's New Grammar, p. 188.

MEASURE III.—IAMBIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER.

Example I.—A Couplet.

   "S~o v=a | -r~y~ing still | th~eir m=oods, | ~obs=erv | -~ing =yet
                                                         | ~in =all
    Their quan | -tities, | their rests, | their cen | -sures met
                                                         | -rical."
        MICHAEL DRAYTON: Johnson's Quarto Dict., w. Quantity.

Example II.—From a Description of a Stag-Hunt.

   "And through | the cumb | -rous thicks, | as fear | -fully | he makes,
    He with | his branch | -ed head | the ten | -der sap | -lings shakes,
    That sprink | -ling their | moist pearl | do seem | for him | to weep;
    When aft | -er goes | the cry, | with yell | -ings loud | and deep,
    That all | the for | -est rings, | and ev | -ery neigh
                                                         | -bouring place:
    And there | is not | a hound | but fall | -eth to | the chase."
        DRAYTON: Three Couplets from twenty-three,
                 in Everett's Versif., p. 66.

Example III.—An Extract from Shakespeare.

   "If love | make me | forsworn, | how shall | I swear | to love?
    O, nev | -er faith | could hold, | if not | to beau | -ty vow'd:
    Though to | myself | forsworn, | to thee | I'll con | -stant prove;
    Those thoughts, | to me | like oaks, | to thee | like o | -siers bow'd.
    St=ud~y | his bi | -as leaves, | and makes | his book | thine eyes,
    Where all | those pleas | -ures live, | that art | can com | -prehend.
    If knowl | -edge be | the mark, | to know | thee shall | suffice;
    Well learn | -ed is | that tongue | that well | can thee | commend;
    All ig | -norant | that soul | that sees | thee with' | o~ut wonder;
    Which is | to me | some praise, | that I | thy parts | admire:
    Thine eye | Jove's light | -ning seems, | thy voice | his dread
                                                        | -ful thunder,
    Which (not | to an | -ger bent) | is mu | -sic and | sweet fire.
    Celes | -tial as | thou art, | O, do | not love | that wrong,
    To sing | the heav | -ens' praise | with such | an earth | -ly tongue."
        The Passionate Pilgrim, Stanza IX;
            SINGER'S SHAK., Vol. ii, p. 594.

Example IV.—The Ten Commandments Versified.

   "Adore | no God | besides | me, to | provoke | mine eyes;
    Nor wor | -ship me | in shapes | and forms | that men | devise;
    With rev | 'rence use | my name, | nor turn | my words | to jest;
    Observe | my sab | -bath well, | nor dare | profane | my rest;
    Honor | and due | obe | -dience to | thy pa | -rents give;
    Nor spill | the guilt | -less blood, | nor let | the guilt
                                                        | -y live;[507]
    Preserve | thy bod | -y chaste, | and flee | th' unlaw | -ful bed;
    Nor steal | thy neigh | -bor's gold, | his gar | -ment, or | his bread;
    Forbear | to blast | his name | with false | -hood or deceit;
    Nor let | thy wish | -es loose | upon | his large | estate."
        DR. ISAAC WATTS: Lyric Poems, p. 46.

This verse, consisting, when entirely regular, of twelve syllables in six iambs, is the Alexandrine; said to have been so named because it was "first used in a poem called Alexander."—Worcester's Dict. Such metre has sometimes been written, with little diversity, through an entire English poem, as in Drayton's Polyolbion; but, couplets of this length being generally esteemed too clumsy for our language, the Alexandrine has been little used by English versifiers, except to complete certain stanzas beginning with shorter iambics, or, occasionally, to close a period in heroic rhyme. French heroics are similar to this; and if, as some assert, we have obtained it thence, the original poem was doubtless a French one, detailing the exploits of the hero "Alexandre." The phrase, "an Alexandrine verse," is, in French, "un vers Alexandrin." Dr. Gregory, in his Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, copies Johnson's Quarto Dictionary, which says, "ALEXANDRINE, a kind of verse borrowed from the French, first used in a poem called Alexander. They [Alexandrines] consist, among the French, of twelve and thirteen syllables, in alternate couplets; and, among us, of twelve." Dr. Webster, in his American Dictionary, improperly (as I think) gives to the name two forms, and seems also to acknowledge two sorts of the English verse: "ALEXAN'DRINE, or ALEXAN'DRIAN, n. A kind of verse, consisting of twelve syllables, or of twelve and thirteen alternately." "The Pet-Lamb," a modern pastoral, by Wordsworth, has sixty-eight lines, all probably meant for Alexandrines; most of which have twelve syllables, though some have thirteen, and others, fourteen. But it were a great pity, that versification so faulty and unsuitable should ever be imitated. About half of the said lines, as they appear in the poet's royal octave, or "the First Complete American, from the Last London Edition," are as sheer prose as can be written, it being quite impossible to read them into any proper rhythm. The poem being designed for children, the measure should have been reduced to iambic trimeter, and made exact at that. The story commences thus:—

   "The dew | was fall | -ing fast, | the stars | began | to blink;
    I heard | a voice; | it said, | 'Drink, pret | -ty crea
                                                       | -ture, drink!'
    And, look | -ing o'er | the hedge, | before | me I | espied
    A snow | -white moun | -tain Lamb | w=ith =a M=aid | -en at
                                                       | its side."

All this is regular, with the exception of one foot; but who can make any thing but prose of the following?

   "Thy limbs will shortly be twice as stout as they are now,
    Then I'll yoke thee to my cart like a pony in the plough."
    "Here thou needest not dread the raven in the sky;
    Night and day thou art safe,—our cottage is hard by."
        WORDSWORTH'S Poems, New-Haven Ed., 1836, p. 4.

In some very ancient English poetry, we find lines of twelve syllables combined in couplets with others of fourteen; that is, six iambic feet are alternated with seven, in lines that rhyme. The following is an example, taken from a piece of fifty lines, which Dr. Johnson ascribes to the Earl of Surry, one of the wits that flourished in the reign of Henry VIII:—

   "Such way | -ward wayes | hath Love, | that most | part in | discord,
    Our willes | do stand, | whereby | our hartes | but sel | -dom do
                                                            | accord;
    Decyte | is hys | delighte, | and to | begyle | and mocke,
    The sim | ple hartes | which he | doth strike | with fro | -ward di
                                                            | -vers stroke.
    He caus | -eth th' one | to rage | with gold | -en burn | -ing darte,
    And doth | allay | with lead | -en cold, | again | the oth
                                                            | -er's harte;
    Whose gleames | of burn | -ing fyre | and eas | -y sparkes | of flame,
    In bal | -ance of | ~un=e | -qual weyght | he pon | -dereth | by ame."
        See Johnson's Quarto Dict., History of the Eng. Lang., p. 4.

MEASURE IV.—IAMBIC OF FIVE FEET, OR PENTAMETER.

Example I.—Hector to Andromache.

   "Andr=om | -~ach=e! | m=y s=oul's | f~ar b=et | -t~er p=art,
    Wh=y w~ith | untime | -ly | sor | -rows heaves | thy heart?
    No hos | -tile hand | can an | -tedate | my doom,
    Till fate | condemns | me to | the si | -lent tomb.
    Fix'd is | the term | to all | the race | of earth;
    And such | the hard | conditi | -on of | our birth,
    No force | can then | resist, | no flight | can save;
    All sink | alike, | the fear | -ful and | the brave."
        POPE'S HOMER: Iliad, B. vi, l. 624-632.

Example II.—Angels' Worship.

   "No soon | -er had | th' Almight | -y ceas'd | but all
    The mul | -titude | of an | -gels with | a shout
    Loud as | from num | -bers with' | -out num | -ber, sweet
    As from | blest voi | -ces ut | t~er ~ing j=oy, | heav'n rung
    With ju | -bilee, | and loud | hosan | -nas fill'd
    Th' eter | -nal | re | -gions; low | -ly rev | -erent
    Tow'rds ei | -ther throne | they bow, | and to | the ground
    With sol | -emn ad | -ora | -tion down | they cast
    Their crowns | inwove | with am | -arant | and gold."
        MILTON: Paradise Lost, B. iii, l. 344.

Example III.—Deceptive Glosses.

   "The world | is still | deceiv'd | with or | -nament.
    In law, | what plea | so taint | -ed and | corrupt,
    But, be | -ing sea | -son'd with | a gra | -cious voice,
    Obscures | the show | of e | -vil? In | religi~on,
    What dam |—n~ed er | -ror, but | some so | -ber brow
    Will bless | it, and | approve | it with | a text,
    Hid~ing | the gross | -ness with | fair or | -nament?"
        SHAKSPEARE: Merch. of Venice, Act iii, Sc. 2.

Example IV.—Praise God.

   "Ye head | -long tor | -rents, rap | -id, and | profound;
    Ye soft | -er floods, | that lead | the hu | -mid maze
    Along | the vale; | and thou, | majes | -tic main,
    A se | -cret world | of won | -ders in | thyself,
    Sound His | stupen | -dous | praise; | whose great | -er voice
    Or bids | you roar, | or bids | your roar | -ings fall."
        THOMSON: Hymn to the Seasons.

Example V.—The Christian Spirit.

   "Like him | the soul, | thus kin | -dled from | above,
    Spreads wide | her arms | of u | -niver | -sal love;
    And, still | enlarg'd | as she | receives | the grace,
    Includes | cr~e=a | -tion in | her close | embrace.
    Behold | a Chris | -tian! and | without | the fires
    The found | -~er ~of | that name | alone | inspires,
    Though all | accom | -plishment, | all knowl | -edge meet,
    To make | the shin | -ing prod | -igy | complete,
    Whoev | -er boasts | that name— | behold | a cheat!"
        COWPER: Charity; Poems, Vol. i, p. 135.

Example VI.—To London.

   "Ten right | -eous would | have sav'd | a cit | -y once,
    And thou | hast man | -y right | -eous.—Well | for thee—
    That salt | preserves | thee; more | corrupt | -ed else,
    And there | -fore more | obnox | -ious, at | this hour,
    Than Sod | -om in | her day | had pow'r | to be,
    For whom | God heard | his Abr' | -ham plead | in vain."
        IDEM: The Task, Book iii, at the end.

This verse, the iambic pentameter, is the regular English heroic—a stately species, and that in which most of our great poems are composed, whether epic, dramatic, or descriptive. It is well adapted to rhyme, to the composition of sonnets, to the formation of stanzas of several sorts; and yet is, perhaps, the only measure suitable for blank verse—which latter form always demands a subject of some dignity or sublimity.

The Elegiac Stanza, or the form of verse most commonly used by elegists, consists of four heroics rhyming alternately; as,

   "Thou knowst | how trans | -port thrills | the ten | -der breast,
      Where love | and fan | -cy fix | their ope | -ning reign;
    How na | -ture shines | in live | -lier col | -ours dress'd,
      To bless | their un | -ion, and | to grace | their train."
        SHENSTONE: British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 106.

Iambic verse is seldom continued perfectly pure through a long succession of lines. Among its most frequent diversifications, are the following; and others may perhaps be noticed hereafter:—

(1.) The first foot is often varied by a substitutional trochee; as,

"Bacchus, | that first | from out | the pur | -ple grape Crush'd the | sweet poi | -son of | mis-=us | -~ed wine, After | the Tus | -can mar | -iners | transform'd, Coasting | the Tyr | -rhene shore, | ~as th~e | winds list_~ed_, On Cir | -ce's isl | -and fell. | Who knows | not Cir_c~e_, The daugh | -ter of | the sun? | whose charm | -~ed cup Whoev | -er tast | -ed, lost | his up | -right shape, And down | -ward fell | =int~o a grov | -elling swine." MILTON: Comus; British Poets, Vol. ii, p. 147.

(2.) By a synæresis of the two short syllables, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus; or a dactyl, for a trochee. This occurs chiefly where one unaccented vowel precedes an other in what we usually regard as separate syllables, and both are clearly heard, though uttered perhaps in so quick succession that both syllables may occupy only half the time of a long one. Some prosodists, however, choose to regard these substitutions as instances of trissyllabic feet mixed with the others; and, doubtless, it is in general easy to make them such, by an utterance that avoids, rather than favours, the coalescence. The following are examples:—

   "No rest: | through man | -y a dark | and drear | -y vale
    They pass'd, | and man | -y a re | -gion dol | -orous,
    O'er man | -y a fro | -zen, man | -y a fi | -ery Alp."
        —MILTON: P. L., B. ii, l. 618.

    "Rejoice | ye na | -tions, vin | -dicate | the sway
    Ordain'd | for com | -mon hap | -piness. | Wide, o'er
    The globe | terra | -queous, let | Britan | -nia pour
    The fruits | of plen | -ty from | her co | -pious horn."
        —DYER: Fleece, B. iv, l. 658.

    "Myriads | of souls | that knew | one pa | -rent mold,
      See sad | -ly sev | er'd by | the laws | of chance!
    Myriads, | in time's | peren | -nial list | enroll'd,
      Forbid | by fate | to change | one tran | -sient glance!"
        SHENSTONE: British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 109.

(3.) In plays, and light or humorous descriptions, the last foot of an iambic line is often varied or followed by an additional short syllable; and, sometimes, in verses of triple rhyme, there is an addition of two short syllables, after the principal rhyming syllable. Some prosodists call the variant foot, in die former instance, an amphibrach, and would probably, in the latter, suppose either an additional pyrrhic, or an amphibrach with still a surplus syllable; but others scan, in these cases, by the iambus only, calling what remains after the last long syllable hypermeter; and this is, I think, the better way. The following examples show these and some other variations from pure iambic measure:—

Example I.—Grief.

   "Each sub | st~ance ~of | a grief | hath twen | -ty shad_~ows_,
    Which show | like grief | itself, | but are | not so:
    For sor | -row's eye, | gl=az~ed | with blind | -ing tears,
    Divides one thing | entire | to man |—y ob_j~ects_;
    Like per | -spectives, | which, right | -ly gaz'd | upon,
    Show noth | -ing but | confu | -sion; ey'd | awry,
    Distin | -guish form: | so your | sweet maj | -esty,
    Lo=ok~ing | awry | upon | your lord's | depart_~ure_,
    Finds shapes | of grief, | more than | himself, | to wail;
    Which, look'd | on as | it is, | is nought | but shad_~ows_."
        SHAKSPEARE: Richard II, Act ii, Sc. 2.

Example II.—A Wish to Please.

   "O, that | I had | the art | of eas | -y writing
      What should | be eas | -y read | -ing | could | I scale
    Parnas | -sus, where | the Mus | -es sit | in_diting_
      Those pret | -ty po | -ems nev | -er known | to fail,
    How quick | -ly would | I print | (the world | de_lighting_)
      A Gre | -cian, Syr | -ian, or | Assy | -ian tale;
    And sell | you, mix'd | with west | -ern sen | -ti_mentalism_,
    Some sam | -ples of | the fin | -est O | -ri_entalism_."
        LORD BYRON: Beppo, Stanza XLVIII.

MEASURE V.—IAMBIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER.

Example I.—Presidents of the United States of America.

   "First stands | the loft | -y Wash | -ington,
    That no | -ble, great, | immor | -tal one;
    The eld | -er Ad | -ams next | we see;
    And Jef | -ferson | comes num | -ber three;
    Then Mad | -ison | is fourth, | you know;
    The fifth | one on | the list, | Monroe;
    The sixth | an Ad | -ams comes | again;
    And Jack | -son, sev | -enth in | the train;
    Van Bu | -ren, eighth | upon | the line;
    And Har | -rison | counts num | -ber nine;
    The tenth | is Ty | -ler, in | his turn;
    And Polk, | elev | -enth, as | we learn;
    The twelfth | is Tay | -lor, peo | -ple say;
    The next | we learn | some fu | -ture day."
        ANONYMOUS: From Newspaper, 1849.

Example II.—The Shepherd Bard.

   "The bard | on Ett | -rick's moun | tain green
    In Na | -ture's bo | -som nursed | had been,
    And oft | had marked | in for | -est lone
    Her beau | -ties on | her moun | -tain throne;
    Had seen | her deck | the wild | -wood tree,
    And star | with snow | -y gems | the lea;
    In love | -li~est c=ol | -ours paint | the plain,
    And sow | the moor | with pur | -ple grain;
    By gold | -en mead | and moun | -tain sheer,
    Had viewed | the Ett | -rick wav | -ing clear,
    Where shad | -=ow=y fl=ocks | of pur | -est snow
    Seemed graz | -ing in | a world | below."
        JAMES HOGG: The Queen's Wake, p. 76.

Example III.—Two Stanzas from Eighteen, Addressed to the Ettrick Shepherd.

   "O Shep | -herd! since | 'tis thine | to boast
      The fas | -cinat | -ing pow'rs | of song,
    Far, far | above | the count | -less host,
      Who swell | the Mus | -es' sup | -pli~ant throng,

    The GIFT | OF GOD | distrust | no more,
      His in | -spira | -tion be | thy guide;
    Be heard | thy harp | from shore | to shore,
      Thy song's | reward | thy coun | -try's pride."
        B. BARTON: Verses prefixed to the Queen's Wake.

Example IV.—"Elegiac Stanzas," in Iambics of Four feet and Three.

   "O for | a dirge! | But why | complain?
    Ask rath | -er a | trium | -phal strain
      When FER | MOR'S race | is run;
    A gar | -land of | immor | -tal boughs
    To bind | around | the Chris | -tian's brows,
      Whose glo | -rious work | is done.

    We pay | a high | and ho | -ly debt;
    No tears | of pas | -sionate | regret
      Shall stain | this vo | -tive lay;
    Ill-wor | -thy, Beau | -mont! were | the grief
    That flings | itself | on wild | relief
      When Saints | have passed | away."
        W. WORDSWORTH: Poetical Works, First complete Amer. Ed., p. 208.

This line, the iambic tetrameter, is a favourite one, with many writers of English verse, and has been much used, both in couplets and in stanzas. Butler's Hudibras, Gay's Fables, and many allegories, most of Scott's poetical works, and some of Byron's, are written in couplets of this measure. It is liable to the same diversifications as the preceding metre. The frequent admission of an additional short syllable, forming double rhyme, seems admirably to adapt it to a familiar, humorous, or burlesque style. The following may suffice for an example:—

   "First, this | large par | -cel brings | you tidings
    Of our | good Dean's | eter | -nal chidings;
    Of Nel | -ly's pert | -ness, Rob | -in's leasings,
    And Sher | -idan's | perpet | -ual teasings.
    This box | is cramm'd | on ev | -ery side
    With Stel | -la's mag | -iste | -rial pride."
         DEAN SWIFT: British Poets, Vol. v, p. 334.

The following lines have ten syllables in each, yet the measure is not iambic of five feet, but that of four with hypermeter:—

   "There was | ~an =an | -cient sage | phi_losopher_,
    Who had | read Al | -exan | -der Ross over."—Butler's Hudibras.

    "I'll make | them serve | for per | -pen_diculars_,
    As true | as e'er | were us'd | by bricklayers."
        —Ib., Part ii, C. iii, l. 1020.

MEASURE VI.—IAMBIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER.

Example.—To Evening.

   "Now teach | me, maid | compos'd
    To breathe | some soft | -en'd strain."—Collins, p. 39.

This short measure has seldom, if ever, been used alone in many successive couplets; but it is often found in stanzas, sometimes without other lengths, but most commonly with them. The following are a few examples:—

Example I.—Two ancient Stanzas, out of Many,

   "This while | we are | abroad,
      Shall we | not touch | our lyre?
    Shall we | not sing | an ode?
      Shall now | that ho | -ly fire,
    In us, | that strong | -ly glow'd,
      In this | cold air, | expire?

    Though in | the ut | -most peak,
      A while | we do | remain,
    Amongst | the moun | -tains bleak,
      Expos'd | to sleet | and rain,
    No sport | our hours | shall break,
      To ex | -ercise | our vein."
        DRAYTON: Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 13; John Burn's, p. 244.

Example II.—Acis and Galatea.

   "For us | the zeph | -yr blows,
      For us | distils | the dew,
    For us | unfolds | the rose,
      And flow'rs | display | their hue;

    For us | the win | -ters rain,
      For us | the sum | -mers shine,
    Spring swells | for us | the grain,
      And au | -tumn bleeds | the vine."
        JOHN GAY: British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 376.

Example III.—"Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin."

   "The king | was on | his throne,
      The sa | -traps thronged | the hall;
    A thou | -sand bright | lamps shone
      O'er that | high fes | -tival.
    A thou | -sand cups | of gold,
      In Ju | -dah deemed | divine—
    Jeho | -vah's ves | -sels, hold
      The god | -less Hea | -then's wine!

    In that | same hour | and hall,
      The fin | -gers of | a hand
    Came forth | against | the wall,
      And wrote | as if | on sand:
    The fin | -gers of | a man,—
      A sol | -ita | -ry hand
    Along | the let | -ters ran,
      And traced | them like | a wand."
        LORD BYRON: Vision of Belshazzar.

Example IV.—Lyric Stanzas.

   "Descend, | celes | -tial fire,
      And seize | me from | above,
    Melt me | in flames | of pure | desire,
      A sac | -rifice | to love.

    Let joy | and wor | -ship spend
      The rem | -nant of | my days,
    And to | my God, | my soul | ascend,
      In sweet | perfumes | of praise."
        WATTS: Poems sacred to Devotion, p. 50.

Example V.—Lyric Stanzas.

   "I would | begin | the mu | -sic here,
      And so | my soul | should rise:
    O for | some heav'n | -ly notes | to bear
      My spir | -it to | the skies!

    There, ye | that love | my say | -iour, sit,
      There I | would fain | have place
    Amongst | your thrones | or at | your feet,
      So I | might see | his face."
        WATTS: Same work, "Horæ Lyricæ," p. 71.

Example VI.—England's Dead.

   "The hur | -ricane | hath might
      Along | the In | -dian shore,
    And far, | by Gan | -ges' banks | at night,
      Is heard | the ti | -ger's roar.

    But let | the sound | roll on!
      It hath | no tone | of dread
    For those | that from | their toils | are gone;—
      There slum | -ber Eng | -land's dead."
        HEMANS: Poetical Works, Vol. ii, p. 61.

The following examples have some of the common diversifications already noticed under the longer measures:—

Example I.—"Languedocian Air."

   "L=ove ~is | a hunt | -er boy,
      Who makes | young hearts | his prey;
    And in | his nets | of joy
      Ensnares | them night | and day.

    In vain | conceal'd | they lie,
      Love tracks | them ev' | -ry where;
    In vain | aloft | they fly,
      Love shoots | them fly | -ing there.

    But 'tis | his joy | most sweet,
      At earl | -y dawn | to trace
    The print | of Beau | -ty's feet,
      And give | the trem | -bler chase.

    And most | he loves | through snow
      To track | those foot | -steps fair,
    For then | the boy | doth know,
      None track'd | before | him there."
        MOORE'S Melodies and National Airs, p. 274.

Example II.—From "a Portuguese Air."

   "Flow on, | thou shin | -ing river,
      But ere | thou reach | the sea,
    Seek El | -la's bower, | and give her
      The wreaths | I fling | o'er thee.

    But, if | in wand' | -ring thither,
      Thou find | she mocks | my pray'r,
    Then leave | those wreaths | to wither
      Upon | the cold | bank there."
        MOORE: Same Volume, p. 261.

Example III.—Resignation.

   "O Res | -igna | -tion! yet | unsung,
      Untouch'd | by for | -mer strains;
    Though claim | -ing ev | -ery mu | -se's smile,
      And ev | -ery po | -et's pains!

    All oth | -er du | -ties cres | -cents are
      Of vir | -tue faint | -ly bright;
    The glo | -rious con | -summa | -tion, thou,
      Which fills | her orb | with light!"
        YOUNG: British Poets, Vol. viii, p. 377.

MEASURE VII.—IAMBIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER.

Example—A Scolding Wife.

1.

    "There was | a man
    Whose name | was Dan,
    Who sel | -dom spoke;
    His part | -ner sweet
    He thus | did greet,
    Without | a joke;

2.

    My love | -ly wife,
    Thou art | the life
    Of all | my joys;
    Without | thee, I
    Should sure | -ly die
    For want | of noise.

           3.
    O, prec | -ious one,
    Let thy | tongue run
    In a | sweet fret;
    And this | will give
    A chance | to live,
    A long | time yet.

4.

    When thou | dost scold
    So loud | and bold,
    I'm kept | awake;
    But if | thou leave,
    It will | me grieve,
    Till life | forsake.

5.

    Then said | his wife,
    I'll have | no strife
    With you, | sweet Dan;
    As 'tis | your mind,
    I'll let | you find
    I am | your man.

6.

    And fret | I will,
    To keep | you still
    Enjoy | -ing life;
    So you | may be
    Content | with me,
    A scold | -ing wife."
        ANONYMOUS: Cincinnati Herald, 1844.

Iambic dimeter, like the metre of three iambs, is much less frequently used alone than in stanzas with longer lines; but the preceding example is a refutation of the idea, that no piece is ever composed wholly of this measure, or that the two feet cannot constitute a line. In Humphrey's English Prosody, on page 16th, is the following paragraph; which is not only defective in style, but erroneous in all its averments:—

"Poems are never composed of lines of two [-] feet metre, in succession: they [combinations of two feet] are only used occasionally in poems, hymns, odes, &c. to diversify the metre; and are, in no case, lines of poetry, or verses; but hemistics, [hemistichs,] or half lines. The shortest metre of which iambic verse is composed, in lines successively, is that of three feet; and this is the shortest metre which can be denominated lines, or verses; and this is not frequently used."

In ballads, ditties, hymns, and versified psalms, scarcely any line is more common than the iambic trimeter, here denied to be "frequently used;" of which species, there are about seventy lines among the examples above. Dr. Young's poem entitled "Resignation," has eight hundred and twenty such lines, and as many more of iambic tetrameter. His "Ocean" has one hundred and forty-five of the latter, and two hundred and ninety-two of the species now under consideration; i.e., iambic dimeter. But how can the metre which predominates by two to one, be called, in such a case, an occasional diversification of that which is less frequent?

Lines of two iambs are not very uncommon, even in psalmody; and, since we have some lines yet shorter, and the lengths of all are determined only by the act of measuring, there is, surely, no propriety in calling dimeters "hemistichs," merely because they are short. The following are some examples of this measure combined with longer ones:—

Example I.—From Psalm CXLVIII.

                  1, 2.
    "Ye bound | -less realms | of joy,
      Exalt | your Ma | -ker's fame;
    His praise | your songs | employ
      Above | the star | -ry frame:
        Your voi | -ces raise,
      Ye Cher | -ubim,
      And Ser | -aphim,
        To sing | his praise.

                  3, 4.
    Thou moon, | that rul'st | the night,
      And sun, | that guid'st | the day,
    Ye glitt' | -ring stars | of light,
      To him | your hom | -age pay:
        His praise | declare,
      Ye heavens | above,
      And clouds | that move
        In liq | -uid air."
The Book of Psalms in Metre, (with Com. Prayer,) 1819.

Example II.—From Psalm CXXXVI.

   "To God | the might | -y Lord,
      your joy | -ful thanks | repeat;
    To him | due praise | afford,
      as good | as he | is great:
        For God | does prove
        Our con | -stant friend,
        His bound | -less love
        Shall nev | -er end."—Ib., p. 164.

Example III.—Gloria Patri.

   "To God | the Fa | -ther, Son,
      And Spir | -it ev | -er bless'd,
    Eter | -nal Three | in One,
      All wor | -ship be | address'd;
        As here | -tofore
      It was, | is now,
      And shall | be so
        For ev | -ermore."—Ib., p. 179.

Example IV.—Part of Psalm III.

    [O] "Lord, | how man | -y are | my foes!
      How man | -y those
    That [now] | in arms | against | me rise!
      Many | are they
    That of | my life | distrust | -fully | thus say:
    'No help | for him | in God | there lies.'

    But thou, | Lord, art | my shield | my glo_ry_;
      Thee, through | my sto_ry_,
    Th' exalt | -er of | my head | I count;
      Aloud | I cried
    Unto | Jeho | -vah, he | full soon | replied,
    And heard | me from | his ho | -ly mount."
        MILTON: Psalms Versified, British Poets, Vol. ii, p. 161.

Example V.—Six Lines of an "Air."

    "As when | the dove
     Laments | her love
    All on | the na | -ked spray;

     When he | returns,
     No more | she mourns,
    But loves | the live | -long day."
       JOHN GAY: British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 377.

Example VI.—Four Stanzas of an Ode.

   "XXVIII.
     Gold pleas | -ure buys;
     But pleas | -ure dies",
    Too soon | the gross | fruiti | -on cloys:
     Though rapt | -ures court,
     The sense | is short;
    But vir | -tue kin | -dles liv | -ing joys:

    XXIX.
     Joys felt | alone!
     Joys ask'd | of none!
    Which Time's | and For | -tune's ar | -rows miss;
     Joys that | subsist,
     Though fates | resist,
    An un | -preca | -rious, end | -less bliss!

    XXX.
     The soul | refin'd
     Is most | inclin'd
    To ev | -~er=y m=or | -al ex | -cellence;
     All vice | is dull,
     A knave's | a fool;
    And Vir | -tue is | the child | of Sense.

    XXXI.
     The vir | -tuous mind
     Nor wave, | nor wind,
    Nor civ | -il rage, | nor ty | -rant's frown,
     The shak | -en ball,
     Nor plan | -ets' fall,
    From its | firm ba | -sis can | dethrone."
       YOUNG'S "OCEAN:" British Poets, Vol. viii, p 277.

There is a line of five syllables and double rhyme, which is commonly regarded as iambic dimeter with a supernumerary short syllable; and which, though it is susceptible of two other divisions into two feet, we prefer to scan in this manner, because it usually alternates with pure iambics. Twelve such lines occur in the following extract:—

LOVE TRANSITORY

    "Could Love | for ev_er_
    Run like | a riv_er_,
    And Time's | endeav_our_
      Be tried | in vain,—
    No oth | -er pleas_ure_
    With this | could meas_ure_;
    And like | a treas_ure_
      We'd hug | the chain.

    But since | our sigh_ing_
    Ends not | in dy_ing_,
    And, formed | for fly_ing_,
      Love plumes | his wing;
    Then for | this rea_son_
    Let's love | a sea_son_;
    But let | that sea_son_
      Be on | -ly spring."
        LORD BYRON: See Everett's Versification, p. 19;
           Fowler's E. Gram., p. 650.

MEASURE VIII.—IAMBIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER.

"The shortest form of the English Iambic," says Lindley Murray, "consists of an Iambus with an additional short syllable: as,

    Disdaining,
    Complaining,
    Consenting,
    Repenting.

We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the Amphibrach."—Murray's Gram., 12mo, p. 204; 8vo, p. 254. This, or the substance of it, has been repeated by many other authors. Everett varies the language and illustration, but teaches the same doctrine. See E. Versif., p. 15.

Now there are sundry examples which may be cited to show, that the iambus, without any additional syllable, and without the liability of being confounded with an other foot, may, and sometimes does, stand as a line, and sustain a regular rhyme. The following pieces contain instances of this sort:—

Example I.—"How to Keep Lent."

    "Is this | a Fast, | to keep
      The lard | -er lean
        And clean
    From fat | of neats | and sheep?

    Is it | to quit | the dish
      Of flesh, | yet still
        To fill
    The plat | -ter high | with fish?

    Is it | to fast | an hour,
      Or ragg'd | to go,
        Or show
    A down | -cast look | and sour?

    No:—'Tis | a Fast | to dole
      Thy sheaf | of wheat,
        And meat,
    Unto | the hun | -gry soul.

    It is | to fast | from strife,
      From old | debate,
        And hate;
    To cir | -cumcise | thy life;

    To show | a heart | grief-rent;
      To starve | thy sin,
        Not bin:
    Ay, that's | to keep | thy Lent."
        ROBERT HERRICK: Clapp's Pioneer, p. 48.

Example II.—"To Mary Ann."

[This singular arrangement of seventy-two separate iambic feet, I find without intermediate points, and leave it so. It seems intended to be read in three or more different ways, and the punctuation required by one mode of reading would not wholly suit an other.]

   "Your face Your tongue Your wit
      So fair So sweet So sharp
    First bent Then drew Then hit
      Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart

    Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart
      To like To learn To love
    Your face Your tongue Your wit
      Doth lead Doth teach Doth move

    Your face Your tongue Your wit
      With beams With sound With art
    Doth blind Doth charm Doth rule
      Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart

    Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart
      With life With hope With skill
    Your face Your tongue Your wit
      Doth feed Doth feast Doth fill

    O face O tongue O wit
      With frowns With cheek With smart
    Wrong not Vex not Wound not
      Mine eye Mine ear Mine heart

    This eye This ear This heart
      Shall joy Shall bend Shall swear
    Your face Your tongue Your wit
      To serve To trust To fear."

ANONYMOUS: Sundry American Newspapers, in 1849.

Example III.—Umbrellas.

"The late George Canning, of whom Byron said that 'it was his happiness to be at once a wit, poet, orator, and statesman, and excellent in all,' is the author of the following clever jeu d' esprit:" [except three lines here added in brackets:]

   "I saw | a man | with two | umbrellas,
    (One of | the lon |—gest kind | of fellows,)
            When it rained,
            M=eet =a | l=ady
            On the | shady
            Side of | thirty |-three,
    Minus | one of | these rain |-dispellers.
                'I see,'
                Says she,
    'Your qual | -ity | of mer | -cy is | not strained.'
    [Not slow | to comprehend | an inkling,
    His eye | with wag |-gish hu |-mour twinkling.]
            Replied | he, 'Ma'am,
                Be calm;
            This one | under | my arm
                Is rotten,
    [And can |-not save | you from | a sprinkling.]
            Besides | to keep | you dry,
    'Tis plain | that you | as well | as I,
            'Can lift | your cotton.'"
        See The Essex County Freeman, Vol. i, No. 1.

Example IV.—Shreds of a Song.

I. SPRING.

   "The cuck |—oo then, | on ev |—ery tree,
    Mocks mar |—ried men, | for thus | sings he, Cuckoo';
    Cuckoo', | cuckoo',— | O word | of fear,
    Unpleas |-ing to | a mar |-ried ear!"

II. WINTER.

   "When blood | is nipp'd, | and ways | be foul,
    Then night | -ly sings | the star |-ing owl, To-who;
    To-whit, | to-who, | a mer | -ry note,
    While greas | -y Joan | doth keel | the pot."
        —SHAKSPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, Act v, Sc. 2.

Example V.—Puck's Charm.

[When he has uttered the fifth line, he squeezes a juice on Lysander's eyes.]

   "On the ground,
      Sleep sound;
      I'll apply
      To your eye,
    Gentle | lover, | remedy.
     When thou wak'st,
       Thou tak'st
     True delight
     In the sight
    Of thy | former | lady's eye." [508]
       IDEM: Midsummer-Night's Dream, Act iii, Sc. 2.

ORDER II.—TROCHAIC VERSE.

In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable, that it may end with a long one; for the common doctrine of Murray, Chandler, Churchill, Bullions, Butler, Everett, Fowler, Weld, Wells, Mulligan, and others, that this chief rhyming syllable is "additional" to the real number of feet in the line, is manifestly incorrect. One long syllable is, in some instances, used as a foot; but it is one or more short syllables only, that we can properly admit as hypermeter. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the same poem; but, in either order, written with exactness, the number of feet is always the number of the long syllables.

Examples from Gray's Bard.

(1.)

"Ruin | seize thee,| ruthless | king! Confu | -sion on | thy ban |-ners wait, Though, fann'd | by Con | -quest's crim | -son wing. They mock | the air | with i | -dle state. Helm, nor | hauberk's | twisted | mail, Nor e'en | thy vir | -tues, ty | -rant, shall | avail."

(2.)

   "Weave the | warp, and | weave the | woof,
    The wind | -ing-sheet | of Ed | -ward's race.
    Give am | -ple room, | and verge | enough,
    The char | -acters | of hell | to trace.
    Mark the |year, and | mark the | night,
    When Sev | -ern shall | re-ech | -o with | affright."
        "The Bard, a Pindaric Ode;"
            British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 281 and 282.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Trochaic verse without the final short syllable, is the same as iambic would be without the initial short syllable;—it being quite plain, that iambic, so changed, becomes trochaic, and is iambic no longer. But trochaic, retrenched of its last short syllable, is trochaic still; and can no otherwise be made iambic, than by the prefixing of a short syllable to the line. Feet, and the orders of verse, are distinguished one from an other by two things, and in general by two only; the number of syllables taken as a foot, and the order of their quantities. Trochaic verse is always as distinguishable from iambic, as iambic is from any other. Yet have we several grammarians and prosodies who contrive to confound them—or who, at least, mistake catalectic trochaic for catalectic iambic; and that too, where the syllable wanting affects only the last foot, and makes it perhaps but a common and needful cæsura.

OBS. 2.—To suppose that iambic verse may drop its initial short syllable, and still be iambic, still be measured as before, is not only to take a single long syllable for a foot, not only to recognize a pedal cæsura at the beginning of each line, but utterly to destroy the only principles on which iambics and trochaics can be discriminated. Yet Hiley, of Leeds, and Wells, of Andover, while they are careful to treat separately of these two orders of verse, not only teach that any order may take at the end "an additional syllable," but also suggest that the iambic may drop a syllable "from the first foot," without diminishing the number of feet,—without changing the succession of quantities,—without disturbing the mode of scansion! "Sometimes," say they, (in treating of iambics,) "a syllable is cut off from the first foot; as,

    Práise | to Gód, | immór |-tal práise,
    Fór | the lóve | that crówns | our dáys."[—BARBAULD.]
        Hiley's E. Gram., Third Edition, London, p. 124;
            Wells's, Third Edition, p. 198.

OBS. 3.—Now this couplet is the precise exemplar, not only of the thirty-six lines of which it is a part, but also of the most common of our trochaic metres; and if this may be thus scanned into iambic verse, so may all other trochaic lines in existence: distinction between the two orders must then be worse than useless. But I reject this doctrine, and trust that most readers will easily see its absurdity. A prosodist might just as well scan all iambics into trochaics, by pronouncing each initial short syllable to be hypermeter. For, surely, if deficiency may be discovered at the beginning of measurement, so may redundance. But if neither is to be looked for before the measurement ends, (which supposition is certainly more reasonable,) then is the distinction already vindicated, and the scansion above-cited is shown to be erroneous.

OBS. 4.—But there are yet other objections to this doctrine, other errors and inconsistencies in the teaching of it. Exactly the same kind of verse as this, which is said to consist of "four iambuses" from one of which "a syllable is cut off," is subsequently scanned by the same authors as being composed of "three trochees and an additional syllable; as,

    'Haste thee, | Nymph, and | bring with | thee
    Jest and | youthful | Jolli |-ty.'—MILTON."
        Wells's School Grammar, p. 200.

    "V=it~al | sp=ark of | he=av'nly | fl=me,
    Q=uit ~oh | q=uit th~is | m=ort~al | fr=ame." [509][—POPE.]
        Hiley's English Grammar, p. 126.

There is, in the works here cited, not only the inconsistency of teaching two very different modes of scanning the same species of verse, but in each instance the scansion is wrong; for all the lines in question are trochaic of four feet,—single-rhymed, and, of course, catalectic, and ending with a cæsura, or elision. In no metre that lacks but one syllable, can this sort of foot occur at the beginning of a line; yet, as we see, it is sometimes imagined to be there, by those who have never been able to find it at the end, where it oftenest exists!

OBS. 5.—I have hinted, in the main paragraph above, that it is a common error of our prosodists, to underrate, by one foot, the measure of all trochaic lines, when they terminate with single rhyme; an error into which they are led by an other as gross, that of taking for hypermeter, or mere surplus, the whole rhyme itself, the sound or syllable most indispensable to the verse.

   "(For rhyme the rudder is of verses,
    With which, like ships, they steer their courses.)"—Hudibras.

Iambics and trochaics, of corresponding metres, and exact in them, agree of course in both the number of feet and the number of syllables; but as the former are slightly redundant with double rhyme, so the latter are deficient as much, with single rhyme; yet, the number of feet may, and should, in these cases, be reckoned the same. An estimable author now living says, "Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable, is the same as iambic verse, without the initial short syllable."—N. Butler's Practical Gram., p. 193. This instruction is not quite accurate. Nor would it be right, even if there could be "iambic verse without the initial short syllable," and if it were universally true, that, "Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable."—Ibid. For the addition and subtraction here suggested, will inevitably make the difference of a foot, between the measures or verses said to be the same!

OBS. 6.—"I doubt," says T. O. Churchill, "whether the trochaic can be considered as a legitimate English measure. All the examples of it given by Johnson have an additional long syllable at the end: but these are iambics, if we look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning, which is much more agreeable to the analogy of music."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 390. This doubt, ridiculous as must be all reasoning in support of it, the author seriously endeavours to raise into a general conviction that we have no trochaic order of verse! It can hardly be worth while to notice here all his remarks. "An additional long syllable" Johnson never dreamed of—"at the end"—"at the beginning"—or anywhere else. For he discriminated metres, not by the number of feet, as he ought to have done, but by the number of syllables he found in each line. His doctrine is this: "Our iambick measure comprises verses—Of four syllables,—Of six,—Of eight,—Of ten. Our trochaick measures are—Of three syllables,—Of five,—Of seven. These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those of seven, eight and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayton's Polyolbion; and of fourteen, as Chapman's Homer." "We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used in songs, which may be called the anapestick.

    'May I góvern my pássion with ábsolute swáy,
    And grow wiser and bétter as life wears awáy.' Dr. Pope.

"In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot, [;] as [,]

    'When présent we lóve, and when ábsent agrée,
    I th'nk not of I'ris [.] nor I'ris of mé.' Dryden.

"These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by double endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick measure.

    ''Tis the divinity that stirs within us,
    'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter..' Addison.

"So in that of eight syllables,

    'They neither added nor confounded,
    They neither wanted nor abounded.' Prior.

"In that of seven,

    'For resistance I could fear none,
      But with twenty ships had done,
    What thou, brave and happy Vernon,
    Hast achieved with six alone.' Glover.

"To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of English verse."—Dr. Johnson's Grammar of the English Tongue, p. 14. See his Quarto Dict. Here, except a few less important remarks, and sundry examples of the metres named, is Johnson's whole scheme of versification.

OBS. 7.—How, when a prosodist judges certain examples to "have an additional long syllable at the end," he can "look upon the additional syllable to be at the beginning," is a matter of marvel; yet, to abolish trochaics, Churchill not only does and advises this, but imagines short syllables removed sometimes from the beginning of lines; while sometimes he couples final short syllables with initial long ones, to make iambs, and yet does not always count these as feet in the verse, when he has done so! Johnson's instructions are both misunderstood and misrepresented by this grammarian. I have therefore cited them the more fully. The first syllable being retrenched from an anapest, there remains an iambus. But what countenance has Johnson lent to the gross error of reckoning such a foot an anapest still?—or to that of commencing the measurement of a line by including a syllable not used by the poet? The preceding stanza from Glover, is trochaic of four feet; the odd lines full, and of course making double rhyme; the even lines catalectic, and of course ending with a long syllable counted as a foot. Johnson cited it merely as an example of "double endings" imagining in it no "additional syllable," except perhaps the two which terminate the two trochees, "fear none" and "Vernon." These, it may be inferred, he improperly conceived to be additional to the regular measure; because he reckoned measures by the number of syllables, and probably supposed single rhyme to be the normal form of all rhyming verse.

OBS. 8.—There is false scansion in many a school grammar, but perhaps none more uncouthly false, than Churchill's pretended amendments of Johnson's. The second of these—wherein "the old seven[-]foot iambic" is professedly found in two lines of Glover's trochaic tetrameter—I shall quote:—

"In the anapæstic measure, Johnson himself allows, that a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot; yet he gives as an example of trochaics with an additional syllable at the end of the even lines a stanza, which, by adopting the same principle, would be in the iambic measure:

   "For | resis- | tance I | could fear | none,
      But | with twen | ty ships | had done,
    What | thou, brave | and hap | py Ver- | non,
      Hast | achiev'd | with six | alone.

In fact, the second and fourth lines here stamp the character of the measure; [Fist] which is the old seven[-]foot iambic broken into four and three, WITH AN ADDITIONAL SYLLABLE AT THE BEGINNING."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 391.

After these observations and criticisms concerning the trochaic order of verse, I proceed to say, trochaics consist of the following measures, or metres:—

MEASURE I.—TROCHAIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER.

Example I.—"The Raven"—First Two out of Eighteen Stanzas.

1.
   "Once up | -on a | midnight | dreary, | while I | pondered, | weak and
                                                               | weary,
    Over | m=any ~a | quaint and | c=ur~io~us | volume | of for
                                                          | -gotten | lore,
    While I | nodded, | nearly | napping, | sudden |-ly there | came a
                                                               | tapping,
    As of | some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber
                                                               | door.
    ''Tis some | visit |-or,' I | muttered, | 'tapping | at my | chamber
                                                               | door—
        Only | this, and |nothing | more."

2.
    Ah! dis |-tinctly | I re |-member | it was | in the | bleak De
                                                               |-cember,
    And each | s=ep~ar~ate | dying | ember | wrought its | ghost up
                                                         |-on the | floor;
    Eager |-ly I | wished the | morrow; | vainly | had I | tried to
                                                               | borrow
    From my | books sur |-cease of | sorrow—| sorrow | for the | lost Le
                                                               |-nore—
    For the | rare and | r=ad~i~ant | maiden, | whom the | angels
                                                         | name Le |-nore—
          Nameless | here for | ever |-more."
       EDGAR A. POE: American Review for February, 1845.

Double rhymes being less common than single ones, in the same proportion, is this long verse less frequently terminated with a full trochee, than with a single long syllable counted as a foot. The species of measure is, however, to be reckoned the same, though catalectic. By Lindley Murray, and a number who implicitly re-utter what he teaches, the verse of six trochees, in which are twelve syllables only, is said "to be the longest Trochaic line that our language admits."—Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 257; Weld's E. Gram., p. 211. The examples produced here will sufficiently show the inaccuracy of their assertion.

Example II.—"The Shadow of the Obelisk."—Last two Stanzas.

   "Herds are | feeding |in the | Forum, | as in | old E | -vander's
                                                               | time:
    Tumbled | from the | steep Tar |-peian | every | pile that
                                                      | sprang sub |-lime.
    Strange! that | what seemed | most in |-constant | should the | most a
                                                      | -biding | prove;
    Strange! that |what is | hourly | moving | no mu |-tation | can re
                                                               |-move:
    Ruined | lies the | cirque! the | chariots, | long a |-go, have
                                                      | ceased to | roll—
    E'en the | Obe |-lisk is | broken |—but the | shadow | still is
                                                               | whole.

9.

    Out a |—las! if | mightiest | empires | leave so | little | mark be
                                                               |-hind,
    How much | less must | heroes | hope for, | in the | wreck of | human
                                                               | kind!
    Less than | e'en this | darksome | picture, | which I | tread be
                                                       |-neath my | feet,
    Copied | by a | lifeless | moonbeam | on the | pebbles | of the
                                                               | street;
    Since if | Cæsar's | best am |-bition, | living, | was, to | be re
                                                               |-nowned,
    What shall | Cassar | leave be |-hind him, | save the | shadow | of a
                                                               | sound?"
        T. W. PARSONS: Lowell and Carter's "Pioneer," Vol. i, p. 120.

Example III.—"The Slaves of Martinique."—Nine Couplets out of Thirty-six.

   "Beams of | noon, like | burning | lances, | through the | tree-tops
                                                   | flash and | glisten,
    As she | stands be | -fore her | lover, | with raised | face to
                                                   | look and | listen.

    Dark, but | comely, | like the | maiden | in the | ancient | Jewish
                                                               | song,
    Scarcely | has the | toil of | task-fields | done her graceful | beauty
                                                               | wrong.

    He, the | strong one, | and the | manly, | with the | vassal's
                                                     | garb and | hue,
    Holding | still his | spirit's | birthright, | to his | higher | nature
                                                               | true;

    Hiding | deep the | strengthening | purpose | of a | freeman | in his
                                                               | heart,
    As the | Greegree | holds his | Fetish | from the | white man's
                                                      | gaze a | -part.

    Ever | foremost | of the | toilers, | when the | driver's | morning
                                                               | horn
    Calls a | -way to | stifling | millhouse, | or to | fields of
                                                   | cane and | corn;

    Fall the | keen and | burning | lashes | never | on his | back or
                                                               | limb;
    Scarce with | look or | word of | censure, | turns the | driver | unto
                                                               | him.

    Yet his | brow is | always | thoughtful, | and his | eye is | hard and
                                                               | stern;
    Slavery's | last and | humblest | lesson | he has | never
                                                   | deigned to | learn."

    "And, at evening | when his | comrades | dance be | -fore their
                                                   | master's | door,
    Folding arms and | knitting | forehead, | stands he | silent | ever
                                                                |-more.

    God be | praised for | every instinct | which re | -bels a | -gainst a
                                                                | lot
    Where the | brute sur |-vives the | human, | and man's | upright
                                                         | form is | not!"
        —J. G. WHITTIER: National Era, and other Newspapers, Jan. 1848.

Example IV.—"The Present Crisis"—Two Stanzas out of sixteen.

   "Once to | every | man and | nation | comes the | moment | to de
                                                              |-cide,
    In the | strife of | Truth with | Falsehood, | for the | good or | evil
                                                              | side;
    Some great | cause, God's | new Mes |-siah, | offering | each the
                                                       | bloom or | blight,
    Parts the | goats up | -on the | left hand, | and the | sheep up
                                                       | -on the | right,
    And the | choice goes | by for | -ever |'twixt that | darkness
                                                       | and that | light.

    Have ye | chosen, | O my | people, | on whose | party | ye shall
                                                                 | stand,
    Ere the | Doom from | its worn | sandals | shakes the | dust a
                                                      | -gainst our | land?
    Though the | cause of | evil | prosper, | yet the | Truth a | -lone is
                                                                 | strong,
    And, al | beit she | wander | outcast | now, I | see a | -round her
                                                                 | throng
    Troops of | beauti | -ful tall | angels | to en | -shield her
                                                      | from all | wrong."
        JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL: Liberator, September 4th, 1846.

Example V.—The Season of Love.—A short Extract.

   "In the | Spring, a | fuller | crimson | comes up | -on the | robin's
                                                               | breast;
    In the | Spring, the | wanton | lapwing | gets him | -self an | other
                                                               | crest;
    In the | Spring, a | livelier | iris | changes | on the | burnished
                                                               | dove;
    In the | Spring, a | young man's | fancy | lightly | turns to
                                                    | thoughts of | love.

    Then her | cheek was | pale, and | thinner | than should | be for
                                                    | one so | young;
    And her | eyes on | all my | motions, | with a | mute ob | -servance,
                                                               | hung.
    And I | said, 'My | cousin | Amy, | speak, and | speak the | truth to
                                                               | me;
    Trust me, | cousin, | all the | current | of my | being | sets to
                                                               | thee.'"
       Poems by ALFRED TENNYSON, Vol. ii, p. 35.

Trochaic of eight feet, as these sundry examples will suggest, is much oftener met with than iambic of the same number; and yet it is not a form very frequently adopted. The reader will observe that it requires a considerable pause after the fourth foot; at which place one might divide it, and so reduce each couplet to a stanza of four lines, similar to the following examples:—

PART OF A SONG, IN DIALOGUE.

SYLVIA.

    "Corin, | cease this | idle | teasing;
      Love that's | forc'd is | harsh and | sour;
    If the | lover | be dis | -pleasing,
      To per | -sist dis | -gusts the | more."

CORIN.

    "'Tis in | vain, in | vain to | fly me,
      Sylvia, | I will | still pur | -sue;
    Twenty | thousand | times de | -ny me,
      I will | kneel and | weep a | -new."

SYLVIA.

    "Cupid | ne'er shall | make me | languish,
      I was | born a | -verse to | love;
    Lovers' | sighs, and | tears, and | anguish,
      Mirth and | pastime | to me | prove."

CORIN.

    "Still I | vow with | patient | duty
      Thus to | meet your | proudest | scorn;
    You for | unre | -lenting | beauty
      I for | constant | love was | born."

Poems by ANNA LÆTITIA BARBAULD, p. 56.

PART OF A CHARITY HYMN.

1.

    "Lord of | life, all | praise ex | -celling,
      thou, in | glory | uncon | -fin'd,
    Deign'st to | make thy | humble | dwelling
      with the | poor of | humble | mind.

2.

    As thy | love, through | all cre | -ation,
      beams like | thy dif | -fusive | light;
    So the | scorn'd and | humble | station
      shrinks be | -fore thine | equal | sight.

3.

    Thus thy | care, for | all pro | -viding,
      warm'd thy | faithful | prophet's | tongue;
    Who, the | lot of | all de | -ciding,
      to thy | chosen | Israel | sung:

4.

    'When thine | harvest | yields thee | pleasure,
      thou the | golden | sheaf shalt | bind;
    To the | poor be | -longs the | treasure
      of the | scatter'd | ears be | -hind.'"
       Psalms and Hymns of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Hymn LV.

A still more common form is that which reduces all these tetrameters to single rhymes, preserving their alternate succession. In such metre and stanza, is Montgomery's "Wanderer of Switzerland, a Poem, in Six Parts," and with an aggregate of eight hundred and forty-four lines. Example:—

1.

    "'Wanderer, | whither | wouldst thou | roam?
      To what | region | far a | -way,
    Bend thy | steps to | find a | home,
      In the | twilight | of thy | day?'

2.

    'In the | twilight | of my | day,
      I am | hastening | to the | west;
    There my | weary limbs | to lay,
      Where the | sun re | -tires to | rest.

3.

    Far be | -yond the At | -lantic | floods,
      Stretched be | -neath the | evening | sky,
    Realms of | mountains, | dark with | woods,
      In Co | -lumbia's | bosom | lie.

4.

    There, in | glens and | caverns | rude,
      Silent | since the | world be | -gan,
    Dwells the | virgin | Soli | -tude,
      Unbe | -trayed by | faithless | man:

5.

    Where a | tyrant | never | trod,
      Where a | slave was | never | known,
    But where | nature | worships | God
      In the | wilder | -ness a | -lone.

6.

    Thither, | thither | would I | roam;
      There my | children | may be | free;
    I for | them will | find a | home;
      They shall | find a | grave for | me.'"

First six stanzas of Part VI, pp. 71 and 72.

MEASURE II.—TROCHAIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER.

Example.—Psalm LXX,[510] Versified.

    Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | trouble;
    Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re | -ward their | mischief
                                                               | double.
    Turn the | taunting | scorners | back, who | cry, 'A | -ha!' so
                                                               | loudly;
    Backward | in con | -fusion | hurl the | foe that | mocks me | proudly.
    Then in | thee let | those re | -joice, who | seek thee, | self-de
                                                               | -nying;
    All who | thy sal | -vation | love, thy | name be | glory | -fying.
    So let | God be | magni | -fied. But | I am | poor and | needy:
    Hasten, | Lord, who | art my | Helper; | let thine | aid be | speedy.

This verse, like all other that is written in very long lines, requires a cæsural pause of proportionate length; and it would scarcely differ at all to the ear, if it were cut in two at the place of this pause—provided the place were never varied. Such metre does not appear to have been at any time much used, though there seems to be no positive reason why it might not have a share of popularity. To commend our versification for its "boundless variety," and at the same time exclude from it forms either unobjectionable or well authorized, as some have done, is plainly inconsistent. Full trochaics have some inconvenience, because all their rhymes must be double; and, as this inconvenience becomes twice as much when any long line of this sort is reduced to two short ones, there may be a reason why a stanza precisely corresponding to the foregoing couplets is seldom seen. If such lines be divided and rhymed at the middle of the fourth foot, where the cæsural pause is apt to fall, the first part of each will be a trochaic line of four feet, single-rhymed and catalectic, while the rest of it will become an iambic line of three feet, with double rhyme and hypermeter. Such are the prosodial characteristics of the following lines; which, if two were written as one, would make exactly our full trochaic of seven feet, the metre exhibited above:—

   "Whisp'ring, | heard by | wakeful | maids,
      To whom | the night | stars guide | us,
    Stolen | walk, through | moonlight | shades,
      With those | we love | beside | us"—Moore's Melodies, p. 276.

But trochaic of seven feet may also terminate with single rhyme, as in the following couplet, which is given anonymously, and, after a false custom, erroneously, in N. Butler's recent Grammar, as "trochaic of six feet, with an additional long syllable:—

   "Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Water | -loo;
    Cocks had | sung their | earliest | greeting; | faint and | low they
                                                             | crew." [511]

In Frazee's Grammar, a separate line or two, similar in metre to these, and rightly reckoned to have seven feet, and many lines, (including those above from Tennyson, which W. C. Fowler erroneously gives for Heptameter,) being a foot longer, are presented as trochaics of eight feet; but Everett, the surest of our prosodists, remaining, like most others, a total stranger to our octometers, and too little acquainted with trochaic heptameters to believe the species genuine, on finding a couple of stanzas in which two such lines are set with shorter ones of different sorts, and with some which are defective in metre, sagely concludes that all lines of more than "six trochees" must necessarily be condemned as prosodial anomalies. It may be worth while to repeat the said stanzas here, adding such corrections and marks as may suggest their proper form and scansion. But since they commence with the shorter metre of six trochees only, and are already placed under that head, I too may take them in the like connexion, by now introducing my third species of trochaics, which is Everett's tenth.

MEASURE III.—TROCHAIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER.

Example.—Health.

   "Up the | dewy | mountain, | Health is | bounding | lightly;
      On her | brows a | garland, | twin'd with | richest | posies:
    Gay is | she, e | -late with | hope, and | smiling | sprighthly;
      Redder | is her | cheek, and | sweeter | than the | rose is."
        G. BROWN: The Institutes of English Grammar, p. 258.

This metre appears to be no less rare than the preceding; though, as in that case, I know no good reason why it may not be brought into vogue. Professor John S. Hart says of it: "This is the longest Trochaic verse that seems to have been cultivated."—Hart's Eng. Gram., p. 187. The seeming of its cultivation he doubtless found only in sundry modern grammars. Johnson, Bicknell, Burn, Coar, Ward, Adam,—old grammarians, who vainly profess to have illustrated "every species of English verse,"—make no mention of it; and, with all the grammarians who notice it, one anonymous couplet, passing from hand to hand, has everywhere served to exemplify it.

Of this, "the line of six Trochees," Everett says: "This measure is languishing, and rarely used. The following example is often cited:

   'On a | mountain, | stretched be | -neath a | hoary | willow,
      Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling
                                                          | billow.'"[512]

Again: "We have the following from BISHOP HEBER:—

    'H=ol~y, | h=ol~y | h=ol~y! | =all th~e | s=aints ~a | -d=ore th~ee,
      C=ast~ing | d=own th~eir | g=old~en | cr=owns ~a | -r=ound th~e
                                                      | gl=ass~y | s=ea;
    Ch=er~u | -b=im ~and | s=er~a | -ph=im [~are,] | f=all~ing
                                                | d=own b~e | -f=ore th~ee,
      Wh~ich w=ert, | ~and =art, | ~and =ev | -~erm=ore | sh~alt b=e!

    Holy, | holy, | holy! | though the | darkness | hide thee,
      Though the | eye of | sinful | man thy | glory | may not | see,
    Only | thou, [O | God,] art | holy; | there is | none be
                                                            | -side thee,
      P=erf~ect | ~in p=ow'r, | ~in l=ove, | ~and p=u | -r~it=y.'

Only the first and the third lines of these stanzas are to our purpose," remarks the prosodist. That is, only these he conceived to be "lines of six Trochees." But it is plain, that the third line of the first stanza, having seven long syllables, must have seven feet, and cannot be a trochaic hexameter; and, since the third below should be like it in metre, one can hardly forbear to think the words which I have inserted in brackets, were accidentally omitted.

Further: "It is worthy of remark," says he, "that the second line of each of these stanzas is composed of six Trochees and an additional long syllable. As its corresponding line is an Iambic, and as the piece has some licenses in its construction, it is far safer to conclude that this line is an anomaly than that it forms a distinct species of verse. We must therefore conclude that the tenth [the metre of six trochees] is the longest species of Trochaic line known to English verse."—Everett's Versification, pp. 95 and 96.

This, in view of the examples above, of our longer trochaics, may serve as a comment on the author's boast, that, "having deduced his rules from the usage of the great poets, he has the best reason for being confident of their correctness."—Ibid., Pref., p. 5.

Trochaic hexameter, too, may easily be written with single rhyme; perhaps more easily than a specimen suited to the purpose can be cited from any thing already written. Let me try:—

Example I.—The Sorcerer.

    Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his | birth,
    Lived a | necro | -mancer, | wondrous | son of | earth.
    More of | him in | -quire not, | than I | choose to | say;
    Nymph or | dryad | bore him— | else 'twas | witch or | fay;
    Ask you | who his | father?— | haply | he might | be
    Wood-god, | satyr, | sylvan; | —such his | pedi | -gree.
    Reared mid | fauns and | fairies, | knew he | no com | -peers;
    Neither | cared he | for them, | saving | ghostly | seers.
    Mistress | of the | black-art, | "wizard | gaunt and | grim,"
    Nightly | on the | hill-top, | "read the | stars to | him."
    These were | welcome | teachers; | drank he | in their | lore;
    Witchcraft | so en | -ticed him, | still to | thirst for | more.
    Spectres | he would | play with, | phantoms | raise or | quell;
    Gnomes from | earth's deep | centre | knew his | potent | spell.
    Augur | or a | -ruspex | had not | half his | art;
    Master | deep of | magic, | spirits | played his | part;
    Demons, | imps in | -fernal, | conjured | from be | -low,
    Shaped his | grand en | -chantments | with im | -posing | show.

Example II.—An Example of Hart's, Corrected

   "Where the | wood is | waving, | shady, | green, and | high,
    Fauns and | dryads, | nightly, | watch the | starry | sky."
        See Hart's E. Gram., p. 187; or the citation thence below.

A couplet of this sort might easily be reduced to a pleasant little stanza, by severing each line after the third foot, thus:—

    Hearken! | hearken! | hear ye;
     Voices | meet my | ear.
    Listen, | never | fear ye;
     Friends—or | foes—are | near.

    Friends! "So | -ho!" they're | shouting.—
     "Ho! so | -ho, a | -hoy!"—
    'Tis no | Indian, | scouting.
     Cry, so | -ho! with | joy.

But a similar succession of eleven syllables, six long and five short, divided after the seventh, leaving two iambs to form the second or shorter line,—(since such a division produces different orders and metres both,—) will, I think, retain but little resemblance in rhythm to the foregoing, though the actual sequence of quantities long and short is the same. If this be so, the particular measure or correspondent length of lines is more essential to the character of a poetic strain than some have supposed. The first four lines of the following extract are an example relevant to this point:—

Ariel's Song.

   "C=ome ~un |-t=o´ th~ese | y=ell~ow | s=ands,
    And th=en | t~ake h=ands:
    Court'sied | when you | have and | kiss'd,
    (The wild | waves whist,)
    Foot it | featly | here and | there;
    And, sweet | sprites, the | burden | bear."
        SINGER'S SHAKSPEARE: Tempest, Act i, Sc. 2.

MEASURE IV.—TROCHAIC OF FIVE FEET, OR PENTAMETER

Example I.—Double Rhymes and Single, Alternated.

   "Mountain | winds! oh! | whither | do ye | call me?
      Vainly, | vainly, | would my | steps pur |-sue:
    Chains of | care to | lower | earth en |-thrall me,
      Wherefore | thus my | weary | spirit | woo?

    Oh! the | strife of | this di |-vided | being!
      Is there | peace where | ye are | borne, on | high?
    Could we | soar to | your proud | eyries | fleeing,
      In our | hearts, would | haunting | m=em~or~ies | die?"
       FELICIA HEMANS: "To the Mountain Winds:" Everet's Versif., p. 95.

Example II—Rhymes Otherwise Arranged.

   "Then, me |-thought, I | heard a | hollow | sound,
    G=ath~er~ing | up from | all the lower | ground:
    N=arr~ow~ing | in to | where they | sat as |-sembled,
    Low vo |-l~upt~uo~us | music, | winding, | trembled."
       ALFRED TENNYSON: Frazee's Improved Gram., p. 184; Fowler's, 657.

This measure, whether with the final short syllable or without it, is said, by Murray, Everett, and others, to be "very uncommon." Dr. Johnson, and the other old prosodists named with him above, knew nothing of it. Two couplets, exemplifying it, now to be found in sundry grammars, and erroneously reckoned to differ as to the number of their feet, were either selected or composed by Murray, for his Grammar, at its origin—or, if not then, at its first reprint, in 1796. They are these:—

(1.)

   "All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots,
    All that | dwell in | pala |-ces or | garrets."

L. Murray's Gram., 12mo, 175; 8vo, 257; Chandler's, 196; Churchill's, 187; Hiley's, 126; et al.

(2.)

   "Idle | after | dinner, | in his | chair,
    Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair."

Murray, same places; N. Butler's Gr., p. 193; Hallock's, 244; Hart's, 187; Weld's, 211; et al.

Richard Hiley most absurdly scans this last couplet, and all verse like it, into "the Heroic measure," or a form of our iambic pentameter; saying, "Sometimes a syllable is cut off from the first foot; as,

    =I |-dl~e =af |-t~er d=inn |-n~er =in | h~is ch=air [,]
    S=at | ~a f=ar |-m~er [,] r=ud |-dý, f=at, | =and f=air."
        Hiley's English Grammar, Third Edition, p. 125.

J. S. Hart, who, like many others, has mistaken the metre of this last example for "Trochaic Tetrameter," with a surplus "syllable," after repeating the current though rather questionable assertion, that, "this measure is very uncommon," proceeds with our "Trochaic Pentameter," thus: "This species is likewise uncommon. It is composed of five trochees; as,

    =In th~e | d=ark ~and | gr=een ~and | gl=oom~y | v=all~ey,
    S=at~yrs | b=y th~e | br=ookl~et | l=ove t~o | d=all~y."

And again: [[Fist]] "The SAME with an ADDITIONAL accented syllable; as,

    Wh=ere th~e | w=ood ~is | w=av~ing |gr=een ~and |h=igh,
    F=auns ~and | Dr=y~ads | w=atch th~e | st=arr~y | sky."
       Hart's English Grammar, First Edition, p. 187.

These examples appear to have been made for the occasion; and the latter, together with its introduction, made unskillfully. The lines are of five feet, and so are those about the ruddy farmer; but there is nothing "additional" in either case; for, as pentameter, they are all catalectic, the final short syllable being dispensed with, and a cæsura preferred, for the sake of single rhyme, otherwise not attainable. "Five trochees" and a rhyming "syllable" will make trochaic hexameter, a measure perhaps more pleasant than this. See examples above.

MEASURE V.—TROCHAIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER.

Example I.—A Mournful Song.

1.

    "Raving | winds a | -round her | blowing,
    Yellow | leaves the | woodlands | strewing,
    By a | river | hoarsely | roaring,
    Isa | -bella | strayed de | -ploring.
    'Farewell | hours that | late did | measure
    Sunshine | days of | joy and | pleasure;
    Hail, thou | gloomy | night of | sorrow,
    Cheerless | night that | knows no | morrow.

2.

    O'er the | past too | fondly | wandering,
    On the | hopeless | future | pondering,
    Chilly | grief my | life-blood | freezes,
    Fell de | -spair my | fancy | seizes.
    Life, thou | soul of | every | blessing,
    Load to | misery | most dis | -tressing,
    O how | gladly | I'd re | -sign thee,
    And to | dark ob | -livion | join thee.'"
        ROBERT BURNS: Select Works, Vol. ii, p. 131

Example II.—A Song Petitionary.

   "Powers ce | -lestial, | whose pro | -tection
     Ever | guards the | virtuous | fair,
    While in | distant | climes I | wander,
     Let my | Mary | be your | care:
    Let her | form so | fair and | faultless,
     Fair and | faultless | as your | own;
    Let my | Mary's | kindred | spirit
     Draw your | choicest | influence | down.

    Make the | gales you | waft a | -round her
     Soft and | peaceful | as her | breast;
    Breathing | in the | breeze that | fans her,
     Soothe her | bosom | into | rest:
    Guardian | angels, | O pro | -tect her,
     When in | distant | lands I | roam;
    To realms | unknown | while fate | exiles me,
     Make her | bosom | still my | home."
       BURNS'S SONGS, Same Volume, p. 165.

Example III.—Song of Juno and Ceres.

    Ju. "Honour, | riches, marriage | -blessing,
     Long con | -tinuance, | and in | -creasing,
     Hourly | joys be | still up | -on you!
    Juno | sings her | blessings | on you."
    Cer. "Earth's in | -crease, and | foison | plenty;
     Barns and | garners | never | empty;
     Vines with | clust'ring | bunches | growing;
     Plants with | goodly | burden | bowing;
     Spring come | to you, | at the | farthest,
     In the | very | end of | harvest!
     Scarci | -ty and | want shall | shun you;
     Ceres' | blessing | so is | on you."
       SHAKSPEARE: Tempest, Act iv, Sc. 1.

Example IV.—On the Vowels.

   "We are | little | airy | creatures,
    All of | diff'rent | voice and | features;
    One of | us in | glass is | set,
    One of | us you'll | find in | jet;

    T'other | you may | see in | tin,
    And the | fourth a | box with | -in;
    If the | fifth you | should pur | -sue,
    It can | never | fly from | you."
        SWIFT: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. v, p. 343.

Example V.—Use Time for Good.

   "Life is | short, and | time is | swift;
    Roses | fade, and | shadows | shift;
    But the ocean | and the | river
    Rise and | fall and | flow for | ever;

    Bard! not | vainly | heaves the | ocean;
    Bard! not | vainly | flows the | river;
    Be thy | song, then, | like their | motion,
    Blessing | now, and | blessing | ever."
        EBENEZER ELLIOT: From a Newspaper.

Example IV.[sic for VI—KTH]—"The Turkish Lady"—First Four Stanzas.

    1.
    "'Twas the | hour when | rites un | -holy
      Called each | Paynim | voice to | pray'r,
    And the | star that | faded | slowly,
      Left to | dews the | freshened | air.

    2.
    Day her | sultry | fires had | wasted,
      Calm and | sweet the | moonlight | rose;
    E'en a | captive's | spirit | tasted
      Half ob | -livion | of his | woes.

    3.
    Then 'twas | from an | Emir's | palace
      Came an | eastern | lady | bright;
    She, in | spite of | tyrants | jealous,
      Saw and | loved an | English | knight.

    4.
    'Tell me, | captive, | why in | anguish
      Foes have | dragged thee | here to | dwell
    Where poor | Christians, | as they | languish.
      Hear no | sound of | sabbath | bell?'"
        THOMAS CAMPBELL: Poetical Works, p. 115.

Example VII.—The Palmer's Morning Hymn.

   "Lauded | be thy | name for | ever,
    Thou, of | life the | guard and | giver!
    Thou canst | guard thy | creatures | sleeping,
    Heal the | heart long | broke with | weeping,
    Rule the | =ouphes ~and | =elves ~at | w=ill
    Th~at v=ex | th~e =air | ~or h=aunt | th~e h=ill,
    ~And =all | th~e f=u | -r~y s=ub | -j~ect k=eep
    ~Of b=oil | -~ing cl=oud | ~and ch=af | -~ed d=eep!

    I h~ave | s=een, ~and | w=ell I | kn=ow ~it!
    Thou hast | done, and | Thou wilt | do it!
    God of | stillness | and of | motion!
    Of the | rainbow | and the | ocean!
    Of the | mountain, | rock, and | river!
    Blessed | be Thy | name for | ever!
    I have | seen thy | wondrous | might
    Through the | shadows | of this | night!

    Thou, who | slumber'st | not, nor | sleepest!
    Blest are | they thou | kindly | keepest!
    Spirits, | from the | ocean | under,
    Liquid | flame, and | levell'd | thunder,
    Need not | waken | nor a |-larm them—
    All com |-bined, they | cannot | harm them.

    God of | evening's | yellow | ray,
    God of | yonder | dawning | day,
    Thine the | flaming | sphere of | light!
    Thine the | darkness | of the | night!
    Thine are | all the | gems of | even,
    God of | angels! | God of | heaven!"
        JAMES HOGG: Mador of the Moor, Poems, p. 206.

Example VIII—A Short Song, of Two Stanzas.

   "Stay, my | charmer, | can you | leave me?
    Cruel, | cruel, | to de |-ceive me!
    Well you | know how | much you | grieve me:
    Cruel | charmer, | can you | go?
    Cruel | charmer, | can you | go?

    By my | love, so | ill re |-quited;
    By the | faith you | fondly plighted;
    By the | pangs of | lovers slighted;
    Do not, | do not | leave me | so!
    Do not, | do not | leave me | so!"
        ROBERT BURNS: Select Works, Vol. ii, p. 129.

Example IX.—Lingering Courtship.

    1.
    "Never | wedding, | ever | wooing,
    Still | lovelorn | heart pur |-suing,
    Read you | not the | wrong you're | doing,
    In my | cheek's pale | hue?
    All my | life with | sorrow | strewing,
    Wed, or | cease to | woo.

    2.
    Rivals | banish'd, | bosoms | plighted,
    Still our | days are | disu |-nited;
    Now the | lamp of | hope is | lighted,
    Now half | quench'd ap | -pears,
    Damp'd, and | wavering, and be | -nighted,
    Midst my | sighs and | tears.

    3.
    Charms you | call your | dearest | blessing,
    Lips that | thrill at | your ca | -ressing,
    Eyes a | mutual soul con | -fessing,
    Soon you'll | make them | grow
    Dim, and | worthless | your pos | -sessing,
    Not with | age, but | woe!"
        CAMPBELL: Everett's System of Versification, p. 91.

Example X.—"Boadicea"—Four Stanzas from Eleven.

    1.
    "When the | British | warrior | queen,
    Bleeding | from the | Roman | rods,
    Sought, with | an in | -dignant | mien,
    Counsel | of her | country's | gods,

    2.
    Sage be | -neath the | spreading | oak,
    Sat the | Druid, | hoary | chief;
    Every burning | word he | spoke
    Full of | rage, and | full of | grief.

    3.
    Princess! | if our | aged | eyes
    Weep up | -on thy | matchless | wrongs,
    'Tis be | -cause re | -sentment | ties
    All the | terrors | of our | tongues.

    4.
    ROME SHALL | PERISH— | write that | word
    In the | blood that | she hath | spilt;
    Perish, | hopeless | and ab | -horr'd,
    Deep in | ruin | as in | guilt."
        WILLIAM COWPER: Poems, Vol. ii, p. 244.

Example XI—"The Thunder Storm"—Two Stanzas from Ten.

   "Now in | deep and | dreadful | gloom,
    Clouds on | clouds por | -tentous | spread,
    Black as | if the | day of | doom
    Hung o'er | Nature's | shrinking | head:
    Lo! the | lightning | breaks from | high,
    God is | coming! |—God is | nigh!

    Hear ye | not his | chariot | wheels,
    As the | mighty | thunder | rolls?
    Nature, | startled | Nature | reels,
    From the | centre | to the | poles:
    Tremble! | —Ocean, | Earth, and | Sky!
    Tremble! | —God is | passing | by!"
        J. MONTGOMERY: Wanderer of Switzerland, and other Poems, p. 130.

Example XII.—"The Triumphs of Owen," King of North Wales.[513]

   "Owen's | praise de | -mands my song,
    Owen | swift and | Owen | strong;
    Fairest | flow'r of | Roderick's | stem,
    Gwyneth's | shield, and | Britain's | gem.
    He nor | heaps his | brooded | stores,
    Nor the | whole pro | -fusely | pours;
    Lord of | every | regal | art,
    Liberal | hand and | open | heart.
      Big with | hosts of | mighty | name,
    Squadrons | three a | -gainst him came;
    This the | force of | Eirin | hiding,
    Side by | side as | proudly | riding,
    On her | shadow | long and | gay,
    Lochlin | ploughs the | watery | way:
    There the Norman | sails a | -far
    Catch the | winds, and | join the | war;
    Black and | huge, a | -long they | sweep,
    Burthens | of the | angry | deep.
      Dauntless | on his | native | sands,
    The Drag | -on-son | of Mo | -na stands;[514]
    In glit | -tering arms | and glo | -ry drest,
    High he | rears his | ruby | crest.
    There the | thundering | stroke be | -gin,
    There the | press, and | there the | din;
    Taly | -malfra's | rocky | shore
    Echoing | to the | battle's | roar;
    Where his | glowing | eyeballs | turn,
    Thousand | banners | round him | burn.
    Where he | points his | purple | spear,
    Hasty, | hasty | rout is | there,
    Marking | with in | -dignant | eye
    Fear to | stop, and | shame to | fly.
    There Con | -fusion, | Terror's | child,
    Conflict | fierce, and | Ruin | wild,
    Ago | -ny, that | pants for | breath,
    Despair, | and HON | -OURA | -BLE DEATH."
        THOMAS GRAY: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 285.

Example XIII.—"Grongar Hill."—First Twenty-six Lines.

   "Silent | Nymph, with | curious | eye,
    Who, the | purple | eve, dost | lie
    On the | mountain's | lonely | van,
    Beyond | the noise | of bus | -y man;
    Painting | fair the | form of | things,
    While the | yellow | linnet | sings;
    Or the | tuneful | nightin | -gale
    Charms the | forest | with her | tale;
    Come, with | all thy | various hues,
    Come, and | aid thy | sister | Muse.
    Now, while | Phoebus, | riding | high,
    Gives lus | -tre to | the land | and sky,
    Grongar | Hill in | -vites my | song;
    Draw the | landscape | bright | and strong;
    Grongar, | in whose | mossy | cells,
    Sweetly | -musing | Quiet | dwells;
    Grongar, | in whose | silent | shade,
    For the | modest | Muses | made,
    So oft | I have, | the eve | -ning still,
    At the | fountain | of a | rill,
    Sat up | -on a | flowery | bed,
    With my | hand be | -neath my | head,
    While stray'd | my eyes | o'er Tow | -y's flood,
    Over | mead and | over wood,
    From house | to house, | from hill | to hill,
    Till Con | -templa | -tion had | her fill."
        JOHN DYER: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 65.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—This is the most common of our trochaic measures; and it seems to be equally popular, whether written with single rhyme, or with double; in stanzas, or in couplets; alone, or with some intentional intermixture. By a careful choice of words and style, it may be adapted to all sorts of subjects, grave, or gay; quaint, or pathetic; as may the corresponding iambic metre, with which it is often more or less mingled, as we see in some of the examples above. Milton's L'Allegro, or Gay Mood, has one hundred and fifty-two lines; ninety-eight of which are iambics; fifty-four trochaic tetrameters; a very few of each order having double rhymes. These orders the poet has not—"very ingeniously alternated" as Everett avers; but has simply interspersed, or commingled, with little or no regard to alternation. His Il Penseroso, or Grave Mood, has twenty-seven trochaic tetrameters, mixed irregularly with one hundred and forty-nine iambics.

OBS. 2.—Everett, who divides our trochaic tetrameters into two species of metre, imagines that the catalectic form, or that which is single-rhymed, "has a solemn effect,"—"imparts to all pieces more dignity than any of the other short measures,"—"that no trivial or humorous subject should be treated in this measure,"—and that, "besides dignity, it imparts an air of sadness to the subject."—English Verses., p. 87. Our "line of four trochees" he supposes to be "difficult of construction,"—"not of very frequent occurrence,"—"the most agreeable of all the trochaic measures,"—"remarkably well adapted to lively subjects,"—and "peculiarly expressive of the eagerness and fickleness of the passion of love."—Ib., p. 90. These pretended metrical characteristics seem scarcely more worthy of reliance, than astrological predictions, or the oracular guessings of our modern craniologists.

OBS. 3.—Dr. Campbell repeats a suggestion of the older critics, that gayety belongs naturally to all trochaics, as such, and gravity or grandeur, as naturally, to iambics; and he attempts to find a reason for the fact; while, perhaps, even here—more plausible though the supposition is—the fact may be at least half imaginary. "The iambus," says he, "is expressive of dignity and grandeur; the trochee, on the contrary, according to Aristotle, (Rhet. Lib. Ill,) is frolicsome and gay. It were difficult to assign a reason of this difference that would be satisfactory; but of the thing itself, I imagine, most people will be sensible on comparing the two kinds together. I know not whether it will be admitted as a sufficient reason, that the distinction into metrical feet hath a much greater influence in poetry on the rise and fall of the voice, than the distinction into words; and if so, when the cadences happen mostly after the long syllables, the verse will naturally have an air of greater gravity than when they happen mostly after the short."—Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 354.

MEASURE VI.—TROCHAIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER.

Example I.—Youth and Age Contrasted.

   "Crabbed | age and | youth
      Cannot | live to | -gether;
    Youth is | full of | pleasance,
      Age is | full of | care:
    Youth, like | summer | morn,
      Age, like | winter | weather;
    Youth, like | summer, | brave;
      Age, like | winter, | bare.
      Youth is | full of | sport,
      Age's | breath is | short,
    Youth is | nimble, | age is | lame;
      Youth is | hot and | bold,
      Age is | weak and | cold;
    Youth is | wild, and | age is | tame."
        The Passionate Pilgrim; SINGER'S SHAKSPEARE, Vol. ii p. 594.

Example II—Common Sense and Genius.

3.

    "While I | touch the | string,
    Wreathe my | brows with | laurel;
    For the | tale I | sing,
    Has, for | once, a | moral!

4.

    Common | Sense went | on,
    Many | wise things | saying;
    While the | light that | shone,
    Soon set | Genius | straying.

5.

    One his eye ne'er | rais'd
    From the | path be | -fore him;
    T' other | idly | gaz'd
    On each | night-cloud | o'er him.

6.

    While I | touch the | string,
    Wreathe my | brows with | laurel;
    For the | tale I | sing,
    Has, for | once, a | moral!

7.

    So they | came, at | last,
    To a | shady | river;
    Common | Sense soon |pass'd
    Safe,—as | he doth | ever.

8.

    While the | boy whose | look
    Was in | heav'n that | minute,
    Never | saw the | brook,—
    But tum | -bled head | -long in it."
       Six Stanzas from Twelve.—MOORE'S MELODIES, p. 271.

This short measure is much oftener used in stanzas, than in couplets. It is, in many instances, combined with some different order or metre of verse, as in the following:—

Example III.—Part of a Song.

   "Go where | glory | waits thee,
    But while | fame e | -lates thee,
        Oh! still | remem | -ber me.
    When the | praise thou | meetest,
    To thine | ear is | sweetest,
        Oh! then | remem | -ber me.
    Other | arms may | press thee,
    Dearer | friends ca | -ress thee,
    All the | joys that | bless thee,
        Sweeter | far may | be:
    But when | friends are | nearest,
    And when | joys are | dearest,
        Oh! then | remem | -ber me.

    When, at | eve, thou | rovest,
    By the | star thou | lovest,
        Oh! then | remem | -ber me.
    Think when | home re | -turning,
    Bright we've | seen it | burning;
        Oh! thus | remem | -ber me.
    Oft as | summer | closes,
    When thine | eye re | -poses
    On its | ling'ring | roses,
        Once so | loved by | thee,
    Think of | her who | wove them,
    Her who | made thee | love them;
        Oh! then | remem | -ber me."
        MOORE'S Melodies, Songs, and Airs, p. 107.

Example IV.—From an Ode to the Thames.

   "On thy | shady | margin,
    Care its | load dis | -charging,
      Is lull'd | to gen | -tle rest:

    Britain | thus dis | -arming,
    Nothing | her a | -larming,
      Shall sleep on Cæ | -sar's breast."
        See ROWE'S POEMS: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. iv, p. 58.

Example V.—"The True Poet"—First Two of Nine Stanzas.

    1.
    "Poet | of the | heart,
       Delving | in its | mine,
     From man | -kind a | -part,
       Yet where | jewels | shine;
    Heaving | upward | to the | light,
    Precious | wealth that | charms the | sight;

2.

     Toil thou | still, deep | down,
       For earth's | hidden | gems;
     They shall | deck a | crown,
       Blaze in | dia | -dems;
    And when | thy hand | shall fall | to rest,
    Brightly | jewel | beauty's | breast."
       JANE B. LOCKE: N. Y. Evening Post; The Examiner, No. 98.

Example VI.—"Summer Longings"—First Two of Five Stanzas.

   "Ah! my | heart is | ever | waiting,
      Waiting | for the | May,—
    Waiting | for the | pleasant | rambles
    Where the | fragrant | hawthorn | brambles,
      With the | woodbine | alter | -nating,
        Scent the | dewy | way.
    Ah! my | heart is | weary | waiting,
      Waiting | for the | May.

    Ah! my | heart is | sick with | longing,
      Longing | for the | May,—
    Longing | to e | -scape from | study,
    To the | young face | fair and | ruddy,
      And the | thousand | charms be | -longing
        To the | Summer's | day.
      Ah! my | heart is | sick with | longing,
        Longing | for the | May."
        "D. F. M. C.:" Dublin University Magazine; Liberator, No. 952.

MEASURE VII.—TROCHAIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER.

Example I.—Three Short Excerpts.

1.

    "My flocks | feed not,
    My ewes | breed not,
    My rams | speed not,
      All is | amiss:
    Love's de | -nying,
    Faith's de | -fying,
    Heart's re | -nying,
      Causer | of this."

2.

    "In black | mourn I,
    All fears | scorn I,
    Love hath | lorn me,
      Living | in thrall:
    Heart is | bleeding,
    All help | needing.
    (Cruel | speeding,)
      Fraughted | with gall."

3.

    "Clear wells | spring not.
    Sweet birds | sing not,
    Loud bells | ring not
      Cheerfully;
    Herds stand | weeping,
    Flocks all | sleeping,
    Nymphs back | creeping
      Fearfully."
        SHAKSPEARE: The Passionate Pilgrim. See Sec. xv.

_Example II.—Specimen with Single Rhyme.

"To Quinbus Flestrin, the Man-Mountain"_

A LILLIPUTIAN ODE

I.

    "In a | -maze,
    Lost, I | gaze.
    Can our | eyes
    Reach thy | size?
    May my | lays
    Swell with | praise,
    Worthy | thee,
    Worthy | me!
    Muse, in | -spire
    All thy | fire!
    Bards of | old
    Of him | told,
    When they | said
    Atlas' | head
    Propp'd the | skies:
    See! and | believe | your eyes!

II.

    "See him | stride
    Valleys | wide:
    Over | woods,
    Over | floods,
    When he | treads,
    Mountains' | heads
    Groan and | shake:
    Armies | quake,
    Lest his | spurn
    Over | -turn
    Man and | steed:
    Troops, take | heed!
    Left and | right
    Speed your | flight!
    Lest an | host
    Beneath | his foot | be lost.

III.

    "Turn'd a | -side
    From his | hide,
    Safe from | wound,
    Darts re | -bound.
    From his | nose,
    Clouds he | blows;
    When he | speaks,
    Thunder | breaks!
    When he | eats,
    Famine | threats!
    When he | drinks,
    Neptune | shrinks!
    Nigh thy | ear,
    In mid | air,
    On thy | hand,
    Let me | stand.
    So shall | I
    (Lofty | poet!) touch the sky."
        JOHN GAY: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 376.

Example III.—Two Feet with Four.

   "Oh, the | pleasing, | pleasing | anguish,
    When we | love, and | when we | languish!
        Wishes | rising!
        Thoughts sur | -prising!
        Pleasure | courting!
        Charms trans | -porting!
        Fancy | viewing
        Joys en | -suing!
    Oh, the | pleasing, | pleasing | anguish!"
        ADDISON'S Rosamond, Act i, Scene 6.

Example IV.—Lines of Three Syllables with Longer Metres.

1. WITH TROCHAICS.

   "Or we | sometimes | pass an | hour
      Under | a green | willow,
    That de | -fends us | from the | shower,
      Making | earth our | pillow;
        Where we | may
        Think and | pray,
        B=e'fore | death
        Stops our | breath:
        Other | joys,
        Are but | toys,
      And to | be la | -mented." [515]

2. WITH IAMBICS.

   "What sounds | were heard,
    What scenes | appear'd,
    O'er all | the drear | -y coasts!
        Dreadful | gleams,
        Dismal | screams,
        Fires that | glow,
        Shrieks of | wo,
        Sullen | moans,
        Hollow | groans,
      And cries | of tor | -tur'd ghosts!"
        POPE: Johnson's Brit. Poets, Vol. vi, p. 315.

Example V.—"The Shower."—In Four Regular Stanzas.

1.

    "In a | valley | that I | know—
        Happy | scene!
    There are | meadows | sloping | low,
    There the | fairest | flowers | blow,
    And the | brightest | waters | flow.
        All se | -rene;
    But the | sweetest | thing to | see,
    If you | ask the | dripping | tree,
    Or the | harvest | -hoping | swain,
        Is the | Rain.

2.

    Ah, the | dwellers | of the | town,
        How they | sigh,—
    How un | -grateful | -ly they | frown,
    When the | cloud-king | shakes his | crown,
    And the | pearls come | pouring | down
        From the | sky!
    They de | -scry no | charm at | all
    Where the | sparkling | jewels | fall,
    And each | moment | of the | shower,
        Seems an | hour!

3.

    Yet there's | something | very | sweet
        In the | sight,
    When the | crystal | currents | meet
    In the | dry and | dusty | street,
    And they | wrestle | with the | heat,
        In their | might!
    While they | seem to | hold a | talk
    With the | stones a | -long the | walk,
    And re | -mind them | of the | rule,
        To 'keep | cool!'

4.

    Ay, but | in that | quiet | dell,
        Ever | fair,
    Still the | Lord doth | all things | well,
    When his | clouds with | blessings | swell,
    And they | break a | brimming | shell
        On the | air;
    There the | shower | hath its | charms,
    Sweet and | welcome | to the | farms
    As they | listen | to its | voice,
        And re | -joice!"
        Rev. RALPH HOYT'S Poems: The Examiner, Nov. 6, 1847.

Example VI.—"A Good Name?"—Two Beautiful Little Stanzas.

1.

      "Children, | choose it,
       Don't re | -fuse it,
    'Tis a | precious | dia | -dem;
       Highly | prize it,
       Don't de | -spise it,
    You will | need it | when you're | men.

2.

       Love and | cherish,
       Keep and | nourish,
    'Tis more | precious | far than | gold;
       Watch and | guard it,
       Don't dis | -card it,
    You will | need it | when you're | old."
       The Family Christian Almanac, for 1850, p. 20.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Trochaics of two feet, like those of three, are, more frequently than otherwise, found in connexion with longer lines, as in some of the examples above cited. The trochaic line of three syllables, which our prosodists in general describe as consisting, not of two feet; but "of one Trochee and a long syllable," may, when it stands alone, be supposed to consist of one amphimac; but, since this species of foot is not admitted by all, and is reckoned a secondary one by those who do admit it, the better practice is, to divide even the three syllables into two feet, as above.

OBS. 2.—Murray, Hart, Weld, and many others, erroneously affirm, that, "The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, consists of one Trochee and a long syllable."—Murray's Gram., p. 256; Hart's, First Edition, p. 186; Weld's, Second Edition, p. 210. The error of this will be shown by examples below—examples of true "Trochaic Monometer," and not of Dimeter mistaken for it, like Weld's, Hart's, or Murray's.

OBS. 3.—These authors also aver, that, "This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used on serious occasions."—Same places. "Trochaic of two feet—is likewise so brief, that," in their opinion, "it is rarely used for any very serious purpose."—Same places. Whether the expression of love, or of its disappointment, is "any very serious purpose" or not, I leave to the decision of the reader. What lack of dignity or seriousness there is, in several of the foregoing examples, especially the last two, I think it not easy to discover.

MEASURE VIII.—TROCHAIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER.

Examples with Longer Metres.

1. WITH IAMBICS.

   "Fr~om w=alk | t~o w=alk, | fr~om sh=ade | t~o sh=ade,
    From stream to purl | -ing stream | convey'd,
    Through all | the ma | -zes of | the grove,
    Through all | the ming | -ling tracks | I rove,
        Turning,
        Burning,
        Changing,
        Ranging,
    F=ull ~of | gri=ef ~and | f=ull ~of | l=ove."
       ADDISON'S Rosamond, Act I, Sc. 4:
           Everett's Versification, p. 81.

2. WITH ANAPESTICS, &c.

   "T~o l=ove ~and t~o l=angu~ish,
      T~o s=igh | ~and c~ompl=ain,
    H~ow cr=u~el's th~e =angu~ish!
      H~ow t~orm=ent | -~ing th~e p=ain!
        Suing,
        Pursuing,
        Flying,
        Denying,
      O the curse | of disdain!
      How torment | -ing's the pain!"
        GEO. GRANVILLE: Br. Poets, Vol. v, p. 31.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The metres acknowledged in our ordinary schemes of prosody, scarcely amount, with all their "boundless variety," to more than one half, or three quarters, of what may be found in actual use somewhere. Among the foregoing examples, are some which are longer, and some which are shorter, than what are commonly known to our grammarians; and some, also, which seem easily practicable, though perhaps not so easily quotable. This last trochaic metre, so far as I know, has not been used alone,—that is, without longer lines,—except where grammarians so set examples of it in their prosodies.

OBS. 2.—"Trochaic of One foot," as well as "Iambic of One foot," was, I believe, first recognized, prosodically, in Brown's Institutes of English Grammar, a work first published in 1823. Since that time, both have obtained acknowledgement in sundry schemes of versification, contained in the new grammars; as in Farnum's, and Hallock's, of 1842; in Pardon Davis's, of 1845; in S. W. Clark's, and S. S. Greene's, of 1848; in Professor Fowler's, of 1850. Wells, in his School Grammar, of 1846, and D. C. Allen, in an other, of 1847, give to the length of lines a laxity positively absurd: "Rhymed verses," say they, "may consist of any number of syllables."—Wells, 1st Ed., p. 187; late Ed., 204; Allen, p. 88. Everett has recognized "The line of a single Trochee," though he repudiates some long measures that are much more extensively authorized.

ORDER III.—ANAPESTIC VERSE.

In full Anapestic verse, the stress is laid on every third syllable, the first two syllables of each foot being short. The first foot of an anapestic line, may be an iambus. This is the most frequent diversification of the order. But, as a diversification, it is, of course, not regular or uniform. The stated or uniform adoption of the iambus for a part of each line, and of the anapest for the residue of it, produces verse of the Composite Order. As the anapest ends with a long syllable, its rhymes are naturally single; and a short syllable after this, producing double rhyme, is, of course, supernumerary: so are the two, when the rhyme is triple. Some prosodists suppose, a surplus at the end of a line may compensate for a deficiency at the beginning of the next line; but this I judge to be an error, or at least the indulgence of a questionable license. The following passage has two examples of what may have been meant for such compensation, the author having used a dash where I have inserted what seems to be a necessary word:—

   "Apol | -lo smil'd shrewd | -ly, and bade | him sit down,
    With 'Well, | Mr. Scott, | you have man | -aged the town;
    Now pray, | copy less— | have a lit | -tle temer | -~it~y—
    [And] Try | if you can't | also man | -age poster | -ity.
    [For] All | you add now | only les | -sens your cred | -it;
    And how | could you think, | too, of tak | -ing to ed | -ite?'"
        LEIGH HUNT'S Feast of the Poets, page 20.

The anapestic measures are few; because their feet are long, and no poet has chosen to set a great many in a line. Possibly lines of five anapests, or of four and an initial iambus, might be written; for these would scarcely equal in length some of the iambics and trochaics already exhibited. But I do not find any examples of such metre. The longest anapestics that have gained my notice, are of fourteen syllables, being tetrameters with triple rhyme, or lines of four anapests and two short surplus syllables. This order consists therefore of measures reducible to the following heads:—

MEASURE I.—ANAPESTIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER.

Example I.—A "Postscript."—An Example with Hypermeter.

   "Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his horse | awry,
    Threaten'd loud | -ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor | -cery.
    But, I think, | little Dan, | that, in spite | of what our
                                                           | foe says,
    He will find | I read Ov | -id and his | Meta_mor_ | -phoses.
    For, omit | -ting the first, | (where I make | a com_par_ | -ison,
    With a sort | of allu | -sion to Put | -land or Har | -rison,)
    Yet, by | my descrip | -tion, you'll find | he in short | is
    A pack | and a gar | -ran, a top | and a tor | -toise.
    So I hope | from hencefor | -ward you ne'er | will ask, can
                                                           | I maul
    This teas | -ing, conceit | -ed, rude, in | -solent an | -imal?
    And, if | this rebuke | might be turn'd | to his ben | -efit,
    (For I pit | -y the man,) | I should | be glad then | of it"
        SWIFT'S POEMS: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. v, p. 324.

Example II.—"The Feast of the Poets."—First Twelve Lines.

   "T' other day, | as Apol | -lo sat pitch | -ing his darts
    Through the clouds | of Novem | -ber, by fits | and by starts,
    He began | to consid | -er how long | it had been
    Since the bards | of Old Eng | -land had all | been rung in.
    'I think,' | said the god, | recollect | -ing, (and then
    He fell twid | -dling a sun | -beam as I | may my pen,)
    'I think— | let me see— | yes, it is, | I declare,
    As long | ago now | as that Buck | -ingham there;
    And yet | I can't see | why I've been | so remiss,
    Unless | it may be— | and it cer | -tainly is,
    That since Dry | -den's fine ver | -ses and Mil | -ton's sublime,
    I have fair | -ly been sick | of their sing | -song and rhyme.'"
        LEIGH HUNT: Poems, New-York Edition, of 1814.

Example III.—The Crowning of Four Favourites.

   "Then, 'Come,' | cried the god | in his el | -egant mirth,
    'Let us make | us a heav'n | of our own | upon earth,
    And wake, | with the lips | that we dip | in our bowls,
    That divin | -est of mu | -sic—conge | -nial souls.'
    So say | -ing, he led | through the din | -ing-room door,
    And, seat | -ing the po | -ets, cried, 'Lau | -rels for four!'
    No soon | -er demand | -ed, than, lo! | they were there,
    And each | of the bards | had a wreath | in his hair.
    Tom Camp | -bell's with wil | -low and pop | -lar was twin'd,
    And South | -ey's, with moun | -tain-ash, pluck'd | in the wind;
    And Scott's, | with a heath | from his old | garden stores,
    And, with vine | -leaves and jump | -up-and-kiss | -me, Tom Moore's."
        LEIGH HUNT: from line 330 to line 342.

Example IV.—"Glenara."—First Two of Eight Stanzas.

   "O heard | ye yon pi | -broch sound sad | in the gale,
    Where a band | cometh slow | -ly with weep | -ing and wail!
    'Tis the chief | of Glena | -ra laments | for his dear;
    And her sire, | and the peo | -ple, are called | to her bier.

    Glena | -ra came first | with the mourn | -ers and shroud;
    Her kins | -men, they fol | -lowed, but mourned | not aloud;
    Their plaids | all their bo | -soms were fold | -ed around;
    They marched | all in si | -lence—they looked | on the ground."
        T. CAMPBELL'S Poetical Works, p. 105.

Example V.—"Lochiel's Warning."—Ten Lines from Eighty-six.

   "'Tis the sun | -set of life | gives me mys | -tical lore,
    And com | -ing events | cast their shad | -ows before.
    I tell | thee, Cullo | -den's dread ech | -oes shall ring
    With the blood | -hounds that bark | for thy fu | -gitive king.
    Lo! anoint | -ed by Heav'n | with the vi | -als of wrath,
    Behold, | where he flies | on his des | -olate path!
    Now, in dark | -ness and bil | -lows he sweeps | from my sight;
    Rise! rise! | ye wild tem | -pests, and cov | -er his flight!
    'Tis fin | -ished. Their thun | -ders are hushed | on the moors;
    Cullo | -den is lost, | and my coun | -try deplores."—Ib., p. 89.

Example VI.—"The Exile of Erin."—The First of Five Stanzas.

   "There came | to the beach | a poor Ex | -ile of E | -r~in,
      The dew | on his thin | robe was heav | -y and chill;
    For his coun | -try he sighed, | when at twi | -light repair | -~ing
      To wan | -der alone | by the wind | -beaten hill.
    But the day | -star attract | -ed his eye's | sad devo | -t~ion,
      For it rose | o'er his own | native isle | of the o | -c~ean,
    Where once, | in the fire | of his youth | -ful emo | t~ion,
      He sang | the bold an | -them of E | -rin go bragh."—Ib., p. 116.

Example VII.—"The Poplar Field."

"The pop | -lars are fell'd, | farewell | to the shade, And the whis | -pering sound | of the cool | colonnade; The winds | play no lon | -ger and sing | in the leaves, Nor Ouse | on his bo | -som their im | -age receives. Twelve years | have elaps'd, | since I last | took a view Of my fa | -vourite field, | and the bank | where they grew; And now | in the grass | behold | they are laid, And the tree | is my seat | that once lent | me a shade. The black | -bird has fled | to anoth | -er retreat, Where the ha | -zels afford | him a screen | from the heat, And the scene, | where his mel | -ody charm'd | me before, Resounds | with his sweet | -flowing dit | -ty no more. My fu | -gitive years | are all hast | -ing away, And I | must ere long | lie as low | -ly as they, With a turf | on my breast, | and a stone | at my head, Ere anoth | -er such grove | shall arise | in its stead. 'Tis a sight | to engage | me, if an | -y thing can, To muse | on the per | -ishing pleas | -ures of man; Though his life | be a dream, | his enjoy | -ments, I see, Have a be | -ing less dur | -able e | -ven than he." COWPER'S Poems, Vol. i, p. 257.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Everett avers, that, "The purely Anapestic measure is more easily constructed than the Trochee, [Trochaic,] and of much more frequent occurrence."—English Versification, p. 97. Both parts of this assertion are at least very questionable; and so are this author's other suggestions, that, "The Anapest is [necessarily] the vehicle of gayety and joy;" that, "Whenever this measure is employed in the treating of sad subjects, the effect is destroyed;" that, "Whoever should attempt to write an elegy in this measure, would be sure to fail;" that, "The words might express grief, but the measure would express joy;" that, "The Anapest should never be employed throughout a long piece;" because "buoyancy of spirits can never be supposed to last,"—"sadness never leaves us, BUT joy remains but for a moment;" and, again, because, "the measure is exceedingly monotonous."—Ibid., pp. 97 and 98.

OBS. 2.—Most anapestic poetry, so far as I know, is in pieces of no great length; but Leigh Hunt's "Feast of the Poets," which is thrice cited above, though not a long poem, may certainly be regarded as "a long piece," since it extends through fifteen pages, and contains four hundred and thirty-one lines, all, or nearly all, of anapestic tetrameter. And, surely, no poet had ever more need of a metre well suited to his purpose, than he, who, intending a critical as well as a descriptive poem, has found so much fault with the versification of others. Pope, as a versifier, was regarded by this author, "not only as no master of his art, but as a very indifferent practiser."—Notes on the Feast of the Poets, p. 35. His "monotonous and cloying" use of numbers, with that of Darwin, Goldsmith, Johnson, Haley, and others of the same "school," is alleged to have wrought a general corruption of taste in respect to versification—a fashion that has prevailed, not temporarily,

"But ever since Pope spoil'd the ears of the town With his cuckoo-song verses, half up and half down"—Ib.

OBS. 3.—Excessive monotony is thus charged by one critic upon all verse of "the purely Anapestic measure;" and, by an other, the same fault is alleged in general terms against all the poetry "of the school of Pope," well-nigh the whole of which is iambic. The defect is probably in either case, at least half imaginary; and, as for the inherent joyousness of anapestics, that is perhaps not less ideal. Father Humphrey says, "Anapæstic and amphibrachic verse, being similar in measure and movement, are pleasing to the ear, and well adapted to cheerful and humourous compositions; and sometimes to elegiac compositions, and subjects important and solemn."—Humphrey's English Prosody, p. 17.

OBS. 4.—The anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibrach, have this in common,—that each, with one long syllable, takes two short ones. Hence there is a degree of similarity in their rhythms, or in their several effects upon the ear; and consequently lines of each order, (or of any two, if the amphibrachic be accounted a separate order,) are sometimes commingled. But the propriety of acknowledging an order of "Amphibrachic verse," as does Humphrey, is more than doubtful; because, by so doing, we not only recognize the amphibrach as one of the principal feet, but make a vast number of lines ambiguous in their scansion. For our Amphibrachic order will be made up of lines that are commonly scanned as anapestics—such anapestics as are diversified by an iambus at the beginning, and sometimes also by a surplus short syllable at the end; as in the following verses, better divided as in the sixth example above:—

   "Th~ere c=ame t~o | th~e b=each ~a | p~oor Ex~ile | ~of Er~in
      The dew on | his thin robe | was heavy | and chill:
    F~or h~is co=un | -tr~y h~e s=ighed, | wh=en ~at tw=i
                                            | -l~ight r~ep=air | -~ing
      To wander | alone by | the wind-beat | -en hill."

MEASURE II.—ANAPESTIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER.

Example I.—"Alexander Selkirk."—First Two Stanzas.

I.

    "I am mon | -arch of all | I survey,
      My right | there is none | to dispute;
    From the cen | -tre all round | to the sea,
      I am lord | of the fowl | and the brute.
    O Sol | -itude! where | are the charms
      That sa | -ges have seen | in thy face?
    Better dwell | in the midst | of alarms,
      Than reign | in this hor | -rible place.

II.

    I am out | of human | -ity's reach,
      I must fin | -ish my jour | -ney alone,
    Never hear | the sweet mu | -sic of speech,
      I start | at the sound | of my own.
    The beasts | that roam o | -ver the plain,
      My form | with indif | -ference see;
    They are so | unacquaint | -ed with man,
      Their tame | -ness is shock | -ing to me."
        COWPER'S Poems, Vol. i, p. 199.

Example II.—"Catharina."—Two Stanzas from Seven.

IV.

    "Though the pleas | -ures of Lon | -don exceed
      In num | -ber the days | of the year,
    Cathari | -na, did noth | -ing impede,
      Would feel | herself hap | -pier here;
    For the close | -woven arch | -es of limes
      On the banks | of our riv | -er, I know,
    Are sweet | -er to her | many times
      Than aught | that the cit | -y can show.

V.

    So it is, | when the mind | is endued
      With a well | -judging taste | from above;
    Then, wheth | -er embel | -lish'd or rude,
      'Tis na | -ture alone | that we love.
    The achieve | -ments of art | may amuse,
      May e | -ven our won | -der excite,
    But groves, | hills, and val | -leys, diffuse
      A last | -ing, a sa | -cred delight."
        COWPER'S Poems, Vol. ii, p. 232.

Example III.—"A Pastoral Ballad."—Two Stanzas from Twenty-seven.

(8.)

    "Not a pine | in my grove | is there seen,
      But with ten | -drils of wood | -bine is bound;
    Not a beech | 's more beau | -tiful green,
      But a sweet | -briar twines | it around,
    Not my fields | in the prime | of the year
      More charms | than my cat | -tle unfold;
    Not a brook | that is lim | -pid and clear,
      But it glit | -ters with fish | -es of gold.

(9)

    One would think | she might like | to retire
      To the bow'r | I have la | -bour'd to rear;
    Not a shrub | that I heard | her admire,
      But I hast | -ed and plant | -ed it there.
    O how sud | -den the jes | -samine strove
      With the li | -lac to ren | -der it gay!
    Alread | -y it calls | for my love,
      To prune | the wild branch | -es away."
        SHENSTONE: British Poets, Vol. vii, p. 139.

Anapestic lines of four feet and of three are sometimes alternated in a stanza, as in the following instance:—

Example IV.—"The Rose."

   "The rose | had been wash'd, | just wash'd | in a show'r,
      Which Ma | -ry to An | -na convey'd;
    The plen | -tiful moist | -ure encum | -ber'd the flow'r,
      And weigh'd | down its beau | -tiful head.

    The cup | was all fill'd, | and the leaves | were all wet,
      And it seem'd | to a fan | -ciful view,
    To weep | for the buds | it had left, | with regret,
      On the flour | -ishing bush | where it grew.

    I hast | -ily seized | it, unfit | as it was
      For a nose | -gay, so drip | -ping and drown'd,
    And, swing | -ing it rude | -ly, too rude | -ly, alas!
      I snapp'd | it,—it fell | to the ground.

    And such, | I exclaim'd, | is the pit | -iless part
      Some act | by the del | -icate mind,
    Regard | -less of wring | -ing and break | -ing a heart
      Alread | -y to sor | -row resign'd.

    This el | -egant rose, | had I shak | -en it less,
      Might have bloom'd | with its own | -er a while;
    And the tear | that is wip'd | with a lit | -tle address,
      May be fol | -low'd perhaps | by a smile."
        COWPER: Poems, Vol. i, p. 216; English Reader, p. 212.

MEASURE III.—ANAPESTIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER.

Example I.—Lines with Hypermeter and Double Rhyme.

"CORONACH," OR FUNERAL SONG.

1.

    "He is gone | on the mount | -a~in
      He is lost | to the for | -~est
    Like a sum | -mer-dried foun | -ta~in
      When our need | was the sor | -~est.
    The font, | reappear | -~ing,
      From the rain | -drops shall bor | -r~ow,
    But to us | comes no cheer | -~ing,
      Do Dun | -can no mor | -r~ow!

2.

    The hand | of the reap | -~er
      Takes the ears | that are hoar | -~y,
    But the voice | of the weep | -~er
      Wails man | -hood in glo | -r~y;
    The au | -tumn winds rush | -~ing,
      Waft the leaves | that are sear | -~est,
    But our flow'r | was in flush | -~ing,
      When blight | -ing was near | -~est."
        WALTER SCOTT: Lady of the Lake, Canto iii, St. 16.

Example II.—Exact Lines of Two Anapests.

   "Prithee, Cu | -pid, no more
    Hurl thy darts | at threescore;
    To thy girls | and thy boys,
    Give thy pains | and thy joys;
    Let Sir Trust | -y and me
    From thy frol | -ics be free."
       ADDISON: Rosamond, Act ii, Scene 2; Ev. Versif., p. 100.

Example III—An Ode, from the French of Malherbe.

   "This An | -na so fair,
      So talk'd | of by fame,
    Why dont | she appear?
      Indeed, | she's to blame!
    Lewis sighs | for the sake
      Of her charms, | as they say;
    What excuse | can she make
      For not com | -ing away?
    If he does | not possess,
      He dies | with despair;
    Let's give | him redress,
      And go find | out the fair"

    "Cette Anne si belle,
      Qu'on vante si fort,
    Pourquoi ne vient elle?
      Vraiment, elle a tort!
    Son Louis soupire,
      Après ses appas;
    Que veut elle dire,
      Qu'elle ne vient pas?
    S'il ne la posséde,
      Il s'en va mourir;
    Donnons y reméde,
      Allons la quérir."
        WILLIAM KING, LL. D.: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. iii, p. 590.

Example IV.—'Tis the Last Rose of Summer.

1.

    "'Tis the last | rose of sum | -m~er,
      Left bloom | -ing alone;
    All her love | -ly compan | -i~ons
      Are fad | -ed and gone;
    No flow'r | of her kin | -dr~ed,
      No rose | -bud is nigh,
    To give | back her blush | -~es,
      Or give | sigh for sigh.

2.

    I'll not leave | thee, thou lone | ~one!
      To pine | on the stem!
    Since the love | -ly are sleep | -~ing,
      Go, sleep | thou with them;
    Thus kind | -ly I scat | -t~er
      Thy leaves | o'er thy bed,
    Where thy mates | of the gar | -d~en
      Lie scent | -less and dead.

3.

    So, soon | may I fol | -l~ow,
      When friend | -ships decay,
    And, from love's | shining cir | -cl~e,
      The gems | drop away;
    When true | hearts lie with | -~er'd,
      And fond | ones are flown,
    Oh! who | would inhab | -it
      This bleak | world alone ?"
        T. MOORE: Melodies, Songs, and Airs, p. 171.

Example V.—Nemesis Calling up the Dead Astarte.

   "Shadow! | or spir | -~it!
      Whatev | -er thou art,
    Which still | doth inher | -~it
      The whole | or a part
    Of the form | of thy birth,
      Of the mould | of thy clay,
    Which return'd | to the earth,
      Re-appear | to the day!
    Bear what | thou bor | -~est,
      The heart | and the form,
    And the as | -pect thou wor | -~est
      Redeem | from the worm!
    Appear!—Appear!—Appear!"
        LORD BYRON: Manfred, Act ii, Sc. 4.

Example VI.—Anapestic Dimeter with Trimeter.

FIRST VOICE.

    "Make room | for the com | -bat, make room;
      Sound the trum | -pet and drum;
    A fair | -er than Ve | -nus prepares
    To encoun | -ter a great | -er than Mars.
    Make room | for the com | -bat, make room;
      Sound the trum | -pet and drum."

SECOND VOICE.

    "Give the word | to begin,
     Let the com | -batants in,
    The chal | -lenger en | -ters all glo | r~io~us;
     But Love | has decreed,
     Though Beau | -ty may bleed,
    Yet Beau | -ty shall still | be vic_to | -r~io~us_."
       GEORGE GRANVILLE: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. v, p. 58.

Example VII.—Anapestic Dimeter with Tetrameter.

AIR.

    "Let the pipe's | merry notes | aid the skill | of the voice;
    For our wish | -es are crown'd, | and our hearts | shall rejoice.
        Rejoice, | and be glad;
        For, sure, | he is mad,
    Who, where mirth, | and good hum | -mour, and har | -mony's found,
    Never catch | -es the smile, | nor lets pleas | -ure go round.
        Let the stu | -pid be grave,
        'Tis the vice | of the slave;
        But can nev | -er agree
        With a maid | -en like me,
    Who is born | in a coun | -try that's hap | -py and free."
        LLOYD: Johnson's British Poets, Vol. viii, p, 178.

MEASURE IV.—ANAPESTIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER.

This measure is rarely if ever used except in connexion with longer lines. The following example has six anapestics of two feet, and two of one; but the latter, being verses of double rhyme, have each a surplus short syllable; and four of the former commence with the iambus:—

Example I.—A Song in a Drama.

   "Now, mor |-tal, prepare,
    For thy fate | is at hand;
    Now, mor |-tal, prepare,
    ~And s~urr=en |-d~er.

    For Love | shall arise,
    Whom no pow'r | can withstand,
    Who rules | from the skies
    T~o th~e c=en |-tr~e."
        GRANVILLE, VISCOUNT LANSDOWNE: Joh. Brit. Poets, Vol. v, p. 49.

The following extract, (which is most properly to be scanned as anapestic, though considerably diversified,) has two lines, each of which is pretty evidently composed of a single anapest:—

Example II.—A Chorus in the Same.

   "Let trum |-pets and tym |-b~als,
    Let at~a |—bals and cym |-b~als,
    Let drums | and let haut |-boys give o |-v~er;
    B~ut l~et fl=utes,
    And l~et l=utes
    Our pas |-sions excite
    To gent |-ler delight,
    And ev |-ery Mars | be a lov |-~er."
        Ib., p. 56.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—That a single anapest, a single foot of any kind, or even a single long syllable, may be, and sometimes is, in certain rather uncommon instances, set as a line, is not to be denied. "Dr. Caustic," or T. G. Fessenden, in his satirical "Directions for Doing Poetry," uses in this manner the monosyllables, "Whew," "Say," and "Dress" and also the iambs, "The gay" and, "All such," rhyming them with something less isolated.

OBS. 2.—Many of our grammarians give anonymous examples of what they conceive to be "Anapestic Monometer," or "the line of one anapest," while others—(as Allen, Bullions, Churchill, and Hiley—) will have the length of two anapests to be the shortest measure of this order. Prof. Hart says, "The shortest anapæstic verse is a single anapæst; as,

    '~In =a sw=eet
    R~es~on=ance,

    ~All th~eir f=eet
    ~In th=e d=ance

    ~All th=e n=ight
    T~inkl~ed l=ight.'

This measure," it is added, "is, however, ambiguous; for by laying an accent on the first, as well as the third syllable, we may generally make it a trochaic."—Hart's English Gram., p. 188. The same six versicles are used as an example by Prof. Fowler, who, without admitting any ambiguity in the measure, introduces them, rather solecistically, thus: "Each of the following lines consist of a single Anapest."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §694.

OBS. 3.—Verses of three syllables, with the second short, the last long, and the first common, or variable, are, it would seem, doubly doubtful in scansion; for, while the first syllable, if made short, gives us an anapest, to make it long, gives either an amphimac or what is virtually two trochees. For reasons of choice in the latter case, see Observation 1st on Trochaic Dimeter. For the fixing of variable quantities, since the case admits no other rule, regard should be had to the analogy of the verse, and also to the common principles of accentuation. It is doubtless possible to read the six short lines above, into the measure of so many anapests; but, since the two monosyllables "In" and "All" are as easily made long as short, whoever considers the common pronunciation of the longer words, "Resonance" and "Tinkled," may well doubt whether the learned professors have, in this instance, hit upon the right mode of scansion. The example may quite as well be regarded either as Trochaic Dimeter, cataletic, or as Amphimacric Monometer, acatalectic. But the word resonance, being accented usually on the first syllable only, is naturally a dactyl; and, since the other five little verses end severally with a monosyllable, which can be varied in quantity, it is possible to read them all as being dactylics; and so the whole may be regarded as trebly doubtful with respect to the measure.

OBS. 4.—L. Murray says, "The shortest anapæstic verse must be a single anapæst; as,

    B~ut ~in v=ain
    They complain."

And then he adds, "This measure is, however, ambiguous; for, by laying the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might make a trochaic. And therefore the first and simplest form of our genuine Anapæstic verse, is made up of two anapæsts."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 257; 12mo, p. 207. This conclusion is utterly absurd, as well as completely contradictory to his first assertion. The genuineness of this small metre depends not at all on what may be made of the same words by other pronunciation; nor can it be a very natural reading of this passage, that gives to "But" and "They" such emphasis as will make them long.

OBS. 5.—Yet Chandler, in his improved grammar of 1847, has not failed to repeat the substance of all this absurdity and self-contradiction, carefully dressing it up in other language, thus: "Verses composed of single Anapæsts are frequently found in stanzas of songs; and the same is true of several of the other kinds of feet; but we may consider the first [i.e., shortest] form of anapæstic verse as consisting of two Anapæsts."—Chandler's Common School Gram., p. 196.

OBS. 6.—Everett, speaking of anapestic lines, says, "The first and shortest of these is composed of a single Anapest following an Iambus."—English Versification, p. 99. This not only denies the existence of Anapestic Monometer, but improperly takes for the Anapestic verse what is, by the statement itself, half Iambic, and therefore of the Composite Order. But the false assertion is plainly refuted even by the author himself and on the same page. For, at the bottom of the page, he has this contradictory note: "It has been remarked (§15) that though the Iambus with an additional short syllable is the shortest line that is known to Iambic verse, there are isolated instances of a single Iambus, and even of a single long syllable. There are examples of lines made up of a single Anapest, as the following example will show:—

    'Jove in his chair,
    Of the sky lord mayor,
    With his nods
    Men and gods
      Keeps in awe;
    When he winks,
    Heaven shrinks;
    * * * *

    Cock of the school,
    He bears despotic rule;
      His word,
      Though absurd,
      Must be law.
      Even Fate,
      Though so great,
      Must not prate;

    His bald pate
    Jove would cuff,
    He's so bluff,
      For a straw.
    Cowed deities,
    Like mice in cheese,
    To stir must cease
      Or gnaw.'

O'HARA:—Midas, Act i, Sc. 1."—Everett's Versification, p. 99

ORDER IV.—DACTYLIC VERSE.

In pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first syllable of each successive three; that is, on the first, the fourth, the seventh, and the tenth syllable of each line of four feet. Full dactylic generally forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is omitted, the rhyme is double; when both, single. These omissions are here essential to the formation of such rhymes. Dactylic with double rhyme, ends virtually with a trochee; dactylic with single rhyme, commonly ends with a cæsura; that is, with a long syllable taken for a foot. Dactylic with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without its initial short syllables. Dactylic verse is rather uncommon; and, when employed, is seldom perfectly pure and regular.

MEASURE I.—DACTYLIC OF EIGHT FEET, OR OCTOMETER.

Example.—Nimrod.

    Nimrod the | hunter was | mighty in | hunting, and | famed as the
                                           | ruler of | cities of | yore;
    Babel, and | Erech, and | Accad, and | Calneh, from | Shinar's fair
                                           | region his | name afar | bore.

MEASURE II.—DACTYLIC OF SEVEN FEET, OR HEPTAMETER.

Example.—Christ's Kingdom.

    Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels o'er
                                                   | Satan vic | -torious,
    All that of |-fendeth, that | lieth, that | faileth to | honour his
                                                   | name ever | glorious.

MEASURE III.—DACTYLIC OF SIX FEET, OR HEXAMETER.

Example I.—Time in Motion.

    Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the
                                              | days, years, and | ages;
    Restless as | waves of the | ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas | rages.

Example II.—Where, is Grand-Pré?

   "This is the | forest pri | -meval; but | where are the | hearts that be
                                                               | -neath it
    Leap'd like the | roe, when he | hears in the | woodland the
                                                 | voice of the | huntsman?
    Where is the | thatch-rooféd | village, the | home of A | -cadian
                                                               | farmers?"
        H. W. LONGFELLOW: Evangeline, Part i, l. 7—9.

MEASURE IV.—DACTYLIC OF FIVE FEET, OR PENTAMETER.

Example.—Salutation to America.

   "Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free,
    Land of the | negro-slave, | negro-slave, | land of the | chivalry,
    Often my | heart had turned, | heart had turned, | longing to | thee;
    Often had | mountain-side, | mountain-side, | broad lake, and | stream,
    Gleamed on my | waking thought, | waking thought, | crowded my | dream.
    Now thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me, | from the dark | sea,
    Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free,
    Land of the | negro-slave, | negro-slave, | land of the | chivalry."

MEASURE V.—DACTYLIC OF FOUR FEET, OR TETRAMETER.

Example 1—The Soldier's Wife.

   "Weary way |-wanderer, | languid and | sick at heart,
    Travelling | painfully | over the | rugged road,
    Wild-visaged | Wanderer! | God help thee, | wretched one!
    Sorely thy | little one | drags by thee | barefooted;
    Cold is the | baby that | hangs at thy | bending back,
    Meagre, and | livid, and | screaming for | misery.
    Woe-begone | mother, half | anger, half | agony,
    Over thy | shoulder thou | lookest to | hush the babe,
    Bleakly the | blinding snow | beats in thy | haggard face.
    Ne'er will thy | husband re | -turn from the | war again,
    Cold is thy | heart, and as | frozen as | Charity!
    Cold are thy | children.—Now | God be thy | comforter!"
        ROBERT SOUTHEY: Poems, Philad., 1843, p. 250.

Example II.—Boys.—A Dactylic Stanza.

   "Boys will an | -ticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate
      All that your | busy pate | hoarded with | care;
    And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness,
      Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your pray'r."

Example III—"Labour."—The First of Five Stanzas.

   "Pause not to | dream of the | future be | -fore us;
    Pause not to | weep the wild | cares that come | o'er us:
    Hark, how Cre | -ation's deep, | musical | chorus,
      Uninter | -mitting, goes | up into | Heaven!
    Never the | ocean-wave | falters in | flowing;
    Never the | little seed | stops in its | growing;
    More and more | richly the | rose-heart keeps | glowing,
    Till from its | nourishing | stem it is | riven."
        FRANCES S. OSGOOD: Clapp's Pioneer, p. 94.

Example IV.—"Boat Song."—First Stanza of Four.

   "Hail to the | chief who in | triumph ad | -vances!
      Honour'd and | bless'd be the | ever-green | pine!
    Long may the | tree in his | banner that | glances,
      Flourish, the | shelter and | grace of our | line!
       Heaven send it happy dew,
        Earth lend it sap anew,
    Gayly to | bourgeon, and | broadly to | grow,
        While ev'ry | Highland glen
        Sends our shout | back agen,
    'Roderigh Vich Alpine Dhu, ho! ieroe!'"
        WALTER SCOTT: Lady of the Lake, C. ii, St. 19.

MEASURE VI.—DACTYLIC OF THREE FEET, OR TRIMETER.

Example.—To the Katydid.

   "Ka-ty-did, | Ka-ty-did, | sweetly sing,—
      Sing to thy | loving mates | near to thee;
    Summer is | come, and the | trees are green,—
      Summer's glad | season so | dear to thee.

    Cheerily, | cheerily, | insect, sing;
      Blithe be thy | notes in the | hickory;
    Every | bough shall an | answer ring,
      Sweeter than | trumpet of | victory."

MEASURE VII.—DACTYLIC OF TWO FEET, OR DIMETER.

Example I.—The Bachelor.—Four Lines from Many.

   "Free from sa | -tiety,
    Care, and anx | -iety,
    Charms in va | -riety,
    Fall to his | share."—ANON.: Newspaper.

Example II.—The Pibroch.—Sixteen Lines from Forty.

   "Pibroch of | Donuil Dhu,
      Pibroch of | Donuil,
    Wake thy wild | voice anew.
      Summon Clan | -Conuil.
    Come away, | come away!
      Hark to the | summons!
    Come in your | war-array,
      Gentles and | commons!

    "Come as the | winds come, when
      Forests are | rended;
    Come as the | waves come, when
      Navies are | stranded;
    Faster come, | faster come,
      Faster and | faster!
    Chief, vassal, | page, and groom,
      Tenant and | master."—W. SCOTT.

Example III.—"My Boy."

'There is even a happiness that makes the heart afraid.'—HOOD.

    1.
    "One more new | claimant for
      Human fra | -ternity,
    Swelling the | flood that sweeps
      On to e | -ternity;

    I who have | filled the cup,
      Tremble to | think of it;
    For, be it | what it may,
      I must yet | drink of it.

    2.
    Room for him | into the
      Ranks of hu |-manity;
    Give him a | place in your
      Kingdom of | vanity!
    Welcome the | stranger with
      Kindly af |-fection;
    Hopefully, | trustfully,
      Not with de |-jection.

    3.
    See, in his | waywardness
      How his fist | doubles;
    Thus pugi |-listical,
      Daring life's | troubles:
    Strange that the | neophyte
      Enters ex |-istence
    In such an | attitude,
      Feigning re |-sistance.

    4.
    Could he but | have a glimpse
      Into fu |-turity,
    Well might he | fight against
      Farther ma |-turity;
    Yet does it | seem to me
      As if his | purity
    Were against | sinfulness
      Ample se |-curity.

    5.
    Incompre |-hensible,
      Budding im |-mortal,
    Thrust all a |-mazedly
      Under life's | portal;
    Born to a | destiny
      Clouded in | mystery,
    Wisdom it |-self cannot
      Guess at its | history.

    6.
    Something too | much of this
      Timon-like | croaking;
    See his face | wrinkle now,
      Laughter pro |-voking.
    Now he cries | lustily—
      Bravo, my | hearty one!
    Lungs like an | orator
      Cheering his | party on.

    7.
    Look how his | merry eyes
      Turn to me | pleadingly!
    Can we help | loving him—
      Loving ex |-ceedingly?
    Partly with | hopefulness,
      Partly with | fears,
    Mine, as I | look at him,
      Moisten with | tears.

    8.
    Now then to | find a name;—
      Where shall we | search for it?
    Turn to his | ancestry,
      Or to the | church for it?
    Shall we en |-dow him with
      Title he |-roic,
    After some | warrior,
      Poet, or | stoic?

    9.
    One aunty | says he will
      Soon 'lisp in | numbers,'
    Turning his | thoughts to rhyme,
      E'en in his | slumbers;
    Watts rhymed in | babyhood,
      No blemish | spots his fame—
    Christen him | even so:
      Young Mr. | Watts his name."
        ANONYMOUS: Knickerbocker, and Newspapers, 1849.

MEASURE VIII.—DACTYLIC OF ONE FOOT, OR MONOMETER.

   "Fearfully,
    Tearfully."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—A single dactyl, set as a line, can scarcely be used otherwise than as part of a stanza, and in connexion with longer verses. The initial accent and triple rhyme make it necessary to have something else with it. Hence this short measure is much less common than the others, which are accented differently. Besides, the line of three syllables, as was noticed in the observations on Anapestic Monometer, is often peculiarly uncertain in regard to the measure which it should make. A little difference in the laying of emphasis or accent may, in many instances, change it from one species of verse to an other. Even what seems to be dactylic of two feet, if the last syllable be sufficiently lengthened to admit of single rhyme with the full metre, becomes somewhat doubtful in its scansion; because, in such case, the last foot maybe reckoned an amphimac, or amphimacer. Of this, the following stanzas from Barton's lines "to the Gallic Eagle," (or to Bonaparte on St. Helena,) though different from all the rest of the piece, may serve as a specimen:—

   "Far from the | battle's shock,
      Fate hath fast | bound thee;
    Chain'd to the | rugged rock,
      Waves warring | round thee.

    [Now, for] the | trumpet's sound,
      Sea-birds are | shrieking;
    Hoarse on thy | rampart's bound,
      Billows are | breaking."

OBS. 2.—This may be regarded as verse of the Composite Order; and, perhaps, more properly so, than as Dactylic with mere incidental variations. Lines like those in which the questionable foot is here Italicized, may be united with longer dactylics, and thus produce a stanza of great beauty and harmony. The following is a specimen. It is a song, written by I know not whom, but set to music by Dempster. The twelfth line is varied to a different measure.

"ADDRESS TO THE SKYLARK."

       "Bird of the | wilderness,
        Blithesome and | cumberless,
    Light be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea;
        Emblem of | happiness,
        Blest is thy | dwelling-place;
    O! to a |-bide in the | desert with | thee!

       "Wild is thy | lay, and loud,
        Far on the | downy cloud;
    Love gives it | energy, | love gave it | birth:
        Where, on thy | dewy wing,
        Where art thou | journeying?
    Thy lay | is in heav |-en, thy love | is on earth.

       "O'er moor and | mountain green,
        O'er fell and | fountain sheen,
    O'er the red | streamer that | heralds the | day;
        Over the | cloudlet dim,
        Over the | rainbow's rim,
    Musical | cherub, hie, | hie thee a |-way.

       "Then, when the | gloamin comes,
        Low in the | heather blooms.
    Sweet will thy | welcome and | bed of love | be.
        Emblem of | happiness,
        Blest is thy | dwelling-place;
    O! to a |-bide in the | desert with | thee!"

OBS. 3.—It is observed by Churchill, (New Gram., p. 387,) that, "Shakspeare has used the dactyl, as appropriate to mournful occasions." The chief example which he cites, is the following:—

   "Midnight, as |-sist our moan,
    Help us to | sigh and groan
        Heavily, | heavily.
    Graves, yawn and | yield your dead,
    Till death be | uttered
        Heavily, | heavily."—Much Ado, V, 3

OBS. 4.—These six lines of Dactylic (or Composite) Dimeter are subjoined by the poet to four of Trochaic Tetrameter. There does not appear to me to be any particular adaptation of either measure to mournful subjects, more than to others; but later instances of this metre may be cited, in which such is the character of the topic treated. The following long example consists of lines of two feet, most of them dactylic only; but, of the seventy-six, there are twelve which may be otherwise divided, and as many more which must be, because they commence with a short syllable.

"THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS."—BY THOMAS HOOD.

   "One more un |-fortunate,
      Weary of | breath,
    Rashly im |-portunate,
      Gone to her | death!
    Take her up | tenderly,
      Lift her with | care;
    Fashioned so | slenderly,
      Young, and so | fair!

    Look at her | garments
    Clinging like | cerements,
    Whilst the wave | constantly
      Drips from her | clothing;
    Take her up | instantly,
      Loving, not | loathing.

    Touch her not | scornfully;
    Think of her | mournfully,
      Gently, and | humanly;
    Not of the | stains of her:
    All that re |-mains of her
      Now, is pure | womanly.

    Make no deep | scrutiny
    Into her | mutiny,
      Rash and un |-dutifull;
    Past all dis |-honour,
    Death has left | on her
      Only the | beautiful.

    Still, for all | slips of hers,—
      One of Eve's | family,—
    Wipe those poor | lips of hers,
      Oozing so | clammily.
    Loop up her | tresses,
      Escaped from the comb,—
    Her fair auburn tresses;
    Whilst wonderment guesses,
      Where was her | home?

    Who was her | father?
      Who was her | mother?
    Had she a | sister?
      Had she a | brother?
    Was there a | dearer one
      Yet, than all | other?

    Alas, for the rarity
    Of Christian charity
      Under the | sun!
    O, it was | pitiful!
    Near a whole | city full,
      Home she had | none.

    Sisterly, | brotherly,
    Fatherly, | motherly,
      Feelings had | changed;
    Love, by harsh |evidence,
    Thrown from its |eminence
    Even God's | providence
      Seeming e |-stranged.

    Where the lamps | quiver
    So far in the river,
      With many a light,
    From window and casement,
    From garret to basement,
    She stood, with amazement,
      Houseless, by | night.

    The bleak wind of March
      Made her tremble and shiver;
    But not the dark arch,
      Or the black-flowing river:
    Mad from life's | history,
    Glad to death's | mystery,
      Swift to be | hurled,—
    Anywhere, | anywhere,
      Out of the | world!

    In she plung'd | boldly,—
    No matter how coldly
      The rough | river ran,—
    Over the | brink of it:
    Picture it, | think of it,
      Dissolute | man!"
        Clapp's Pioneer, p. 54.

OBS. 5.—As each of our principal feet,—the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl,—has always one, and only one long syllable; it should follow, that, in each of our principal orders of verse,—the Iambic, the Trochaic, the Anapestic, and the Dactylic,—any line, not diversified by a secondary foot, must be reckoned to contain just as many feet as long syllables. So, too, of the Amphibrach, and any line reckoned Amphibrachic. But it happens, that the common error by which single-rhymed Trochaics have so often been counted a foot shorter than they are, is also extended by some writers to single-rhymed Dactylics—the rhyming syllable, if long, being esteemed supernumerary! For example, three dactylic stanzas, in each of which a pentameter couplet is followed by a hexameter line, and this again by a heptameter, are introduced by Prof. Hart thus: "The Dactylic Tetrameter, Pentameter, and Hexameter, with the additional or hypermeter syllable, are all found combined in the following extraordinary specimen of versification. * * * This is the only specimen of Dactylic hexameter or even pentameter verse that the author recollects to have seen."

LAMENT OF ADAM.

   "Glad was our | meeting: thy | glittering | bosom I | heard,
    Beating on | mine, like the | heart of a | timorous | bird;
    Bright were thine | eyes as the | stars, and their | glances were
                                                   | radiant as | gleams
    Falling from | eyes of the | angels, when | singing by | Eden's pur
                                                   |-pureal | streams.

    "Happy as | seraphs were | we, for we | wander'd a | -lone,
    Trembling with | passionate | thrills, when the | twilight had
                                                              | flown:
    Even the | echo was | silent: our | kisses and | whispers of | love
    Languish'd un | -heard and un | -known, like the | breath of the
                                     | blossoming | buds of the | grove.

    "Life hath its | pleasures, but | fading are | they as the | flowers;
    Sin hath its | sorrows, and | sadly we | turn'd from those | bowers;
    Bright were the | angels be | -hind with their | falchions of
                                                 | heavenly | flame!
    Dark was the | desolate | desert be | -fore us, and | darker the
                                                 | depth of our | shame!"
        —HENRY B. HIRST: Hart's English Grammar, p. 190.

OBS. 6.—Of Dactylic verse, our prosodists and grammarians in general have taken but very little notice; a majority of them appearing by their silence, to have been utterly ignorant of the whole species. By many, the dactyl is expressly set down as an inferior foot, which they imagine is used only for the occasional diversification of an iambic, trochaic, or anapestic line. Thus Everett: "It is never used except as a secondary foot, and then in the first place of the line."—English Versification, p. 122. On this order of verse, Lindley Murray bestowed only the following words: "The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we shall give only one example of one species of it:—

    Fr=om th~e l~ow pl=eas~ures ~of th=is f~all~en n=at~ure,
    Rise we to higher, &c."—Gram., 12mo, p. 207; 8vo, p. 257.

Read this example with "we rise" for "Rise we," and all the poetry of it is gone! Humphrey says, "Dactyle verse is seldom used, as remarked heretofore; but is used occasionally, and has three metres; viz. of 2, 3, and 4 feet. Specimens follow. 2 feet. Free from anxiety. 3 feet. Singing most sweetly and merrily. 4 feet. Dactylic measures are wanting in energy."—English Prosody, p. 18. Here the prosodist has made his own examples; and the last one, which unjustly impeaches all dactylics, he has made very badly—very prosaically; for the word "Dactylic," though it has three syllables, is properly no dactyl, but rather an amphibrach.

OBS. 7.—By the Rev. David Blair, this order of poetic numbers is utterly misconceived and misrepresented. He says of it, "DACTYLIC verse consists of a short syllable, with one, two, or three feet, and a long syllable; as,

    'D~istr=act~ed w~ith w=oe,
    'I'll r=ush ~on th~e f=oe.' ADDISON."—Blair's Pract. Gram., p. 119.

    "'Y~e sh=eph~erds s~o ch=eerf~ul ~and g=ay,
    'Wh~ose fl=ocks n~ev~er c=arel~essl~y r=oam;
    'Sh~ould C=or~yd~on's h=app~en t~o str=ay,
    'Oh! c=all th~e p=oor w=and~er~ers h=ome.' SHENSTONE."—Ib., p. 120.

It is manifest, that these lines are not dactylic at all. There is not a dactyl in them. They are composed of iambs and anapests. The order of the versification is Anapestic; but it is here varied by the very common diversification of dropping the first short syllable. The longer example is from a ballad of 216 lines, of which 99 are thus varied, and 117 are full anapestics.

OBS. 8.—The makers of school-books are quite as apt to copy blunders, as to originate them; and, when an error is once started in a grammar, as it passes with the user for good learning, no one can guess where it will stop. It seems worth while, therefore, in a work of this nature, to be liberal in the citation of such faults as have linked themselves, from time to time, with the several topics of our great subject. It is not probable, that the false scansion just criticised originated with Blair; for the Comprehensive Grammar, a British work, republished in its third edition, by Dobson, of Philadelphia, in 1789, teaches the same doctrine, thus: "Dactylic measure may consist of one, two, or three Dactyls, introduced by a feeble syllable, and terminated by a strong one; as,

    M~y | d=ear Ir~ish | f=olks,
    C=ome | l=eave ~off y~our | j=okes,
    And | b=uy ~up m~y | h=alfp~ence s~o | f=ine;
    S~o | f=air ~and s~o | br=ight,
    Th~ey'll | g=ive y~ou d~e | -l=ight:
    Ob | -s=erve h~ow th~ey | gl=ist~er ~and | sh=ine. SWIFT.

    A | c=obl~er th~ere | w=as ~and h~e | l=iv'd ~in ~a | st=all,
    Wh~ich | s=erv'd h~im f~or | k=itch~en, f~or | p=arl~our ~and | hall;
    N~o | c=oin ~in h~is | p=ock~et, n~o | c=are ~in h~is | p=ate;
    N~o ~am | -b=it~ion h~e | h=ad, ~and n~o | d=uns ~at h~is | g=ate."
        —Comp. Gram., p. 150.

To this, the author adds, "Dactylic measure becomes Anapestic by setting off an Iambic foot in the beginning of the line."—Ib. These verses, all but the last one, unquestionably have an iambic foot at the beginning; and, for that reason, they are not, and by no measurement can be, dactylics. The last one is purely anapestic. All the divisional bars, in either example, are placed wrong.

ORDER V.—COMPOSITE VERSE.

Composite verse is that which consists of various metres, or different feet, combined,—not accidentally, or promiscuously, but by design, and with some regularity. In Composite verse, of any form, the stress must be laid rhythmically, as in the simple orders, else the composition will be nothing better than unnatural prose. The possible variety of combinations in this sort of numbers is unlimited; but, the pure and simple kinds being generally preferred, any stated mixture of feet is comparatively uncommon. Certain forms which may be scanned by other methods, are susceptible also of division as Composites. Hence there cannot be an exact enumeration of the measures of this order, but instances, as they occur, may be cited to exemplify it.

Example I.—From Swift's Irish Feast.

   "O'Rourk's | noble fare | will ne'er | be forgot,
    By those | who were there, | or those | who were not.
    His rev |-els to keep, | we sup | and we dine
    On sev |-en score sheep, | fat bul |-locks, and swine.
    Usquebaugh | to our feast | in pails | was brought up,
    An hun |-dred at least, | and a mad |-der our cup.
    O there | is the sport! | we rise | with the light,
    In disor |-derly sort, | from snor |-ing all night.
    O how | was I trick'd! | my pipe | it was broke,
    My pock |-et was pick'd, | I lost | my new cloak.
    I'm ri |-fled, quoth Nell, | of man |-tle and kerch |-er:
    Why then | fare them well, | the de'il | take the search |-er."
        Johnson's Works of the Poets, Vol. v, p. 310.

Here the measure is tetrameter; and it seems to have been the design of the poet, that each hemistich should consist of one iamb and one anapest. Such, with a few exceptions, is the arrangement throughout the piece; but the hemistichs which have double rhyme, may each be divided into two amphibrachs. In Everett's Versification, at p. 100, the first six lines of this example are broken into twelve, and set in three stanzas, being given to exemplify "The Line of a single Anapest preceded by an Iambus," or what he improperly calls "The first and shortest species of Anapestic lines." His other instance of the same metre is also Composite verse, rather than Anapestic, even by his own showing. "In the following example," says he, "we have this measure alternating with Amphibrachic lines:"

Example II.—From Byron's Manfred.

   "The Captive Usurper,
      Hurl'd down | from the throne.
    Lay buried in torpor,
      Forgotten and lone;
    I broke through his slumbers,
      I shiv |-er'd his chain,
    I leagued him with numbers—
      He's Ty |-rant again!
    With the blood | of a mill |-ion he'll an |-swer my care,
    With a na |-tion's destruc |-tion—his flight | and despair."
        —Act ii, Sc. 3.

Here the last two lines, which are not cited by Everett, are pure anapestic tetrameters; and it may be observed, that, if each two of the short lines were printed as one, the eight which are here scanned otherwise, would become four of the same sort, except that these would each begin with an iambus. Hence the specimen sounds essentially as anapestic verse.

Example III.—Woman on the Field of Battle.

   "Gentle and | lovely form,
      What didst | thou here,
    When the fierce | battle storm
      Bore down | the spear?

    Banner and | shiver'd crest,
      Beside | thee strown,
    Tell that a |-midst the best
      Thy work was done!

    Low lies the | stately head,
      Earth-bound | the free:
    How gave those | haughty dead
      A place | to thee?

    Slumb'rer! thine | early bier
      Friends should | have crown'd,
    Many a |flow'r and tear
      Shedding | around.

    Soft voices, | dear and young,
      Mingling | their swell,
    Should o'er thy | dust have sung
      Earth's last | farewell.

    Sisters a |-bove the grave
      Of thy | repose
    Should have bid | vi'lets wave
      With the | white rose.

    Now must the | trumpet's note.
      Savage | and shrill,
    For requi'm | o'er thee float,
      Thou fair | and still!

    And the swift | charger sweep,
      In full | career,
    Trampling thy | place of sleep—
      Why cam'st | thou here?

    Why?—Ask the | true heart why
      Woman | hath been
    Ever, where | brave men die,
      Unshrink |-ing seen.

    Unto this | harvest ground,
      Proud reap |-ers came,
    Some for that | stirring sound,
      A warr |-ior's name:

    Some for the | stormy play,
      And joy | of strife,
    And some to | fling away
      A wea |-ry life.

    But thou, pale | sleeper, thou,
      With the | slight frame,
    And the rich | locks, whose glow
      Death can |-not tame;

    Only one | thought, one pow'r,
     Thee could | have led,
    So through the | tempest's hour
     To lift | thy head!

    Only the | true, the strong,
     The love | whose trust
    Woman's deep | soul too long
     Pours on | the dust."

HEMANS: Poetical Works, Vol. ii, p. 157.

Here are fourteen stanzas of composite dimeter, each having two sorts of lines; the first sort consisting, with a few exceptions, of a dactyl and an amphimac; the second, mostly, of two iambs; but, in some instances, of a trochee and an iamb;—the latter being, in such a connexion, much the more harmonious and agreeable combination of quantities.

Example IV.—Airs from a "Serenata."

Air 1.

    "Love sounds | the alarm,
      And fear | is a-fly~ing;
    When beau |-ty's the prize,
      What mor |-tal fears dy |-~ing?
    In defence | of my treas |-~ure,
      I'd bleed | at each vein;
    Without | her no pleas |-ure;
      For life | is a pain."

Air 2.

    "Consid |-er, fond shep |-h~erd,
      How fleet |-ing's the pleas |-~ure,
    That flat |-ters our hopes
      In pursuit | of the fair:
    The joys | that attend | ~it,
      By mo |-ments we meas |-~ure;
    But life | is too lit |-tle
      To meas |-ure our care."

GAY'S POEMS: Johnson's Works of the Poets, VoL vii, p. 378.

These verses are essentially either anapestic or amphibrachic. The anapest divides two of them in the middle; the amphibrach will so divide eight. But either division will give many iambs. By the present scansion, the first foot is an iamb in all of them but the two anapestics.

Example V.—"The Last Leaf."

    1.
    "I saw | him once | before
    As he pass |-~ed by | the door,
        And again
    The pave |-ment stones | resound
    As he tot |-ters o'er | the ground
        With his cane.

    2.
    They say | that in | his prime,
    Ere the prun |-ing knife of Time
        Cut him down,
    Not a bet |-ter man | was found
    By the cri |-er on | his round
        Through the town.

    3.
    But now | he walks | the streets,
    And he looks | at all | he meets
        So forlorn;
    And he shakes | his fee |-ble head,
    That it seems | as if | he said,
        They are gone.

    4.
    The mos |-sy mar |-bles rest
    On the lips | that he | has press'd
        In their bloom;
    And the names | he lov'd | to hear
    Have been carv'd | for man |-y a year
        On the tomb.

    5.
    My grand |-mamma | has said,—
    Poor old La |-dy! she | is dead
        Long ago,—
    That he had | a Ro |-man nose,
    And his cheek | was like | a rose
        In the snow.

    6.
    But now | his nose | is thin,
    And it rests | upon | his chin
        Like a staff;
    And a crook | is in | his back
    And a mel |-anchol |-y crack
        In his laugh.

    7.
    I know | it is | a sin
    For me [thus] | to sit | and grin
        At him here;
    But the old | three-cor |-ner'd hat,
    And the breech |-es, and | all that,
        Are so queer!

    8.
    And if I | should live | to be
    The last leaf | upon | the tree
        In the spring,—
    Let them smile, | as I | do now,
    At the old | forsak |-en bough
        Where I cling."
        OLIVER W. HOLMES: The Pioneer, 1843, p. 108.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Composite verse, especially if the lines be short, is peculiarly liable to uncertainty, and diversity of scansion; and that which does not always abide by one chosen order of quantities, can scarcely be found agreeable; it must be more apt to puzzle than to please the reader. The eight stanzas of this last example, have eight lines of iambic trimeter; and, since seven times in eight, this metre holds the first place in the stanza, it is a double fault, that one such line seems strayed from its proper position. It would be better to prefix the word Now to the fourth line, and to mend the forty-third thus:—

"And should | I live | to be"—

The trissyllabic feet of this piece, as I scan it, are numerous; being the sixteen short lines of monometer, and the twenty-four initial feet of the lines of seven syllables. Every one of the forty—(except the thirty-sixth, "The last leaf"—) begins with a monosyllable which may be varied in quantity; so that, with stress laid on this monosyllable, the foot becomes an amphimac; without such stress, an anapest.

OBS. 2.—I incline to read this piece as composed of iambs and anapests; but E. A. Poe, who has commended "the effective harmony of these lines," and called the example "an excellently well conceived and well managed specimen of versification," counts many syllables long, which such a reading makes short, and he also divides all but the iambics in a way quite different from mine, thus: "Let us scan the first stanza.

    'I s=aw | h~im =once | b~ef=ore
    As h~e | p=ass~ed | b=y th~e | d=oor,
        And ~a- | g=ain

    Th~e p=ave- | m~ent st=ones | r~es=ound
    As h~e | t=ott~ers | =o'er th~e | gr=ound
        W=ith h~is c=ane.'

This," says he, "is the general scansion of the poem. We have first three iambuses. The second line shifts the rhythm into the trochaic, giving us three trochees, with a cæsura equivalent, in this case, to a trochee. The third line is a trochee and equivalent cæsura."—POE'S NOTES UPON ENGLISH VERSE: Pioneer, p. 109. These quantities are the same as those by which the whole piece is made to consist of iambs and amphimacs.

OBS. 3.—In its rhythmical effect upon the ear, a supernumerary short syllable at the end of a line, may sometimes, perhaps, compensate for the want of such a syllable at the beginning of the next line, as may be seen in the fourth example above; but still it is unusual, and seems improper, to suppose such syllables to belong to the scansion of the subsequent line; for the division of lines, with their harmonic pauses, is greater than the division of feet, and implies that no foot can ever actually be split by it. Poe has suggested that the division into lines may be disregarded in scanning, and sometimes must be. He cites for an example the beginning of Byron's "Bride of Abydos,"—a passage which has been admired for its easy flow, and which, he says, has greatly puzzled those who have attempted to scan it. Regarding it as essentially anapestic tetrameter, yet as having some initial iambs, and the first and fifth lines dactylic, I shall here divide it accordingly, thus:—

   "Kn=ow y~e th~e | l=and wh~ere th~e | c=ypr~ess ~and | m=yrtl~e
      Ar~e =em | -bl~ems ~of d=eeds | th~at ~are d=one
                                                   | ~in th~eir cl=ime—
    Where the rage | of the vul | -ture, the love | of the tur | -tle,
      Now melt | into soft | -ness, now mad | -den to crime?
      Know ye the | land of the | cedar and | vine.
      Where the flow'rs | ever blos | -som, the beams | ever shine,
      And the light | wings of Zeph | -yr, oppress'd | with perfume,
      Wax faint | o'er the gar | -dens of Gul | in her bloom?
      Where the cit | -ron and ol | -ive are fair | -est of fruit,
      And the voice | of the night | -ingale nev | -er is mute?
      Where the vir | -gins are soft as the ros | -es they twine,
      And all, | save the spir | -it of man, | is divine?
      'Tis the land | of the East- | 't is the clime | of the Sun—
      Can he smile | on such deeds | as his chil | -dren have done?
      Oh, wild | as the ac | -cents of lov | -ers' farewell,
      Are the hearts | that they bear, | and the tales | that they tell."

OBS. 4.—These lines this ingenious prosodist divides not thus, but, throwing them together like prose unpunctuated, finds in them "a regular succession of dactylic rhythms, varied only at three points by equivalent spondees, and separated into two distinct divisions by equivalent terminating cæsuras." He imagines that, "By all who have ears—not over long—this will be acknowledged as the true and the sole true scansion."—E. A. Poe: Pioneer, p. 107. So it may, for aught I know; but, having dared to show there is an other way quite as simple and plain, and less objectionable, I submit both to the judgement of the reader:—

"Kn=ow y~e th~e | l=and wh~ere th~e | c=ypr~ess ~and | m=yrtl~e ~are | =embl~ems ~of | d=eeds th~at ~are | d=one ~in th~eir | cl=ime wh~ere th~e | r=age ~of th~e | v=ult~ure th~e | l=ove ~of th~e | t=urtl~e n~ow | m=elt ~int~o | s=oftn~ess n~ow | madd~en t~o | crime. Kn=ow y~e th~e | l=and ~of th~e | c=ed~ar ~and | v=ine wh~ere th~e | fl=ow'rs ~ev~er | bl=oss~om th~e | b=eams ~ev~er | sh=ine wh~ere th=e | l=ight w~ings =of | z=eph=yr ~op | -pr=ess'd w~ith p~er | -f=ume w=ax | f=aint ~o'er th~e | g=ard~ens ~of | G=ul ~in h~er | bl=oom wh~ere th~e | c=itr~on ~and | =oli~ve ~are | f=air~est ~of | fr=uit ~and th~e | v=oice ~of th~e | n=ight~ing~ale | n=ev~er ~is | m=ute wh~ere th~e | v=irg~ins ~are | s=oft ~as th~e | r=os~es th~ey | tw=ine =and | =all s~ave th~e | sp=ir~it ~of | m=an ~is d~i- | v=ine 't~is th~e | l=and ~of th~e | E=ast 't~is th~e | cl=im~e ~of th~e | S=un c~an h~e | sm=ile ~on s~uch | d=eeds ~as h~is | ch=ildr~en h~ave | d~one =oh w=ild ~as th~e | =acc~ents ~of | l=ov~ers' f~are- | w=ell ~are th~e | h=earts th~at th~ey | be=ar and th~e | t=ales th~at th~ey | t=ell."—Ib.

OBS. 5.—In the sum and proportion of their quantities, the anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibrach, are equal, each having two syllables short to one long; and, with two short quantities between two long ones, lines may be tolerably accordant in rhythm, though the order, at the commencement, be varied, and their number of syllables be not equal. Of the following sixteen lines, nine are pure anapestic tetrameters; one may be reckoned dactylic, but it may quite as well be said to have a trochee, an iambus, and two anapests or two amphimacs; one is a spondee and three anapests; and the rest may be scanned as amphibrachics ending with an iambus, but are more properly anapestics commencing with an iambus. Like the preceding example from Byron, they lack the uniformity of proper composites, and are rather to be regarded as anapestics irregularly diversified.

THE ALBATROSS.

"'Tis said the Albatross never rests."—Buffon.

   "Wh~ere th~e f=ath | -~oml~ess w=aves | in magnif | -icence toss,
    H=omel~ess | ~and h=igh | soars the wild | Albatross;
    Unwea | -ried, undaunt | -ed, unshrink | -ing, alone,
    The o | -cean his em | -pire, the tem | -pest his throne.
    When the ter | -rible whirl | -wind raves wild | o'er the surge,
    And the hur | -ricane howls | out the mar | -iner's dirge,
    In thy glo | -ry thou spurn | -est the dark | -heaving sea,
    Pr=oud b=ird | of the o | -cean-world, home | -less and free.
    When the winds | are at rest, | and the sun | in his glow,
    And the glit | -tering tide | sleeps in beau | -ty below,
    In the pride | of thy pow | -er trium | -phant above,
    With thy mate | thou art hold | -ing thy rev | -els of love.
    Untir | -ed, unfet | -tered, unwatched, | unconfined,
    Be my spir | -it like thee, | in the world | of the mind;
    No lean | -ing for earth, | e'er to wea | -ry its flight,
    And fresh | as thy pin | -ions in re | -gions of light."
       SAMUEL DALY LANGTREE: North American Reader, p. 443.

OBS. 6.—It appears that the most noted measures of the Greek and Latin poets were not of any simple order, but either composites, or mixtures too various to be called composites. It is not to be denied, that we have much difficulty in reading them rhythmically, according to their stated feet and scansion; and so we should have, in reading our own language rhythmically, in any similar succession of feet. Noticing this in respect to the Latin Hexameter, or Heroic verse, Poe says, "Now the discrepancy in question is not observable in English metres; where the scansion coincides with the reading, so far as the rhythm is concerned—that is to say, if we pay no attention to the sense of the passage. But these facts indicate a radical difference in the genius of the two languages, as regards their capacity for modulation. In truth, * * * the Latin is a far more stately tongue than our own. It is essentially spondaic; the English is as essentially dactylic."—Pioneer, p. 110. (See the marginal note in §3d. at Obs. 22d, above.) Notwithstanding this difference, discrepance, or difficulty, whatever it may be, some of our poets have, in a few instances, attempted imitations of certain Latin metres; which imitations it may be proper briefly to notice under the present head. The Greek or Latin Hexameter line has, of course, six feet, or pulsations. According to the Prosodies, the first four of these may be either dactyls or spondees; the fifth is always, or nearly always, a dactyl; and the sixth, or last, is always a spondee: as,

   "L=ud~er~e | qu=æ v=el | -l=em c~al~a | -m=o p=er | -m=is~it ~a
                                                    | -gr=est=i."—Virg.

   "Inf=an- | d=um, R=e | -g=in~a, j~u | -b=es r~en~o | -v=ar~e d~o
                                                    | -l=or=em."—Id.

Of this sort of verse, in English, somebody has framed the following very fair example:—

   "M=an ~is ~a | c=ompl=ex, | c=omp=ound | c=omp=ost, | y=et ~is h~e
                                                          | G=od-b=orn."

OBS. 7.—Of this species of versification, which may be called Mixed or Composite Hexameter, the most considerable specimen that I have seen in English, is Longfellow's Evangeline, a poem of one thousand three hundred and eighty-two of these long lines, or verses. This work has found admirers, and not a few; for, of these, nothing written by so distinguished a scholar could fail: but, surely, not many of the verses in question exhibit truly the feet of the ancient Hexameters; or, if they do, the ancients contented themselves with very imperfect rhythms, even in their noblest heroics. In short, I incline to the opinion of Poe, that, "Nothing less than the deservedly high reputation of Professor Longfellow, could have sufficed to give currency to his lines as to Greek Hexameters. In general, they are neither one thing nor another. Some few of them are dactylic verses—English dactylics. But do away with the division into lines, and the most astute critic would never have suspected them of any thing more than prose."—Pioneer, p. 111. The following are the last ten lines of the volume, with such a division into feet as the poet is presumed to have contemplated:—

   "Still stands the | forest pri | -meval; but | under the | shade of its
                                                               | branches
    Dwells an | -other | race, with | other | customs and | language.
    Only a | -long the | shore of the | mournful and | misty At | -lantic
    Linger a | few A | -cadian | peasants, whose | fathers from | exile
    Wandered | back to their | native | land to | die in its | bosom.
    In the | fisherman's | cot the | wheel and the | loom are still | busy;
    Maidens still | wear their | Norman | caps and their | kirtles of
                                                               | homespun,
    And by the | evening | fire re | -peat E | -vangeline's story,
    While from its | rocky | caverns the | deep-voiced, | neighbouring
                                                               | ocean
    Speaks, and in | accents dis | -consolate | answers the | wail of the
                                                               | forest."
       HENRY W. LONGFELLOW: Evangeline, p. 162.

OBS. 8.—An other form of verse, common to the Greeks and Romans, which has sometimes been imitated—or, rather, which some writers have attempted to imitate—in English, is the line or stanza called Sapphic, from the inventress, Sappho, a Greek poetess. The Sapphic verse, according to Fabricius, Smetius, and all good authorities, has eleven syllables, making "five feet—the first a trochee, the second a spondee, the third a dactyl, and the fourth and fifth trochees." The Sapphic stanza, or what is sometimes so called, consists of three Sapphic lines and an Adonian, or Adonic,—this last being a short line composed of "a dactyl and a spondee." Example from Horace:—

   "=Int~e | -g=er v=i | -tæ, sc~el~e | -r=isqu~e | p=ur~us
    Non e | -get Mau | -ri jacu | -lis ne | -qu' arcu,
    Nec ven | -ena | -tis gravi | -dâ sa | -gittis,
        Fusce, pha | -retra."

To arrange eleven syllables in a line, and have half or more of them to form trochees, is no difficult matter; but, to find rhythm in the succession of "a trochee, a spondee, and a dactyl," as we read words, seems hardly practicable. Hence few are the English Sapphics, if there be any, which abide by the foregoing formule of quantities and feet. Those which I have seen, are generally, if not in every instance, susceptible of a more natural scansion as being composed of trochees, with a dactyl, or some other foot of three syllables, at the beginning of each line. The cæsural pause falls sometimes after the fourth syllable, but more generally, and much more agreeably, after the fifth. Let the reader inspect the following example, and see if he do not agree with me in laying the accent on only the first syllable of each foot, as the feet are here divided. The accent, too, must be carefully laid. Without considerable care in the reading, the hearer will not suppose the composition to be any thing but prose:—

"THE WIDOW."—(IN "SAPPHICS.")

   "Cold was the | night-wind, | drifting | fast the | snow fell,
    Wide were the | downs, and | shelter | -less and | naked,
    When a poor | Wanderer | struggled | on her | journey,
           Weary and | way-sore.

    Drear were the | downs, more | dreary | her re | -flections;
    Cold was the | night-wind, | colder | was her | bosom;
    She had no | home, the | world was | all be | -fore her;
           She had no | shelter.

    Fast o'er the | heath a | chariot | rattlee | by her;
    'Pity me!' | feebly | cried the | lonely | wanderer;
    'Pity me, | strangers! | lest, with | cold and | hunger,
           Here I should | perish.

    'Once I had | friends,—though | now by | all for | -saken!
    'Once I had | parents, | —they are | now in | heaven!
    'I had a | home once, | —I had | once a | husband—
           Pity me, | strangers!

    'I had a | home once, | —I had | once a | husband—
    'I am a | widow, | poor and | broken | -hearted!'
    Loud blew the | wind; un | -heard was | her com | -plaining;
           On drove the | chariot.

    Then on the | snow she | laid her | down to | rest her;
    She heard a | horseman; | 'Pity | me!' she | groan'd out;
    Loud was the | wind; un | -heard was | her com | -plaining;
           On went the | horseman.

    Worn out with | anguish, | toil, and | cold, and | hunger,
    Down sunk the | Wanderer; | sleep had | seized her | senses;
    There did the | traveller | find her | in the | morning;
           God had re | -leased her."
             ROBERT SOUTHEY: Poems, Philad., 1843, p. 251.

Among the lyric poems of Dr. Watts, is one, entitled, "THE DAY OF JUDGEMENT; an Ode attempted in English Sapphic." It is perhaps as good an example as we have of the species. It consists of nine stanzas, of which I shall here cite the first three, dividing them into feet as above:—

   "When the fierce | North Wind, | with his | airy | forces,
    Rears up the | Baltic | to a | foaming | fury;
    And the red | lightning | with a | storm of | hail comes
      Rushing a | -main down;

    How the poor | sailors | stand a | -maz'd and | tremble!
    While the hoarse | thunder, | like a bloody | trumpet,
    Roars a loud | onset | to the | gaping | waters,
      Quick to de | -vour them.

    Such shall the | noise be, | and the | wild dis | -order,
    (If things e | -ternal | may be | like these | earthly,)
    Such the dire | terror, | when the | great Arch | -angel
      Shakes the cre | -ation."—Horæ Lyricæ, p. 67.

"These lines," says Humphrey, who had cited the first four, "are good English Sapphics, and contain the essential traits of the original as nearly as the two languages, Greek and English, correspond to each other. This stanza, together with the poem, from which this was taken, may stand for a model, in our English compositions."—Humphrey's E. Prosody, p. 19. This author erroneously supposed, that the trissyllabic foot, in any line of the Sapphic stanza, must occupy the second place: and, judging of the ancient feet and quantities by what he found, or supposed he found, in the English imitations, and not by what the ancient prosodists say of them, yet knowing that the ancient and the modern Sapphics are in several respects unlike, he presented forms of scansion for both, which are not only peculiar to himself, but not well adapted to either. "We have," says he, "no established rule for this kind of verse, in our English compositions, which has been uniformly adhered to. The rule for which, in Greek and Latin verse, as far as I can ascertain, was this: = ~ | = = = | ~ ~ |= ~ | = = a trochee, a moloss, a pyrrhic, a trochee, and [a] spondee; and sometimes, occasionally, a trochee, instead of a spondee, at the end. But as our language is not favourable to the use of the spondee and moloss, the moloss is seldom or never used in our English Sapphics; but, instead of which, some other trissyllable foot is used. Also, instead of the spondee, a trochee is commonly used; and sometimes a trochee instead of the pyrrhic, in the third place. As some prescribed rule, or model for imitation, may be necessary, in this case, I will cite a stanza from one of our best English poets, which may serve for a model.

   'Wh=en th~e | fi=erce n=orth-w~ind, | w~ith h~is | =air~y | f=orc~es [,]
    R=ears ~up | th~e B=alt~ic | t~o ~a | f=oam~ing | f=ur~y;
    And th~e | r=ed l=ightn~ing | w~ith ~a | st=orm ~of | h=ail c~omes
            R=ush~ing | ~am=ain d=own.'—Watts."—Ib., p. 19.

OBS. 12.—In "the Works of George Canning," a small book published in 1829, there is a poetical dialogue of nine stanzas, entitled, "The Friend of Humanity and the Knife-Grinder," said to be "a burlesque on Mr. Southey's Sapphics." The metre appears to be near enough like to the foregoing. But these verses I divide, as I have divided the others, into trochees with initial dactyls. At the commencement, the luckier party salutes the other thus:—

   "'Needy knife | -grinder! | whither | are you | going?
     Rough is the | road, your | wheel is | out of | order—
     Bleak blows the | blast;—your | hat has | got a | hole in't,
               So have your | breeches!

    'Weary knife | -grinder! | little | think the | proud ones
     Who in their | coaches | roll a | -long the | turnpike—
     Road, what hard | work 'tis, | crying | all day, | 'Knives and
               Scissors to | grind O!'"—P. 44.

OBS. 13.—Among the humorous poems of Thomas Green Fessenden, published under the sobriquet of Dr. Caustic, or "Christopher Caustic, M. D.," may be seen an other comical example of Sapphics, which extends to eleven stanzas. It describes a contra-dance, and is entitled, "Horace Surpassed." The conclusion is as follows:—

   "Willy Wagnimble dancing with Flirtilla,
    Almost as light as air-balloon inflated,
    Rigadoons around her, 'till the lady's heart is
                    Forced to surrender.

    Benny Bamboozle cuts the drollest capers,
    Just like a camel, or a hippopot'mus;
    Jolly Jack Jumble makes as big a rout as
                    Forty Dutch horses.

    See Angelina lead the mazy dance down;
    Never did fairy trip it so fantastic;
    How my heart flutters, while my tongue pronounces,
                    'Sweet little seraph!'

    Such are the joys that flow from contra-dancing,
    Pure as the primal happiness of Eden,
    Love, mirth, and music, kindle in accordance
                    Raptures extatic."—Poems, p. 208.

SECTION V.—ORAL EXERCISES.

IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.

FALSE PROSODY, OR ERRORS OF METRE.

LESSON I.—RESTORE THE RHYTHM.

"The lion is laid down in his lair."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 134.

[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word "lion," here put for Cowper's word "beast" destroys the metre, and changes the line to prose. But, according to the definition given on p. 827, "Verse, in opposition to prose, is language arranged into metrical lines of some determinate length and rhythm—language so ordered as to produce harmony by a due succession of poetic feet." This line was composed of one iamb and two anapests; and, to such form, it should be restored, thus: "The beast is laid down in his lair."—Cowper's Poems, Vol. i, p. 201.]

   "Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, not in me."
        —Hallock's Gram., 1842, p. 66.

   "Canst thou grow sad, thou sayest, as earth grows bright?"
        —Frazee's Gram., 1845, p. 140.

   "It must be so, Plato, thou reasonest well."
        —Wells's Gram., 1846, p. 122.

   "Slow rises merit, when by poverty depressed."
        —Ib., p. 195; Hiley, 132; Hart, 179.

   "Rapt in future times, the bard begun."
        —Wells's Gram., 1846, p. 153.

   "Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens
    To wash it white as snow? Whereunto serves mercy,
    But to confront the visage of offence!"
        —Hallock's Gram., 1842, p. 118.

   "Look! in this place ran Cassius's dagger through."
        —Kames, El. of Cr., Vol. i, p. 74.

    "——When they list their lean and flashy songs,
    Harsh grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw."
        —Jamieson's Rhet., p. 135.

    "Did not great Julius bleed for justice's sake?"
        —Dodd's Beauties of Shak., p. 253.

    "Did not great Julius bleed for justice sake?"
        —Singer's Shakspeare, Vol. ii, p. 266.

    "May I, unblam'd, express thee? Since God is light."
        —O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 290.

    "Or hearest thou, rather, pure ethereal stream!"
        —2d Perversion, ib.

    "Republics; kingdoms; empires, may decay;
    Princes, heroes, sages, sink to nought."
        —O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 287.

    "Thou bringest, gay creature as thou art,
    A solemn image to my heart."
        —E. J. Hallock's Gram., p. 197.

    "Know thyself presume not God to scan;
    The proper study of mankind is Man."
        —O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 285.

    "Raised on a hundred pilasters of gold."
        —Charlemagne, C. i, St. 40.

    "Love in Adalgise's breast has fixed his sting."
        —Ib., C. i, St. 30.

    "Thirty days hath September,
    April, June, and November,
    February twenty-eight alone,
    All the rest thirty and one."
        Colet's Grammar, or Paul's Accidence. Lond., 1793, p. 75.

LESSON II.—RESTORE THE RHYTHM.

   "'Twas not the fame of what he once had been,
    Or tales in old records and annals seen."
        —Rowe's Lucan, B. i, l. 274.

    "And Asia now and Afric are explor'd,
    For high-priced dainties, and citron board."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. i, l. 311.

    "Who knows not, how the trembling judge beheld
    The peaceful court with arm'd legions fill'd?"
        —Eng. Poets; ib., B. i, l. 578.

    "With thee the Scythian wilds we'll wander o'er,
    With thee burning Libyan sands explore."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. i, l. 661.

    "Hasty and headlong different paths they tread,
    As blind impulse and wild distraction lead."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. i, l. 858.

    "But Fate reserv'd to perform its doom,
    And be the minister of wrath to Rome."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. ii, l. 136.

    "Thus spoke the youth. When Cato thus exprest
    The sacred counsels of his most inmost breast."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. ii, l. 435.

    "These were the strict manners of the man,
    And this the stubborn course in which they ran;
    The golden mean unchanging to pursue,
    Constant to keep the proposed end in view."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. ii, l. 580.

    "What greater grief can a Roman seize,
    Than to be forc'd to live on terms like these!"
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. ii, l. 782.

    "He views the naked town with joyful eyes,
    While from his rage an arm'd people flies."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. ii, l. 880.

    "For planks and beams he ravages the wood,
    And the tough bottom extends across the flood."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. ii, l. 1040.

    "A narrow pass the horned mole divides,
    Narrow as that where Euripus' strong tides
    Beat on Euboean Chalcis' rocky sides."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. ii, l. 1095.

    "No force, no fears their hands unarm'd bear,
    But looks of peace and gentleness they wear."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. iii, l. 112.

    "The ready warriors all aboard them ride,
    And wait the return of the retiring tide."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. iv, l. 716.

    "He saw those troops that long had faithful stood,
    Friends to his cause, and enemies to good,
    Grown weary of their chief, and satiated with blood."
        —Eng. Poets: ib., B. v, l. 337.

CHAPTER V.—QUESTIONS.

ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.

PART FOURTH, PROSODY.

[Fist][The following questions call the attention of the student to the main doctrines in the foregoing code of Prosody, and embrace or demand those facts which it is most important for him to fix in his memory; they may, therefore, serve not only to aid the teacher in the process of examining his classes, but also to direct the learner in his manner of preparation for recital.]

LESSON I.—OF PUNCTUATION.

1. Of what does Prosody treat? 2. What is Punctuation? 3. What are the principal points, or marks? 4. What pauses are denoted by the first four points? 5. What pauses are required by the other four? 6. What is the general use of the Comma? 7. How many rules for the Comma are there, and what are their heads? 8. What says Rule 1st of Simple Sentences? 9. What says Rule 2d of Simple Members? 10. What says Rule 3d of More than Two Words? 11. What says Rule 4th of Only Two Words? 12. What says Rule 5th of Words in Pairs? 13. What says Rule 6th of Words put Absolute? 14. What says Rule 7th of Words in Apposition? 15. What says Rule 8th of Adjectives? 16. What says Rule 9th of Finite Verbs? 17. What says Rule 10th of Infinitives? 18. What says Rule 11th of Participles? 19. What says Rule 12th of Adverbs? 20. What says Rule 13th of Conjunctions? 21. What says Rule 14th of Prepositions? 22. What says Rule 15th of Interjections? 23. What says Rule 16th of Words Repeated? 24. What says Rule 17th of Dependent Quotations?

LESSON II.—OF THE COMMA.

1. How many exceptions, or forms of exception, are there to Rule 1st for the comma? 2.—to Rule 2d? 3.—to Rule 3d? 4.—to Rule 4th? 5.—to Rule 5th? 6.—to Rule 6th? 7.—to Rule 7th? 8.—to Rule 8th? 9.—to Rule 9th? 10.—to Rule 10th? 11.—to Rule 11th? 12.—to Rule 12th? 13.—to Rule 13th? 14.—to Rule 14th? 15.—to Rule 15th? 16.—to Rule 16th? 17.—to Rule 17th? 18. What says the Exception to Rule 1st of a Long Simple Sentence? 19. What says Exception 1st to Rule 2d of Restrictive Relatives? 20. What says Exception 2d to Rule 2d of Short Terms closely Connected? 21. What says Exception 3d to Rule 2d of Elliptical Members United? 22. What says Exception 1st to Rule 4th of Two Words with Adjuncts? 23. What says Exception 2d to Rule 4th of Two Terms Contrasted? 24. What says Exception 3d to Rule 4th of a mere Alternative of Words? 25. What says Exception 4th to Rule 4th of Conjunctions Understood?

LESSON III.—OF THE COMMA.

1. What rule speaks of the separation of Words in Apposition? 2. What says Exception 1st to Rule 7th of Complex Names? 3. What says Exception 2d to Rule 7th of Close Apposition? 4. What says Exception 3d to Rule 7th of a Pronoun without a Pause? 5. What says Exception 4th to Rule 7th of Names Acquired? 6. What says the Exception to Rule 8th of Adjectives Restrictive? 7. What is the rule which speaks of a finite Verb Understood? 8. What says the Exception to Rule 9th of a Very Slight Pause? 9. What is the Rule for the pointing of Participles? 10. What says the Exception to Rule 11th of Participles Restrictive?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Comma in Section First.]

LESSON IV.—OF THE SEMICOLON.

1. What is the general use of the Semicolon? 2. How many rules are there for the Semicolon? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Complex Members? 5. What says Rule 2d of Simple Members? 6. What says Rule 3d of Apposition, &c.?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Semicolon in Section Second.]

LESSON V.—OF THE COLON.

1. What is the general use of the Colon? 2. How many rules are there for the Colon? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Additional Remarks? 5. What says Rule 2d of Greater Pauses? 6. What says Rule 3d of Independent Quotations?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Colon in Section Third.]

LESSON VI.—OF THE PERIOD.

1. What is the general use of the Period? 2. How many rules are there for the Period? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Distinct Sentences? 5. What says Rule 2d of Allied Sentences? 6. What says Rule 3d of Abbreviations?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Period in Section Fourth.]

LESSON VII.—OF THE DASH.

1. What is the general use of the Dash? 2. How many rules are there for the
Dash? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Abrupt Pauses? 5.
What says Rule 2d of Emphatic Pauses? 6. What says Rule 3d of Faulty
Dashes?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Dash in Section Fifth.]

LESSON VIII.—OF THE EROTEME.

1. What is the use of the Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation? 2. How many rules are there for this mark? 3. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Questions Direct? 5. What says Rule 2d of Questions United? 6. What says Rule 3d of Questions Indirect?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Eroteme in Section Sixth.]

LESSON IX—OF THE ECPHONEME.

1. What is the use of the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation? 2. How many rules are there for this mark? 2. What are their heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of Interjections? 5. What says Rule 2d of Invocations? 6. What says Rule 3d of Exclamatory Questions?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Ecphoneme in Section Seventh.]

LESSON X.—OF THE CURVES.

1. What is the use of the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis? 2. How many rules are there for the Curves? 3. What are their titles, or heads? 4. What says Rule 1st of the Parenthesis? 5. What says Rule 2d of Included Points?

[Now, if you please, you may correct orally, according to the formules given, some or all of the various examples of False Punctuation, which are arranged under the rules for the Curves in Section Eighth.]

LESSON XI.—OF THE OTHER MARKS.

1. What is the use of the Apostrophe? 2. What is the use of the Hyphen? 3. What is the use of the Diæresis, or Dialysis? 4. What is the use of the Acute Accent? 5. What is the use of the Grave Accent? 6. What is the use of the Circumflex? 7. What is the use of the Breve, or Stenotone? 8. What is the use of the Macron, or Macrotone? 9. What is the use of the Ellipsis, or Suppression? 10. What is the use of the Caret? 11. What is the use of the Brace? 12. What is the use of the Section? 13. What is the use of the Paragraph? 14. What is the use of the Guillemets, or Quotation Points? 15. How do we mark a quotation within a quotation? 16. What is the use of the Crotchets, or Brackets? 17. What is the use of the Index, or Hand? 18. What are the six Marks of Reference in their usual order? 19. How can references be otherwise made? 20. What is the use of the Asterism, or the Three Stars? 21. What is the use of the Cedilla?

[Having correctly answered the foregoing questions, the pupil should be taught to apply the principles of punctuation; and, for this purpose, he may be required to read a portion of some accurately pointed book, or may be directed to turn to the Fourteenth Praxis, beginning on p. 821,—and to assign a reason for every mark he finds.]

LESSON XII.—OF UTTERANCE.

1. What is Utterance? 2. What does it include? 3. What is articulation? 4. How does articulation differ from pronunciation? 5. How does Comstock define it? 6. What, in his view, is a good articulation? 7. How does Bolles define articulation? 8. Is a good articulation important? 9. What are the faults opposite to it? 10. What says Sheridan, of a good articulation? 11. Upon what does distinctness depend? 13. Why is just articulation better than mere loudness? 13. Do we learn to articulate in learning to speak or read?

LESSON XIII.—OF PRONUNCIATION.

1. What is pronunciation? 2. What is it that is called Orthoëpy? 3. What knowledge does pronunciation require? 4. What are the just powers of the letters? 5. How are these learned? 6. Are the just powers of the letters in any degree variable? 7. What is quantity? 8. Are all long syllables equally long, and all short ones equally short? 9. What has stress of voice to do with quantity? 10. What is accent? 11. Is every word accented? 12. Do we ever lay two equal accents on one word? 13. Have we more than one sort of accent? 14. Can any word have the secondary accent, and not the primary? 15. Can monosyllables have either? 16. What regulates accent? 17. What four things distinguish the elegant speaker?

LESSON XIV.—OF ELOCUTION.

1. What is elocution? 2. What does elocution require? 3. What is emphasis? 4. What comparative view is taken of accent and emphasis? 5. How does L. Murray connect emphasis with quantity? 6. Does emphasis ever affect accent? 7. What is the guide to a right emphasis? 8. Can one read with too many emphases? 9. What are pauses? 10. How many and what kinds of pauses are there? 11. What is said of the duration of pauses, and the taking of breath? 12. After what manner should pauses be made? 13. What pauses are particularly ungraceful? 14. What is said of rhetorical pauses? 15. How are the harmonic pauses divided? 16. Are such pauses essential to verse?

LESSON XV.—OF ELOCUTION.

17. What are inflections? 18. What is called the rising or upward inflection? 19. What is called the falling or downward inflection? 20. How are these inflections exemplified? 21. How are they used in asking questions? 22. What is said of the notation of them? 23. What constitutes a circumflex? 24. What constitutes the rising, and what the falling, circumflex? 25. Can you give examples? 26. What constitutes a monotone, in elocution? 27. Which kind of inflection is said to be most common? 28. Which is the best adapted to strong emphasis? 29. What says Comstock of rules for inflections? 30. Is the voice to be varied for variety's sake? 31. What should regulate the inflections? 32. What is cadence? 33. What says Rippingham about it? 34. What says Murray? 35. What are tones? 36. Why do they deserve particular attention? 37. What says Blair about tones? 38. What says Hiley?

LESSON XVI.—OF FIGURES.

1. What is a Figure in grammar? 2. How many kinds of figures are there? 3. What is a figure of orthography? 4. What are the principal figures of orthography? 5. What is Mimesis? 6. What is an Archaism? 7. What is a figure of etymology? 8. How many and what are the figures of etymology? 9. What is Aphæresis? 10. What is Prosthesis? 11. What is Syncope? 12. What is Apocope? 13. What is Paragoge? 14. What is Diæresis? 15. What is Synæresis? 16. What is Tmesis? 17. What is a figure of syntax? 18. How many and what are the figures of syntax? 19. What is Ellipsis, in grammar? 20. Are sentences often elliptical? 21. What parts of speech can be omitted, by ellipsis? 22. What is Pleonasm? 23. When is this figure allowable? 24. What is Syllepsis? 25. What is Enallage? 26. What is Hyperbaton? 27. What is said of this figure?

LESSON XVII.—OF FIGURES.

28. What is a figure of rhetoric? 29. What peculiar name have some of these? 30. Do figures of rhetoric often occur? 31. On what are they founded? 32. How many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric? 33. What is a Simile? 34. What is a Metaphor? 35. What is an Allegory? 36. What is a Metonymy? 37. What is Synecdoche? 38. What is Hyperbole? 39. What is Vision? 40. What is Apostrophe? 41. What is Personification? 42. What is Erotesis? 43. What is Ecphonesis? 44. What is Antithesis? 45. What is Climax? 46. What is Irony? 47. What is Apophasis, or Paralipsis? 48. What is Onomatopoeia?

[Now, if you please, you may examine the quotations adopted for the Fourteenth Praxis, and may name and define the various figures of grammar which are contained therein.]

LESSON XVIII.—OF VERSIFICATION.

1. What is Versification? 2. What is verse, as distinguished from prose? 3. What is the rhythm of verse? 4. What is the quantity of a syllable? 5. How are poetic quantities denominated? 6. How are they proportioned? 7. What quantity coincides with accent or emphasis? 8. On what but the vowel sound does quantity depend? 9. Does syllabic quantity always follow the quality of the vowels? 10. Where is quantity variable, and where fixed, in English? 11. What is rhyme? 12. What is blank verse? 13. What is remarked concerning the rhyming syllables? 14. What is a stanza? 15. What uniformity have stanzas? 16. What variety have they?

LESSON XIX.—OF VERSIFICATION.

17. Of what does a verse consist? 18. Of what does a poetic foot consist? 19. How many feet do prosodists recognize? 20. What are the principal feet in English? 21. What is an Iambus? 22. What is a Trochee? 23. What is an Anapest? 24. What is a Dactyl? 25. Why are these feet principal? 26. What orders of verse arise from these? 27. Are these kinds to be kept separate? 28. What is said of the secondary feet? 29. How many and what secondary feet are explained in this code? 30. What is a Spondee? 31. What is a Pyrrhic? 32. What is a Moloss? 33. What is a Tribrach? 34. What is an Amphibrach? 35. What is an Amphimac? 36. What is a Bacchy? 37. What is an Antibachy? 38. What is a Cæsura?

LESSON XX.—OF VERSIFICATION.

39. What are the principal kinds, or orders, of verse? 40. What other orders are there? 41. Does the composite order demand any uniformity? 42. Do the simple orders admit any diversity? 43. What is meant by scanning or scansion? 44. What mean the technical words, catalectic, acatalectic, and hypermeter? 45. In scansion, why are the principal feet to be preferred to the secondary? 46. Can a single foot be a line? 47. What are the several combinations that form dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, heptameter, and octometer? 48. What syllables have stress in a pure iambic line? 49. What are the several measures of iambic verse? 50. What syllables have stress in a pure trochaic line? 51. Can it be right, to regard as hypermeter the long rhyming syllables of a line? 52. Is the number of feet in a line to be generally counted by that of the long syllables? 53. What are the several measures of trochaic verse?

LESSON XXI.—OF VERSIFICATION.

54. What syllables have stress in a pure anapestic line? 55. What variation may occur in the first foot? 56. Is this frequent? 57. Is it ever uniform? 58. What is the result of a uniform mixture? 59. Is the anapest adapted to single rhyme? 60. May a surplus ever make up for a deficiency? 61. Why are the anapestic measures few? 62. How many syllables are found in the longest? 63. What are the several measures of anapestic verse? 64. What syllables have stress in a pure dactylic line? 65. With what does single-rhymed dactylic end? 66. Is dactylic verse very common? 67. What are the several measures of dactylic verse? 68. What is composite verse? 69. Must composites have rhythm? 70. Are the kinds of composite verse numerous? 71. Why have we no exact enumeration of the measures of this order? 72. Does this work contain specimens of different kinds of composite verse?

[It may now be required of the pupil to determine, by reading and scansion, the metrical elements of any good English poetry which may be selected for the purpose—the feet being marked by pauses, and the long syllables by stress of voice. He may also correct orally the few Errors of Metre which are given in the Fifth Section of Chapter IV.]

CHAPTER VI.—FOR WRITING.

EXERCISES IN PROSODY.

[Fist] [When the pupil can readily answer all the questions on Prosody, and apply the rules of punctuation to any composition in which the points are rightly inserted, he should write out the following exercises, supplying what is required, and correcting what is amiss. Or, if any teacher choose to exercise his classes orally, by means of these examples, he can very well do it; because, to read words, is always easier than to write them, and even points or poetic feet may be quite as readily named as written.]

EXERCISE I.—PUNCTUATION.

Copy the following sentences, and insert the COMMA where it is requisite.

EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I.—OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

"The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument." "The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing." "The fieldmouse builds her garner under ground."

EXC.—"The first principles of almost all sciences are few." "What he gave me to publish was but a small part." "To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy." "Minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of affluence." "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character."—Wilson's Punctuation, p. 38.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame." "They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet." "He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune." "The mind though free has a governor within itself." "They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles." "Be silent be grateful and adore." "He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth." "The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong."

EXC. I.—"He that has far to go should not hurry." "Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed." "Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share." "The love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of the soul."—Wilson's Punctuation, p. 38.

EXC. II.—"A good name is better than precious ointment." "Thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak?" "The spleen is seldom felt where Flora reigns."

UNDER RULE III.—OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

"The city army court espouse my cause." "Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors." "Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden." "Wit spirits faculties but make it worse." "Men wives and children stare cry out and run." "Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness."—Wilson's Punctuation, p. 29. "Honor, affluence, and pleasure seduce the heart."—Ib., p. 31.

UNDER RULE IV.—OF TWO TERMS CONNECTED.

"Hope and fear are essentials in religion." "Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls." "We know bodies and their properties most perfectly." "Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable." "Slowly and sadly we laid him down."

EXC. I.—"God will rather look to the inward motions of the mind than to the outward form of the body." "Gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal."

EXC. II.—"He has experienced prosperity and adversity." "All sin essentially is and must be mortal." "Reprove vice but pity the offender."

EXC. III.—"One person is chosen chairman or moderator." "Duration or time is measured by motion." "The governor or viceroy is chosen annually."

EXC. IV.—"Reflection reason still the ties improve." "His neat plain parlour wants our modern style." "We are fearfully wonderfully made."

UNDER RULE V.—OF WORDS IN PAIRS.

"I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated." "Seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day and night shall not cease."

EXERCISE II.—PUNCTUATION.

Copy the following sentences, and insert the COMMA where it is requisite.

EXAMPLES UNDER RULE VI.—OF WORDS PUT ABSOLUTE.

"The night being dark they did not proceed." "There being no other coach we had no alternative." "Remember my son that human life is the journey of a day." "All circumstances considered it seems right." "He that overcometh to him will I give power." "Your land strangers devour it in your presence." "Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity!"

   "With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay;
    Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way!"

UNDER RULE VII.—OF WORDS IN APPOSITION.

"Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night." "'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day." "The evening star love's harbinger appears." "The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene." "There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah." "Our whole company man by man ventured down." "As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals."

   "In the same temple the resounding wood
    All vocal beings hymned their equal God."

EXC. I.—"The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus." "Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria." "No emperor has been more praised than Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus."

EXC. II.—"For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith." "Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph." "The poet, Milton, excelled in prose as well as in verse."

EXC. III.—"I wisdom dwell with prudence." "Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart." "I tell you that which you yourselves do know."

EXC. IV.—"I crown thee king of intimate delights" "I count the world a stranger for thy sake." "And this makes friends such miracles below." "God has pronounced it death to taste that tree." "Grace makes the slave a freeman."

UNDER RULE VIII.—OF ADJECTIVES.

"Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight." "Him piteous of his youth soft disengage." "I played a while obedient to the fair." "Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies." "Physical science separate from morals parts with its chief dignity."

   "Then active still and unconfined his mind
    Explores the vast extent of ages past."

    "But there is yet a liberty unsung
    By poets and by senators unpraised."

EXC.—"I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries." "He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions." "These are the persons, anxious for the change." "Are they men worthy of confidence and support?" "A man, charitable beyond his means, is scarcely honest."

UNDER RULE IX.—OF FINITE VERBS.

"Poverty wants some things—avarice all things." "Honesty has one face—flattery two." "One king is too soft and easy—an other too fiery."

   "Mankind's esteem they court—and he his own:
    Theirs the wild chase of false felicities;
    His the compos'd possession of the true."

EXERCISE III.—PUNCTUATION.

Copy the following sentences, and insert the COMMA where it is requisite.

EXAMPLES UNDER RULE X.—OF INFINITIVES.

"My desire is to live in peace." "The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts." "To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him." "I made no bargain with you to live always drudging." "To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew." "To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable."

   "We come not with design of wasteful prey
    To drive the country force the swains away."

UNDER RULE XI.—OF PARTICIPLES.

"Having given this answer he departed." "Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain." "Eased of her load subjection grows more light." "Death still draws nearer never seeming near." "He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood." "Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee." "Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched." "Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown." "He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave." "Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood."

EXC.—"He kept his eye fixed on the country before him." "They have their part assigned them to act." "Years will not repair the injuries done by him."

UNDER RULE XII.—OF ADVERBS.

"Yes we both were philosophers." "However Providence saw fit to cross our design." "Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me." "The fact certainly is much otherwise." "For nothing surely can be more inconsistent."

UNDER RULE XIII.—OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"For in such retirement the soul is strengthened." "It engages our desires; and in some degree satisfies them also." "But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part." "The English verb is variable—as love lovest loves."

UNDER RULE XIV.—OF PREPOSITIONS.

"In a word charity is the soul of social life." "By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud." "Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity." "With regard to morality I was not indifferent." "Of all our senses sight is the most perfect and delightful."

UNDER RULE XV.—OF INTERJECTIONS.

"Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley!" "O it is more like a dream than a reality," "Some wine ho!" "Ha ha ha; some wine eh?"

   "When lo the dying breeze begins to fail,
    And flutters on the mast the flagging sail."

UNDER RULE XVI.—OF WORDS REPEATED.

"I would never consent never never never." "His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still." "Come come come—to bed to bed to bed."

UNDER RULE XVII.—OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"He cried 'Cause every man to go out from me.'" "'Almet' said he 'remember what thou hast seen.'" "I answered 'Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before thee.'"

EXERCISE IV.—PUNCTUATION.

I. THE SEMICOLON.—Copy the following sentences, and insert the Comma and the SEMICOLON where they are requisite.

EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I.—OF COMPOUND MEMBERS.

"'Man is weak' answered his companion 'knowledge is more than equivalent to force.'" "To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past for all judgement is compartive [sic—KTH] and of the future nothing can be known." "'Contentment is natural wealth' says Socrates to which I shall add 'luxury is artificial poverty.'"

   "Converse and love mankind might strongly draw
    When love was liberty and nature law."

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"Be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer." "The present all their care the future his." "Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man." "Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within." "Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe." "Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him." "Our answer to their reasons is; 'No' to their scoffs nothing."

   "Here subterranean works and cities see
    There towns aerial on the waving tree."

UNDER RULE III.—OF APPOSITION.

"In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive the dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative." "Most English nouns form the plural by taking s; as boy boys nation nations king kings bay bays." "Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of man."

II. THE COLON.—Copy the following sentences, and insert the Comma, the
Semicolon, and the COLON, where they are requisite.

UNDER RULE I.—OF ADDITIONAL REMARKS.

"Indulge not desires at the expense of the slightest article of virtue pass once its limits and you fall headlong into vice." "Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign." "Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all."

   "Bliss!—there is none but unprecarious bliss
    That is the gem sell all and purchase that."

UNDER RULE II.—OF GREATER PAUSES.

"I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure surely happiness is somewhere to be found." "A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he cannot obtain it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the holiness of St. Paul consisted in the simplicity of a pious life."

   "Observe his awful portrait and admire
    Nor stop at wonder imitate and live."

UNDER RULE III.—OF INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"Such is our Lord's injunction 'Watch and pray.'" "He died praying for his persecutors 'Father forgive them they know not what they do.'" "On the old gentleman's cane was inscribed this motto 'Festina lente.'"

III.—THE PERIOD.—Copy the following sentences, and insert the Comma, the
Semicolon, the Colon, and the PERIOD, where they are requisite.

UNDER RULE I.—OF DISTINCT SENTENCES.

"Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose and the rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course in the skies herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the earth and the waters were stored with their respective inhabitants at last man was made in the image of God"

"In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve it for he that lives well cannot be despised"

UNDER RULE II.—OF ALLIED SENTENCES.

"Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a distinction is to be made between fame and true honour the statesman the orator or the poet may be famous while yet the man himself is far from being honoured"

UNDER RULE III.—OF ABBREVIATIONS.

"Glass was invented in England by Benalt a monk A D 664" "The Roman era U C commenced A C 1753 years" "Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq" "PLATO a most illustrious philosopher of antiquity died at Athens 348 B C aged 81 his writings are very valuable his language beautiful and correct and his philosophy sublime"—See Univ. Biog. Dict.

EXERCISE V.—PUNCTUATION.

I. THE DASH.—Copy the following sentences, and insert, in their proper places, the DASH, and such other points as are necessary.

EXAMPLES UNDER RULE I.—OF ABRUPT PAUSES.

"You say famous very often and I don't know exactly what it means a famous uniform famous doings What does famous mean"

"O why famous means Now don't you know what famous means It means It is a word that people say It is the fashion to say it It means it means famous."

UNDER RULE II.—OF EMPHATIC PAUSES.

"But this life is not all there is there is full surely another state abiding us And if there is what is thy prospect O remorseless obdurate Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom to think thou now nearest the sound of that trumpet which shall awake the dead Return O yet return to the Father of mercies and live"

   "The future pleases Why The present pains
    But that's a secret yes which all men know"

II. THE EROTEME.—Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the EROTEME, or NOTE OF INTERROGATION, and such other points as are necessary.

UNDER RULE I.—OF QUESTIONS DIRECT.

   "Does Nature bear a tyrant's breast
    Is she the friend of stern control
    Wears she the despot's purple vest
    Or fetters she the freeborn soul"

    "Why should a man whose blood is warm within
    Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster"

    "Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence
    Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale"

UNDER RULE II.—OF QUESTIONS UNITED.

   "Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore
    Heav'ns not his own and worlds unknown before
    Who calls the council states the certain day
    Who forms the phalanx and who points the way"

UNDER RULE III.—OF QUESTIONS INDIRECT.

"They asked me who I was and whither I was going." "St. Paul asked king
Agrippa if he believed the prophets? But he did not wait for an answer."

   "Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made
    Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade"

III. THE ECPHONEME.—Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the ECPHONEME, or NOTE OF EXCLAMATION, and such other points as are necessary.

UNDER RULE I.—OF INTERJECTIONS.

"Oh talk of hypocrisy after this Most consummate of all hypocrites After instructing your chosen official advocate to stand forward with such a defence such an exposition of your motives to dare utter the word hypocrisy and complain of those who charged you with it" Brougham

"Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn"

"Behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm"

"Bliss sublunary Bliss proud words and vain"

UNDER RULE II.—OF INVOCATIONS.

   "O Popular Applause what heart of man
    Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms"

"More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound"

UNDER RULE III.—OF EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.

With what transports of joy shall I be received In what honour in what delightful repose shall I pass the remainder of my life What immortal glory shall I have acquired" Hooke's Roman History.

   "How often have I loiter'd o'er thy green
    Where humble happiness endear'd each scene"

IV.—THE CURVES.—Copy the following sentences, and insert rightly the
CURVES, or MARKS OF PARENTHESIS, and such other points as are necessary.

UNDER RULE I.—OF THE PARENTHESIS.

   "And all the question wrangle e'er so long
    Is only this If God has plac'd him wrong"

    "And who what God foretells who speaks in things
    Still louder than in words shall dare deny"

UNDER RULE II.—OF INCLUDED POINTS.

   "Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave
    Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave"

    "Where is that thrift that avarice of time
    O glorious avarice thought of death inspires"

    "And oh the last last what can words express
    Thought reach the last last silence of a friend"

EXERCISE VI.—PUNCTUATION.

Copy the following MIXED EXAMPLES, and insert the points which they require.

"As one of them opened his sack he espied his money" "They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him" "The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners" "Great injury these vermin mice and rats do in the field" "It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him" "Peace of all worldly blessings is the most valuable" "By this time the very foundation was removed" "The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen" "Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm" "How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have not I am stationed here to no purpose" Harris "In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miserable as to have no parallel in story" "Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far from being happy" "I ask now Verres what thou hast to advance" "Excess began and sloth sustains the trade" "Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed" "They that sail on the sea tell of the danger" "Be doers of the word and not hearers only" "The storms of wintry time will quickly pass" "Here Hope that smiling angel stands" "Disguise I see thou art a wickedness" "There are no tricks in plain and simple faith" "True love strikes root in reason passion's foe" "Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Gain" "I am satisfied My son has done his duty" "Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen" "I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise" "The knowledge which I have received I will communicate" "But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair" "Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy" "Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue" "In a word he views men as the clear sunshine of charity" "This being the case I am astonished and amazed" "These men approached him and saluted him king" "Excellent and obliging sages these undoubtedly" "Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change" "One constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions" "You heroes regard nothing but glory" "Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall" "Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition" "Nay some awe of religion may still subsist" "Then said he Lo I come to do thy will O God" Bible "As for me behold I am in your hand" Ib. "Can any hide himself in secret places that I shall not see him saith the Lord" Jer xxiii 24 "Now I Paul myself beseech you" "Now for a recompense in the same I speak as unto my children be ye also enlarged" 2 Cor vi 13 "He who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul whereas he who retires remains calm" "Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you" "This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks" "Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm" "King Agrippa believest thou the prophets"

EXERCISE VII.—PUNCTUATION.

Copy the following MIXED EXAMPLES, and insert the points which they require.

    To whom can riches give repute or trust
    Content or pleasure but the good and just Pope

    To him no high no low no great no small
    He fills he bounds connects and equals all Id

    Reasons whole pleasure all the joys of sense
    Lie in three words health peace and competence Id

    Not so for once indulged they sweep the main
    Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain Anon

    Say will the falcon stooping from above
    Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove Pope

    Throw Egypts by and offer in its stead
    Offer the crown on Berenices head Id

    Falsely luxurious will not man awake
    And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy
    The cool the fragrant and the silent hour Thomson

    Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be
    So far from aught romantic what I sing Young

    Thyself first know then love a self there is
    Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms Id

    How far that little candle throws his beams
    So shines a good deed in a naughty world Shakspeare

    You have too much respect upon the world
    They lose it that do buy it with much care Id

    How many things by season seasoned are
    To their right praise and true perfection Id

    Canst thou descend from converse with the skies
    And seize thy brothers throat For what a clod Young

    In two short precepts all your business lies
    Would you be great—be virtuous and be wise Denham

    But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed
    What then is the reward of virtue bread Pope

    A life all turbulence and noise may seem
    To him that leads it wise and to be praised
    But wisdom is a pearl with most success
    Sought in still waters and beneath clear skies Cowper

    All but the swellings of the softened heart
    That waken not disturb the tranquil mind Thomson

    Inspiring God who boundless spirit all
    And unremitting energy pervades
    Adjusts sustains and agitates the whole Id

    Ye ladies for indifferent in your cause
    I should deserve to forfeit all applause
    Whatever shocks or gives the least offence
    To virtue delicacy truth or sense
    Try the criterion tis a faithful guide
    Nor has nor can have Scripture on its side. Cowper

EXERCISE VIII.—SCANNING.

Divide the following VERSES into the feet which compose them, and distinguish by marks the long and the short syllables.

Example I.—"Our Daily Paths"—By F. Hemans.

    "There's Beauty all around our paths, if but our watchful eyes
    Can trace it 'midst familiar things, and through their lowly guise;
    We may find it where a hedgerow showers its blossoms o'er our way,
    Or a cottage-window sparkles forth in the last red light of day."

Example II.—"Fetching Water"—Anonymous.

    "Early on a sunny morning, while the lark was singing sweet,
    Came, beyond the ancient farmhouse, sounds of lightly-tripping feet.
    'Twas a lowly cottage maiden, going,—why, let young hearts tell,—
    With her homely pitcher laden, fetching water from the well."

Example III.—Deity.

     Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills
     And all immensity of space thy presence fills:
    For thou alone art God;—as God thy saints adore thee;
    Jehovah is thy name;—they have no gods before thee.—G. Brown.

Example IV.—Impenitence.

    The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers,
     Dishonours that goodness which seeks to restore;
    As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers.
     Yet barren and fruitless remain as before.—G. Brown.

Example V.—Piety.

    Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety,
     Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love;
    Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety,
     Rising unearthly, and soaring above.—G. Brown.

Example VI.—A Simile.

    The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead,
    Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head.—G. Brown.

Example VII.—A Simile.

    "Yet to their general's voice they soon obey'd
    Innumerable. As when the potent rod
    Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day,
    Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud
    Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind,
    That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung
    Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile."—Milton.

Example VIII.—Elegiac Stanza.

    Thy name is dear—'tis virtue balm'd in love;
     Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings.
    Ah! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove,
     That fondest love but points affliction's stings!—G. Brown.

Example IX.—Cupid.

    Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant
     With the sweetest odours of the spring,
    O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant,
     Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling.—G. Brown.

Example X.—Divine Power.

    When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd,
     And the billows tremendously rose,
    The Saviour but utter'd the word,
     They were hush'd to the calmest repose.—G. Brown.

Example XI.—Invitation.

    Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse,
     Come from the den of the lion;
    Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse,
     Come to the mountain of Zion.—G. Brown.

Example XII.—Admonition.

    In the days of thy youth,
     Remember thy God:
    O! forsake not his truth,
     Incur not his rod.—G. Brown.

Example XIII.—Commendation.

    Constant and duteous,
     Meek as the dove,
    How art thou beauteous,
     Daughter of love!—G. Brown.

EXERCISE IX.—SCANNING.

Mark the feet and syllables which compose the following lines—or mark a sample of each metre.

Edwin, an Ode.

I. STROPHE.

    Led by the pow'r of song, and nature's love,
    Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above,
           The mountain grove
           Would Edwin rove,
       In pensive mood, alone;
       And seek the woody dell,
       Where noontide shadows fell,
               Cheering,
               Veering,
         Mov'd by the zephyr's swell.
    Here nurs'd he thoughts to genius only known,
       When nought was heard around
       But sooth'd the rest profound
    Of rural beauty on her mountain throne.
       Nor less he lov'd (rude nature's child)
       The elemental conflict wild;
       When, fold on fold, above was pil'd
    The watery swathe, careering on the wind.
           Such scenes he saw
           With solemn awe,
    As in the presence of the Eternal Mind.
           Fix'd he gaz'd,
           Tranc'd and rais'd,
    Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefin'd.

II. ANTISTROPHE

     Reckless of dainty joys, he finds delight
     Where feebler souls but tremble with affright.
         Lo! now, within the deep ravine,
             A black impending cloud
             Infolds him in its shroud,
         And dark and darker glooms the scene.
           Through the thicket streaming,
           Lightnings now are gleaming;
             Thunders rolling dread,
             Shake the mountain's head;
                 Nature's war
                 Echoes far,
               O'er ether borne,
                   That flash
                   The ash
               Has scath'd and torn!
                 Now it rages;
                 Oaks of ages,
             Writhing in the furious blast,
             Wide their leafy honours cast;
    Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose
       Deep rooted in the crevic'd rock,
       The sturdy trunk sustains the shock,
    Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes.

III. EPODE.

    '0 Thou who sitst above these vapours dense,
    And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence!
     Making the collied cloud thy ear,
     Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar,
         Thy blessings to dispense.
     The early and the latter rain,
     Which fertilize the dusty plain,
         Thy bounteous goodness pours.
     Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorr'd!
     All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord!
         And works thy gracious will;
     At thy command the tempest roars,
         At thy command is still.
    Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides;
     'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides
           The ardent solar beam;
    While, from the volley'd breast of heaven,
     Transient gleams of dazzling light,
     Flashing on the balls of sight,
           Make darkness darker seem.
    Thou mov'st the quick and sulphurous leven—
           The tempest-driven
             Cloud is riven;
     And the thirsty mountain-side
     Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.'
    So breath'd young Edwin, when the summer shower,
     From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud,
     With lightning flash and thunder loud,
    Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower.—G. Brown.

THE END OF PART FOURTH.

KEY TO THE IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION, CONTAINED IN THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS, AND DESIGNED FOR ORAL EXERCISES UNDER ALL THE RULES AND NOTES OF THE WORK.

[Fist][The various examples of error which are exhibited for oral correction, in the Grammar of English Grammars, are all here explained, in their order, by full amended readings, sometimes with authorities specified, and generally with references of some sort. They are intended to be corrected orally by the pupil, according to the formules given under corresponding heads in the Grammar. Some portion, at least, under each rule or note, should be used in this way; and the rest, perhaps, may be read and compared more simply.]

THE KEY.—PART I.—ORTHOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.—OF LETTERS. CORRECTIONS RESPECTING CAPITALS.

UNDER RULE I.—OF BOOKS.

"Many a reader of the Bible knows not who wrote the Acts of the Apostles"—G. B. "The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the Chronicles."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Neh., xii, 23. "Are they not written in the book of the Acts of Solomon?"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: I Kings, xi, 41. "Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel?"—ALGER CORRECTED: I Kings, xxii, 39. "Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah."—See ALGER: ib., ver. 45. "Which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the Psalms."—ALGER, ET AL.: Luke, xxiv, 44. "The narrative of which maybe seen in Josephus's History of the Jewish War"—Dr. Scott cor. [Obs.—The word in Josephus is "War," not "Wars."—G. Brown.] "This History of the Jewish War was Josephus's first work, and published about A. D. 75."—Whiston cor. "'I have read,' says Photius, 'the Chronology of Justus of Tiberias.'"—Id. "A Philosophical Grammar, written by James Harris, Esquire."—Murray cor. "The reader is referred to Stroud's Sketch of the Slave Laws"—A. S. Mag. cor. "But God has so made the Bible that it interprets itself."—Idem. "In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the Psalter."—Gardiner cor. "Gardiner says this of Sternhold; of whom the Universal Biographical Dictionary and the American Encyclopedia affirm, that he died in 1549."—G. B. "The title of a book, to wit: 'English Grammar in Familiar Lectures,'" &c.—Kirkham cor. "We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's 'Grammar in Familiar Lectures.'"—Id. "When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."—Id. right.[516] "Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."—Id. cor. "Adelung was the author of a Grammatical and Critical Dictionary of the German Language, and other works." Biog. Dict. cor. "Alley, William, author of 'The Poor Man's Library,' and a translation of the Pentateuch, died in 1570."—Id.

UNDER RULE II.—OF FIRST WORDS.

"Depart instantly;"—"Improve your time;"—"Forgive us our sins."—Murray corrected. EXAMPLES:—"Gold is corrupting;"—"The sea is green;"—"A lion is bold."—Mur. et al. cor. Again: "It may rain;"—"He may go or stay;"—"He would walk;;"—"They should learn."—Iidem. Again: "Oh! I have alienated my friend;"—"Alas! I fear for life."—Iidem. See Alger's Gram., p. 50. Again: "He went from London to York;"—"She is above disguise;" "They are supported by industry."—Iidem. "On the foregoing examples, I have a word to say. They are better than a fair specimen of their kind. Our grammars abound with worse illustrations. Their models of English are generally spurious quotations. Few of their proof-texts have any just parentage. Goose-eyes are abundant, but names scarce. Who fathers the foundlings? Nobody. Then let their merit be nobody's, and their defects his who could write no better."—Author. "Goose-eyes!" says a bright boy; "pray, what are they? Does this Mr. Author make new words when he pleases? Dead-eyes are in a ship. They are blocks, with holes in them. But what are goose-eyes in grammar?" ANSWER: "Goose-eyes are quotation points. Some of the Germans gave them this name, making a jest of their form. The French call them guillemets, from the name of their inventor."—Author. "It is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular."—Comly cor. "Ourselves is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural."—Id. "Thee is a personal pronoun, of the second person singular."—Id. "Contentment is a common noun, of the third person singular."—Id. "Were is a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense."—Id.

UNDER RULE III.—OF DEITY.

"O thou Dispenser of life! thy mercies are boundless."—Allen cor. "Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?"—ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Gen., xviii, 25. "And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."—SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Gen., i, 2. "It is the gift of Him, who is the great Author of good, and the Father of mercies."—Murray cor. "This is thy God that brought thee up out of Egypt."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Neh., ix, 18. "For the LORD is our defence; and the Holy One of Israel is our King."—Psal.. lxxxix, 18. "By making him the responsible steward of Heaven's bounties."—A. S. Mag. cor. "Which the Lord, the righteous Judge, shall give me at that day."—ALGER: 2 Tim., iv, 8. "The cries of them … entered into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth."—ALGER, FRIENDS: James, v, 4. "In Horeb, the Deity revealed himself to Moses, as the Eternal 'I AM,' the Self-existent One; and, after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with Pharaoh, he renewed his promise to them, by the awful name, JEHOVAH—a name till then unknown, and one which the Jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce."—G. Brown. "And God spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am the LORD: and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of God Almighty; but by my name JEHOVAH was I not known to them."—SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS: Exod., vi, 2. "Thus saith the LORD[517] the King of Israel, and his Redeemer the LORD of hosts; I am the First, and I am the Last; and besides me there is no God."—See Isa., xliv, 6.

   "His impious race their blasphemy renew'd,
    And nature's King, through nature's optics view'd."—Dryden cor.

UNDER RULE IV.—OF PROPER NAMES.

"Islamism prescribes fasting during the month Ramadan."—Balbi cor. "Near Mecca, in Arabia, is Jebel Nor, or the Mountain of Light, on the top of which the Mussulmans erected a mosque, that they might perform their devotions where, according to their belief, Mohammed received from the angel Gabriel the first chapter of the Koran."—G. Brown. "In the Kaaba at Mecca there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt, which the Mohammedans venerate as the gift of Gabriel to Abraham, but their ancestors once held it to be an image of Remphan, or Saturn; so 'the image which fell down from Jupiter,' to share with Diana the homage of the Ephesians, was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone."—Id. "When the Lycaonians at Lystra took Paul and Barnabas to be gods, they called the former Mercury, on account of his eloquence, and the latter Jupiter, for the greater dignity of his appearance."—Id. "Of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century, but few have come down to us; yet we have in those of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius, and Polycarp, very certain evidence of the authenticity of the New Testament, and the New Testament is a voucher for the Old."—Id. "It is said by Tatian, that Theagenes of Rhegium, in the time of Cambyses, Stesimbrotus the Thracian, Antimachus the Colophonian, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, Dionysius the Olynthian, Ephorus of Cumæ, Philochorus the Athenian, Metaclides and Chamæleon the Peripatetics, and Zenodotus, Aristophanes, Callimachus, Crates, Eratosthenes, Aristarchus, and Apollodorus, the grammarians, all wrote concerning the poetry, the birth, and the age of Homer."—See Coleridge's Introd., p. 57. "Yet, for aught that now appears, the life of Homer is as fabulous as that of Hercules; and some have even suspected, that, as the son of Jupiter and Alcmena has fathered the deeds of forty other Herculeses, so this unfathered son of Critheis, Themisto, or whatever dame—this Melesigenes, Mæonides, Homer—the blind schoolmaster, and poet, of Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes, Argos, Athens, or whatever place—has, by the help of Lycurgus, Solon, Pisistratus, and other learned ancients, been made up of many poets or Homers, and set so far aloft and aloof on old Parnassus, as to become a god in the eyes of all Greece, a wonder in those of all Christendom."—G. Brown.

   "Why so sagacious in your guesses?
    Your Effs, and Tees, and Ars, and Esses?"—Swift corrected.

UNDER RULE V.—OF TITLES.

"The king has conferred on him the title of Duke."—Murray cor. "At the court of Queen Elizabeth."—Priestley's E. Gram., p. 99; see Bullions's, p. 24. "The laws of nature are, truly, what Lord Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws of laws."—Murray cor. "Sixtus the Fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books."—Id. "Who at that time made up the court of King Charles the Second"—Id. "In case of his Majesty's dying without issue."—Kirkham cor. "King Charles the First was beheaded in 1649."—W. Allen cor. "He can no more impart, or (to use Lord Bacon's word) transmit convictions."—Kirkham cor. "I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor." Better: "I reside with Lord Stormont, my old patron and benefactor."—Murray cor. "We staid a month at Lord Lyttelton's, the ornament of his country." Much better: "We stayed a month at the seat of Lord Lyttelton, who is the ornament of his country."—Id. "Whose prerogative is it? It is the King-of-Great- Britain's;" [518]—"That is the Duke-of-Bridgewater's canal;"—"The Bishop-of-Landaff's excellent book;"—"The Lord Mayor-of-London's authority."—Id. (See Murray's Note 4th on his Rule 10th.) "Why call ye me, Lord, Lord, and do not the things which I say?"—Luke, vi, 46. "And of them he chose twelve, whom also he named Apostles."—ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Luke, vi, 13. "And forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, Master; and kissed him."—Matt., xxvi, 49. "And he said, Nay, Father Abraham: but if one went unto them from the dead, they would repent."—Bible cor.

UNDER RULE VI.—OF ONE CAPITAL.

"Fallriver, a village in Massachusetts, population (in 1830) 3,431."—Williams cor. "Dr. Anderson died at Westham, in Essex, in 1808."—Biog. Dict. cor. "Madriver, the name of two towns in Clark and Champaign counties, Ohio."—Williams cor. "Whitecreek, a town of Washington county, New York."—Id. "Saltcreek, the name of four towns in different parts of Ohio."—Id. "Saltlick, a town of Fayette county, Pennsylvania."—Id. "Yellowcreek, a town of Columbiana county, Ohio."—Id. "Whiteclay, a hundred of Newcastle county, Delaware."— Id. "Newcastle, a town and half-shire of Newcastle county, Delaware."—Id. "Singsing, a village of Westchester county, New York, situated in the town of Mountpleasant."—Id. "Westchester, a county of New York: East Chester and West Chester are towns in Westchester county."—Id. "Westtown, a village of Orange county, New York."—Id. "Whitewater, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio."—Worcester's Gaz. "Whitewater River, a considerable stream that rises in Indiana, and flowing southeasterly unites with the Miami in Ohio."—See ib. "Blackwater, a village of Hampshire, in England, and a town in Ireland."—See ib. "Blackwater, the name of seven different rivers, in England, Ireland, and the United States."—See ib. "Redhook, a town of Dutchess county, New York, on the Hudson."—Williams cor. "Kinderhook, a town of Columbia county, New York, on the Hudson."—Williams right. "Newfane, a town of Niagara county, New York."—Williams cor. "Lakeport, a town of Chicot county, Arkansas."—Id. "Moosehead Lake, the chief source of the Kennebeck, in Maine."—Id. (See Worcester's Gaz.) "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, population (in 1830) 2,959."—Williams's Univ. Gaz., p 408. "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, with a court-house at Macomb."—Williams cor. "Halfmoon, the name of two towns in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the West Indies."—S. Williams's Univ. Gaz. "Leboeuf, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania, near a small lake of the same name."—See ib. "Charlescity, Jamescity, Eiizabethcity, names of counties in Virginia, not cities, nor towns."—See Univ. Gaz., p. 404.[519] "The superior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called Stroudwater."—Balbi cor.

UNDER RULE VII.—OF TWO CAPITALS.

"The Forth rises on the north side of Ben Lomond, and runs easterly."—Glasgow Geog., 8vo, corrected. "The red granite of Ben Nevis is said to be the finest in the world."—Id. "Ben More, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the level of the sea."—Id. "The height of Ben Cleagh is 2,420 feet."—Id. "In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Ormod, Ben Clibeg, Ben Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal."—Glas. Geog. right. "Ben Vracky is 2,756 feet high; Ben Ledi, 3,009; and Ben Voirloich, 3,300."—Glas. Geog. cor. "The river Dochart gives the name of Glen Dochart to the vale through which it runs."—Id. "About ten miles from its source, it [the Tay] diffuses itself into Loch Dochart."—Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 314. LAKES:—"Loch Ard, Loch Achray, Loch Con, Loch Doine, Loch Katrine, Loch Lomond, Loch Voil."—Scott corrected. GLENS:—"Glen Finlas, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, Ross Dhu, Leven Glen, Strath Endrick, Strath Gartney. Strath Ire."—Id. MOUNTAINS:—"Ben An, Ben Harrow, Ben Ledi, Ben Lomond, Ben Voirlich, Ben Venue, or, (as some spell it,) Ben Ivenew."—Id.[520] "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the Low Countries."—Murray cor. "And Pharaoh Necho[521] made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king."—See ALGER: 2 Kings, xiii, 34. "Those who seem so merry and well pleased, call her Good Fortune; but the others, who weep and wring their hands, Bad Fortune."—Collier cor.

UNDER RULE VIII.—OF COMPOUNDS.

"When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the Valley of Salt"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Ps. lx, title. "Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars Hill, and said," &c.—Scott cor. "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called the Mount of Olives."—Bible cor. "Abgillus, son of the king of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy Land with Charlemagne."—U. Biog. Dict. cor. "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the Grain Coast from the Ivory Coast."—Dict. of Geog. cor. "The North Esk, flowing from Loch Lee, falls into the sea three miles north of Montrose."—Id. "At Queen's Ferry, the channel of the Forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts."—Id. "The Chestnut Ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel Ridge, ten miles further west."—Balbi cor. "Washington City, the metropolis of the United States of America."—Williams, U. Caz., p. 380. "Washington City, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826."—Williams cor. "The loftiest peak of the White Mountains, in New Hampshire, is called Mount Washington."—G. Brown. "Mount's Bay, in the west of England, lies between the Land's End and Lizard Point."—Id. "Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica."—Dict. of Geog. "Rhodes, an island of the Egean Sea, the largest and most easterly of the Cyclades."—Id. cor. "But he overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea."—SCOTT: Ps. cxxxvi, 15. "But they provoked him at the sea, even at the Red Sea."—ALGER, FRIENDS: Ps. cvi, 7.

UNDER RULE IX.—OF APPOSITION.

"At that time, Herod the tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus."—SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Matt., xiv, 1. "Who has been more detested than Judas the traitor?"—G. Brown. "St. Luke the evangelist was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul."—Id. "Luther, the reformer, began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences."—Id. "The poet Lydgate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440."—Id. "The grammarian Varro, 'the most learned of the Romans,'[522] wrote three books when he was eighty years old."—Id. "John Despauter, the great grammarian of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1520."—Id. "Nero, the emperor and tyrant of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death."—Id. "Cicero the orator, 'the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64."—Id. "Euripides, the Greek tragedian, was born in the island of Salamis, B. C. 476."—Id. "I will say unto God my rock, Why hast thou forgotten me?"—ALGER, ET AL.: Ps. xlii, 9. "Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York city."—Williams cor. "When the son of Atreus, king of men, and the noble Achilles first separated."—Coleridge cor.

   "Hermes, his patron-god, those gifts bestow'd,
    Whose shrine with weanling lambs he wont to load."—Pope cor.

UNDER RULE X.—OF PERSONIFICATIONS.

"But Wisdom is justified of all her children."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Luke, vii, 35. "Fortune and the Church are generally put in the feminine gender: that is, when personified." "Go to your Natural Religion; lay before her Mahomet and his disciples."—Bp. Sherlock. "O Death! where is thy sting? O Grave! where is thy victory."—Pope: 1 Cor., xv, 55; Merchant's Gram., p. 172. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon."—Matt., vi, 24. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon"—See Luke, xvi, 13. "This house was built as if Suspicion herself had dictated the plan."—Rasselas. "Poetry distinguishes herself from Prose, by yielding to a musical law."—Music of Nature, p. 501. "My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: 'My name is Religion. I am the offspring of Truth and Love, and the parent of Benevolence, Hope, and Joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called Superstition: she is called the child of Discontent, and her followers are Fear and Sorrow.'"—E. Carter. "Neither Hope nor Fear could enter the retreats; and Habit had so absolute a power, that even Conscience, if Religion had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance."—Dr. Johnson.

   "In colleges and halls in ancient days,
    There dwelt a sage called Discipline."—Cowper.

UNDER RULE XI.—OF DERIVATIVES.

"In English, I would have Gallicisms avoided."—Felton. "Sallust was born in Italy, 85 years before the Christian era."—Murray cor.; "Dr. Doddridge was not only a great man, but one of the most excellent and useful Christians, and Christian ministers."—Id. "They corrupt their style with untutored Anglicisms"—Milton. "Albert of Stade, author of a chronicle from the creation to 1286, a Benedictine of the 13th century."—Biog. Dict. cor. "Graffio, a Jesuit of Capua in the 16th century, author of two volumes on moral subjects."—Id. "They Frenchify and Italianize words whenever they can."—Bucke's Gram., p. 86. "He who sells a Christian, sells the grace of God."—Mag. cor. "The first persecution against the Christians, under Nero, began A. D. 64."—Gregory cor. "P. Rapin, the Jesuit, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman writers."—Blair's Rhet., p. 248. "The Roman poet and Epicurean philosopher Lucretius has said," &c.—Cohen cor. Spell "Calvinistic, Atticism, Gothicism, Epicurism, Jesuitism, Sabianism, Socinianism, Anglican, Anglicism, Anglicize, Vandalism, Gallicism, and Romanize."—Webster cor. "The large Ternate bat."—Id. and Bolles cor.

   "Church-ladders are not always mounted best
    By learned clerks, and Latinists profess'd"—Cowper cor.

UNDER RULE XII.—OF I AND O.

"Fall back, fall back; I have not room:—O! methinks I see a couple whom I should know."—Lucian. "Nay, I live as I did, I think as I did, I love you as I did; but all these are to no purpose; the world will not live, think, or love, as I do."—Swift to Pope. "Whither, O! whither shall I fly? O wretched prince! O cruel reverse of fortune! O father Micipsa! is this the consequence of thy generosity?"—Tr. of Sallust. "When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man, I put away childish things."—1 Cor., xiii, 11. "And I heard, but I understood not; then said I, O my Lord, what shall be the end of these things?"—Dan., xii, 8. "Here am I; I think I am very good, and I am quite sure I am very happy, yet I never wrote a treatise in my life."—Few Days in Athens, p. 127. "Singular, Vocative, O master! Plural, Vocative, O masters!"—Bicknell cor.

   "I, I am he; O father! rise, behold
    Thy son, with twenty winters now grown old!"
        —Pope's Odyssey, B. 24, l. 375.

UNDER RULE XIII.—OF POETRY.

"Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words—health, peace, and competence; But health consists with temperance alone, And peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own."—Pope.

"Observe the language well in all you write, And swerve not from it in your loftiest flight. The smoothest verse and the exactest sense Displease us, if ill English give offence: A barbarous phrase no reader can approve; Nor bombast, noise, or affectation love. In short, without pure language, what you write Can never yield us profit or delight. Take time for thinking; never work in haste; And value not yourself for writing fast."—Dryden.

UNDER RULE XIV.—OF EXAMPLES.

"The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality; as, 'She is rather profuse in her expenses.'"—Murray cor. "Neither imports not either; that is, not one nor the other: as, 'Neither of my friends was there.'"—Id. "When we say, 'He is a tall man,'—'This is a fair day,' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather."—Id. "We more readily say, 'A million of men,' than, 'A thousand of men.'"—Id. "So in the instances, 'Two and two are four;'—'The fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books.'"—Id. "The adjective may frequently either precede or follow the verb: as, 'The man is happy;' or, 'Happy is the man;'—'The interview was delightful;' or, 'Delightful was the interview.'"—Id. "If we say, 'He writes a pen;'—'They ran the river;'—'The tower fell the Greeks;'—'Lambeth is Westminster Abbey;'—[we speak absurdly;] and, it is evident, there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word: as thus, 'He writes with a pen;'—'They ran towards the river;'—'The tower fell upon the Greeks;'—'Lambeth is over against Westminster Abbey.'"—Id. "Let me repeat it;—He only is great, who has the habits of greatness."—Id. "I say not unto thee, Until seven times; but, Until seventy times seven."—Matt., xviii, 22.

   "The Panther smil'd at this; and, 'When,' said she,
    'Were those first councils disallow'd by me?'"—Dryd. cor.

UNDER RULE XV.—OF CHIEF WORDS.

"The supreme council of the nation is called the Divan."—Balbi cor. "The British Parliament is composed of King, Lords, and Commons."—Comly's Gram., p. 129; and Jaudon's, 127. "A popular orator in the House of Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases."—See Campbell's Rhet., p. 169; Murray's Gram., 364. "They may all be taken together, as one name; as, 'The House of Commons.'"—Merchant cor. "Intrusted to persons in whom the Parliament could confide."—Murray cor. "For 'The Lords' House,' it were certainly better to say, 'The House of Lords;' and, in stead of 'The Commons' vote,' to say. 'The vote of the Commons.'"—Id. and Priestley cor. "The House of Lords were so much influenced by these reasons."—Iidem. "Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes; Figures of Words, and Figures of Thought. The former, Figures of Words, are commonly called Tropes."—Murray's Gram., p. 337. "Perhaps, Figures of Imagination, and Figures of Passion, might be a more useful distribution."—Ib. "Hitherto we have considered sentences, under the heads of Perspicuity, Unity, and Strength."—See Murray's Gram., p. 356.

   "The word is then depos'd; and, in this view,
    You rule the Scripture, not the Scripture you."—Dryd. cor.

UNDER RULE XVI.—OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS.

"Be of good cheer; it is I; be not afraid."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, AND SCOTT'S: Matt., xiv, 27. "Between passion and lying, there is not a finger's breadth."—Mur. cor. "Can our solicitude alter the course, or unravel the intricacy, of human events?" "The last edition was carefully compared with the original manuscript."—Id. "And the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the king of the Jews?"—SCOTT: Matt., xxvii, 11. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame, that say, Aha, aha!"—SCOTT ET AL.: Ps., lxx, 3. "Let them be desolate for a reward of their shame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!"—IIDEM: Ps., xl, 15. "What think ye of Christ? whose son is he? They say unto him, The son of David. He saith unto them, How then doth David in spirit call him Lord?"—ALGER: Matt., xxii, 42, 43. "Among all things in the universe, direct your worship to the greatest. And which is that? It is that Being who manages and governs all the rest."—Collier's Antoninus cor. "As for modesty and good faith, truth and justice, they have left this wicked world and retired to heaven; and now what is it that can keep you here?"—Idem.

   "If pulse of verse a nation's temper shows,
    In keen iambics English metre flows."—Brightland cor.

PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS RESPECTING CAPITALS.

LESSON I.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come."—Thomson's Seasons, p. 29. As, "He is the Cicero of his age;"—"He is reading the Lives of the Twelve Cæsars;"—or, if no particular book is meant,—"the lives of the twelve Cæsars;" (as it is in Fisk's Grammar, p. 57;) for the sentence, as it stands in Murray, is ambiguous. "In the History of Henry the Fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man."—Smollett's Voltaire, Vol. v, p. 82. "Do not those same poor peasants use the lever, and the wedge, and many other instruments?"—Harris and Mur. cor. "Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of liquors; geometry, for the measuring of estates; astronomy, for the making of almanacs; and grammar, perhaps, for the drawing of bonds and conveyances."—See Murray's Gram., p. 288. "The [History of the] Wars of Flanders, written in Latin by Famianus Strada, is a book of some note."—Blair cor. "William is a noun. Why? Was is a verb. Why? A is an article. Why? Very is an adverb. Why?" &c.—Merchant cor. "In the beginning was the Word, and that Word was with God, and God was that Word."—See Gospel of John, i, 1. "The Greeks are numerous in Thessaly, Macedonia, Romelia, and Albania."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "He [the Grand Seignior] is styled by the Turks, Sultan, Mighty, or Padishah, Lord."—Balbi cor. "I will ransom them from the power of the grave; I will redeem them from death. O Death! I will be thy plague; O Grave! I will be thy destruction."—Bible cor. "Silver and gold have I none; but such as I have, give I [unto] thee."—See Acts, iii, 6. "Return, we beseech thee, O God of hosts! look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine."—See Psalm lxxx, 14. "In the Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 316. "They assert, that in the phrases, 'GIVE me that,'—'This is John's,' and, 'Such were some of you,'—the words in Italics are pronouns; but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns: 'This book is instructive;'—'Some boys are ingenious;'—'My health is declining;'—'Our hearts are deceitful.'"—Murray partly corrected.[523] "And the coast bends again to the northwest, as far as Farout Head."—Geog. cor. "Dr. Webster, and other makers of spelling-books, very improperly write Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, without capitals."—G. Brown. "The commander in chief of the Turkish navy is styled the Capitan Pacha."—Balbi cor. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the Father of spirits, and live?"—ALGER'S BIBLE: Heb., xii, 9. "He [Dr. Beattie] was more anxious to attain the character of a Christian hero."—Murray cor. "Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is Mount Zion."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 393. "The Lord is my helper, and I will not fear what man shall do unto me."—ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Heb., xiii, 6. "Make haste to help me, O LORD my salvation."—IIDEM: Psalms, xxxviii, 22.

   "The city which thou seest, no other deem
    Than great and glorious Rome, queen of the earth."
        —Paradise Regained, B. iv.

LESSON II.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"That range of hills, known under the general name of Mount Jura."—Account of Geneva. "He rebuked the Red Sea also, and it was dried up."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Ps. cvi, 9. "Jesus went unto the Mount of Olives."—Bible cor. "Milton's book in reply to the Defence of the King, by Salmasius, gained him a thousand pounds from the Parliament, and killed his antagonist with vexation."—G. B. "Mandeville, Sir John, an Englishman famous for his travels, born about 1300, died in 1372."—B. Dict. cor. "Ettrick Pen, a mountain in Selkirkshire, Scotland, height 2,200 feet."—G. Geog. cor. "The coast bends from Dungsby Head, in a northwest direction, to the promontory of Dunnet Head."—Id. "General Gaines ordered a detachment of nearly 300 men, under the command of Major Twiggs, to surround and take an Indian village, called Fowltown, about fourteen miles from Fort Scott."—Cohen Cor. "And he took the damsel by the hand, and said unto her, 'Talitha, cumi.'"—Bible Editors cor. "On religious subjects, a frequent adoption of Scripture language is attended with peculiar force."—Murray cor. "Contemplated with gratitude to their Author, the Giver of all good."—Id. "When he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all [the] truth,"—SCOTT, ALGER, ET AL.: John, xvi, 13. "See the Lecture on Verbs, Rule XV, Note 4th."—Fisk cor. "At the commencement of Lecture 2d, I informed you that Etymology treats, thirdly, of derivation."—Kirkham cor. "This 8th Lecture is a very important one."—Id. "Now read the 11th and 12th lectures, four or five times over."—Id. "In 1752, he [Henry Home] was advanced to the bench, under the title of Lord Kames."—Murray cor. "One of his maxims was, 'Know thyself.'"—Lempriere cor. "Good Master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Matt., xix, 16. "His best known works, however, [John Almon's] are, 'Anecdotes of the Life of the Earl of Chatham,' 2 vols. 4to, 3 vols. 8vo; and 'Biographical, Literary, and Political Anecdotes of several of the Most Eminent Persons of the Present Age; never before printed,' 3 vols. 8vo, 1797."—Biog. Dict. cor. "O gentle Sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?"—SHAK.: Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 175. "And peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own."—Pope et al. cor.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"Fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a Christian pastor. His book entitled, 'An Explication of the Maxims of the Saints, concerning the Interior Life,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy."—Murray cor. "When Natural Religion, who before was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the Centurion's voice."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 347. "You cannot deny, that the great Mover and Author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude to, or connexion with, the things signified."—Berkley cor. "The name of this letter is Double-u, its form, that of a double V."—Dr. Wilson cor. "Murray, in his Spelling-Book, wrote Charlestown with a hyphen and two capitals."—G. Brown. "He also wrote European without a capital."—Id. "They profess themselves to be Pharisees, who are to be heard and not imitated."—Calvin cor. "Dr. Webster wrote both Newhaven and New York with single capitals."—G. Brown. "Gay Head, the west point of Martha's Vineyard."—Williams cor. "Write Crab Orchard, Egg Harbour, Long Island, Perth Amboy, West Hampton, Little Compton, New Paltz, Crown Point, Fell's Point, Sandy Hook, Port Penn, Port Royal, Porto Bello, and Porto Rico.'"—G. Brown. "Write the names of the months: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December."—Id. "Write the following names and words properly: Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Saturn;—Christ, Christian, Christmas, Christendom, Michaelmas, Indian, Bacchanals;—East Hampton, Omega, Johannes, Aonian, Levitical, Deuteronomy, European."—Id.

   "Eight letters in some syllables we find,
    And no more syllables in words are join'd."—Brightland cor.

CHAPTER II.—OF SYLLABLES.

CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SYLLABICATION.

LESSON I.—CONSONANTS.

1. Correction of Murray, in words of two syllables: civ-il, col-our, cop-y, dam-ask, doz-en, ev-er, feath-er, gath-er, heav-en, heav-y, hon-ey, lem-on, lin-en, mead-ow, mon-ey, nev-er, ol-ive, or-ange, oth-er, pheas-ant, pleas-ant, pun-ish, rath-er, read-y, riv-er, rob-in, schol-ar, shov-el, stom-ach, tim-id, whith-er.

2. Correction of Murray, in words of three syllables: ben-e-fit, cab-i-net, can-is-ter, cat-a-logue, char-ac-ter, char-i-ty, cov-et-ous, dil-i-gence, dim-i-ty, el-e-phant, ev-i-dent, ev-er-green, friv-o-lous, gath-er-ing, gen-er-ous, gov-ern-ess, gov-ern-or, hon-est-y, kal-en-dar, lav-en-der, lev-er-et, lib-er-al, mem-or-y, min-is-ter, mod-est-ly, nov-el-ty, no-bod-y, par-a-dise, pov-er-ty, pres-ent-ly, prov-i-dence, prop-er-ly, pris-on-er, rav-en-ous, sat-is-fy, sev-er-al, sep-ar-ate, trav-el-ler, vag-a-bond;—con-sid-er, con-tin-ue, de-liv-er, dis-cov-er, dis-fig-ure, dis-hon-est, dis-trib-ute, in-hab-it, me-chan-ic, what-ev-er;—rec-om-mend, ref-u-gee, rep-ri-mand.

3. Correction of Murray, in words of four syllables: cat-er-pil-lar, char-i-ta-ble, dil-i-gent-ly, mis-er-a-ble, prof-it-a-ble, tol-er-a-ble;—be-nev-o-lent, con-sid-er-ate, di-min-u-tive, ex-per-i-ment, ex-trav-a-gant, in-hab-i-tant, no-bil-i-ty, par-tic-u-lar, pros-per-i-ty, ri-dic-u-lous, sin-cer-i-ty;—dem-on-stra-tion, ed-u-ca-tion, em-u-la-tion, ep-i-dem-ic, mal-e-fac-tor, man-u-fac-ture, mem-o-ran-dum, mod-er-a-tor, par-a-lyt-ic, pen-i-ten-tial, res-ig-na-tion, sat-is-fac-tion, sem-i-co-lon.

4. Correction of Murray, in words of five syllables: a-bom-i-na-ble, a-poth-e-ca-ry, con-sid-er-a-ble, ex-plan-a-to-ry, pre-par-a-to-ry;— ac-a-dem-i-cal, cu-ri-os-i-ty, ge-o-graph-i-cal, man-u-fac-tor-y, sat-is-fac-tor-y, mer-i-to-ri-ous;—char-ac-ter-is-tic, ep-i-gram-mat-ic, ex-per-i-ment-al, pol-y-syl-la-ble, con-sid-er-a-tion.

5. Correction of Murray, in the division of proper names: Hel-en,
Leon-ard, Phil-ip, Rob-ert, Hor-ace, Thom-as;—Car-o-line, Cath-a-rine,
Dan-i-el, Deb-o-rah, Dor-o-thy, Fred-er-ick, Is-a-bel, Jon-a-than, Lyd-i-a,
Nich-o-las, Ol-i-ver, Sam-u-el, Sim-e-on, Sol-o-mon, Tim-o-thy,
Val-en-tine;—A-mer-i-ca, Bar-thol-o-mew, E-liz-a-beth, Na-than-i-el,
Pe-nel-o-pe, The-oph-i-lus.

LESSON II.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

1. Correction of Webster, by Rule 1st:—ca-price, e-steem, dis-e-steem, o-blige;—a-zure, ma-tron, pa-tron, pha-lanx, si-ren, trai-tor, tren-cher, bar-ber, bur-nish, gar-nish, tar-nish, var-nish, mar-ket, mus-ket, pam-phlet;—bra-ver-y, kna-ver-y, sla-ver-y, e-ven-ing, sce-ner-y, bri-ber-y, ni-ce-ty, chi-ca-ner-y, ma-chin-er-y, im-a-ger-y;—a-sy-lum, ho-ri-zon,—fin-an-cier, her-o-ism, sar-do-nyx, scur-ri-lous,—co-me-di-an, pos-te-ri-or.

2. Correction of Webster, by Rule 2d: o-yer, fo-li-o, ge-ni-al, ge-ni-us, ju-ni-or, sa-ti-ate, vi-ti-ate;—am-bro-si-a, cha-me-le-on, par-he-li-on, con-ve-ni-ent, in-ge-ni-ous, om-nis-ci-ence, pe-cu-li-ar, so-ci-a-ble, par-ti-al-i-ty, pe-cu-ni-a-ry;—an-nun-ci-ate, e-nun-ci-ate, ap-pre-ci-ate, as-so-ci-ate, ex-pa-ti-ate, in-gra-ti-ate, in-i-ti-ate, li-cen-ti-ate, ne-go-ti-ate, no-vi-ti-ate, of-fi-ci-ate, pro-pi-ti-ate, sub-stan-ti-ate.

3. Correction of Cobb and Webster, by each other, under Rule 3d: "dress-er, hast-y, past-ry, seiz-ure, roll-er, jest-er, weav-er, vamp-er, hand-y, dross-y, gloss-y, mov-er, mov-ing, ooz-y, full-er, trust-y, weight-y, nois-y, drows-y, swarth-y."—Webster. Again: "east-ern, ful-ly, pul-let, ril-let, scant-y, need-y."—Cobb.

4. Correction of Webster and Cobb, under Rule 4th: a-wry, a-thwart´, pros-pect´-ive, pa-ren´-the-sis, re-sist-i-bil´-i-ty, hem-i-spher´-ic, mon´-o-stich, hem´-i-stich, to´-wards.

5. Correction of the words under Rule 5th; Eng-land, an oth-er,[524] Beth-es´-da, Beth-ab´-a-ra.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

1. Correction of Cobb, by Rule 3d: bend-er, bless-ing, brass-y, chaff-y, chant-er, clasp-er, craft-y, curd-y, fend-er, film-y, fust-y, glass-y, graft-er, grass-y, gust-y, hand-ed, mass-y, musk-y, rust-y, swell-ing, tell-er, test-ed, thrift-y, vest-ure.

2. Corrections of Webster, mostly by Rule 1st: bar-ber, bur-nish, bris-ket, can-ker, char-ter, cuc-koo, fur-nish, gar-nish, guilt-y, han-ker, lus-ty, por-tal, tar-nish, tes-tate, tes-ty, trai-tor, trea-ty, var-nish, ves-tal, di-ur-nal, e-ter-nal, in-fer-nal, in-ter-nal, ma-ter-nal, noc-tur-nal, pa-ter-nal.

3. Corrections of Webster, mostly by Rule 1st: ar-mor-y, ar-ter-y, butch-er-y, cook-er-y, eb-on-y, em-er-y, ev-er-y, fel-on-y, fop-per-y, frip-per-y, gal-ler-y, his-tor-y, liv-er-y, lot-ter-y, mock-er-y, mys-ter-y,[525] nun-ner-y, or-rer-y, pil-lor-y, quack-er-y, sor-cer-y, witch-er-y.

4. Corrections of Cobb, mostly by Rule 1st: an-kle, bas-ket, blan-ket, buc-kle, cac-kle, cran-kle, crin-kle, Eas-ter, fic-kle, frec-kle, knuc-kle, mar-ket, mon-key, por-tress, pic-kle, poul-tice, pun-cheon, quad-rant, quad-rate, squad-ron, ran-kle, shac-kle, sprin-kle, tin-kle, twin-kle, wrin-kle.

5. Corrections of Emerson, by Rules 1st and 3d: as-cribe, blan-dish, branch-y, cloud-y, dust-y, drear-y, e-ven-ing, fault-y, filth-y, frost-y, gaud-y, gloom-y, health-y, heark-en, heart-y, hoar-y, leak-y, loun-ger, marsh-y, might-y, milk-y, naught-y, pass-ing, pitch-er, read-y, rock-y, speed-y, stead-y, storm-y, thirst-y, thorn-y, trust-y, vest-ry, west-ern, wealth-y.

CHAPTER III.—OF WORDS.

CORRECTIONS RESPECTING THE FIGURE, OR FORM, OF WORDS.

RULE I.—COMPOUNDS.

"Professing to imitate Timon, the manhater."—Goldsmith corrected. "Men load hay with a pitchfork."—Webster cor. "A peartree grows from the seed of a pear."—Id. "A toothbrush is good to brush your teeth."—Id. "The mail is opened at the post-office."—Id. "The error seems to me twofold."—Sanborn cor. "To preëngage means to engage beforehand."—Webster cor. "It is a mean act to deface the figures on a milestone."—Id. "A grange is a farm, with its farm- house."—Id. "It is no more right to steal apples or watermelons, than [to steal] money."—Id. "The awl is a tool used by shoemakers and harness-makers."—Id. "Twenty-five cents are equal to one quarter of a dollar."—Id. "The blowing-up of the Fulton at New York, was a terrible disaster."—Id. "The elders also, and the bringers-up of the children, sent to Jehu."—ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: 2 Kings, x, 5. "Not with eyeservice as menpleasers."—Col., iii, 22. "A good-natured and equitable construction of cases."—Ash cor. "And purify your hearts, ye double-minded."—James, iv, 8. "It is a mean-spirited action to steal; i.e., To steal is a mean-spirited action."—A. Murray cor. "There is, indeed, one form of orthography which is akin to the subjunctive mood of the Latin tongue."—Booth cor. "To bring him into nearer connexion with real and everyday life."—Philological Museum, Vol. i, p. 459. "The commonplace, stale declamation of its revilers would be silenced."—Id. cor. "She [Cleopatra] formed a very singular and unheard-of project."—Goldsmith cor. "He [William Tell] had many vigilant, though feeble-talented and mean-spirited enemies."—R. Vaux cor. "These old-fashioned people would level our psalmody," &c.—Gardiner cor. "This slow-shifting scenery in the theatre of harmony."—Id. "So we are assured from Scripture itself."—Harris cor. "The mind, being disheartened, then betakes itself to trifling."—R. Johnson cor. "Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are remitted unto them."—Bible cor. "Tarry we ourselves how we will."—W. Walker cor. "Manage your credit so, that you need neither swear yourself, nor seek a voucher."—Collier cor. "Whereas song never conveys any of the abovenamed sentiments."—Dr. Rush cor. "I go on horseback."—Guy cor. "This requires purity, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or new-coined words."—Adam cor. "May the ploughshare shine."—White cor. "Whichever way we consider it."—Locke cor.

"Where'er the silent e a place obtains, The voice foregoing, length and softness gains."—Brightland cor.

RULE II.—SIMPLES.

"It qualifies any of the four parts of speech above named."—Kirkham cor. "After a while they put us out among the rude multitude."—Fox cor. "It would be a shame, if your mind should falter and give in."—Collier cor. "They stared a while in silence one upon an other."—Johnson cor. "After passion has for a while exercised its tyrannical sway."—Murray cor. "Though set within the same general frame of intonation."—Rush cor. "Which do not carry any of the natural vocal signs of expression."—Id. "The measurable constructive powers of a few associable constituents."—Id. "Before each accented syllable or emphatic monosyllabic word."—Id. "One should not think too favourably of one's self."—Murray's Gram., i, 154. "Know ye not your own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you?"—2 Cor., xiii, 5. "I judge not my own self, for I know nothing of my own self."—See 1 Cor., iv, 3. "Though they were in such a rage, I desired them to tarry a while."—Josephus cor. "A, in stead of an, is now used before words beginning with u long."—Murray cor. "John will have earned his wages by next new year's day."—Id. "A new year's gift is a present made on the first day of the year."—Johnson et al. cor. "When he sat on the throne, distributing new year's gifts."—Id. "St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old wives' fables."—See 1 Tim., iv, 7. "The world, take it all together, is but one."—Collier cor. "In writings of this stamp, we must accept of sound in stead of sense."—Murray cor. "A male child, a female child; male descendants, female descendants."—Goldsbury et al. cor. "Male servants, female servants; male relations, female relations."—Felton cor.

   "Reserved and cautious, with no partial aim,
    My muse e'er sought to blast an other's fame."—Lloyd cor.

RULE III.—THE SENSE.

"Our discriminations of this matter have been but four-footed instincts."—Rush cor. "He is in the right, (says Clytus,) not to bear free-born men at his table."—Goldsmith cor. "To the short-seeing eye of man, the progress may appear little."—The Friend cor. "Knowledge and virtue are, emphatically, the stepping-stones to individual distinction."—Town cor. "A tin-peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels."—Webster cor. "The beams of a wooden house are held up by the posts and joists."—Id. "What you mean by future-tense adjective, I can easily understand."—Tooke cor. "The town has been for several days very well-behaved."—Spectator cor. "A rounce is the handle of a printing-press."—Webster cor. "The phraseology [which] we call thee-and-thouing [or, better, thoutheeing,] is not in so common use with us, as the tutoyant among the French."—Walker cor. "Hunting and other outdoor sports, are generally pursued."—Balbi cor. "Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy-laden."—Scott et al. cor. "God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son to save it."—See ALGER'S BIBLE, and FRIENDS': John, iii, 16. "Jehovah is a prayer-hearing God: Nineveh repented, and was spared."—Observer cor. "These are well-pleasing to God, in all ranks and relations."—Barclay cor. "Whosoever cometh anything near unto the tabernacle."—Bible cor. "The words coalesce, when they have a long-established association."—Mur. cor. "Open to me the gates of righteousness: I will go into them."—MODERN BIBLE: Ps. cxviii, 19. "He saw an angel of God coming in to him."—Acts, x, 3. "The consequences of any action are to be considered in a twofold light."—Wayland cor. "We commonly write twofold, threefold, fourfold, and so on up to tenfold, without a hyphen; and, after that, we use one."—G. Brown. "When the first mark is going off, he cries, Turn! the glassholder answers, Done!"—Bowditch cor. "It is a kind of familiar shaking-hands (or shaking of hands) with all the vices."—Maturin cor. "She is a good-natured woman;"—"James is self-opinionated;"—"He is broken-hearted."—Wright cor. "These three examples apply to the present-tense construction only."—Id. "So that it was like a game of hide-and-go-seek."—Gram. cor.

   "That lowliness is young ambition's ladder,
    Whereto the climber-upward turns his face."—Shak.

RULE IV.—ELLIPSES.

"This building serves yet for a schoolhouse and a meeting-house."—G. Brown. "Schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, if honest friends, are to be encouraged."—Discip. cor. "We never assumed to ourselves a faith-making or a worship-making power."—Barclay cor. "Potash and pearlash are made from common ashes."—Webster cor. "Both the ten-syllable and the eight-syllable verses are iambics."—Blair cor. "I say to myself, thou say'st to thyself, he says to himself, &c."—Dr. Murray cor. "Or those who have esteemed themselves skillful, have tried for the mastery in two-horse or four-horse chariots."—Ware cor. "I remember him barefooted and bareheaded, running through the streets."—Edgeworth cor. "Friends have the entire control of the schoolhouse and dwelling-house." Or:—"of the schoolhouses and dwelling-houses" Or:—"of the schoolhouse and the dwelling-houses" Or:—"of the schoolhouses and the dwelling-house." Or:—"of the school, and of the dwelling-houses." [For the sentence here to be corrected is so ambiguous, that any of these may have been the meaning intended by it.]—The Friend cor. "The meeting is held at the first-mentioned place in Firstmonth; at the last-mentioned, in Secondmonth; and so on."—Id. "Meetings for worship are held, at the same hour, on Firstday and Fourthday." Or:—"on Firstdays and Fourthdays."—Id. "Every part of it, inside and outside, is covered with gold leaf."—Id. "The Eastern Quarterly Meeting is held on the last Seventhday in Secondmonth, Fifthmonth, Eighthmonth, and Eleventhmonth."—Id. "Trenton Preparative Meeting is held on the third Fifthday in each month, at ten o'clock; meetings for worship [are held,] at the same hour, on Firstdays and Fifthdays."—Id. "Ketch, a vessel with two masts, a mainmast and a mizzenmast."—Webster cor. "I only mean to suggest a doubt, whether nature has enlisted herself [either] as a Cis-Atlantic or [as a] Trans-Atlantic partisan."—Jefferson cor. "By large hammers, like those used for paper-mills and fulling-mills, they beat their hemp."—Johnson cor. "ANT-HILL, or ANT-HILLOCK, n. A small protuberance of earth, formed by ants, for their habitation."— Id. "It became necessary to substitute simple indicative terms called pronames or pronouns."

   "Obscur'd, where highest woods, impenetrable
    To light of star or sun, their umbrage spread."—Milton cor.

RULE V.—THE HYPHEN.

"Evil-thinking; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle thinking; singular number;" &c.—Churchill cor. "Evil-speaking; a noun, compounded of the noun evil and the imperfect participle speaking."—Id. "I am a tall, broad-shouldered, impudent, black fellow."—Spect, or Joh. cor. "Ingratitude! thou marble-hearted fiend."—Shak. or Joh. cor. "A popular license is indeed the many-headed tyranny."—Sydney or Joh. cor. "He from the many-peopled city flies."—Sandys or Joh. cor. "He many-languaged nations has surveyed."—Pope or Joh. cor. "The horse-cucumber is the large green cucumber, and the best for the table."—Mort. or Joh. cor. "The bird of night did sit, even at noon-day, upon the market-place."—Shak. or Joh. cor. "These make a general gaol-delivery of souls not for punishment."—South or Joh. cor. "Thy air, thou other gold-bound brow, is like the first."—Shak. or Joh. cor. "His person was deformed to the highest degree; flat-nosed and blobber-lipped."—L'Estr. or Joh. cor. "He that defraudeth the labourer of his hire, is a blood-shedder."—Ecclus., xxxiv, 22. "Bloody-minded, adj., from bloody and mind; Cruel, inclined to bloodshed."—Johnson cor. "Blunt-witted lord, ignoble in demeanour."—Shak. or Joh. cor. "A young fellow, with a bob-wig and a black silken bag tied to it."—Spect. or Joh. cor. "I have seen enough to confute all the bold-faced atheists of this age."—Bramhall or Joh. cor. "Before milk-white, now purple with love's wound."—Joh. Dict., w. Bolt. "For what else is a red-hot iron than fire? and what else is a burning coal than red-hot wood?"—Newton or Joh. cor. "Poll-evil is a large swelling, inflammation, or imposthume, in the horse's poll, or nape of the neck, just between the ears."—Far. or Joh. cor.

   "Quick-witted, brazen-fac'd, with fluent tongues,
    Patient of labours, and dissembling wrongs."—Dryden cor.

RULE VI.—NO HYPHEN.

"From his fond parent's eye a teardrop fell."—Snelling cor. "How great, poor jackdaw, would thy sufferings be!"—Id. "Placed, like a scarecrow in a field of corn."—Id. "Soup for the almshouse at a cent a quart."—Id. "Up into the watchtower get, and see all things despoiled of fallacies."—Donne or Joh. cor. "In the daytime she [Fame] sitteth in a watchtower, and flieth most by night."—Bacon or Joh. cor. "The moral is the first business of the poet, as being the groundwork of his instruction."—Dryd. or Joh. cor. "Madam's own hand the mousetrap baited."—Prior or Joh. cor. "By the sinking of the airshaft, the air has liberty to circulate."—Ray or Joh. cor. "The multiform and amazing operations of the airpump and the loadstone."—Watts or Joh. cor. "Many of the firearms are named from animals."—Johnson cor. "You might have trussed him and all his apparel into an eelskin"—Shak. or Joh. cor. "They may serve as landmarks, to show what lies in the direct way of truth."—Locke or Joh. cor. "A packhorse is driven constantly in a narrow lane and dirty road."—Locke or Joh. cor. "A millhorse, still bound to go in one circle."—Sidney or Joh. cor. "Of singing birds, they have linnets, goldfinches, ruddocks, Canary birds, blackbirds, thrushes, and divers others."—Carew or Joh. cor. "Cartridge, a case of paper or parchment filled with gunpowder; [or, rather, containing the entire charge of a gun]."—Joh. cor.

   "Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,
    The time of night when Troy was set on fire,
    The time when screechowls cry, and bandogs howl."
        SHAKSPEARE: in Johnson's Dict., w. Screechowl.

PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS IN THE FIGURE OF WORDS.

LESSON I.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"They that live in glass houses, should not throw stones."—Adage. "If a man profess Christianity in any manner or form whatsoever."—Watts cor. "For Cassius is aweary of the world." Better: "For Cassius is weary of the world."—Shak. cor. "By the coming-together of more, the chains were fastened on."—W. Walker cor. "Unto the carrying-away of Jerusalem captive in the fifth month."—Bible cor. "And the goings-forth of the border shall be to Zedad."—Id. "And the goings-out of it shall be at Hazar Enan."—See Walker's Key "For the taking-place of effects, in a certain particular series."—West cor. "The letting-go of which was the occasion of all that corruption."—Owen cor. "A falling-off at the end, is always injurious."—Jamieson cor. "As all holdings-forth were courteously supposed to be trains of reasoning."—Dr. Murray cor. "Whose goings-forth have been from of old, from everlasting."—Bible cor. "Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive."—Bradley cor. "It is very plain, that I consider man as visited anew."—Barclay cor. "Nor do I anywhere say, as he falsely insinuates."—Id. "Everywhere, anywhere, elsewhere, somewhere, nowhere"—L. Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 115. "The world hurries off apace, and time is like a rapid river."—Collier cor. "But to new-model the paradoxes of ancient skepticism."—Dr. Brown cor. "The southeast winds from the ocean invariably produce rain."—Webster cor. "Northwest winds from the highlands produce cold clear weather."—Id. "The greatest part of such tables would be of little use to Englishmen."—Priestley cor. "The ground-floor of the east wing of Mulberry-street meeting-house was filled."—The Friend cor. "Prince Rupert's Drop. This singular production is made at the glasshouses."—Barnes cor.

   "The lights and shades, whose well-accorded strife
    Gives all the strength and colour of our life."—Pope.

LESSON II.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"In the twenty-seventh year of Asa king of Judah, did Zimri reign seven days in Tirzah."—Bible cor. "In the thirty-first year of Asa king of Judah, began Omri to reign over Israel."—Id. "He cannot so deceive himself as to fancy that he is able to do a rule-of-three sum." Better—"a sum in the rule of three."—Qr. Rev. cor. "The best cod are those known under the name of Isle-of-Shoals dun-fish."—Balbi cor. "The soldiers, with downcast eyes, seemed to beg for mercy."—Goldsmith cor. "His head was covered with a coarse, wornout piece of cloth."—Id. "Though they had lately received a reinforcement of a thousand heavy-armed Spartans."—Id. "But he laid them by unopened; and, with a smile, said, 'Business to-morrow.'"—Id. "Chester Monthly Meeting is held at Moorestown, on the Thirdday following the second Secondday"—The Friend cor. "Eggharbour Monthly Meeting is held on the first Secondday."—Id. "Little-Eggharbour Monthly Meeting is held at Tuckerton on the second Fifthday in each month."—Id. "At three o'clock, on Firstday morning, the 24th of Eleventhmonth, 1834," &c.—Id. "In less than one fourth part of the time usually devoted."—Kirkham cor. "The pupil will not have occasion to use it one tenth part so much."—Id. "The painter dips his paintbrush in paint, to paint the carriage."—Id. "In an ancient English version of the New Testament."—Id. "The little boy was bareheaded."—Red Book cor. "The man, being a little short-sighted, did not immediately know him."—Id. "Picture-frames are gilt with gold."—Id. "The parkkeeper killed one of the deer."—Id. "The fox was killed near the brickkiln."—Id. "Here comes Esther, with her milkpail"—Id. "The cabinet-maker would not tell us."—Id. "A fine thorn-hedge extended along the edge of the hill."—Id. "If their private interests should be everso little affected."—Id. "Unios are fresh-water shells, vulgarly called fresh-water clams."—Id.

   "Did not each poet mourn his luckless doom,
    Jostled by pedants out of elbow-room."—Lloyd cor.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"The captive hovers a while upon the sad remains."—Johnson cor. "Constantia saw that the hand-writing agreed with the contents of the letter."—Id. "They have put me in a silk night-gown, and a gaudy foolscap"—Id. "Have you no more manners than to rail at Hocus, that has saved that clod-pated, numb-skulled ninny-hammer of yours from ruin, and all his family?"—Id. "A noble, (that is, six shillings and eight pence,) is [paid], and usually hath been paid."—Id. "The king of birds, thick-feathered, and with full-summed wings, fastened his talons east and west."—Id. "To-morrow. This—supposing morrow to mean morning, as it did originally—is an idiom of the same kind as to-night, to-day."—Johnson cor. "To-day goes away, and to-morrow comes."—Id. "Young children, who are tried in Gocarts, to keep their steps from sliding."—Id. "Which, followed well, would demonstrate them but goers-backward"—Id. "Heaven's golden-winged herald late he saw, to a poor Galilean virgin sent."—Id. "My pent-house eyebrows and my shaggy beard offend your sight."—Id. "The hungry lion would fain have been dealing with good horseflesh."—Id. "A broad-brimmed hat ensconsed each careful head."—Snelling cor. "With harsh vibrations of his three-stringed lute."—Id. "They magnify a hundred-fold an author's merit."—Id. "I'll nail them fast to some oft-opened door."—Id. "Glossed over only with saintlike show, still thou art bound to vice."—Johnson's Dict., w. Saintlike. "Take of aqua-fortis two ounces, of quicksilver two drachms."—Id. cor. "This rainbow never appears but when it rains in the sunshine."—Id. cor.

   "Not but there are, who merit other palms;
    Hopkins and Sternhold glad the heart with psalms."—Pope.

CHAPTER IV.—OF SPELLING.

CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SPELLING.

RULE I.—FINAL F, L, OR S.

"He will observe the moral law, in his conduct."—Webster corrected. "A cliff is a steep bank, or a precipitous rock."—Walker cor. "A needy man's budget is full of schemes."—Maxim cor. "Few large publications, in this country, will pay a printer."—N. Webster cor. "I shall, with cheerfulness, resign my other papers to oblivion."—Id. "The proposition was suspended till the next session of the legislature."—Id. "Tenants for life will make the most of lands for themselves."—Id. "While every thing is left to lazy negroes, a state will never be well cultivated."—Id. "The heirs of the original proprietors still hold the soil."—Id. "Say my annual profit on money loaned shall be six per cent."—Id. "No man would submit to the drudgery of business, if he could make money as fast by lying still."—Id. "A man may as well feed himself with a bodkin, as with a knife of the present fashion."—Id. "The clothes will be ill washed, the food will be badly cooked; you will be ashamed of your wife, if she is not ashamed of herself."—Id. "He will submit to the laws of the state while he is a member of it."—Id. "But will our sage writers on law forever think by tradition?"—Id. "Some still retain a sovereign power in their territories."—Id. "They sell images, prayers, the sound of bells, remission of sins, &c."—Perkins cor. "And the law had sacrifices offered every day, for the sins of all the people."—Id. "Then it may please the Lord, they shall find it to be a restorative."—Id. "Perdition is repentance put off till a future day."—Maxim cor. "The angels of God, who will good and cannot will evil, have nevertheless perfect liberty of will."—Perkins cor. "Secondly, this doctrine cuts off the excuse of all sin."—Id. "Knell, the sound of a bell rung at a funeral."—Dict. cor.

   "If gold with dross or grain with chaff you find,
    Select—and leave the chaff and dross behind."—G. Brown.

RULE II.—OTHER FINALS.

"The mob hath many heads, but no brains."—Maxim cor. "Clam; to clog with any glutinous or viscous matter."—See Webster's Dict. "Whur; to pronounce the letter r with too much force." "Flip; a mixed liquor, consisting of beer and spirit sweetened." "Glyn; a hollow between two mountains, a glen."—See Walker's Dict. "Lam, or belam; to beat soundly with a cudgel or bludgeon."—See Red Book. "Bun; a small cake, a simnel, a kind of sweet bread."—See Webster's Dict. "Brunet, or Brunette; a woman with a brown complexion."—See ib., and Scott's Dict. "Wadset; an ancient tenure or lease of land in the Highlands of Scotland."—Webster cor. "To dod sheep, is to cut the wool away about their tails."—Id. "In aliquem arietare. Cic. To run full butt at one."—W. Walker cor. "Neither your policy nor your temper would permit you to kill me."—Phil. Mu. cor. "And admit none but his own offspring to fulfill them."—Id. "The sum of all this dispute is, that some make them Participles."—R. Johnson cor. "As the whistling winds, the buzz and hum of insects, the hiss of serpents, the crash of falling timber."—Murray's Gram., p. 331. "Van; to winnow, or a fan for winnowing."—See Scott. "Creatures that buzz, are very commonly such as will sting."—G. Brown. "Beg, buy, or borrow; but beware how yon find."—Id. "It is better to have a house to let, than a house to get." "Let not your tongue cut your throat."—Precept cor. "A little wit will save a fortunate man."—Adage cor. "There is many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip."—Id. "Mothers' darlings make but milksop heroes."—Id. "One eye-witness is worth ten hearsays."—Id.

   "The judge shall job, the bishop bite the town,
    And mighty dukes pack cards for half a crown."
        POPE: in Johnson's Dict., w. Job.

RULE III.—DOUBLING.

"Friz, to curl; frizzed, curled; frizzing, curling."—Webster cor. "The commercial interests served to foster the principles of Whiggism."—Payne cor. "Their extreme indolence shunned every species of labour."—Robertson cor. "In poverty and strippedness, they attend their little meetings."—The Friend cor. "In guiding and controlling the power you have thus obtained."—Abbott cor. "I began, Thou begannest or beganst, He began, &c."—A. Murray cor. "Why does began change its ending; as, I began, Thou begannest or beganst?"—Id. "Truth and conscience cannot be controlled by any methods of coercion."—Hints cor. "Dr. Webster nodded, when he wrote knit, knitter, and knitting-needle, without doubling the t."—G. Brown. "A wag should have wit enough to know when other wags are quizzing him." "Bonny; handsome, beautiful, merry."—Walker cor. "Coquettish; practising coquetry; after the manner of a jilt."—See Worcester. "Pottage; a species of food made of meat and vegetables boiled to softness in water."—See Johnson's Dict. "Pottager; (from pottage;) a porringer, a small vessel for children's food." "Compromit, compromitted, compromitting; manumit, manumitted, manumitting."—Webster cor. "Inferrible; that may be inferred or deduced from premises."—Walker. "Acids are either solid, liquid, or gasseous."—Gregory cor. "The spark will pass through the interrupted space between the two wires, and explode the gasses."—Id. "Do we sound gasses and gasseous like cases and caseous? No: they are more like glasses and osseous."—G. Brown. "I shall not need here to mention Swimming, when he is of an age able to learn."—Locke cor. "Why do lexicographers spell thinnish and mannish with two Ens, and dimmish and rammish with one Em, each?"—G. Brown. "Gas forms the plural regularly, gasses."—Peirce cor. "Singular, gas; Plural, gasses."—Clark cor. "These are contractions from shedded, bursted."—Hiley cor. "The Present Tense denotes what is occurring at the present time."—Day cor. "The verb ending in eth is of the solemn or antiquated style; as, He loveth, He walketh, He runneth."—Davis cor.

   "Thro' Freedom's sons no more remonstrance rings,
    Degrading nobles and controlling kings."—Johnson.

RULE IV—NO DOUBLING.

"A bigoted and tyrannical clergy will be feared."—See Johnson, Walker, &c. "Jacob worshiped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staff."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 165. "For it is all marvellously destitute of interest."—See Johnson, Walker, and Worcester. "As, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebuses."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 40. "Gossiping and lying go hand in hand."—See Webster's Dict., and Worcester's, w. Gossiping. "The substance of the Criticisms on the Diversions of Purley was, with singular industry, gossiped by the present precious Secretary at [of] war, in Payne the bookseller's shop."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 187. "Worship makes worshiped, worshiper, worshiping; gossip, gossiped, gossiper, gossiping; fillip, filliped, filliper, filliping."—Web. Dict. "I became as fidgety as a fly in a milk-jug."—See ib. "That enormous error seems to be riveted in popular opinion." "Whose mind is not biased by personal attachments to a sovereign."—See ib. "Laws against usury originated in a bigoted prejudice against the Jews."—Webster cor. "The most critical period of life is usually between thirteen and seventeen."—Id. "Generalissimo, the chief commander of an army or military force."—Every Dict. "Tranquilize, to quiet, to make calm and peaceful."—Webster's Dict. "Pommelled, beaten, bruised; having pommels, as a sword-hilt."—Webster et al. cor. "From what a height does a jeweller look down upon his shoemaker!"—Red Book cor. "You will have a verbal account from my friend and fellow traveller."—Id. "I observe that you have written the word counselled with one l only."—Ib. "They were offended at such as combated these notions."—Robertson cor. "From libel, come libelled, libeller, libelling, libellous; from grovel, grovelled, groveller, grovelling; from gravel, gravelled, and gravelling."—Webster cor. "Woolliness, the state of being woolly."—Worcester's Dict. "Yet he has spelled chapelling, bordeller, medalist, metaline, metalist, metalize, clavellated, etc, with ll, contrary to his rule."—Webster cor. "Again, he has spelled cancellation and snivelly with single l, and cupellation, pannellation wittolly, with ll."—Id. "Oily, fatty, greasy, containing oil, glib."—Walker cor. "Medalist, one curious in medals; Metalist, one skilled in metals."—Walker's Rhym. Dict. "He is benefited."—Webster. "They travelled for pleasure."—Clark cor.

   "Without you, what were man? A grovelling herd,
    In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd."—Beattle cor.

RULE V.—FINAL CK.

"He hopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critic."—Kirkham corrected. "The leading object of every public speaker should be, to persuade."—Id. "May not four feet be as poetic as five; or fifteen feet as poetic as fifty?"—Id. "Avoid all theatrical trick and mimicry, and especially all scholastic stiffness."—Id. "No one thinks of becoming skilled in dancing, or in music, or in mathematics, or in logic, without long and close application to the subject."—Id. "Caspar's sense of feeling, and susceptibility of metallic and magnetic excitement, were also very extraordinary."—Id. "Authorship has become a mania, or, perhaps I should say, an epidemic."—Id. "What can prevent this republic from soon raising a literary standard?"—Id. "Courteous reader, you may think me garrulous upon topics quite foreign to the subject before me."—Id. "Of the Tonic, Subtonic, and Atonic elements."—Id. "The subtonic elements are inferior to the tonics, in all the emphatic and elegant purposes of speech."—Id. "The nine atonics and the three abrupt subtonics cause an interruption to the continuity of the syllabic impulse." [526]—Id. "On scientific principles, conjunctions and prepositions are [not] one [and the same] part of speech."—Id. "That some inferior animals should be able to mimick human articulation, will not seem wonderful."—L. Murray cor.

   "When young, you led a life monastic,
    And wore a vest ecclesiastic;
    Now, in your age, you grow fantastic."—Denham's Poems, p. 235.

RULE VI.—RETAINING.

"Fearlessness; exemption from fear, intrepidity."—Johnson cor. "Dreadlessness; fearlessness, intrepidity, undauntedness."—Id. "Regardlessly, without heed; Regardlessness, heedlessness."—Id. "Blamelessly, innocently; Blamelessness, innocence."—Id. "That is better than to be flattered into pride and carelessness."—Id. "Good fortunes began to breed a proud recklessness in them."—Id. "See whether he lazily and listlessly dreams away his time."—Id. "It maybe, the palate of the soul is indisposed by listlessness or sorrow."—Id. "Pitilessly, without mercy; Pitilessness, unmercifulness."—Id. "What say you to such as these? abominable, accordable, agreeable, etc."— Tooke cor. "Artlessly; naturally, sincerely, without craft."—Johnson cor. "A chillness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever."—See Webster. "Smallness; littleness, minuteness, weakness."—Walker's Dict., et al. "Galless, adj. Free from gall or bitterness."—Webster cor. "Tallness; height of stature, upright length with comparative slenderness."—Webster's Dict. "Willful; stubborn, contumacious, perverse, inflexible."—See ib. "He guided them by the skillfulness of his hands."—See ib. "The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Ps. xxiv, 1. "What is now, is but an amassment of imaginary conceptions."—Glanville cor. "Embarrassment; perplexity, entanglement."—Walker. "The second is slothfulness, whereby they are performed slackly and carelessly."— Perkins cor. "Installment; induction into office, part of a large sum of money, to be paid at a particular time."—See Webster's Dict. "Inthrallment; servitude, slavery, bondage."—Ib.

   "I, who at some times spend, at others spare,
    Divided between carelessness and care."—Pope cor.

RULE VII.—RETAINING.

"Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells."—Lowth's Gram., p. 41; Comly's, 38; Cooper's, 51; Lennie's, 26. "There are a few compound irregular verbs, as befall, bespeak, &c."—Ash cor. "That we might frequently recall it to our memory."—Calvin cor. "The angels exercise a constant solicitude that no evil befall us."—Id. "Inthrall; to enslave, to shackle, to reduce to servitude."—Johnson. "He makes resolutions, and fulfills them by new ones."—See Webster. "To enroll my humble name upon the list of authors on Elocution."—See Webster. "Forestall; to anticipate, to take up beforehand."—Johnson. "Miscall; to call wrong, to name improperly."—Webster. "Bethrall; to enslave, to reduce to bondage."—Id. "Befall; to happen to, to come to pass."—Walkers Dict. "Unroll; to open what is rolled or convolved."—Webster's Dict. "Counterroll; to keep copies of accounts to prevent frauds."—See ib. "As Sisyphus uprolls a rock, which constantly overpowers him at the summit."—G. Brown. "Unwell; not well, indisposed, not in good health."—Webster. "Undersell; to defeat by selling for less, to sell cheaper than an other."—Johnson. "Inwall; to enclose or fortify with a wall."—Id. "Twibill; an instrument with two bills, or with a point and a blade; a pickaxe, a mattock, a halberd, a battleaxe."—Dict. cor. "What you miscall their folly, is their care."—Dryden cor. "My heart will sigh when I miscall it so."—Shak. cor. "But if the arrangement recalls one set of ideas more readily than an other."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 334.

   "'Tis done; and since 'tis done, 'tis past recall
    And since 'tis past recall, must be forgotten."—Dryden cor.

RULE VIII.—FINAL LL.

"The righteous is taken away from the evil to come."—Isaiah, lvii, 1. "Patrol; to go the rounds in a camp or garrison, to march about and observe what passes."—See Joh. Dic. "Marshal; the chief officer of arms, one who regulates rank and order."—See ib. "Weevil; a destructive grub that gets among corn."—See ib. "It much excels all other studies and arts."—W. Walker cor. "It is essential to all magnitudes, to be in one place."—Perkins cor. "By nature I was thy vassal, but Christ hath redeemed me."—Id. "Some being in want, pray for temporal blessings."—Id. "And this the Lord doth, either in temporal or in spiritual benefits."—Id. "He makes an idol of them, by setting his heart on them." "This trial by desertion serveth for two purposes."—Id. "Moreover, this destruction is both perpetual and terrible."—Id. "Giving to several men several gifts, according to his good pleasure." "Until; to some time, place, or degree, mentioned."—See Dict. "Annul; to make void, to nullify, to abrogate, to abolish."—See Dict. "Nitric acid combined with argil, forms the nitrate of argil."—Gregory cor.

   "Let modest Foster, if he will, excel
    Ten metropolitans in preaching well."—Pope cor.

RULE IX.—FINAL E.

"Adjectives ending in able signify capacity; as, comfortable, tenable, improvable."—Priestly cor. "Their mildness and hospitality are ascribable to a general administration of religious ordinances."— Webster cor. "Retrench as much as possible without obscuring the sense."—J. Brown cor. "Changeable, subject to change; Unchangeable, immutable."—Walker cor. "Tamable, susceptive of taming; Untamable, not to be tamed."—Id. "Reconcilable, Unreconcilable, Reconcilableness; Irreconcilable, Irreconcilably, Irreconcilableness."—Johnson cor. "We have thought it most advisable to pay him some little attention."— Merchant cor. "Provable, that may be proved; Reprovable, blamable, worthy of reprehension."—Walker cor. "Movable and Immovable, Movably and Immovably, Movables and Removal, Movableness and Improvableness, Unremovable and Unimprovable, Unremovably and Removable, Provable and Approvable, Irreprovable and Reprovable, Unreprovable and Improvable, Unimprovableness and Improvably."—Johnson cor. "And with this cruelty you are chargeable in some measure yourself."—Collier cor. "Mothers would certainly resent it, as judging it proceeded from a low opinion of the genius of their sex."—Brit. Gram. cor. "Tithable, subject to the payment of tithes; Salable, vendible, fit for sale; Losable, possible to be lost; Sizable, of reasonable bulk or size."—See Webster's Dict. "When he began this custom, he was puting and very tender."—Locke cor.

   "The plate, coin, revenues, and movables,
    Whereof our uncle Gaunt did stand possess'd."—Shak. cor.

RULE X.—FINAL E.

"Diversely; in different ways, differently, variously."—See Walker's Dict. "The event thereof contains a wholesome instruction."—Bacon cor. "Whence Scaliger falsely concluded that Articles were useless."—Brightland cor. "The child that we have just seen is wholesomely fed."—Murray cor. "Indeed, falsehood and legerdemain sink the character of a prince."—Collier cor. "In earnest, at this rate of management, thou usest thyself very coarsely."—Id. "To give them an arrangement and a diversity, as agreeable as the nature of the subject would admit."—Murray cor. "Alger's Grammar is only a trifling enlargement of Murray's little Abridgement."—G. Brown. "You ask whether you are to retain or to omit the mute e in the words, judgement, abridgement, acknowledgement, lodgement, adjudgement, and prejudgement."—Red Book cor. "Fertileness, fruitfulness; fertilely, fruitfully, abundantly."—Johnson cor. "Chastely, purely, without contamination; Chasteness, chastity, purity."—Id. "Rhymester, n. One who makes rhymes; a versifier; a mean poet."—Walker, Chalmers, Maunder, Worcester. "It is therefore a heroical achievement to disposess [sic—KTH] this imaginary monarch."—Berkley cor. "Whereby is not meant the present time, as he imagines, but the time past."—R. Johnson cor. "So far is this word from affecting the noun, in regard to its definiteness, that its own character of definiteness or indefiniteness, depends upon the name to which it is prefixed."—Webster cor.

   "Satire, by wholesome lessons, would reclaim,
    And heal their vices to secure their fame "—Brightland cor.

RULE XI.—FINAL Y.

"Solon's the veriest fool in all the play."—Dryden cor. "Our author prides himself upon his great sliness and shrewdness."—Merchant cor. "This tense, then, implies also the signification of debeo."—R. Johnson cor. "That may be applied to a subject, with respect to something accidental."—Id. "This latter author accompanies his note with a distinction."—Id. "This rule is defective, and none of the annotators have sufficiently supplied its deficiencies."—Id. "Though the fancied supplement of Sanctius, Scioppius, Vossius, and Mariangelus, may take place."—Ib. "Yet, as to the commutableness of these two tenses, which is denied likewise, they [the foregoing examples] are all one [; i.e., exactly equivalent]"—Id. "Both these tenses may represent a futurity, implied by the dependence of the clause."—Id. "Cry, cries, crying, cried, crier, decrial; Shy, shier, shiest, shily, shiness; Fly, flies, flying, flier, high-flier; Sly, slier, sliest, slily, sliness; Spy, spies, spying, spied, espial; Dry, drier, driest, drily, driness."—Cobb, Webster, and Chalmers cor. "I would sooner listen to the thrumming of a dandizette at her piano."—Kirkham cor. "Send her away; for she crieth after us."—Matt., v, 23. "IVIED, a. overgrown with ivy."—Cobb's Dict., and Maunders.

   "Some drily plain, without invention's aid,
    Write dull receipts how poems may be made."—Pope cor.

RULE XII.—FINAL Y.

"The gayety of youth should be tempered by the precepts of age."—Murray cor. "In the storm of 1703, two thousand stacks of chimneys were blown down in and about London."—Red Book cor. "And the vexation was not abated by the hackneyed plea of haste."—Id. "The fourth sin of our days is lukewarmness."—Perkins cor. "God hates the workers of iniquity, and destroys them that speak lies."—Id. "For, when he lays his hand upon us, we may not fret."—Id. "Care not for it; but if thou mayst be free, choose it rather."—Id. "Alexander Severus saith, 'He that buyeth, must sell; I will not suffer buyers and sellers of offices.'"—Id. "With these measures, fell in all moneyed men."—See Johnson's Dict. "But rattling nonsense in full volleys breaks."—Murray's Reader, q. Pope. "Valleys are the intervals betwixt mountains."—Woodward cor. "The Hebrews had fifty-two journeys or marches."—Wood cor. "It was not possible to manage or steer the galleys thus fastened together."—Goldsmith cor. "Turkeys were not known to naturalists till after the discovery of America."—Gregory cor. "I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkeys."—SHAK.: in Johnson's Dict. "Men worked at embroidery, especially in abbeys."—Constable cor. "By which all purchasers or mortgagees may be secured of all moneys they lay out."—Temple cor. "He would fly to the mines or the galleys, for his recreation."—South cor. "Here pulleys make the pond'rous oak ascend."—Gay cor.

    ———"You need my help, and you say,
    Shylock, we would have moneys."—Shak. cor.

RULE XIII.—IZE AND ISE.

"Will any able writer authorize other men to revise his works?"—G. B. "It can be made as strong and expressive as this Latinized English."—Murray cor. "Governed by the success or failure of an enterprise."—Id. "Who have patronized the cause of justice against powerful oppressors."—Id., et al. "Yet custom authorizes this use of it."—Priestley cor. "They surprise myself, ****; and I even think the writers themselves will be surprised."—Id. "Let the interest rise to any sum which can be obtained."—Webster cor. "To determine what interest shall arise on the use of money."—Id. "To direct the popular councils and check any rising opposition,"—Id. "Five were appointed to the immediate exercise of the office."—Id. "No man ever offers himself as a candidate by advertising."—Id. "They are honest and economical, but indolent, and destitute of enterprise."—Id. "I would, however, advise you to be cautious."—Id. "We are accountable for what we patronize in others."—Murray cor. "After he was baptized, and was solemnly admitted into the office."—Perkins cor. "He will find all, or most, of them, comprised in the exercises."—Brit. Gram. cor. "A quick and ready habit of methodizing and regulating their thoughts."—Id. "To tyrannize over the time and patience of his readers."—Kirkham cor. "Writers of dull books, however, if patronized at all, are rewarded beyond their deserts."—Id. "A little reflection will show the reader the reason for emphasizing the words marked."—Id. "The English Chronicle contains an account of a surprising cure."—Red Book cor. "Dogmatize, to assert positively; Dogmatizer, an assertor, a magisterial teacher."—Chalmers cor. "And their inflections might now have been easily analyzed."—Murray cor. "Authorize, disauthorize, and unauthorized; Temporize, contemporize, and extemporize."—Walker cor. "Legalize, equalize, methodize, sluggardize, womanize, humanize, patronize, cantonize, gluttonize, epitomize, anatomize, phlebotomize, sanctuarize, characterize, synonymize, recognize, detonize, colonize."—Id. cor.

   "This beauty sweetness always must comprise,
    Which from the subject, well express'd, will rise."—Brightland cor.

RULE XIV.—COMPOUNDS.

"The glory of the Lord shall be thy rear-ward."—SCOTT, ALGER: Isa., lviii, 8. "A mere van-courier to announce the coming of his master."—Tooke cor. "The party-coloured shutter appeared to come close up before him."—Kirkham cor. "When the day broke upon this handful of forlorn but dauntless spirits."—Id. "If, upon a plumtree, peaches and apricots are engrafted, nobody will say they are the natural growth of the plumtree.'—Berkley cor. "The channel between Newfoundland and Labrador is called the Straits of Belleisle."—Worcester cor. "There being nothing that more exposes to the headache:"—or, (perhaps more accurately,) "headake."—Locke cor. "And, by a sleep, to say we end the heartache:"—or, "heartake."—Shak. cor. "He that sleeps, feels not the toothache:"—or, "toothake."—Id. "That the shoe must fit him, because it fitted his father and grandfather."—Phil. Museum cor. "A single word misspelled [or misspelt] in a letter is sufficient to show that you have received a defective education."—C. Bucke cor. "Which misstatement the committee attributed to a failure of memory."—Professors cor. "Then he went through the Banqueting-House to the scaffold."—Smollet cor. "For the purpose of maintaining a clergyman and a schoolmaster."—Webster cor. "They however knew that the lands were claimed by Pennsylvania."—Id. "But if you ask a reason, they immediately bid farewell to argument."—Barnes cor. "Whom resist, steadfast in the faith."—Alger's Bible. "And they continued steadfastly in the apostles' doctrine."—Id. "Beware lest ye also fall from your own steadfastness."—Ib. "Galiot, or Galliot, a Dutch vessel carrying a main-mast and a mizzen-mast."—Webster cor. "Infinitive, to overflow; Preterit, overflowed; Participle, overflowed."—Cobbett cor. "After they have misspent so much precious time."—Brit. Gram. cor. "Some say, 'two handsful;" some, 'two handfuls; and others, 'two handful.' The second expression is right."—G. Brown. "Lapful, as much as the lap can contain."—Webster cor. "Dareful, full of defiance."—Walker cor. "The road to the blissful regions is as open to the peasant as to the king."—Mur. cor. "Misspell is misspelled [or misspelt] in every dictionary which I have seen."—Barnes cor. "Downfall; ruin, calamity, fall from rank or state."—Johnson cor. "The whole legislature likewise acts as a court."—Webster cor. "It were better a millstone were hanged about his neck."—Perkins cor. "Plumtree, a tree that produces plums; Hogplumtree, a tree."—Webster cor. "Trissyllables ending in re or le, accent the first syllable."—Murray cor.

   "It happened on a summer's holyday,
    That to the greenwood shade he took his way."—Dryden.

RULE XV.—USAGE.

"Nor are the moods of the Greek tongue more uniform."—Murray cor. "If we analyze a conjunctive preterit, the rule will not appear to hold."—Priestley cor. "No landholder would have been at that expense."—Id. "I went to see the child whilst they were putting on its clothes."—Id. "This style is ostentatious, and does not suit grave writing."—Id. "The king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat each on his throne."—1 Kings, xxii, 10; 2 Chron., xviii, 9. "Lysias, speaking of his friends, promised to his father never to abandon them."—Murray cor. "Some, to avoid this error, run into its opposite."—Churchill cor. "Hope, the balm of life soothes us under every misfortune."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 182. "Any judgement or decree might be heard and reversed by the legislature."—N. Webster cor. "A pathetic harangue will screen from punishment any knave."—Id. "For the same reason the women would be improper judges."—Id. "Every person is indulged in worshiping as he pleases."—Id. "Most or all teachers are excluded from genteel company."—Id. "The Christian religion, in its purity, is the best institution on earth."—Id. "Neither clergymen nor human laws have the least authority over the conscience."—Id. "A guild is a society, fraternity, or corporation."—Barnes cor. "Phillis was not able to untie the knot, and so she cut it."—Id. "An acre of land is the quantity of one hundred and sixty perches."—Id. "Ochre is a fossil earth combined with the oxyd of some metal."—Id. "Genii, when denoting aërial spirits; geniuses, when signifying persons of genius."—Murray cor.; also Frost; also Nutting. "Acrisius, king of Argos, had a beautiful daughter, whose name was Danäe."—Classic Tales cor. "Phäeton was the son of Apollo and Clymene."—Id.—"But, after all, I may not have reached the intended goal."—Buchanan cor. "'Pittacus was offered a large sum.' Better: 'To Pittacus was offered a large sum.'"—Kirkham cor. "King Micipsa charged his sons to respect the senate and people of Rome."—Id. "For example: 'Galileo greatly improved the telescope.'"—Id. "Cathmor's warriors sleep in death."—Macpherson's Ossian. "For parsing will enable you to detect and correct errors in composition."—Kirkham cor.

   "O'er barren mountains, o'er the flow'ry plain,
    Extends thy uncontrolled and boundless reign."—Dryden cor.

PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SPELLING.

LESSON I.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"A bad author deserves better usage than a bad critic."—Pope (or Johnson) cor. "Produce a single passage, superior to the speech of Logan, a Mingo chief, to Lord Dunmore, governor of this state."—Jefferson's Notes, p. 94. "We have none synonymous to supply its place."—Jamieson cor. "There is a probability that the effect will be accelerated."—Id. "Nay, a regard to sound has controlled the public choice."—Id. "Though learnt [better, learned] from the uninterrupted use of guttural sounds."—Id. "It is by carefully filing off all roughness and all inequalities, that languages, like metals, must be polished."—Id. "That I have not misspent my time in the service of the community."—Buchanan cor. "The leaves of maize are also called blades."—Webster cor. "Who boast that they know what is past, and can foretell what is to come."—Robertson cor. "Its tasteless dullness is interrupted by nothing but its perplexities."—Abbott, right. "Sentences constructed with the Johnsonian fullness and swell."—Jamieson, right. "The privilege of escaping from his prefatory dullness and prolixity."—Kirkham, right. "But, in poetry, this characteristic of dullness attains its full growth."—Id. corrected. "The leading characteristic consists in an increase of the force and fullness."—Id cor. "The character of this opening fullness and feebler vanish."—Id. cor. "Who, in the fullness of unequalled power, would not believe himself the favourite of Heaven?"—Id. right. "They mar one an other, and distract him."—Philol. Mus. cor. "Let a deaf worshiper of antiquity and an English prosodist settle this."—Rush cor. "This Philippic gave rise to my satirical reply in self-defence."—Merchant cor. "We here saw no innuendoes, no new sophistry, no falsehoods."—Id. "A witty and humorous vein has often produced enemies."—Murray cor. "Cry hollo! to thy tongue, I pray thee:[527] it curvets unseasonably."—Shak. cor. "I said, in my sliest manner, 'Your health, sir.'"—Blackwood cor. "And attorneys also travel the circuit in pursuit of business."—Barnes cor. "Some whole counties in Virginia would hardly sell for the value of the debts due from the inhabitants."—Webster cor. "They were called the Court of Assistants, and exercised all powers, legislative and judicial."—Id. "Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of liquors."—Harris's Hermes, p. 295. "Most of the inflections may be analyzed in a way somewhat similar."—Murray cor.

   "To epithets allots emphatic state,
    While principals, ungrac'd, like lackeys wait."
        —T. O. Churchill's Gram., p. 326.

LESSON II.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"Hence less is a privative suffix, denoting destitution; as in fatherless, faithless, penniless."—Webster cor. "Bay; red, or reddish, inclining to a chestnut colour."—Id. "To mimick, to imitate or ape for sport; a mimic, one who imitates or mimicks."—Id. "Counterroll, a counterpart or copy of the rolls; Counterrollment, a counter account."—Id. "Millennium, [from mille and annus,] the thousand years during which Satan shall be bound."—See Johnson's Dict. "Millennial, [like septennial, decennial, &c.,] pertaining to the millennium, or to a thousand years."—See Worcester's Dict. "Thralldom; slavery, bondage, a state of servitude."—Webster's Dict. "Brier, a prickly bush; Briery, rough, prickly, full of briers; Sweetbrier, a fragrant shrub."—See Ainsworth's Dict., Scott's, Gobb's, and others. "Will, in the second and third persons, barely foretells."—Brit. Gram. cor. "And therefore there is no word false, but what is distinguished by Italics."—Id. "What should be repeated, is left to their discretion."—Id. "Because they are abstracted or separated from material substances."—Id. "All motion is in time, and therefore, wherever it exists, implies time as its concomitant."— Harris's Hermes, p. 95. "And illiterate grown persons are guilty of blamable spelling."—Brit. Gram. cor. "They will always be ignorant, and of rough, uncivil manners."—Webster cor. "This fact will hardly be believed in the northern states."—Id. "The province, however, was harassed with disputes."—Id. "So little concern has the legislature for the interest of learning."—Id. "The gentlemen will not admit that a schoolmaster can be a gentleman."—Id. "Such absurd quid-pro-quoes cannot be too strenuously avoided."—Churchill cor. "When we say of a man, 'He looks slily;' we signify, that he takes a sly glance or peep at something."—Id. "Peep; to look through a crevice; to look narrowly, closely, or slily"—Webster cor. "Hence the confession has become a hackneyed proverb."—Wayland cor. "Not to mention the more ornamental parts of gilding, varnish, &c."—Tooke cor. "After this system of self-interest had been riveted."—Dr. Brown cor. "Prejudice might have prevented the cordial approbation of a bigoted Jew."—Dr. Scott cor.

   "All twinkling with the dewdrop sheen,
    The brier-rose fell in streamers green."—Sir W. Scott cor.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"The infinitive mood has, commonly, the sign to before it."—Harrison cor. "Thus, it is advisable to write singeing, from the verb to singe, by way of distinction from singing, the participle of the verb to sing."—Id. "Many verbs form both the preterit tense and the preterit participle irregularly."—Id. "Much must be left to every one's taste and judgement."—Id. "Verses of different lengths, intermixed, form a Pindaric poem."—Priestley cor. "He'll surprise you."—Frost cor. "Unequalled archer! why was this concealed?"— Knowles. "So gayly curl the waves before each dashing prow."—Byron cor. "When is a diphthong called a proper diphthong?"—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "How many Esses would the word then end with? Three; for it would be goodness's."—Id. "Qu. What is a triphthong? Ans. A triphthong is a coalition of three vowels in one syllable."—Bacon cor. "The verb, noun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately."—Murray. "The cubic foot of matter which occupies the centre of the globe."—Cardell cor. "The wine imbibes oxygen, or the acidifying principle, from the air."—Id. "Charcoal, sulphur, and nitre, make gunpowder."—Id. "It would be readily understood, that the thing so labelled was a bottle of Madeira wine."—Id. "They went their ways, one to his farm, an other to his merchandise."—Matt., xxii, 5. "A diphthong is the union of two vowels, both in one syllable."—Russell cor. "The professors of the Mohammedan religion are called Mussulmans."—Maltby cor. "This shows that let is not a mere sign of the imperative mood, but a real verb."—Id. "Those preterits and participles which are first mentioned in the list, seem to be the most eligible."—Murray's Gram., p. 107; Fisk's, 81; Ingersoll's, 103. "Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er and est, and dissyllables, by more and most."—Murray's Gram., p. 47. "This termination, added to a noun or an adjective, changes it into a verb: as, modern, to modernize; a symbol, to symbolize."— Churchill cor. "An Abridgement of Murray's Grammar, with additions from Webster, Ash, Tooke, and others."—Maltby's Gram., p. 2. "For the sake of occupying the room more advantageously, the subject of Orthography is merely glanced at."—Nutting cor. "So contended the accusers of Galileo."—O. B. Peirce cor. Murray says, "They were travelling post when he met them."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 69. "They fulfill the only purposes for which they were designed."—Peirce cor.—See Webster's Dict. "On the fulfillment of the event."—Peirce, right. "Fullness consists in expressing every idea."—Id. "Consistently with fullness and perspicuity."—Peirce cor. "The word veriest is a regular adjective; as, 'He is the veriest fool on earth.'"—Wright cor. "The sound will recall the idea of the object."—Hiley cor. "Formed for great enterprises."—Hiley's Gram., p. 113. "The most important rules and definitions are printed in large type, Italicized."—Hart cor. "HAMLETED, a., accustomed to a hamlet, countrified."—Webster, and Worcester. "Singular, spoonful, cupful, coachful, handful; plural, spoonfuls, cupfuls, coachfuls, handfuls."—Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary.

"Between superlatives and following names, Of, by grammatic right, a station claims."—Brightland cor.

THE KEY.—PART II.—ETYMOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.—PARTS OF SPEECH.

The first chapter of Etymology, as it exhibits only the distribution of words into the ten Parts of Speech, contains no false grammar for correction. And it may be here observed, that as mistakes concerning the forms, classes, or modifications of words, are chiefly to be found in sentences, rather than in any separate exhibition of the terms; the quotations of this kind, with which I have illustrated the principles of etymology, are many of them such as might perhaps with more propriety be denominated false syntax. But, having examples enough at hand to show the ignorance and carelessness of authors in every part of grammar, I have thought it most advisable, so to distribute them as to leave no part destitute of this most impressive kind of illustration. The examples exhibited as false etymology, are as distinct from those which are called false syntax, as the nature of the case will admit.

CHAPTER II.—ARTICLES.

CORRECTIONS RESPECTING A, AN, AND THE.

LESSON I.—ARTICLES ADAPTED.

"Honour is a useful distinction in life."—Milnes cor. "No writer, therefore, ought to foment a humour of innovation."—Jamieson cor. "Conjunctions [generally] require a situation between the things of which they form a union."—Id. "Nothing is more easy than to mistake a u for an a."—Tooke cor. "From making so ill a use of our innocent expressions."—Penn cor. "To grant thee a heavenly and incorruptible crown of glory."—Sewel cor. "It in no wise follows, that such a one was able to predict."—Id. "With a harmless patience, they have borne most heavy oppressions."—Id. "My attendance was to make me a happier man."—Spect. cor. "On the wonderful nature of a human mind."—Id. "I have got a hussy of a maid, who is most craftily given to this."—Id. "Argus is said to have had a hundred eyes, some of which were always awake."—Stories cor. "Centiped, having a hundred feet; centennial, consisting of a hundred years."—Town cor. "No good man, he thought, could be a heretic."—Gilpin cor. "As, a Christian, an infidel, a heathen."—Ash cor. "Of two or more words, usually joined by a hyphen."—Blair cor. "We may consider the whole space of a hundred years as time present."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 138. "In guarding against such a use of meats and drinks."—Ash cor. "Worship is a homage due from man to his Creator."—Monitor cor. "Then a eulogium on the deceased was pronounced."—Grimshaw cor. "But for Adam there was not found a help meet for him."—Bible cor. "My days are consumed like smoke, and my bones are burned as a hearth."—Id. "A foreigner and a hired servant shall not eat thereof."—Id. "The hill of God is as the hill of Bashan; a high hill, as the hill of Bashan."—Id. "But I do declare it to have been a holy offering, and such a one too as was to be once for all."—Penn cor. "A hope that does not make ashamed those that have it."—Barclay cor. "Where there is not a unity, we may exercise true charity."—Id. "Tell me, if in any of these such a union can be found?"—Dr. Brown cor.

   "Such holy drops her tresses steeped,
    Though 'twas a hero's eye that weeped."—Sir W. Scott cor.

LESSON II.—ARTICLES INSERTED.

"This veil of flesh parts the visible and the invisible world."—Sherlock cor. "The copulative and the disjunctive conjunctions operate differently on the verb."—L. Murray cor. "Every combination of a preposition and an article with the noun."—Id. "Either signifies, 'the one or the other:' neither imports, 'not either;' that is, 'not the one nor the other.'"—Id. "A noun of multitude may have a pronoun or a verb agreeing with it, either of the singular number or of the plural."—Bucke cor. "The principal copulative conjunctions are, and, as, both, because, for, if, that, then, since."—Id. "The two real genders are the masculine and the feminine."—Id. "In which a mute and a liquid are represented by the same character, th."—Gardiner cor. "They said, John the Baptist hath sent us unto thee."—Bible cor. "They indeed remember the names of an abundance of places."—Spect. cor. "Which created a great dispute between the young and the old men."—Goldsmith cor. "Then shall be read the Apostles' or the Nicene Creed."—Com. Prayer cor. "The rules concerning the perfect tenses and the supines of verbs are Lily's."—K. Henry's Gr. cor. "It was read by the high and the low, the learned and the illiterate."—Dr. Johnson cor. "Most commonly, both the pronoun and the verb are understood."—Buchanan cor. "To signify the thick and the slender enunciation of tone."—Knight cor. "The difference between a palatial and a guttural aspirate is very small."—Id. "Leaving it to waver between the figurative and the literal sense."—Jamieson cor. "Whatever verb will not admit of both an active and a passive signification."—Alex. Murray cor. "The is often set before adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree."—Id. and Kirkham cor. "Lest any should fear the effect of such a change, upon the present or the succeeding age of writers."—Fowle cor. "In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on the even syllables; and every line is, in general, the more melodious, as this rule is the more strictly observed."—L. Murray et al. cor. "How many numbers do nouns appear to have? Two: the singular and the plural."—R. C. Smith cor. "How many persons? Three; the first, the second, and the third."—Id. "How many cases? Three; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Id.

   "Ah! what avails it me, the flocks to keep,
    Who lost my heart while I preserv'd the sheep:"—or, "my sheep."

LESSON III.—ARTICLES OMITTED.

"The negroes are all descendants of Africans."—Morse cor. "Sybarite was applied as a term of reproach to a man of dissolute manners."—Id. "The original signification of knave was boy."—Webster cor. "The meaning of these will be explained, for greater clearness and precision."—Bucke cor. "What sort of noun is man? A noun substantive, common."—Buchanan cor. "Is what ever used as three kinds of pronoun?"—Kirkham's Question cor. [Answer: "No; as a pronoun, it is either relative or interrogative."—G. Brown.] "They delighted in having done it, as well as in the doing of it."—R. Johnson cor. "Both parts of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences."—Murray cor. "He has taught them to hope for an other and better world."—Knapp cor. "It was itself only preparatory to a future, better, and perfect revelation."—Keith cor. "Es then makes an other and distinct syllable."—Brightland cor. "The eternal clamours of a selfish and factious people."—Dr. Brown cor. "To those whose taste in elocution is but little cultivated."—Kirkham cor. "They considered they had but a sort of gourd to rejoice in."—Bennet cor. "Now there was but one such bough, in a spacious and shady grove."—Bacon cor. "Now the absurdity of this latter supposition will go a great way towards making a man easy."—Collier cor. "This is true of mathematics, with which taste has but little to do."—Todd cor. "To stand prompter to a pausing yet ready comprehension."—Rush cor. "Such an obedience as the yoked and tortured negro is compelled to yield to the whip of the overseer."—Chalmers cor. "For the gratification of a momentary and unholy desire."—Wayland cor. "The body is slenderly put together; the mind, a rambling sort of thing."—Collier cor. "The only nominative to the verb, is officer."—Murray cor. "And though in general it ought to be admitted, &c."—Blair cor. "Philosophical writing admits of a polished, neat, and elegant style."—Id. "But notwithstanding this defect, Thomson is a strong and beautiful describer."—Id. "So should he be sure to be ransomed, and many poor men's lives should be saved."—Shak. cor.

   "Who felt the wrong, or feared it, took alarm,
    Appealed to law, and Justice lent her arm."—Pope cor.

LESSON IV.—ARTICLES CHANGED.

"To enable us to avoid too frequent a repetition of the same word."—Bucke cor. "The former is commonly acquired in a third part of the time."—Burn cor. "Sometimes an adjective becomes a substantive; and, like other substantives, it may have an adjective relating to it: as, 'The chief good.'"—L. Murray cor. "An articulate sound is a sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech."—Id. "A tense is a distinction of time: there are six tenses."—Maunder cor. "In this case, an ellipsis of the last article would be improper."—L. Hurray cor. "Contrast always has the effect to make each of the contrasted objects appear in a stronger light."—Id. et al. "These remarks may serve to show the great importance of a proper use of the articles."—Lowth et al. cor. "'Archbishop Tillotson,' says the author of a history of England, 'died in this year.'"—Dr. Blair cor. "Pronouns are used in stead of substantives, to prevent too frequent a repetition of them."—A. Murray cor. "THAT, as a relative, seems to be introduced to prevent too frequent a repetition of WHO and WHICH."—Id. "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to prevent too frequent a repetition of it."—L. Murray cor. "THAT is often used as a relative, to prevent too frequent a repetition of WHO and WHICH."—Id. et al. cor. "His knees smote one against the other."—Logan cor. "They stand now on one foot, then on the other."—W. Walker cor. "The Lord watch between thee and me, when we are absent one from the other."—Bible cor. "Some have enumerated ten parts of speech, making the participle a distinct part."—L. Murray cor. "Nemesis rides upon a hart because the hart is a most lively creature."—Bacon cor. "The transition of the voice from one vowel of the diphthong to the other."—Dr. Wilson cor. "So difficult it is, to separate these two things one from the other."—Dr. Blair cor. "Without a material breach of any rule."—Id. "The great source of looseness of style, in opposition to precision, is an injudicious use of what are termed synonymous words."—Blair cor.; also Murray. "Sometimes one article is improperly used for the other."—Sanborn cor.

   "Satire of sense, alas! can Sporus feel?
    Who breaks a butterfly upon the wheel?"—Pope cor.

LESSON V.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"He hath no delight in the strength of a horse."—Maturin cor. "The head of it would be a universal monarch."—Butler cor. "Here they confound the material and the formal object of faith."—Barclay cor. "The Irish [Celtic] and the Scottish Celtic are one language; the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Armorican, are an other."—Dr. Murray cor. "In a uniform and perspicuous manner."—Id. "SCRIPTURE, n. Appropriately, and by way of distinction, the books of the Old and the New Testament; the Bible."—Webster cor. "In two separate volumes, entitled, 'The Old and New Testaments.'"—Wayland cor. "The Scriptures of the Old and the New Testament, contain a revelation from God."—Id. "Q has always a u after it; which, in words of French origin, is not sounded."—Wilson cor. "What should we say of such a one? that he is regenerate? No."—Hopkins cor. "Some grammarians subdivide the vowels into simple and compound."—L. Murray cor. "Emphasis has been divided into the weaker and the stronger emphasis."—Id. "Emphasis has also been divided into the superior and the inferior emphasis."—Id. "Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, or the nouns which they represent, in gender, number, and person."—Merchant cor. "The adverb where is often used improperly, for a relative pronoun and a preposition": as, "Words where [in which] the h is not silent."—Murray, p. 31. "The termination ish imports diminution, or a lessening of the quality."—Merchant cor. "In this train, all their verses proceed: one half of a line always answering to the other."—Dr. Blair cor. "To a height of prosperity and glory, unknown to any former age."—L. Murray cor. "Hwilc, who, which, such as, such a one, is declined as follows."—Gwilt cor. "When a vowel precedes the y, s only is required to form the plural; as, day, days."—Bucke cor. "He is asked what sort of word each is; whether a primitive, a derivative, or a compound."—British Gram. cor. "It is obvious, that neither the second, the third, nor the fourth chapter of Matthew, is the first; consequently, there are not 'four first chapters.'"—Churchill cor. "Some thought, which a writer wants the art to introduce in its proper place."—Dr. Blair cor. "Groves and meadows are the most pleasing in the spring."—Id. "The conflict between the carnal and the spiritual mind, is often long."—Gurney cor. "A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful"—Burke cor.

   "Silence, my muse! make not these jewels cheap,
    Exposing to the world too large a heap."—Waller cor.

CHAPTER III.—NOUNS.

CORRECTIONS IN THE MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS.

LESSON I.—NUMBERS.

"All the ablest of the Jewish rabbies acknowledge it."—Wilson cor. "Who has thoroughly imbibed the system of one or other of our Christian rabbies."—Campbell cor. "The seeming singularities of reason soon wear off."—Collier cor. "The chiefs and arikies, or priests, have the power of declaring a place or object taboo."—Balbi cor. "Among the various tribes of this family, are the Pottawatomies, the Sauks and Foxes, or Saukies and Ottogamies."—Id. "The Shawnees, Kickapoos, Menom'onies, Miamies, and Delawares, are of the same region."—Id. "The Mohegans and Abenaquies belonged also to this family."—Id. "One tribe of this family, the Winnebagoes, formerly resided near lake Michigan."—Id. "The other tribes are the Ioways, the Otoes, the Missouries, the Quapaws."—Id." The great Mexican family comprises the Aztecs, the Toltecs, and the Tarascoes."—Id." The Mulattoes are born of negro and white parents; the Zamboes, of Indians and Negroes."—Id. "To have a place among the Alexanders, the Cæsars, the Louises, or the Charleses,—the scourges and butchers of their fellow-creatures."—Burgh cor." Which was the notion of the Platonic philosophers and the Jewish rabbies."—Id. "That they should relate to the whole body of virtuosoes."—Cobbeti cor." What thanks have ye? for sinners also love those that love them."—Bible cor." There are five ranks of nobility; dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons."—Balbi cor." Acts which were so well known to the two Charleses."—Payne cor. "Courts-martial are held in all parts, for the trial of the blacks."—Observer cor. "It becomes a common noun, and may have the plural number; as, the two Davids, the two Scipios, the two Pompeys."—Staniford cor. "The food of the rattlesnake is birds, squirrels, hares, rats, and reptiles."—Balbi cor. "And let fowls multiply in the earth."—Bible cor. "Then we reached the hillside, where eight buffaloes were grazing."—Martineau cor. "CORSET, n. a bodice for a woman."—Worcester cor. "As, the Bees, the Cees, the Double-ues."—Peirce cor. "Simplicity is the mean between ostentation and rusticity."—Pope cor. "You have disguised yourselves like tipstaffs."—Gil Bias cor. "But who, that has any taste, can endure the incessant quick returns of the alsoes, and the likewises, and the moreovers, and the howevers, and the notwithstandings?"—Campbell cor.

   "Sometimes, in mutual sly disguise,
    Let ays seem noes, and noes seem ays."—Gay cor.

LESSON II.—CASES.

"For whose name's sake, I have been made willing."—Penn cor. "Be governed by your conscience, and never ask any body's leave to be honest."—Collier cor. "To overlook nobody's merit or misbehaviour."— Id. "And Hector at last fights his way to the stern of Ajax's ship."—Coleridge cor. "Nothing is lazier, than to keep one's eye upon words without heeding their meaning."—Museum cor. "Sir William Jones's division of the day."—Id. "I need only refer here to Voss's excellent account of it."—Id. "The beginning of Stesichorus's palinode has been preserved."—Id. "Though we have Tibullus's elegies, there is not a word in them about Glyc~era."—Id. "That Horace was at Thaliarchus's country-house."—Id. "That Sisyphus's foot-tub should have been still in existence."—Id. "How everything went on in Horace's closet, and Mecenas's antechamber."—Id. "Who, for elegant brevity's sake, put a participle for a verb."—W. Walker cor. "The country's liberty being oppressed, we have no more to hope."—Id. "A brief but true account of this people's principles."—Barclay cor. "As, The Church's peace, or, The peace of the Church; Virgil's Æneid, or, The Æneid of Virgil."—Brit. Gram. cor. "As, Virgil's Æneid, for, The Æneid of Virgil; The Church's peace, for, The peace of the Church."—Buchanan cor. "Which, with Hubner's Compend, and Well's Geographia Classica, will be sufficient."—Burgh cor. "Witness Homer's speaking horses, scolding goddesses, and Jupiter enchanted with Venus's girdle."—Id. "Dr. Watts's Logic may with success be read to them and commented on."—Id. "Potter's Greek, and Kennet's Roman Antiquities, Strauchius's and Helvicus's Chronology."—Id. "SING. Alice's friends, Felix's property; PLUR. The Alices' friends, the Felixes' property."—Peirce cor. "Such as Bacchus's company—at Bacchus's festivals."—Ainsworih cor. "Burns's inimitable Tam o' Shanter turns entirely upon such a circumstance."—Scott cor. "Nominative, men; Genitive, [or Possessive,] men's; Objective, men."—Cutler cor. "Men's happiness or misery is mostly of their own making."—Locke cor. "That your son's clothes be never made strait, especially about the breast."—Id. "Children's minds are narrow and weak."—Id. "I would not have little children much tormented about punctilios, or niceties of breeding."—Id. "To fill his head with suitable ideas."—Id. "The Burgusdisciuses and the Scheiblers did not swarm in those days, as they do now."—Id. "To see the various ways of dressing—a calf's head!"—Shenstone cor.

   "He puts it on, and for decorum's sake
    Can wear it e'en as gracefully as she."—Cowper cor.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"Simon the wizard was of this religion too"—Bunyan cor. "MAMMODIES, n. Coarse, plain, India muslins."—Webster cor. "Go on from single persons to families, that of the Pompeys for instance."—Collier cor. "By which the ancients were not able to account for phenomena."—Bailey cor. "After this I married a woman who had lived at Crete, but a Jewess by birth."—Josephus cor. "The very heathens are inexcusable for not worshiping him."—Todd cor. "Such poems as Camoens's Lusiad, Voltaire's Henrinde, &c."—Dr. Blair cor. "My learned correspondent writes a word in defence of large scarfs."—Sped. cor. "The forerunners of an apoplexy are dullness, vertigoes, tremblings."—Arbuthnot cor." Vertigo, [in Latin,] changes the o into ~in=es, making the plural vertig~in=es:" [not so, in English.]—Churchill cor. "Noctambulo, [in Latin,] changes the o into =on=es, making the plural noctambul=on=es:" [not so in English.]—Id. "What shall we say of noctambuloes? It is the regular English plural."—G. Brown. "In the curious fretwork of rocks and grottoes."—Blair cor. "Wharf makes the plural wharfs, according to the best usage."—G. Brown. "A few cents' worth of macaroni supplies all their wants."—Balbi cor. "C sounds hard, like k, at the end of a word or syllable."—Blair cor. "By which the virtuosoes try The magnitude of every lie."—Butler cor. "Quartoes, octavoes, shape the lessening pyre."—Pope cor. "Perching within square royal roofs"—Sidney cor. "Similes should, even in poetry, be used with moderation."—Dr. Blair cor. "Similes should never be taken from low or mean objects."—Id. "It were certainly better to say, 'The House of Lords,' than, 'The Lords' House.'"—Murray cor. "Read your answers. Units' figure? 'Five.' Tens'? 'Six.' Hundreds'? 'Seven.'"—Abbott cor. "Alexander conquered Darius's army."—Kirkham cor. "Three days' time was requisite, to prepare matters."—Dr. Brown cor. "So we say, that Cicero's style and Sallust's were not one; nor Cæsar's and Livy's; nor Homer's and Hesiod's; nor Herodotus's and Thucydides's; nor Euripides's and Aristophanes's; nor Erasmus's and Budæus's."—Puttenham cor. "LEX (i.e., legs, a law,) is no other than our ancestors' past participle loeg, laid down"—Tooke cor. "Achaia's sons at Ilium slain for the Atridoe's sake."—Cowper cor. "The corpses of her senate manure the fields of Thessaly."—Addison cor.

   "Poisoning, without regard of fame or fear;
    And spotted corpses load the frequent bier."—Dryden cor.

CHAPTER IV.—ADJECTIVES.

CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF COMPARISON, &c.

LESSON I.—DEGREES.

"I have the real excuse of the most honest sort of bankrupts."—Cowley corrected. "The most honourable part of talk, is, to give the occasion."—Bacon cor. "To give him one of the most modest of his own proverbs."—Barclay cor. "Our language is now, certainly, more proper and more natural, than it was formerly."—Burnet cor. "Which will be of the greatest and most frequent use to him in the world."—Locke cor. "The same is notified in the most considerable places in the diocese."—Whitgift cor. "But it was the most dreadful sight that ever I saw."—Bunyan cor. "Four of the oldest, soberest, and discreetest of the brethren, chosen for the occasion, shall regulate it."—Locke cor. "Nor can there be any clear understanding of any Roman author, especially of more ancient time, without this skill."—W. Walker cor. "Far the most learned of the Greeks."—Id. "The more learned thou art, the humbler be thou."—Id. "He is none of the best, or most honest."—Id. "The most proper methods of communicating it to others."—Burn cor. "What heaven's great King hath mightiest to send against us."—Milton cor. "Benedict is not the most unhopeful husband that I know."—Shakspeare cor. "That he should immediately do all the meanest and most trifling things himself."—Ray cor. "I shall be named among the most renowned of women."—Milton cor. "Those have the most inventive heads for all purposes."—Ascham cor. "The more wretched are the contemners of all helps."—B. Johnson cor. "I will now deliver a few of the most proper and most natural considerations that belong to this piece."—Wotton cor. "The most mortal poisons practised by the West Indians, have some mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man."—Bacon cor. "He so won upon him, that he rendered him one of the most faithful and most affectionate allies the Medes ever had."—Rollin cor. "'You see before you,' says he to him, 'the most devoted servant, and the most faithful ally, you ever had.'"—Id. "I chose the most flourishing tree in all the park."—Cowley cor. "Which he placed, I think, some centuries earlier than did Julius Africanus afterwards."—Bolingbroke cor. "The Tiber, the most noted river of Italy."—Littleton cor.

"To farthest shores th' ambrosial spirit flies."—Pope.

    ——"That what she wills to do or say,
    Seems wisest, worthiest, discreetest, best."—Milton cor.

LESSON II.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"During the first three or four years of its existence."—Taylor cor. "To the first of these divisions, my last ten lectures have been devoted."—Adams cor. "There are, in the twenty-four states, not fewer than sixty thousand common schools."—J. O. Taylor cor. "I know of nothing which gives teachers more trouble, than this want of firmness."—Id. "I know of nothing else that throws such darkness over the line which separates right from wrong."—Id. "None need this purity and this simplicity of language and thought, more than does the instructor of a common school."—Id. "I know of no other periodical that is so valuable to the teacher, as the Annals of Education."—Id. "Are not these schools of the highest importance? Should not every individual feel a deep interest in their character and condition?"—Id. "If instruction were made a liberal profession, teachers would feel more sympathy for one an other."—Id. "Nothing is more interesting to children, than novelty, or change."—Id. "I know of no other labour which affords so much happiness as the teacher's."—Id. "Their school exercises are the most pleasant and agreeable duties, that they engage in."—Id. "I know of no exercise more beneficial to the pupil than that of drawing maps."—Id. "I know of nothing in which our district schools are more defective, than they are in the art of teaching grammar."—Id. "I know of no other branch of knowledge, so easily acquired as history."—Id. "I know of no other school exercise for which pupils usually have such an abhorrence, as for composition."—Id. "There is nothing belonging to our fellow-men, which we should respect more sacredly than their good name."—Id. "Surely, never any other creature was so unbred as that odious man."—Congreve cor. "In the dialogue between the mariner and the shade of the deceased."—Phil. Museum cor. "These master-works would still be less excellent and finished."—Id. "Every attempt to staylace the language of polished conversation, renders our phraseology inelegant and clumsy."—Id. "Here are a few of the most unpleasant words that ever blotted paper."—Shakespeare cor. "With the most easy and obliging transitions."—Broome cor. "Fear is, of all affections, the least apt to admit any conference with reason."—Hooker cor. "Most chymists think glass a body less destructible than gold itself."—Boyle cor. "To part with unhacked edges, and bear back our barge undinted."—Shak. cor. "Erasmus, who was an unbigoted Roman Catholic, was transported with this passage."—Addison cor. "There are no fewer than five words, with any of which the sentence might have terminated."—Campbell cor. "The ones preach Christ of contention; but the others, of love." Or, "The one party preach," &c.—Bible cor. "Hence we find less discontent and fewer heart-burnings, than where the subjects are unequally burdened."—H. Home, Ld. Kames, cor.

   "The serpent, subtlest beast of all the field."
        —Milton, P. L., B. ix, l. 86.

    "Thee, Serpent, subtlest beast of all the field,
    I knew, but not with human voice indued."
        —Id., P. L., B. ix, l. 560.

    "How much more grievous would our lives appear.
    To reach th' eight-hundredth, than the eightieth year!"
        —Denham cor.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"Brutus engaged with Aruns; and so fierce was the attack, that they pierced each other at the same time."—Lempriere cor. "Her two brothers were, one after the other, turned into stone."—Kames cor. "Nouns are often used as adjectives; as, A gold ring, a silver cup."—Lennie cor. "Fire and water destroy each other"—Wanostrocht cor. "Two negatives, in English, destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative."—Lowth, Murray, et al. cor. "Two negatives destroy each other, and are generally equivalent to an affirmative."—Kirkham and Felton cor. "Two negatives destroy each other, and make an affirmative."—Flint cor. "Two negatives destroy each other, being equivalent to an affirmative."—Frost cor. "Two objects, resembling each other, are presented to the imagination."—Parker cor. "Mankind, in order to hold converse with one an other, found it necessary to give names to objects."—Kirkham cor. "Derivative words are formed from their primitives in various ways."—Cooper cor. "There are many different ways of deriving words one from an other."—Murray cor. "When several verbs have a joint construction in a sentence, the auxiliary is usually expressed with the first only."—Frost cor. "Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and coming in immediate succession, are also separated by the comma."—Murray et al. cor. "Two or more adverbs, coming in immediate succession, must be separated by the comma."—Iidem. "If, however, the two members are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary."—Iidem. "Gratitude, when exerted towards others, naturally produces a very pleasing sensation in the mind of a generous man."—L. Murray cor. "Several verbs in the infinitive mood, coming in succession, and having a common dependence, are also divided by commas."—Comly cor. "The several words of which it consists, have so near a relation one to an other."—Murray et al. cor. "When two or more verbs, or two or more adverbs,[528] occur in immediate succession, and have a common dependence, they must be separated by the comma."—Comly cor. "One noun frequently follows an other, both meaning the same thing."—Sanborn cor. "And these two tenses may thus answer each other."—R. Johnson cor. "Or some other relation which two objects bear to each other."—Jamieson cor. "That the heathens tolerated one an other is allowed."—A. Fuller cor. "And yet these two persons love each other tenderly."—E. Reader cor. "In the six hundred and first year."—Bible cor. "Nor is this arguing of his, any thing but a reiterated clamour."—Barclay cor. "In several of them the inward life of Christianity is to be found."—Ib. "Though Alvarez, Despauter, and others, do not allow it to be plural."—R. Johnson cor. "Even the most dissipated and shameless blushed at the sight."—Lempriere cor. "We feel a higher satisfaction in surveying the life of animals, than [in contemplating] that of vegetables."— Jamieson cor. "But this man is so full-fraught with malice."—Barclay cor. "That I suggest some things concerning the most proper means."—Dr. Blair cor.

   "So, hand in hand, they passed, the loveliest pair
    That ever yet in love's embraces met."—Milton cor.

    "Aim at supremacy; without such height,
    Will be for thee no sitting, or not long."—Id. cor.

CHAPTER V.—PRONOUNS.

CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS AND USES OF PRONOUNS.

LESSON I.—RELATIVES.

"While we attend to this pause, every appearance of singsong must be carefully avoided."—Murray cor. "For thou shalt go to all to whom I shall send thee."—Bible cor. "Ah! how happy would it have been for me, had I spent in retirement these twenty-three years during which I have possessed my kingdom."—Sanborn cor. "In the same manner in which relative pronouns and their antecedents are usually parsed."—Id. "Parse or explain all the other nouns contained in the examples, after the very manner of the word which is parsed for you."—Id. "The passive verb will always have the person and number that belong to the verb be, of which it is in part composed."—Id. "You have been taught that a verb must always agree in person and number with it subject or nominative."—Id. "A relative pronoun, also, must always agree in person, in number, and even in gender, with its antecedent."—Id. "The answer always agrees in case with the pronoun which asks the question."—Id. "One sometimes represents an antecedent noun, in the definite manner of a personal pronoun." [529]—Id. "The mind, being carried forward to the time at which the event is to happen, easily conceives it to be present." "SAVE and SAVING are [seldom to be] parsed in the manner in which EXCEPT and EXCEPTING are [commonly explained]."—Id. "Adverbs qualify verbs, or modify their meaning, as adjectives qualify nouns [and describe things.]"—Id. "The third person singular of verbs, terminates in s or es, like the plural number of nouns."—Id. "He saith further: that, 'The apostles did not baptize anew such persons as had been baptized with the baptism of John.'"—Barclay cor. "For we who live,"—or, "For we that are alive, are always delivered unto death for Jesus' sake."—Bible cor. "For they who believe in God, must be careful to maintain good works."—Barclay cor. "Nor yet of those who teach things that they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."—Id. "So as to hold such bound in heaven as they bind on earth, and such loosed in heaven as they loose on earth."—Id. "Now, if it be an evil, to do any thing out of strife; then such things as are seen so to be done, are they not to be avoided and forsaken?"—Id. "All such as do not satisfy themselves with the superfices of religion."—Id. "And he is the same in substance, that he was upon earth,—the same in spirit, soul, and body."—Id. "And those that do not thus, are such, as the Church of Rome can have no charity for." Or: "And those that do not thus, are persons toward whom the Church of Rome can have no charity."—Id. "Before his book, he places a great list of what he accounts the blasphemous assertions of the Quakers."—Id. "And this is what he should have proved."—Id. "Three of whom were at that time actual students of philosophy in the university."—Id. "Therefore it is not lawful for any whomsoever * * * to force the consciences of others."—Id. "Why were the former days better than these?"—Bible cor. "In the same manner in which"—or, better, "Just as—the term my depends on the name books."—Peirce cor. "Just as the term HOUSE depends on the [preposition to, understood after the adjective] NEAR."—Id. "James died on the day on which Henry returned."—Id.

LESSON II.—DECLENSIONS.

"OTHER makes the plural OTHERS, when it is found without its substantive."—Priestley cor. "But his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, have evidently the form of the possessive case."—Lowth cor. "To the Saxon possessive cases, hire, ure, eower, hira, (that is, hers, ours, yours, theirs,) we have added the s, the characteristic of the possessive case of nouns."—Id. "Upon the name of Jesus Christ our Lord, both theirs and ours."—Friends cor. "In this place, His is clearly preferable either to Her or to Its."—Harris cor. "That roguish leer of yours makes a pretty woman's heart ache."—Addison cor. "Lest by any means this liberty of yours become a stumbling-block."—Bible cor. "First person: Sing. I, my or mine, me; Plur. we, our or ours, us."—Wilbur and Livingston cor. "Second person: Sing, thou, thy or thine, thee; Plur. ye or you, your or yours, you."—Iid. "Third person: Sing, she, her or hers, her; Plur. they, their or theirs, them."—Iid. "So shall ye serve strangers in a land that is not yours."—ALGER, BRUCE, ET AL.; Jer., v, 19. "Second person, Singular: Nom. thou, Poss. thy or thine, Obj. thee."—Frost cor. "Second person, Dual; Nom. Gyt, ye two; Gen. Incer, of you two; Dat. Inc, incrum, to you two; Acc. Inc, you two; Voc. Eala inc, O ye two; Abl. Inc, incrum, from you two."—Gwilt cor. "Second person, Plural: Nom. Ge, ye; Gen. Eower, of you; Dat. Eow, to you; Acc. Eow, you; Voc Eala ge, O ye; Abl. Eow, from you."—Id. "These words are, mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, and whose."—Cardell cor. "This house is ours, and that is yours. Theirs is very commodious."—Murray's Gram., p. 55. "And they shall eat up thy harvest, and thy bread; they shall eat up thy flocks and thy herds."—Bible cor. "Whoever and Whichever are thus declined: Sing. Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever; Plur. Nom. whoever, Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever. Sing. Nom. whichever, Poss. (wanting,) Obj. whichever; Plur. Nom. whichever, Poss. (wanting,) Obj. whichever."—Cooper cor. "The compound personal pronouns are thus declined: Sing. Nom. myself, Poss. (wanting,) Obj. myself; Plur. Nom. ourselves, Poss. (wanting,) Obj. ourselves. Sing. Nom. thyself or yourself, Poss. (wanting,) Obj. thyself, &c."—Perley cor. "Every one of us, each for himself, laboured to recover him."—Sidney cor. "Unless when ideas of their opposites manifestly suggest themselves."—Wright cor. "It not only exists in time, but is itself time." "A position which the action itself will palpably confute."—Id. "A difficulty sometimes presents itself."—Id. "They are sometimes explanations in themselves."—Id. "Ours, Yours, Theirs, Hers, Its."—Barrett cor.

   "Theirs, the wild chase of false felicities;
    His, the composed possession of the true."
        —Young, N. Th., N. viii, l. 1100.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"It is the boast of Americans, without distinction of parties, that their government is the most free and perfect that exists on the earth."—Dr. Allen cor. "Children that are dutiful to their parents, enjoy great prosperity."—Sanborn cor. "The scholar that improves his time, sets an example worthy of imitation."—Id. "Nouns and pronouns that signify the same person, place, or thing, agree in case."—Cooper cor. "An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question."—Id. "In the use of words and phrases that in point of time relate to each other, the order of time should be duly regarded."—Id. "The same observations that show the effect of the article upon the participle, appear to be applicable [also] to the pronoun and participle."—Murray cor. "The reason why they have not the same use of them in reading, may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method in which the art of reading is taught."—Id. "Ever since reason began to exert her powers, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in every breast, without a moment's suspension or pause."—Id. et al. cor. "In speaking of such as greatly delight in the same."—Pope cor. "Except him to whom the king shall hold out the golden sceptre, that he may live."—Bible cor. "But the same day on which Lot went out of Sodom, it rained fire and brimstone from heaven, and destroyed them all."—Bible cor. "In the next place, I will explain several constructions of nouns and pronouns, that have not yet come under our notice."—Kirkham cor. "Three natural distinctions of time are all that can exist."—Hall cor. "We have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct; and these seem to be sufficient, and not more than sufficient."—Murray et al. cor. "The parenthesis encloses a phrase or clause that may be omitted without materially injuring the connexion of the other members."—Hall cor. "Consonants are letters that cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."—Bucke cor. "Words are not mere sounds, but sounds that convey a meaning to the mind."—Id. "Nature's postures are always easy; and, what is more, nothing but your own will can put you out of them."—Collier cor. "Therefore ought we to examine our own selves, and prove our own selves."—Barclay cor. "Certainly, it had been much more natural, to have divided Active verbs into Immanent, or those whose action is terminated within itself, and Transient, or those whose action is terminated in something without itself."—R. Johnson cor. "This is such an advantage as no other lexicon will afford."—Dr. Taylor cor. "For these reasons, such liberties are taken in the Hebrew tongue, with those words which are of the most general and frequent use."—Pike cor. "While we object to the laws which the antiquarian in language would impose on us, we must also enter our protest against those authors who are too fond of innovations."—L. Murray cor.

CHAPTER VI.—VERBS.

CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF VERBS.

LESSON I.—PRETERITS.

"In speaking on a matter which touched their hearts."—Phil. Museum cor. "Though Horace published it some time after."—Id. "The best subjects with which the Greek models furnished him."—Id. "Since he attached no thought to it."—Id. "By what slow steps the Greek alphabet reached its perfection."—Id. "Because Goethe wished to erect an affectionate memorial."—Id. "But the Saxon forms soon dropped away."—Id. "It speaks of all the towns that perished in the age of Philip."—Id. "This enriched the written language with new words."—Id. "He merely furnished his friend with matter for laughter."—Id. "A cloud arose, and stopped the light."—Swift cor. "She slipped spadillo in her breast."—Id. "I guessed the hand."—Id. "The tyrant stripped me to the skin; My skin he flayed, my hair he cropped; At head and foot my body lopped."—Id. "I see the greatest owls in you, That ever screeched or ever flew."—Id. "I sat with delight, From morning till night."—Id. "Dick nimbly skipped the gutter."—Id. "In at the pantry door this morn I slipped."—Id." Nobody living ever touched me, but you."—W. Walker cor. "Present, I ship; Preterit, I shipped; Perf. Participle, shipped."—A. Murray cor. "Then the king arose, and tore his garments."—Bible cor. "When he lifted up his foot, he knew not where he should set it next."—Bunyan cor. "He lifted up his spear against eight hundred, whom he slew at one time."—Bible cor. "Upon this chaos rode the distressed ark."—Burnet cor. "On whose foolish honesty, my practices rode easy."—Shakspeare cor. "That form of the first or primogenial Earth, which rose immediately out of chaos."—Burnet cor. "Sir, how came it, you have helped to make this rescue?"—Shak. cor. "He swore he would rather lose all his father's images, than that table."—Peacham cor. "When our language dropped its ancient terminations."—Dr. Murray cor. "When themselves they vilified."—Milton cor. "But I chose rather to do thus."—Barclay cor. "When he pleaded (or pled) against the parsons."—Hist. cor. "And he that saw it, bore record." Or: "And he that saw it, bare record."—John, xix, 35. "An irregular verb has one more variation; as, drive, drivest, [driveth,] drives, drove, drovest, driving, driven."—Matt. Harrison cor. "Beside that village, Hannibal pitched his camp."—W. Walker cor. "He fetched it from Tmolus."—Id. "He supped with his morning-gown on."—Id. "There stamped her sacred name."—Barlow cor.

"Fix'd[530] on the view the great discoverer stood; And thus address'd the messenger of good."—Barlow cor.

LESSON II.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"Three freemen were on trial"—or, "were receiving their trial—at the date of our last information."—Editor cor. "While the house was building, many of the tribe arrived."—Cox cor. "But a foundation has been laid in Zion, and the church is built—(or, continues to be built—) upon it."—The Friend cor. "And one fourth of the people are receiving education."—E. I. Mag. cor. "The present [tense,] or that [form of the verb] which [expresses what] is now doing."—Beck cor. "A new church, called the Pantheon, is about being completed, in an expensive style."—Thompson cor. "When I last saw him, he had grown considerably."—Murray cor. "I know what a rugged and dangerous path I have got into."—Duncan cor. "You might as well preach ease to one on the rack."—Locke cor. "Thou hast heard me, and hast become my salvation."—Bible cor. "While the Elementary Spelling-Book was preparing (or, was in progress of preparation) for the press."—Cobb cor. "Language has become, in modern times, more correct."—Jamieson cor. "If the plan has been executed in any measure answerable to the author's wishes."—Robbins cor. "The vial of wrath is still pouring out on the seat of the beast."—Christian Ex. cor. "Christianity had become the generally-adopted and established religion of the whole Roman Empire."—Gurney cor. "Who wrote before the first century had elapsed."—Id. "The original and analogical form has grown quite obsolete."—Lowth cor. "Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, have perished."—Murray cor. "The poems had got abroad, and were in a great many hands."—Waller cor. "It is more harmonious, as well as more correct, to say, 'The bubble is ready to burst.'"—Cobbett cor. "I drove my suitor from his mad humour of love."—Shak. cor. "Se viriliter expedivit."—Cic. "He has played the man."—Walker cor. "Wilt thou kill me, as thou didst the Egyptian yesterday?"—Bible cor. "And we, methought, [or thought I] looked up to him from our hill"—Cowley cor. "I fear thou dost not think so much of the best things as thou ought."—Memoir cor. "When this work was commenced."—Wright cor. "Exercises and a Key to this work are about being prepared."—Id. "James is loved by John."—Id. "Or that which is exhibited."—Id. "He was smitten."—Id. "In the passive voice we say, 'I am loved.'"—Id. "Subjunctive Mood: If I be smitten, If thou be smitten, If he be smitten."—Id. "I shall not be able to convince you how superficial the reformation is."—Chalmers cor. "I said to myself, I shall be obliged to expose the folly."—Chazotte cor. "When Clodius, had he meant to return that day to Rome, must have arrived."—J. Q. Adams cor. "That the fact has been done, is doing, or will be done."—Peirce cor. "Am I to be instructed?"—Wright cor. "I choose him."—Id. "John, who respected his father, was obedient to his commands."—Barrett cor.

"The region echoes to the clash of arms."—Beattie cor.

    "And sitst on high, and mak'st creation's top
    Thy footstool; and beholdst below thee—all."—Pollok cor.

    "And see if thou canst punish sin and let
    Mankind go free. Thou failst—be not surprised."—Idem.

LESSON III—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"What follows, might better have been wanting altogether."—Dr. Blair cor. "This member of the sentence might much better have been omitted altogether."—Id. "One or the other of them, therefore, might better have been omitted."—Id. "The whole of this last member of the sentence might better have been dropped."—Id. "In this case, they might much better be omitted."—Id. "He might better have said 'the productions.'"—Id. "The Greeks ascribed the origin of poetry to Orpheus, Linus, and Musæus."—Id. "It was noticed long ago, that all these fictitious names have the same number of syllables."—Phil. Museum cor. "When I found that he had committed nothing worthy of death, I determined to send him."—Bible cor. "I would rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God."—Id. "As for such, I wish the Lord would open their eyes." Or, better: "May the Lord open (or, I pray the Lord to open) their eyes."—Barclay cor. "It would have made our passage over the river very difficult."—Walley cor. "We should not have been able to carry our great guns."—Id. "Others would have questioned our prudence, if we had."—Id. "Beware thou be not BECÆSARED; i.e., Beware that thou do not dwindle—or, lest thou dwindle—into a mere Cæsar."—Harris cor. "Thou raisedst (or, familiarly, thou raised) thy voice to record the stratagems of needy heroes."—Arbuthnot cor. "Life hurries off apace; thine is almost gone already."—Collier cor. "'How unfortunate has this accident made me!' cries such a one."—Id. "The muse that soft and sickly woos the ear."—Pollok cor. "A man might better relate himself to a statue."—Bacon cor. "I heard thee say but now, thou liked not that."—Shak. cor. "In my whole course of wooing, thou criedst, (or, familiarly, thou cried,) Indeed!"—Id. "But our ears have grown familiar with 'I have wrote, 'I have drank,' &c., which are altogether as ungrammatical."—Lowth et al. cor. "The court was in session before Sir Roger came"—Addison cor. "She needs—(or, if you please, need,—) be no more with the jaundice possessed"—Swift cor. "Besides, you found fault with our victuals one day when you were here."—Id. "If spirit of other sort, So minded, hath (or has) o'erleaped these earthy bounds."—Milton cor. "It would have been more rational to have forborne this."—Barclay cor. "A student is not master of it till he has seen all these."—Dr. Murray cor. "The said justice shall summon the party."—Brevard cor. "Now what has become of thy former wit and humour?"—Spect. cor. "Young stranger, whither wanderst thou?"—Burns cor. "SUBJ. Pres. If I love, If thou love, If he love. Imp. If I loved, If thou loved, If he loved."—Merchant cor. "SUBJ. If I do not love, If thou do not love, If he do not love."—Id. "If he has committed sins, they shall be forgiven him."—Bible cor. "Subjunctive Mood of the verb to call, second person singular: If thou call, (rarely, If thou do call,) If thou called."—Hiley cor. "Subjunctive Mood of the verb to love, second person singular: If thou love, (rarely, If thou do love,) If thou loved."—Bullions cor. "I was; thou wast; he, she, or it, was: We, you or ye, they, were."—White cor. "I taught, thou taughtest, (familiarly, thou taught,) he taught."— Coar cor. "We say, 'If it rain,' 'Suppose it rain?' 'Lest it rain,' 'Unless it rain.' This manner of speaking is called the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD."—Weld cor. "He has arrived at what is deemed the age of manhood."—Priestley cor. "He might much better have let it alone."—Tooke cor. "He were better without it. Or: He would be better without it."—Locke cor. "Hadst thou not been by. Or: If thou hadst not been by. Or, in the familiar style: Had not thou been by,"—Shak. cor. "I learned geography. Thou learned arithmetic. He learned grammar."—Fuller cor. "Till the sound has ceased."—Sheridan cor. "Present, die; Preterit, died; Perf. Participle, died."—Six English Grammars corrected.

   "Thou bow'dst thy glorious head to none, fear'dst none." Or:—
    "Thou bowed thy glorious head to none, feared none."
        —Pollok cor.

    "Thou lookst upon thy boy as though thou guess'd it."
        —Knowles cor.

    "As once thou slept, while she to life was formed."
        —Milton cor.

    "Who finds the partridge in the puttock's nest,
    But may imagine how the bird was killed?"
        —Shak. cor.

    "Which might have well become the best of men."
        —Idem cor.

CHAPTER VII.—PARTICIPLES.

CORRECTIONS IN THE FORMS OF PARTICIPLES.

LESSON I.—IRREGULARS.

"Many of your readers have mistaken that passage."—Steele cor. "Had not my dog of a steward run away."—Addison cor. "None should be admitted, except he had broken his collarbone thrice."—Id. "We could not know what was written at twenty."—Waller cor. "I have written, thou hast written, he has written; we have written, you have written, they have written."—Ash cor. "As if God had spoken his last words there to his people."—Barclay cor. "I had like to have come in that ship myself."—Observer cor. "Our ships and vessels being driven out of the harbour by a storm."—Hutchinson cor. "He will endeavour to write as the ancient author would have written, had he written in the same language."—Bolingbroke cor. "When his doctrines grew too strong to be shaken by his enemies."—Atterbury cor. "The immortal mind that hath forsaken her mansion."—Milton cor. "Grease that's sweated (or sweat) from the murderer's gibbet, throw into the flame."—Shak. cor. "The court also was chidden (or chid) for allowing such questions to be put."—Stone cor. "He would have spoken."—Milton cor. "Words interwoven (or interweaved) with sighs found out their way."—Id. "Those kings and potentates who have strived (or striven.)"—Id. "That even Silence was taken."—Id. "And envious Darkness, ere they could return, had stolen them from me."—Id. "I have chosen this perfect man."—Id. "I shall scarcely think you have swum in a gondola."—Shak. cor. "The fragrant brier was woven (or weaved) between."—Dryden cor. "Then finish what you have begun."—Id. "But now the years a numerous train have run."—Pope cor. "Repeats your verses written (or writ) on glasses."—Prior cor. "Who by turns have risen."—Id. "Which from great authors I have taken."—Id. "Even there he should have fallen."—Id.

   "The sun has ris'n, and gone to bed.
    Just as if Partridge were not dead."—Swift cor.

    "And, though no marriage words are spoken,
    They part not till the ring is broken."—Swift cor.

LESSON II.—REGULARS.

"When the word is stripped of all the terminations."—Dr. Murray cor. "Forgive him, Tom; his head is cracked."—Swift cor. "For 'tis the sport, to have the engineer hoised (or hoisted) with his own petar."—Shak. cor. "As great as they are, I was nursed by their mother."—Swift cor. "If he should now be cried down since his change."—Id. "Dipped over head and ears—in debt."—Id. "We see the nation's credit cracked."—Id. "Because they find their pockets picked."—Id. "O what a pleasure mixed with pain!"—Id. "And only with her brother linked."—Id. "Because he ne'er a thought allowed, That might not be confessed."—Id. "My love to Sheelah is more firmly fixed."—Id. "The observations annexed to them will be intelligible."—Phil. Mus. cor. "Those eyes are always fixed on the general principles."—Id. "Laborious conjectures will be banished from our commentaries."—Id. "Tiridates was dethroned, and Phraates was reestablished, in his stead."—Id. "A Roman who was attached to Augustus."—Id. "Nor should I have spoken of it, unless Baxter had talked about two such."—Id. "And the reformers of language have generally rushed on."—Id. "Three centuries and a half had then elapsed since the date,"—Ib. "Of such criteria, as has been remarked already, there is an abundance."—Id. "The English have surpassed every other nation in their services."—Id. "The party addressed is next in dignity to the speaker."—Harris cor. "To which we are many times helped."—W. Walker cor. "But for him, I should have looked well enough to myself."—Id. "Why are you vexed, Lady? why do frown?"—Milton cor. "Obtruding false rules pranked in reason's garb."—Id. "But, like David equipped in Saul's armour, it is encumbered and oppressed."—Campbell cor.

   "And when their merchants are blown up, and cracked,
    Whole towns are cast away in storms, and wrecked."—Butler cor.

LESSON III.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"The lands are held in free and common soccage."—Trumbull cor. "A stroke is drawn under such words."—Cobbett's Gr., 1st Ed. "It is struck even, with a strickle."—W. Walker cor. "Whilst I was wandering, without any care, beyond my bounds."—Id. "When one would do something, unless hindered by something present."—B. Johnson cor. "It is used potentially, but not so as to be rendered by these signs."—Id. "Now who would dote upon things hurried down the stream thus fast?"—Collier cor. "Heaven hath timely tried their growth."—Milton cor. "O! ye mistook, ye should have snatched his wand."—Id. "Of true virgin here distressed."—Id. "So that they have at last come to be substituted in the stead of it."—Barclay cor. "Though ye have lain among the pots."—Bible cor. "And, lo! in her mouth was an olive leaf plucked off."—Scott's Bible, and Alger's. "Brutus and Cassius Have ridden, (or rode,) like madmen, through the gates of Rome."—Shak. cor. "He shall be spit upon."—Bible cor. "And are not the countries so overflowed still situated between the tropics?"—Bentley. "Not tricked and frounced as she was wont, But kerchiefed in a comely cloud."—Milton cor. "To satisfy his rigour, Satisfied never."—Id. "With him there crucified."—Id. "Th' earth cumbered, and the wing'd air darked with plumes."—Id. "And now their way to Earth they had descried."—Id. "Not so thick swarmed once the soil Bedropped with blood of Gorgon."—Id. "And in a troubled sea of passion tossed."—Id. "The cause, alas! is quickly guessed."—Swift cor. "The kettle to the top was hoised, or hoisted."—Id. "In chains thy syllables are linked."—Id. "Rather than thus be overtopped, Would you not wish their laurels cropped."—Id. "The HYPHEN, or CONJOINER, is a little line drawn to connect words, or parts of words."—Cobbett cor. "In the other manners of dependence, this general rule is sometimes broken."—R. Johnson cor. "Some intransitive verbs may be rendered transitive by means of a preposition prefixed to them."—Grant cor. "Whoever now should place the accent on the first syllable of Valerius, would set every body a laughing."—J. Walker cor. "Being mocked, scourged, spit upon, and crucified."—Gurney cor.

   "For rhyme in Greece or Rome was never known,
    Till barb'rous hordes those states had overthrown."—Roscommon cor.

    "In my own Thames may I be drowned,
    If e'er I stoop beneath the crowned." Or thus:—
    "In my own Thames may I be drown'd dead,
    If e'er I stoop beneath a crown'd head."—Swift cor.

CHAPTER VIII.—ADVERBS.

CORRECTIONS RESPECTING THE FORMS OF ADVERBS.

"We can much more easily form the conception of a fierce combat."—Blair corrected. "When he was restored agreeably to the treaty, he was a perfect savage."—Webster cor. "How I shall acquit myself suitably to the importance of the trial."—Duncan cor. "Can any thing show your Holiness how unworthily you treat mankind?"—Spect. cor. "In what other, consistently with reason and common sense, can you go about to explain it to him?"—Lowth cor. "Agreeably to this rule, the short vowel Sheva has two characters."—Wilson cor. "We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure."—See Blair's Rhet., p. 156. "All of which is most abominably false."—Barclay cor. "He heaped up great riches, but passed his time miserably."—Murray cor. "He is never satisfied with expressing any thing clearly and simply."—Dr. Blair cor. "Attentive only to exhibit his ideas clearly and exactly, he appears dry."—Id. "Such words as have the most liquids and vowels, glide the most softly." Or: "Where liquids and vowels most abound, the utterance is softest."—Id. "The simplest points, such as are most easily apprehended."—Id. "Too historical to be accounted a perfectly regular epic poem."—Id. "Putting after them the oblique case, agreeably to the French construction."—Priestley cor. "Where the train proceeds with an extremely slow pace."—Kames cor. "So as scarcely to give an appearance of succession."—Id. "That concord between sound and sense, which is perceived in some expressions, independently of artful pronunciation."—Id. "Cornaro had become very corpulent, previously to the adoption of his temperate habits."—Hitchcock cor. "Bread, which is a solid, and tolerably hard, substance."—Day cor. "To command every body that was not dressed as finely as himself."—Id. "Many of them have scarcely outlived their authors."—J. Ward cor. "Their labour, indeed, did not penetrate very deeply."—Wilson cor. "The people are miserably poor, and subsist on fish."—Hume cor. "A scale, which I took great pains, some years ago, to make."—Bucke cor. "There is no truth on earth better established than the truth of the Bible."—Taylor cor. "I know of no work more wanted than the one which Mr. Taylor has now furnished."—Dr. Nott cor. "And therefore their requests are unfrequent and reasonable."—Taylor cor. "Questions are more easily proposed, than answered rightly."—Dillwyn cor. "Often reflect on the advantages you possess, and on the source from which they are all derived."—Murray cor. "If there be no special rule which requires it to be put further forward."—Milnes cor. "The masculine and the neuter have the same dialect in all the numbers, especially when they end alike."—Id.

   "And children are more busy in their play
    Than those that wiseliest pass their time away."—Butler cor.

CHAPTER IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"A Verb is so called from the Latin verbum, a word."—Bucke cor. "References are often marked by letters or figures."—Adam and Gould cor. (1.) "A Conjunction is a word which joins words or sentences together."—Lennie, Bullions and Brace, cor. (2.) "A Conjunction is used to connect words or sentences together."—R. C. Smith cor. (3.) "A Conjunction is used to connect words or sentences."—Maunder cor. (4.) "Conjunctions are words used to join words or sentences."—Wilcox cor. (5.) "A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences."—M'Culloch, Hart, and Day, cor. (6.) "A Conjunction joins words or sentences together."—Macintosh and Hiley cor. (7.) "The Conjunction joins words or sentences together."—L. Murray cor. (8.) "Conjunctions connect words or sentences to each other."—Wright cor. (9.) "Conjunctions connect words or sentences."—Wells and Wilcox cor. (10.) "The conjunction is a part of speech, used to connect words or sentences."—Weld cor. (11.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences together."—Fowler cor. (12.) "Connectives are particles that unite words or sentences in construction."—Webster cor. "English Grammar is miserably taught in our district schools; the teachers know little or nothing about it."—J. O. Taylor cor. "Lest, instead of preventing diseases, you draw them on."—Locke cor. "The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree."—Murray et al. cor. "When nouns naturally neuter are assumed to be masculine or feminine."—Murray cor. "This form of the perfect tense represents an action as completely past, though often as done at no great distance of time, or at a time not specified."—Id. "The Copulative Conjunction serves to connect words or clauses, so as to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, or a consequence."—Id. "The Disjunctive Conjunction serves, not only to continue a sentence by connecting its parts, but also to express opposition of meaning, either real or nominal."—Id. "If we open the volumes of our divines, philosophers, historians, or artists, we shall find that they abound with all the terms necessary to communicate the observations and discoveries of their authors."—Id. "When a disjunctive conjunction occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun or pronoun."—Murray et al. cor. "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, or the nouns for which they stand, in gender and number."—Murray cor. "Neuter verbs do not express action, and consequently do not govern nouns or pronouns."—Id. "And the auxiliary of the past imperfect as well as of the present tense."—Id. "If this rule should not appear to apply to every example that has been produced, or to others which might be cited."—Id. "An emphatical pause is made, after something of peculiar moment has been said, on which we desire to fix the hearer's attention."—Murray and Hart cor. "An imperfect[531] phrase contains no assertion, and does not amount to a proposition, or sentence."—Murray cor. "The word was in the mouth of every one, yet its meaning may still be a secret."—Id. "This word was in the mouth of every one, and yet, as to its precise and definite idea, this may still be a secret,"—Harris cor. "It cannot be otherwise, because the French prosody differs from that of every other European language."—Smollet cor. "So gradually that it may be engrafted on a subtonic."—Rush cor. "Where the Chelsea and Malden bridges now are." Or better: "Where the Chelsea or the Malden bridge now is."—Judge Parker cor. "Adverbs are words added to verbs, to participles, to adjectives, or to other adverbs."—R. C. Smith cor. "I could not have told you who the hermit was, or on what mountain he lived."—Bucke cor. "AM and BE (for they are the same verb) naturally, or in themselves, signify being."—Brightland cor. "Words are signs, either oral or written, by which we express our thoughts, or ideas."—Mrs. Bethune cor. "His fears will detect him, that he shall not escape."—Comly cor. "Whose is equally applicable to persons and to things"—Webster cor. "One negative destroys an other, so that two are equivalent to an affirmative."—Bullions cor.

"No sooner does he peep into the world, Than he has done his do."—Hudibras cor.

CHAPTER X.—PREPOSITIONS.

CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS.

"Nouns are often formed from participles."—L. Murray corrected. "What tenses are formed from the perfect participle?"—Ingersoll cor. "Which tense is formed from the present, or root of the verb?"—Id. "When a noun or a pronoun is placed before a participle, independently of the rest of the sentence."—Churchill's Gram., p. 348. "If the addition consists of two or more words."—Mur. et al. cor. "The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently of the rest of the sentence."—Lowth's Gram., 80; Churchill's, 143; Bucke's, 96; Merchant's, 92. "For the great satisfaction of the reader, we shall present a variety of false constructions."—Murray cor. "For your satisfaction, I shall present you a variety of false constructions."— Ingersoll cor. "I shall here present [to] you a scale of derivation."— Bucke cor. "These two manners of representation in respect to number."—Lowth and Churchill cor. "There are certain adjectives which seem to be derived from verbs, without any variation."—Lowth cor. "Or disqualify us for receiving instruction or reproof from others."—Murray cor. "For being more studious than any other pupil in the school."— Id. "Misunderstanding the directions, we lost our way."—Id. "These people reduced the greater part of the island under their own power."— Id. "The principal accent distinguishes one syllable of a word from the rest."—Id. "Just numbers are in unison with the human mind."—Id. "We must accept of sound in stead of sense."—Id. "Also, in stead of consultation, he uses consult."—Priestley cor. "This ablative seems to be governed by a preposition understood."—W. Walker cor. "Lest my father hear of it, by some means or other."—Id. "And, besides, my wife would hear of it by some means."—Id. "For insisting on a requisition so odious to them."—Robertson cor. "Based on the great self-evident truths of liberty and equality."—Manual cor. "Very little knowledge of their nature is acquired from the spelling-book."—Murray cor. "They do not cut it off: except from a few words; as, due, duly, &c."—Id. "Whether passing at such time, or then finished."—Lowth cor. "It hath disgusted hundreds with that confession."—Barclay cor. "But they have egregiously fallen into that inconveniency."—Id. "For is not this, to set nature at work?"—Id. "And, surely, that which should set all its springs at work, is God."—Atterbury cor. "He could not end his treatise without a panegyrie on modern learning."—Temple cor. "These are entirely independent of the modulation of the voice."—J. Walker cor. "It is dear at a penny. It is cheap at twenty pounds."—W. Walker cor. "It will be despatched, on most occasions, without resting."—Locke cor. "Oh the pain, the bliss of dying!"—Pope. "When the objects or the facts are presented to him."—R. C. Smith cor. "I will now present you a synopsis."—Id. "The disjunctive conjunction connects words or sentences, and suggests an opposition of meaning, more or less direct."—Id. "I shall now present to you a few lines."—Bucke cor. "Common names, or substantives, are those which stand for things assorted."—Id. "Adjectives, in the English language, are not varied by genders, numbers, or cases; their only inflection is for the degrees of comparison."—Id. "Participles are [little more than] adjectives formed from verbs."—Id. "I do love to walk out on a fine summer evening."—Id. "Ellipsis, when applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of one or more words of a sentence."—Merchant cor. "The preposition to is generally required before verbs in the infinitive mood, but after the following verbs it is properly omitted; namely, bid, dare, feel, need, let, make, hear, see: as, 'He bid me do it;' not, 'He bid me to do it.'"—Id. "The infinitive sometimes follows than, for the latter term of a comparison; as, ['Murray should have known better than to write, and Merchant, better than to copy, the text here corrected, or the ambiguous example they appended to it.']"—Id. "Or, by prefixing the adverb more or less, for the comparative, and most or least, for the superlative."—Id. "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun."—Id. "From monosyllables, the comparative is regularly formed by adding r or er."—Perley cor. "He has particularly named these, in distinction from others."—Harris cor. "To revive the decaying taste for ancient literature."—Id. "He found the greatest difficulty in writing."—Hume cor.

   "And the tear, that is wiped with a little address,
    May be followed perhaps by a smile."—Cowper, i, 216.

CHAPTER XI.—INTERJECTIONS.

CORRECTIONS IN THE USE OF INTERJECTIONS.

"Of chance or change, O let not man complain."—Beattie's Minstrel, B. ii, l. 1. "O thou persecutor! O ye hypocrites!"—Russell's Gram., p. 92. "O thou my voice inspire, Who touch'd Isaiah's hallow'd lips with fire!"—Pope's Messiah. "O happy we! surrounded by so many blessings!"—Merchant cor. "O thou who art so unmindful of thy duty!"—Id. "If I am wrong, O teach my heart To find that better way."—Murray's Reader, p. 248. "Heus! evocate huc Davum."—Ter. "Ho! call Davus out hither."—W. Walker cor. "It was represented by an analogy (O how inadequate!) which was borrowed from the ceremonies of paganism."—Murray cor. "O that Ishmael might live before thee!"—Friends' Bible, and Scott's. "And he said unto him, O let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak."—Alger's Bible, and Scott's. "And he said, O let not the Lord be angry."—Alger; Gen., xviii. 32. "O my Lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word."—Scott's Bible. "O Virtue! how amiable thou art!"—Murray's Gram., p. 128. "Alas! I fear for life."—See Ib. "Ah me! they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain!"—See Bucke's Gram., p. 87. "O that I had digged myself a cave!"—Fletcher cor. "Oh, my good lord! thy comfort comes too late."—Shak. cor. "The vocative takes no article: it is distinguished thus: O Pedro! O Peter! O Dios! O God!"—Bucke cor. "Oho! But, the relative is always the same."—Cobbett cor. "All-hail, ye happy men!"—Jaudon cor. "O that I had wings like a dove!'—Scott's Bible. "O glorious hope! O bless'd abode!"—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 304. "Welcome friends! how joyous is your presence!"—T. Smith cor. "O blissful days!—but, ah! how soon ye pass!"—Parker and Fox cor.

   "O golden days! O bright unvalued hours!—
    What bliss, did ye but know that bliss, were yours!"—Barbauld cor.

    "Ah me! what perils do environ
    The man that meddles with cold iron!"—Hudibras cor.

THE KEY.—PART III.—SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.—SENTENCES.

The first chapter of Syntax, being appropriated to general views of this part of grammar, to an exhibition of its leading doctrines, and to the several forms of sentential analysis, with an application of its principal rules in parsing, contains no false grammar for correction; and has, of course, nothing to correspond to it, in this Key, except the title, which is here inserted for form's sake.

CHAPTER II.—ARTICLES.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE I.

UNDER NOTE I.—AN OR A.

"I have seen a horrible thing in the house of Israel."—Bible cor. "There is a harshness in the following sentences."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 152. "Indeed, such a one is not to be looked for."—Dr. Blair cor. "If each of you will be disposed to approve himself a useful citizen."—Id. "Land with them had acquired almost a European value."—Webster cor. "He endeavoured to find out a wholesome remedy."—Neef cor. "At no time have we attended a yearly meeting more to our own satisfaction."—The Friend cor. "Addison was not a humorist in character."—Kames cor. "Ah me! what a one was he!"—Lily cor. "He was such a one as I never saw before"—Id. "No man can be a good preacher, who is not a useful one."—Dr. Blair cor. "A usage which is too frequent with Mr. Addison."—Id. "Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of a horse."—Locke cor. "A universality seems to be aimed at by the omission of the article."—Priestley cor. "Architecture is a useful as well as a fine art."—Kames cor. "Because the same individual conjunctions do not preserve a uniform signification."— Nutting cor. "Such a work required the patience and assiduity of a hermit."—Johnson cor. "Resentment is a union of sorrow with malignity."—Id. "His bravery, we know, was a high courage of blasphemy."—Pope cor. "HYSSOP; an herb of bitter taste."—Pike cor.

   "On each enervate string they taught the note
    To pant, or tremble through a eunuch's throat."—Pope cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—AN OR A WITH PLURALS.

"At a session of the court, in March, it was moved," &c.—Hutchinson cor. "I shall relate my conversations, of which I kept memoranda."—D. D'Ab. cor. "I took an other dictionary, and with a pair of scissors cut out, for instance, the word ABACUS."—A. B. Johnson cor. "A person very meet seemed he for the purpose, and about forty-five years old."—Gardiner cor. "And it came to pass, about eight days after these sayings."—Bible cor. "There were slain of them about three thousand men."—1 Macc. cor. "Until I had gained the top of these white mountains, which seemed other Alps of snow."—Addison cor. "To make them satisfactory amends for all the losses they had sustained."—Goldsmith cor. "As a first-fruit of many that shall be gathered."—Barclay cor. "It makes indeed a little amend, (or some amends,) by inciting us to oblige people."—Sheffield cor. "A large and lightsome back stairway (or flight of backstairs) leads up to an entry above."—Id. "Peace of mind is an abundant recompense for any sacrifices of interest."—Murray et al. cor. "With such a spirit, and such sentiments, were hostilities carried on."—Robertson cor. "In the midst of a thick wood, he had long lived a voluntary recluse."—G. B. "The flats look almost like a young forest."—Chronicle cor. "As we went on, the country for a little way improved, but scantily."—Freeman cor. "Whereby the Jews were permitted to return into their own country, after a captivity of seventy years at Babylon."—Rollin cor. "He did not go a great way into the country."—Gilbert cor.

   "A large amend by fortune's hand is made,
    And the lost Punic blood is well repay'd."—Rowe cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—NOUNS CONNECTED.

"As where a landscape is conjoined with the music of birds, and the odour of flowers."—Kames cor. "The last order resembles the second in the mildness of its accent, and the softness of its pause."—Id. "Before the use of the loadstone, or the knowledge of the compass."—Dryden cor. "The perfect participle and the imperfect tense ought not to be confounded."—Murray cor. "In proportion as the taste of a poet or an orator becomes more refined."—Blair cor. "A situation can never be more intricate, so long as there is an angel, a devil, or a musician, to lend a helping hand."—Kames cor. "Avoid rude sports: an eye is soon lost, or a bone broken."—Inst., p. 262. "Not a word was uttered, nor a sign given."—Ib. "I despise not the doer, but the deed."—Ib. "For the sake of an easier pronunciation and a more agreeable sound."—Lowth cor. "The levity as well as the loquacity of the Greeks made them incapable of keeping up the true standard of history."— Bolingbroke cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"It is proper that the vowels be a long and a short one."—Murray cor. "Whether the person mentioned was seen by the speaker a long or a short time before."—Id. et al. "There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter."—Adam cor. "The numbers are two; the singular and the plural."—Id. et al. "The persons are three; the first, the second, and the third."—Iidem. "Nouns and pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."— Comly and Ing. cor. "Verbs have five moods; namely, the infinitive, the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative."— Bullions et al. cor. "How many numbers have pronouns? Two, the singular and the plural."—Bradley cor. "To distinguish between an interrogative and an exclamatory sentence."—Murray et al. cor. "The first and the last of which are compound members."—Lowth cor. "In the last lecture, I treated of the concise and the diffuse, the nervous and the feeble manner."—Blair cor. "The passive and the neuter verbs I shall reserve for some future conversation."—Ingersoll cor. "There are two voices; the active and the passive."—Adam et al. cor. "WHOSE is rather the poetical than the regular genitive of WHICH."—Johnson cor. "To feel the force of a compound or a derivative word."—Town cor. "To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and the disjunctive conjunctions."—Murray et al. cor. "E has a long and a short sound in most languages."—Bicknell cor. "When the figurative and the literal sense are mixed and jumbled together."—Dr. Blair cor. "The Hebrew, with which the Canaanitish and the Phoenician stand in connexion."—Conant and Fowler cor. "The languages of Scandinavia proper, the Norwegian and the Swedish."—Fowler cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"The path of truth is a plain and safe path."—Murray cor. "Directions for acquiring a just and happy elocution."—Kirkham cor. "Its leading object is, to adopt a correct and easy method."—Id. "How can it choose but wither in a long and sharp winter?"—Cowley cor. "Into a dark and distant unknown."—Dr. Chalmers cor. "When the bold and strong enslaved his fellow man."—Chazotte cor. "We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and perfect sentence."—Murray cor. "And hence arises a second and very considerable source of the improvement of taste."—Dr. Blair cor. "Novelty produces in the mind a vivid and agreeable emotion."—Id. "The deepest and bitterest feeling still is that of the separation."—Dr. M'Rie cor. "A great and good man looks beyond time."—See Brown's Inst., p. 263. "They made but a weak and ineffectual resistance."—Ib. "The light and worthless kernels will float."—Ib. "I rejoice that there is an other and better world."—Ib. "For he is determined to revise his work, and present to the public an other and better edition."—Kirkham cor. "He hoped that this title would secure to him an ample and independent authority."—L. Murray cor. et al. "There is, however, an other and more limited sense."—J. Q. Adams cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—ARTICLES OR PLURALS.

"This distinction forms what are called the diffuse style and the concise."—Dr. Blair cor. "Two different modes of speaking, distinguished at first by the denominations of the Attic manner and the Asiatic."—Adams cor. "But the great design of uniting the Spanish and French monarchies under the former, was laid."—Bolingbroke cor. "In the solemn and poetic styles, it [do or did] is often rejected."—Allen cor. "They cannot be, at the same time, in both the objective case and the nominative." Or: "They cannot be, at the same time, in both the objective and the nominative case." Or: "They cannot be, at the same time, in the nominative case, and also in the objective." Or: "They cannot be, at the same time, in the nominative and objective cases."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 148. Or, better: "They cannot be, at the same time, in both cases, the nominative and the objective."—Murray et al. cor. "They are named the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees."—Smart cor. "Certain adverbs are capable of taking an inflection; namely, that of the comparative and superlative degrees."—Fowler cor. "In the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often carry with them a future sense."—Murray et al. cor. "The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first-future tense, of this mood, are conjugated like the same tenses of the indicative."—Kirkham bettered. "What rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third persons?"—Id. "Nouns are sometimes in the nominative or the objective case after the neuter verb be, or after an active-intransitive or a passive verb." "The verb varies its ending in the singular, in order to agree with its nominative, in the first, second, and third persons."—Id. "They are identical in effect with the radical and the vanishing stress."—Rush cor. "In a sonnet, the first, the fourth, the fifth, and the eighth line, usually rhyme to one an other: so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh lines; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth lines; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth lines."—Churchill cor. "The iron and golden ages are run; youth and manhood are departed."—Wright cor. "If, as you say, the iron and the golden age are past, the youth and the manhood of the world."—Id. "An Exposition of the Old and New Testaments."—Henry cor. "The names and order of the books of the Old and the New Testament."—Bible cor. "In the second and third persons of that tense."—Murray cor. "And who still unites in himself the human and the divine nature."—Gurney cor. "Among whom arose the Italian, Spanish, French, and English languages."—Murray cor. "Whence arise these two numbers, the singular and the plural."—Burn cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—CORRESPONDENT TERMS.

"Neither the definitions nor the examples are entirely the same as his."—Ward cor. "Because it makes a discordance between the thought and the expression."—Kames cor. "Between the adjective and the following substantive."—Id. "Thus Athens became both the repository and the nursery of learning."—Chazotte cor. "But the French pilfered from both the Greek and the Latin."—Id. "He shows that Christ is both the power and the wisdom of God."—The Friend cor. "That he might be Lord both of the dead and of the living."—Bible cor. "This is neither the obvious nor the grammatical meaning of his words."—Blair cor. "Sometimes both the accusative and the infinitive are understood."—Adam and Gould cor. "In some cases, we can use either the nominative or the accusative, promiscuously."—Iidem. "Both the former and the latter substantive are sometimes to be understood."—Iidem. "Many of which have escaped both the commentator and the poet himself."—Pope cor. "The verbs MUST and OUGHT, have both a present and a past signification."—L. Murray cor. "How shall we distinguish between the friends and the enemies of the government?"—Dr. Webster cor. "Both the ecclesiastical and the secular powers concurred in those measures."—Dr. Campbell cor. "As the period has a beginning and an end within itself, it implies an inflection."—J. Q. Adams cor. "Such as ought to subsist between a principal and an accessory."—Ld. Kames cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—CORRESPONDENCE PECULIAR.

"When both the upward and the downward slide occur in the sound of one syllable, they are called a CIRCUMFLEX, or WAVE."—Kirkham cor. "The word THAT is used both in the nominative and in the objective case."—Sanborn cor. "But in all the other moods and tenses, both of the active and of the passive voice [the verbs] are conjugated at large."—Murray cor. "Some writers on grammar, admitting the second-future tense into the indicative mood, reject it from the subjunctive."—Id. "After the same conjunction, to use both the indicative and the subjunctive mood in the same sentence, and under the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."—Id. "The true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative mood in this tense."—Id. "I doubt of his capacity to teach either the French or the English language."—Chazotte cor. "It is as necessary to make a distinction between the active-transitive and the active-intransitive verb, as between the active and the passive."—Nixon cor.

UNDER NOTE IX.—A SERIES OF TERMS.

"As comprehending the terms uttered by the artist, the mechanic, and the husbandman."—Chazotte cor. "They may be divided into four classes; the Humanists, the Philanthropists, the Pestalozzians, and the Productives."—Smith cor. "Verbs have six tenses; the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first-future, and the second-future."—Murray et al. cor. "Is it an irregular neuter verb [from be, was, being, been; found in] the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number."—Murray cor. "SHOULD GIVE is an irregular active-transitive verb [from give, gave, given, giving; found] in the potential mood, imperfect tense, first person, and plural number."—Id. "US is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case."—Id. "THEM is a personal pronoun, of the third person, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case."—Id. "It is surprising that the Jewish critics, with all their skill in dots, points, and accents, never had the ingenuity to invent a point of interrogation, a point of admiration, or a parenthesis."—Dr. Wilson cor. "The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth verses." Or: "The fifth, the sixth, the seventh, and the eighth verse."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Substitutes have three persons; the First, the Second, and the Third."—Id. "JOHN'S is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case: and is governed by 'WIFE,' according to Rule" [4th, which says, &c.]—Smith cor. "Nouns, in the English language, have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Bar. and Alex. cor. "The potential mood has four tenses; viz., the present, the imperfect, the perfect, and the pluperfect."—Ingersoll cor.

   "Where Science, Law, and Liberty depend,
    And own the patron, patriot, and friend."—Savage cor.

UNDER NOTE X.—SPECIES AND GENUS.

"The pronoun is a part of speech[532] put for the noun."—Paul's Ac. cor. "The verb is a part of speech declined with mood and tense."—Id. "The participle is a part of speech derived from the verb."—Id. "The adverb is a part of speech joined to verbs, [participles, adjectives, or other adverbs,] to declare their signification."—Id. "The conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together."—Id. "The preposition is a part of speech most commonly set before other parts."—Id. "The interjection is a part of speech which betokens a sudden emotion or passion of the mind."—Id. "The enigma, or riddle, is also a species of allegory."—Blair and Murray cor. "We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of the allegory."—Iidem. "And thus have you exhibited a sort of sketch of art."—Harris cor. "We may 'imagine a subtle kind of reasoning,' as Mr. Harris acutely observes."—Churchill cor. "But, before entering on these, I shall give one instance of metaphor, very beautiful, (or, one very beautiful instance of metaphor,) that I may show the figure to full advantage."—Blair cor. "Aristotle, in his Poetics, uses metaphor in this extended sense, for any figurative meaning imposed upon a word; as the whole put for a part, or a part for the whole; a species for the genus, or the genus for a species."—Id. "It shows what kind of apple it is of which we are speaking."—Kirkham cor. "Cleon was an other sort of man."—Goldsmith cor. "To keep off his right wing, as a kind of reserved body."—Id. "This part of speech is called the verb."—Mack cor. "What sort of thing is it?"—Hiley cor. "What sort of charm do they possess?"—Bullions cor.

   "Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole,
    That painful animal, the mole."—Dunciad cor.

UNDER NOTE XI.—ARTICLES NOT REQUISITE.

"Either thou or the boys were in fault."—Comly cor. "It may, at first view, appear to be too general."—Murray et al. cor. "When the verb has reference to future time."—Iidem. "No; they are the language of imagination, rather than of passion."—Blair cor. "The dislike of English Grammar, which has so generally prevailed, can be attributed only to the intricacy of [our] syntax."—Russell cor. "Is that ornament in good taste?"—Kames cor. "There are not many fountains in good taste." Or: "Not many fountains are [ornamented] in good taste."—Id. "And I persecuted this way unto death."—Bible cor. "The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of extension."—Addison, Spect., No. 411. "The distributive adjectives, each, every, either, agree with nouns, pronouns, or verbs, of the singular number only."—Murray cor. "Expressing by one word, what might, by a circumlocution, be resolved into two or more words belonging to other parts of speech."—Blair cor. "By certain muscles which operate [in harmony, and] all at the same time."—Murray cor. "It is sufficient here to have observed thus much in general concerning them."—Campbell cor. "Nothing disgusts us sooner than empty pomp of language."—Murray cor.

UNDER NOTE XII.—TITLES AND NAMES.

"He is entitled to the appellation of gentleman."—G. Brown. "Cromwell assumed the title of Protector"—Id. "Her father is honoured with the title of Earl."—Id. "The chief magistrate is styled President."— Id. "The highest title in the state is that of Governor."—Id. "That boy is known by the name of Idler."—Murray cor. "The one styled Mufti, is the head of the ministers of law and religion."—Balbi cor. "Ranging all that possessed them under one class, he called that whole class tree."—Blair cor. "For oak, pine, and ash, were names of whole classes of objects."—Id. "It is of little importance whether we give to some particular mode of expression the name of trope, or of figure."—Id. "The collision of a vowel with itself is the most ungracious of all combinations, and has been doomed to peculiar reprobation under the name of hiatus."—Adams cor. "We hesitate to determine, whether Tyrant alone is the nominative, or whether the nominative includes the word Spy."—Cobbett cor. "Hence originated the customary abbreviation of twelve months into twelvemonth; of seven nights into sennight; of fourteen nights into fortnight."—Webster cor.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—COMPARISONS AND ALTERNATIVES.

"He is a better writer than reader."—W. Allen. "He was an abler mathematician than linguist."—Id. "I should rather have an orange than an apple."—G. Brown. "He was no less able as a negotiator, than courageous as a warrior."—Smollett cor. "In an epic poem, we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a sonnet or an epigram."—Kames cor. "That figure is a sphere, globe, or ball."—Churchill's Gram., p. 357.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—ANTECEDENTS TO WHO OR WHICH.

"The carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy."—Key to Inst. "The place is not mentioned by the geographers who wrote at that time."—Ib. "Those questions which a person puts to himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated with points of interrogation."— Mur. et al. cor. "The work is designed for the use of those persons who may think it merits a place in their libraries."—Mur. cor. "That those who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at."—Id. "Those grammarians who limit the number to two, or three, do not reflect."—Id. "The substantives which end in ian, are those that signify profession." Or: "Those substantives which end in ian, are such as signify profession."—Id. "To these may be added those verbs which, among the poets, usually govern the dative."—Adam and Gould cor. "The consonants are those letters which cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel."—Bucke cor. "To employ the curiosity of persons skilled in grammar:"—"of those who are skilled in grammar:"—"of persons that are skilled in grammar:"—"of such persons as are skilled in grammar:" or—"of those persons who are skilled in grammar."—L. Murray cor. "This rule refers only to those nouns and pronouns which have the same bearing, or relation."—Id. "So that the things which are seen, were not made of things that do appear."—Bible cor. "Man is an imitative creature; he may utter again the sounds which he has heard."—Dr. Wilson cor. "But those men whose business is wholly domestic, have little or no use for any language but their own."—Dr. Webster cor.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.

"Great benefit may be reaped from the reading of histories."—Sewel cor. "And some attempts were made towards the writing of history."—Bolingbroke cor. "It is an invading of the priest's office, for any other to offer it"—Leslie cor. "And thus far of the forming of verbs."—W. Walker cor. "And without the shedding of blood there is no remission."—Bible cor. "For the making of measures, we have the best method here in England."—Printer's Gram. cor. "This is really both an admitting and a denying at once."—Butler cor. "And hence the origin of the making of parliaments."—Dr. Brown cor. "Next thou objectest, that the having of saving light and grace presupposes conversion. But that I deny: for, on the contrary, conversion presupposes the having of light and grace."—Barclay cor. "They cried down the wearing of rings and other superfluities, as we do."—Id. "Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning, of the plaiting of the hair, and of the wearing of gold, or of the putting-on of apparel."—Bible cor. "In the spelling of derivative words, the primitives must be kept whole."—Brit. Gram. and Buchanan's cor. "And the princes offered for the dedicating of the altar."—Numb. cor. "Boasting is not only a telling of lies, but also of many unseemly truths."—Sheffield cor. "We freely confess that the forbearing of prayer in the wicked is sinful."—Barclay cor. "For the revealing of a secret, there is no remedy."—G. Brown. "He turned all his thoughts to the composing of laws for the good of the State."—Rollin cor.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—PARTICIPLES, NOT NOUNS.

"It is salvation to be kept from falling into a pit, as truly as to be taken out of it after falling in."—Barclay cor. "For in receiving and embracing the testimony of truth, they felt their souls eased."—Id. "True regularity does not consist in having but a single rule, and forcing every thing to conform to it."—Phil. Museum cor. "To the man of the world, this sound of glad tidings appears only an idle tale, and not worth attending to."—Say cor. "To be the deliverer of the captive Jews, by ordering their temple to be rebuilt," &c.—Rollin cor. "And for preserving them from being defiled."—Discip. cor. "A wise man will forbear to show any excellence in trifles."—Kames cor. "Hirsutus had no other reason for valuing a book."—Johnson, and Wright, cor. "To being heard with satisfaction, it is necessary that the speaker should deliver himself with ease." Perhaps better: "To be heard, &c." Or: "In order to be heard, &c."—Sheridan cor. "And, to the end of being well heard and clearly understood, a good and distinct articulation contributes more, than can even the greatest power of voice."—Id.

"Potential purports, having power or will; As, If you would improve, you should be still."—Tobitt cor.

UNDER NOTE XVII.—VARIOUS ERRORS.

"For the same reason, a neuter verb cannot become passive."—Lowth cor. "A period is a whole sentence complete in itself."—Id. "A colon, or member, is a chief constructive part, or the greatest division, of a sentence."—Id. "A semicolon, or half-member, is a smaller constructive part, or a subdivision, of a sentence or of a member."—Id. "A sentence or a member is again subdivided into commas, or segments."—Id. "The first error that I would mention is, too general an attention to the dead languages, with a neglect of our own tongue."—Webster cor. "One third of the importations would supply the demands of the people."—Id. "And especially in a grave style."—Murray's Gram., i, 178. "By too eager a pursuit, he ran a great risk of being disappointed."—Murray cor. "The letters are divided into vowels and consonants."—Mur. et al. cor. "The consonants are divided into mutes and semivowels."—Iidem. "The first of these forms is the most agreeable to the English idiom."—Murray cor. "If they gain, it is at too dear a rate."—Barclay cor. "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to prevent too frequent a repetition of it."—Maunder cor. "This vulgar error might perhaps arise from too partial a fondness for the Latin."—Ash cor. "The groans which too heavy a load extorts from her."—Hitchcock cor. "The numbers of a verb are, of course, the singular and the plural."—Bucke cor. "To brook no meanness, and to stoop to no dissimulation, are indications of a great mind."—Murray cor. "This mode of expression rather suits the familiar than the grave style."—Id. "This use of the word best suits a familiar and low style."—Priestley cor. "According to the nature of the composition, the one or the other may be predominant."—Blair cor. "Yet the commonness of such sentences prevents in a great measure too early an expectation of the end."—Campbell cor. "A eulogy or a philippic may be pronounced by an individual of one nation upon a subject of an other."—J. Q. Adams cor. "A French sermon is, for the most part, a warm animated exhortation."—Blair cor. "I do not envy those who think slavery no very pitiable lot."—Channing cor. "The auxiliary and the principal united constitute a tense."—Murray cor. "There are some verbs which are defective with respect to the persons."—Id. "In youth, habits of industry are the most easily acquired."—Id. "The apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out."—Bullions cor.

CHAPTER III.—CASES, OR NOUNS.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE II; OF NOMINATIVES.

"The whole need not a physician, but they that are sick."—Bunyan cor. "He will in no wise cast out whosoever cometh unto him." Better: "He will in no wise cast out any that come unto him."—Hall cor. "He feared the enemy might fall upon his men, who, he saw, were off their guard."—Hutchinson cor. "Whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain."—Matt., v, 41. "The ideas of the author have been conversant with the faults of other writers."—Swift cor. "You are a much greater loser than I, by his death." Or: "Thou art a much greater loser by his death than I."—Id. "Such peccadilloes pass with him for pious frauds."—Barclay cor. "In whom I am nearly concerned, and who, I know, would be very apt to justify my whole procedure."—Id. "Do not think such a man as I contemptible for my garb."—Addison cor. "His wealth and he bid adieu to each other."—Priestley cor. "So that, 'He is greater than I,' will be more grammatical than, 'He is greater than me.'"—Id. "The Jesuits had more interests at court than he."—Id. and Smollett cor. "Tell the Cardinal that I understand poetry better than he."—Iid. "An inhabitant of Crim Tartary was far more happy than he."—Iid. "My father and he have been very intimate since."—Fair Am. cor. "Who was the agent, and who, the object struck or kissed?"—Mrs. Bethune cor. "To find the person who, he imagined, was concealed there."—Kirkham cor. "He offered a great recompense to whosoever would help him." Better: "He offered a great recompense to any one who would help him."—Hume and Pr. cor. "They would be under the dominion, absolute and unlimited, of whosoever (or any one who) might exercise the right of judgement."—Haynes cor. "They had promised to accept whosoever (or any one who) should be born in Wales."—Croker cor. "We sorrow not as they that have no hope."—Maturin cor. "If he suffers, he suffers as they that have no hope."—Id. "We acknowledge that he, and he only, hath been our peacemaker."—Gratton cor. "And what can be better than he that made it?"—Jenks cor. "None of his school-fellows is more beloved than he."—Cooper cor. "Solomon, who was wiser than they all."—Watson cor. "Those who the Jews thought were the last to be saved, first entered the kingdom of God."—Tract cor. "A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than both."—Bible cor. "A man of business, in good company, is hardly more insupportable, than she whom they call a notable woman."—Steele cor. "The king of the Sarmatians, who we may imagine was no small prince, restored to him a hundred thousand Roman prisoners."—Life of Anton. cor. "Such notions would be avowed at this time by none but rosicrucians, and fanatics as mad as they."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 203. "Unless, as I said, Messieurs, you are the masters, and not I."—Hall cor. "We had drawn up against peaceable travellers, who must have been as glad as we to escape."—Burnes cor. "Stimulated, in turn, by their approbation and that of better judges than they, she turned to their literature with redoubled energy."—Quarterly Rev. cor. "I know not who else are expected."—Scott cor. "He is great, but truth is greater than we all." Or: "He is great, but truth is greater than any of us."—H. Mann cor.. "He I accuse has entered." Or, by ellipsis of the antecedent, thus: "Whom I accuse has entered."—Fowler cor.; also Shakspeare.

"Scotland and thou did each in other live."—Dryden cor.

"We are alone; here's none but thou and I."—Shak. cor.

"I rather would, my heart might feel your love, Than my unpleas'd eye see your courtesy."—Shak. cor.

"Tell me, in sadness, who is she you love?"—Shak. cor.

    "Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire
    Too high a fame, when he we serve's away."—Shak. cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE III; OF APPOSITION.

"Now, therefore, come thou, let us make a covenant, thee and me."—Bible cor. "Now, therefore, come thou, we will make a covenant, thou and I."—Variation corrected. "The word came not to Esau, the hunter, that stayed not at home; but to Jacob, the plain man, him that dwelt in tents."—Penn cor. "Not to every man, but to the man of God, (i.e.,) him that is led by the spirit of God."—Barclay cor. "For, admitting God to be a creditor, or him to whom the debt should be paid, and Christ him that satisfies or pays it on behalf of man the debtor, this question will arise, whether he paid that debt as God, or man, or both?"—Penn cor. "This Lord Jesus Christ, the heavenly Man, the Emmanuel, God with us, we own and believe in: him whom the high priests raged against," &c.—Fox cor. "Christ, and He crucified, was the Alpha and Omega of all his addresses, the fountain and foundation of his hope and trust."—Exp. cor. "Christ, and He crucified, is the head, and the only head, of the church."—Denison cor. "But if Christ, and He crucified, is the burden of the ministry, such disastrous results are all avoided."—Id. "He never let fall the least intimation, that himself, or any other person whosoever, was the object of worship."—View cor. "Let the elders that rule well, be counted worthy of double honour, especially them who labour in the word and doctrine."—Bible cor. "Our Shepherd, he who is styled King of saints, will assuredly give his saints the victory."—Sermon cor. "It may seem odd, to talk of us subscribers."—Fowle cor. "And they shall have none to bury them: they, their wives, nor their sons, nor[533] their daughters; for I will pour their wickedness upon them."—Bible cor. "Yet I supposed it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother, and companion in labour, and fellow-soldier, but your messenger, and him that ministered to my wants."—Bible cor.

   "Amidst the tumult of the routed train,
    The sons of false Antimachus were slain;
    Him who for bribes his faithless counsels sold,
    And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold."—Pope cor.

    "See the vile King his iron sceptre bear—
    His only praise attends the pious heir;
    Him in whose soul the virtues all conspire,
    The best good son, from the worst wicked sire."—Lowth cor.

    "Then from thy lips poured forth a joyful song
    To thy Redeemer!—yea, it poured along
    In most melodious energy of praise,
    To God, the Saviour, him of ancient days."—Arm Chair cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE IV; OF POSSESSIVES.

UNDER NOTE I.—THE POSSESSIVE FORM.

"Man's chief good is an upright mind."—Key to Inst. "The translator of Mallet's History has the following note."—Webster cor. "The act, while it gave five years' full pay to the officers, allowed but one year's pay to the privates."—Id. "For the study of English is preceded by several years' attention to Latin and Greek."—Id. "The first, the Court-Baron, is the freeholders' or freemen's court."—Coke cor. "I affirm that Vaugelas's definition labours under an essential defect."—Campbell cor.; and also Murray. "There is a chorus in Aristophanes's plays."—Blair cor. "It denotes the same perception in my mind as in theirs."—Duncan cor. "This afterwards enabled him to read Hickes's Saxon Grammar."—Life of Dr. Mur. cor. "I will not do it for ten's sake."—Ash cor. Or: "I will not destroy it for ten's sake."—Gen., xviii, 32. "I arose, and asked if those charming infants were hers."—Werter cor. "They divide their time between milliners' shops and the taverns."—Dr. Brown cor. "The angels' adoring of Adam is also mentioned in the Talmud."—Sale cor. "Quarrels arose from the winners' insulting of those who lost."—Id. "The vacancy occasioned by Mr. Adams's resignation."—Adv. to Adams's Rhet. cor. "Read, for instance, Junius's address, commonly called his Letter to the King."—Adams cor. "A perpetual struggle against the tide of Hortensius's influence."—Id. "Which, for distinction's sake, I shall put down severally."—R. Johnson cor. "The fifth case is in a clause signifying the matter of one's fear."—Id. "And they took counsel, and bought with them the potter's field."—Alger cor. "Arise for thy servants' help, and redeem them for thy mercy's sake."—Jenks cor. "Shall not their cattle, their substance, and every beast of theirs, be ours?"—COM. BIBLE: Gen., xxxiv, 23. "Its regular plural, bullaces, is used by Bacon."—Churchill cor. "Mordecai walked every day before the court of the women's house."—Scott cor. "Behold, they that wear soft clothing, are in kings' houses."—Alger's Bible. "Then Jethro, Moses's father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses's wife, and her two sons; and Jethro, Moses's father-in-law, came, with his sons and his wife, unto Moses."—Scott's Bible. "King James's translators merely revised former translations."—Frazee cor. "May they be like corn on houses' tops."—White cor.

"And for his Maker's image' sake exempt."—Milton cor.

"By all the fame acquired in ten years' war."—Rowe cor.

"Nor glad vile poets with true critics' gore."—Pope cor.

    "Man only of a softer mold is made,
    Not for his fellows' ruin, but their aid."—Dryden cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—POSSESSIVES CONNECTED.

"It was necessary to have both the physician's and the surgeon's advice."—L. Murray's False Syntax, Rule 10. "This outside fashionableness of the tailor's or the tirewoman's making."—Locke cor. "Some pretending to be of Paul's party, others of Apollos's, others of Cephas's, and others, (pretending yet higher,) to be of Christ's."—Wood cor. "Nor is it less certain, that Spenser and Milton's spelling agrees better with our pronunciation."—Phil. Museum cor. "Law's, Edwards's, and Watts's Survey of the Divine Dispensations." Or thus: "Law, Edwards, and Watts's, Surveys of the Divine Dispensations."—Burgh cor. "And who was Enoch's Saviour, and the prophets'?"—Bayly cor. "Without any impediment but his own, his parents', or his guardian's will."—Journal corrected. "James relieves neither the boy's nor the girl's distress."—Nixon cor. "John regards neither the master's nor the pupil's advantage."—Id. "You reward neither the man's nor the woman's labours."—Id. "She examines neither James's nor John's conduct."—Id. "Thou pitiest neither the servant's nor the master's injuries."—Id. "We promote England's or Ireland's happiness."—Id. "Were Cain's and Abel's occupation the same?"—G. Brown. "Were Cain and Abel's occupations the same?"—Id. "What was Simon and Andrew's employment?"—Id. "Till he can read for himself Sanctius's Minerva with Scioppius's and Perizonius's Notes."—Locke cor.

   "And love and friendship's finely-pointed dart
    Falls blunted from each indurated heart." Or:—

    "And love's and friendship's finely-pointed dart
    Fall blunted from each indurated heart."—Goldsmith cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—CHOICE OF FORMS.

"But some degree of trouble is the portion of all men."—L. Murray et al. cor. "With the names of his father and mother upon the blank leaf."—Abbott cor. "The general, in the name of the army, published a declaration."—Hume cor. "The vote of the Commons."—Id. "The House of Lords."—Id. "A collection of the faults of writers;"—or, "A collection of literary faults."—Swift cor. "After ten years of wars."—Id. "Professing his detestation of such practices as those of his predecessors."—Pope cor. "By that time I shall have ended my year of office."—W. Walker cor. "For the sake of Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip."—Bible and Mur. cor. "I endure all things for the sake of the elect, that they may also obtain salvation."—Bibles cor. "He was heir to the son of Louis the Sixteenth."—W. Allen. "The throne we honour is the people's choice."—Rolla. "An account of the proceedings of Alexander's court."—Inst. "An excellent tutor for the child of a person of fashion!"—Gil Blas cor. "It is curious enough, that this sentence of the Bishop's is, itself, ungrammatical."—Cobbett cor. "The troops broke into the palace of the Emperor Leopold."—Nixon cor. "The meeting was called by desire of Eldon the Judge."—Id. "The occupation of Peter, John, and Andrew, was that of fishermen."—Murray's Key, R. 10. "The debility of the venerable president of the Royal Academy, has lately increased."—Maunder cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—NOUNS WITH POSSESSIVES PLURAL.

"God hath not given us our reason to no purpose."—Barclay cor. "For our sake, no doubt, this is written."—Bible cor. "Are not health and strength of body desirable for their own sake?"—Harris and Murray cor. "Some sailors who were boiling their dinner upon the shore."—Day cor. "And they, in their turn, were subdued by others."—Pinnock cor. "Industry on our part is not superseded by God's grace."—Arrowsmith cor. "Their health perhaps may be pretty well secured."—Locke cor. "Though he was rich, yet for your sake he became poor."—See 2 Cor., viii, 9. "It were to be wished, his correctors had been as wise on their part."—Harris cor. "The Arabs are commended by the ancients for being most exact to their word, and respctful to their kindred."—Sale cor. "That is, as a reward of some exertion on our part."—Gurney cor. "So that it went ill with Moses for their sake."—Ps. cor. "All liars shall have their part in the burning lake."—Watts cor. "For our own sake as well as for thine."—Pref. to Waller cor. "By discovering their ability to detect and amend errors."—L. Murray cor.

   "This world I do renounce; and, in your sight,
    Shake patiently my great affliction off."—Shak. cor.

    "If your relenting anger yield to treat,
    Pompey and thou, in safety, here may meet."—Rowe cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—POSSESSIVES WITH PARTICIPLES.

"This will encourage him to proceed without acquiring the prejudice."—Smith cor. "And the notice which they give of an action as being completed or not completed."—L. Mur. et al. cor. "Some obstacle, or impediment, that prevents it from taking place."—Priestley and A. Mur. cor. "They have apostolical authority for so frequently urging the seeking of the Spirit."—The Friend cor. "Here then is a wide field for reason to exert its powers in relation to the objects of taste."—Dr. Blair cor. "Now this they derive altogether from their greater capacity of imitation and description."—Id. "This is one clear reason why they paid a greater attention to that construction."—Id. "The dialogue part had also a modulation of its own, which was capable of being set to notes."—Id. "Why are we so often frigid and unpersuasive in public discourse?"—Id. "Which is only a preparation for leading his forces directly upon us."—Id. "The nonsense about which, as relating to things only, and having no declension, needs no refutation."—Fowle cor. "Who, upon breaking it open, found nothing but the following inscription."—Rollin cor. "A prince will quickly have reason to repent of having exalted one person so high."—Id. "Notwithstanding it is the immediate subject of his discourse."—Churchill cor. "With our definition of it, as being synonymous with time."—Booth cor. "It will considerably increase our danger of being deceived."—Campbell cor. "His beauties can never be mentioned without suggesting his blemishes also."—Dr. Blair cor. "No example has ever been adduced, of a man conscientiously approving an action, because of its badness." Or:—"of a man who conscientiously approved of an action because of its badness."—Gurney cor. "The last episode, of the angel showing to Adam the fate of his posterity, is happily imagined."—Dr. Blair cor. "And the news came to my son, that he and the bride were in Dublin."—M. Edgeworth cor. "There is no room for the mind to exert any great effort."—Dr. Blair cor. "One would imagine, that these critics never so much as heard that Homer wrote first."—Pope cor. "Condemn the book, for not being a geography;" or,—"because it is not a geography."—Peirce cor. "There will be in many words a transition from being the figurative to being the proper signs of certain ideas."—Campbell cor. "The doctrine that the Pope is the only source of ecclesiastical power."—Rel. World cor. "This was the more expedient, because the work was designed for the benefit of private learners."—L. Murray cor. "This was done, because the Grammar, being already in type, did not admit of enlargement."—Id.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE V; OF OBJECTIVES.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE OBJECTIVE FORM.

"Whom should I meet the other day but my old friend!"—Spect. cor. "Let not him boast that puts on his armour, but him that takes it off."—Barclay cor. "Let none touch it, but them who are clean."—Sale cor. "Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and them that dwell therein."—Ps. cor. "Pray be private, and careful whom you trust."—Mrs. Goffe cor. "How shall the people know whom to entrust with their property and their liberties?"—J. O. Taylor cor. "The chaplain entreated my comrade and me to dress as well as possible."—World cor. "And him that cometh to me, I will in no wise cast out."—John, vi, 37. "Whom, during this preparation, they constantly and solemnly invoke."—Hope of Is. cor. "Whoever or whatever owes us, is Debtor; and whomever or whatever we owe, is Creditor."—Marsh cor. "Declaring the curricle was his, and he should have in it whom he chose."—A. Ross cor. "The fact is, Burke is the only one of all the host of brilliant contemporaries, whom we can rank as a first-rate orator."—Knickerb. cor. "Thus you see, how naturally the Fribbles and the Daffodils have produced the Messalinas of our time."—Dr. Brown cor. "They would find in the Roman list both the Scipios."—Id. "He found his wife's clothes on fire, and her just expiring."—Observer cor. "To present you holy, and unblamable, and unreprovable in his sight."—Colossians, i, 22. "Let the distributer do his duty with simplicity; the superintendent, with diligence; him who performs offices of compassion, with cheerfulness."—Stuart cor. "If the crew rail at the master of the vessel, whom will they mind?"—Collier cor. "He having none but them, they having none but him"—Drayton cor.

   "Thee, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign;
    Of thy caprice maternal I complain."—Burns cor.

    "Nor weens he who it is, whose charms consume
    His longing soul, but loves he knows not whom"—Addison cor.

UNDER NOTE I.—OF VERBS TRANSITIVE.

"When it gives that sense, and also connects sentences, it is a conjunction."—L. Murray cor. "Though thou wilt not acknowledge thyself to—be guilty, thou canst not deny the fact stated."—Id. "They specify some object, like many other adjectives, and also connect sentences."—Kirkham cor. "A violation of this rule tends so much to perplex the reader and obscure the sense, that it is safer to err by using too many short sentences."—L. Murray cor. "A few exercises are subjoined to each important definition, for him [the pupil] to practise upon as he proceeds in committing the grammar to memory."—Nutting cor. "A verb signifying an action directly transitive, governs the accusative."—Adam et al. cor. "Or, any word that can be conjugated, is a verb."—Kirkham cor. "In these two concluding sentences, the author, hastening to a close, appears to write rather carelessly."—Dr. Blair cor. "He simply reasons on one side of the question, and then leaves it."—Id." Praise to God teaches us to be humble and lowly ourselves."—Atterbury cor. "This author has endeavoured to surpass his rivals."—R. W. Green cor. "Idleness and pleasure fatigue a man as soon as business."—Webster cor." And, in conjugating any verb,"—or, "And in learning conjugations, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied."—Kirkham cor. "He said Virginia would have emancipated her slaves long ago."—Lib. cor. "And having a readiness"—or, "And holding ourselves in readiness"—or," And being in readiness—to revenge all disobedience."—Bible cor. "However, in these cases, custom generally determines what is right."—Wright cor. "In proof, let the following cases be taken."—Id. "We must marvel that he should so speedily have forgotten his first principles."—Id. "How should we wonder at the expression, 'This is a soft question!' "—Id. "And such as prefer this course, can parse it as a possessive adjective."—Goodenow cor. "To assign all the reasons that induced the author to deviate from other grammarians, would lead to a needless prolixity."—Alexander cor. "The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 63.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF VERBS INTRANSITIVE.

"In his seventh chapter he expatiates at great length."—Barclay cor. "He quarrels with me for adducing some ancient testimonies agreeing with what I say."—Id. "Repenting of his design."—Hume cor. "Henry knew, that an excommunication could not fail to produce the most dangerous effects."—Id. "The popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the subject,"—Mrs. Macaulay cor. "He is always master of his subject, and seems to play with it:" or,—"seems to sport himself with it."—Blair cor. "But as soon as it amounts to real disease, all his secret infirmities show themselves."—Id. "No man repented of his wickedness."—Bible cor. "Go one way or other, either on the right hand, or on the left,"—Id. "He lies down by the river's edge." Or: "He lays himself down on the river's brink"—W. Walker cor. "For some years past, I have had an ardent wish to retire to some of our American plantations."—Cowley cor. "I fear thou wilt shrink from the payment of it."—Ware cor. "We never retain an idea, without acquiring some combination."—Rippingham cor.

   "Yet more; the stroke of death he must abide,
    Then lies he meekly down, fast by his brethren's side."
        —Milton cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—OF VERBS MISAPPLIED.

"The parliament confiscated the property of all those who had borne arms against the king."—Hume cor. "The practice of confiscating ships that had been wrecked"'—Id. "The nearer his military successes brought him to the throne." Or: "The nearer, through his military successes, he approached the throne."—Id. "In the next example, 'you' represents 'ladies;' therefore it is plural."—Kirkham cor. "The first 'its' stands for 'vale;' the second 'its' represents 'stream'."— Id. "Pronouns do not always prevent the repetition of nouns."—Id. "Very is an adverb of degree; it relates to the adjective good"—Id. "You will please to commit to memory the following paragraph."—Id. "Even the Greek and Latin passive verbs form some of their tenses by means of auxiliaries."—L. Mur. cor. "The deponent verbs in Latin also employ auxiliaries to form several of their tenses."—Id. "I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, as any body has made since."—Id. "Monotonous delivery assumes as many set forms, as ever Proteus did of fleeting shapes."—Kirkham cor. "When words in apposition are uttered in quick succession."—Nixon cor. "Where many such sentences occur in succession."—L. Mur. cor. "Wisdom leads us to speak and do what is most proper."—Blair and L. Murray cor.

"Jul. Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague? Rom. Neither, fair saint, if either thee displease." Or:— "Neither, fair saint, if either thou dislike."—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF PASSIVE VERBS.

"To us, too, must be allowed the privilege of forming our own laws." Or: "We too must have the privilege," &c.—L. Murray cor. "For not only is the use of all the ancient poetic feet allowed [to] us," &c.—Id. et al. cor. "By what code of morals is the right or privilege denied me?"—Bartlett cor. "To the children of Israel alone, has the possession of it been denied."—Keith cor. "At York, all quarter was refused to fifteen hundred Jews."—Id. "He would teach the French language in three lessons, provided there were paid him fifty-five dollars in advance."—Prof. Chazotte cor. "And when it was demanded of him by the Pharisees, when the kingdom of God should come." Or: "And when the Pharisees demanded of him," &c.—Bible cor. "A book has been shown me."—Dr. Campbell cor. "To John Horne Tooke admission was refused, only because he had been in holy orders."—W. Duane cor. "Mr. Horne Tooke having taken orders, admission to the bar was refused him."—Churchill cor. "Its reference to place is disregarded."—Dr. Bullions cor. "What striking lesson is taught by the tenor of this history?"—Bush cor. "No less a sum than eighty thousand pounds had been left him by a friend."—Dr. Priestley cor. "Where there are many things to be done, there must be allowed to each its share of time and labour."—Dr. Johnson cor. "Presenting the subject in a far more practical form, than has heretofore been given it."—Kirkham cor. "If to a being of entire impartiality should be shown the two companies."—Dr. Scott cor. "The command of the British army was offered to him."—Grimshaw cor. "To whom a considerable sum had been unexpectedly left."—Johnson cor. "Whether such a privilege may be granted to a maid or a widow."—Spect. cor. "Happily, to all these affected terms, the public suffrage has been denied."—Campbell cor. "Let the parsing table next be shown him."—Nutting cor. "Then the use of the analyzing table may be explained to him."—Id. "To Pittacus there was offered a great sum of money."—Sanborn cor. "More time for study had been allowed him."—Id. "If a little care were bestowed on the walks that lie between them."—Blair's Rhet., p. 222. "Suppose an office or a bribe be offered me."—Pierpont cor.

"Is then one chaste, one last embrace denied? Shall I not lay me by his clay-cold side?"—Rowe cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—OF PASSIVE VERBS TRANSITIVE.

"The preposition TO is used before nouns of place, when they follow verbs or participles of motion."—Murray et al. cor. "They were not allowed to enter the house."—Mur. cor. "Their separate signification has been overlooked."—Tooke cor. "But, whenever YE is used, it must be in the nominative case, and not in the objective."—Cobbett cor. "It is said, that more persons than one receive handsome salaries, to see that acts of parliament are properly worded."—Churchill cor. "The following Rudiments of English Grammar have been used in the University of Pennsylvania."—Dr. Rogers cor. "It never should be forgotten."— Newman cor. "A very curious fact has been noticed by those expert metaphysicians."—Campbell cor. "The archbishop interfered that Michelet's lectures might be stopped."—The Friend cor. "The disturbances in Gottengen have been entirely quelled."—Daily Adv. cor. "Besides those which are noticed in these exceptions."—Priestley cor. "As one, two, or three auxiliary verbs are employed."—Id. "The arguments which have been used."—Addison cor. "The circumstance is properly noticed by the author."—Blair cor. "Patagonia has never been taken into possession by any European nation."—Cumming cor. "He will be censured no more."—Walker cor. "The thing was to be terminated somehow."—Hunt cor. "In 1798, the Papal Territory was seized by the French."—Pinnock cor. "The idea has not for a moment escaped the attention of the Board."—C. S. Journal cor. "I shall easily be excused from the labour of more transcription."—Johnson cor. "If I may be allowed to use that expression."—Campbell cor. "If without offence I may make the observation."—Id. "There are other characters, which are frequently used in composition."—Mur. et al. cor. "Such unaccountable infirmities might be overcome, in many cases, and perhaps in most."—Beattie cor. "Which ought never to be employed, or resorted to."—Id. "That care may be taken of the widows." Or: "That the widows may be provided for."—Barclay cor. "Other cavils will yet be noticed."—Pope cor. "Which implies, that to all Christians is eternal salvation offered."—West cor. "Yet even the dogs are allowed to eat the crumbs which fall from their master's table."—Campbell cor. "For we say, the light within must be heeded."—Barclay cor. "This sound of a is noticed in Steele's Grammar."—J. Walker cor. "One came to receive ten guineas for a pair of silver buckles."—M. Edgeworth cor. "Let therefore the application of the several questions in the table be carefully shown [to] him."—Nutting cor. "After a few times, it is no longer noticed by the hearers."—Sheridan cor. "It will not admit of the same excuse, nor receive the same indulgence, from people of any discernment."—Id. "Of inanimate things, property may be made." Or: "Inanimate things may be made property;" i.e., "may become property."—Beattie cor.

   "And, when some rival bids a higher price,
    Will not be sluggish in the work, or nice."—Butler cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES.

"All the words employed to denote spiritual or intellectual things, are in their origin metaphors."—Dr. Campbell cor. "A reply to an argument commonly brought forward by unbelievers."—Dr. Blair cor. "It was once the only form used in the past tenses."—Dr. Ash cor. "Of the points and other characters used in writing."—Id. "If THY be the personal pronoun adopted."—Walker cor. "The Conjunction is a word used to connect [words or] sentences."—Burn cor. "The points which answer these purposes, are the four following."—Harrison cor. "INCENSE signifies perfume exhaled by fire, and used in religious ceremonies."—L. Mur. cor. "In most of his orations, there is too much art; he carries it even to ostentation."—Blair cor. "To illustrate the great truth, so often overlooked in our times."—C. S. Journal cor. "The principal figures calculated to affect the heart, are Exclamation, Confession, Deprecation, Commination, and Imprecation."—Formey cor. "Disgusted at the odious artifices employed by the judge."—Junius cor. "All the reasons for which there was allotted to us a condition out of which so much wickedness and misery would in fact arise."—Bp. Butler cor. "Some characteristical circumstance being generally invented or seized upon."—Ld. Kames cor.

   "And BY is likewise used with names that shew
    The method or the means of what we do."—Ward cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—OF CONSTRUCTIONS AMBIGUOUS.

"Many adverbs admit of degrees of comparison, as do adjectives."—Priestley cor. "But the author who, by the number and reputation of his works, did more than any one else, to bring our language into its present state, was Dryden."—Blair cor. "In some states, courts of admiralty have no juries, nor do courts of chancery employ any at all."—Webster cor. "I feel grateful to my friend."—Murray cor. "This requires a writer to have in his own mind a very clear apprehension of the object which he means to present to us."—Blair cor. "Sense has its own harmony, which naturally contributes something to the harmony of sound."—Id. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an i, which was formerly inserted, and which gave to the word an additional syllable."—Priestley cor. "There are few to whom I can refer with more advantage than to Mr. Addison."—Blair cor. "DEATH, (in theology,) is a perpetual separation from God, a state of eternal torments."—Webster cor. "That could inform the traveller as well as could the old man himself!"—O. B. Peirce cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—OF YE AND YOU IN SCRIPTURE.

"Ye daughters of Rabbah, gird you with sackcloth."—SCOTT, FRIENDS, and the COMPREHENSIVE BIBLE: Jer., xlix, 3. "Wash you, make you clean."—SCOTT, ALGER, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Isaiah, i, 16. "Strip you, and make you bare, and gird sackcloth upon your loins."—SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Isaiah, xxxii, 11. "Ye are not ashamed that ye make yourselves strange to me."—SCOTT, BRUCE, and BLAYNEY: Job, xix, 3. "If ye knew the gift of God." Or: "If thou knew the gift of God."—See John, iv, 10. "Depart from me, ye workers of iniquity; I know you not."—Penington cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE VI; OF SAME CASES.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—OF PROPER IDENTITY.

"Who would not say, 'If it be I,' rather than, 'If it be me?"—Priestley cor. "Who is there? It is I."—Id. "It is he."—Id. "Are these the houses you were speaking of? Yes; they are the same."—Id. "It is not I, that you are in love with."—Addison cor. "It cannot be I."—Swift cor. "To that which once was thou."—Prior cor. "There is but one man that she can have, and that man is myself."—Priestley cor. "We enter, as it were, into his body, and become in some measure he." Or, better:—"and become in some measure identified with him."—A. Smith and Priestley cor. "Art thou proud yet? Ay, that I am not thou."—Shak. cor. "He knew not who they were."—Milnes cor. "Whom do you think me to be?"—Dr. Lowth's Gram., p. 17. "Who do men say that I, the Son of man, am?"—Bible cor. "But who say ye that I am?"—Id. "Who think ye that I am? I am not he."—Id. "No; I am in error; I perceive it is not the person that I supposed it was."—Winter in London cor. "And while it is He that I serve, life is not without value."—Ware cor. "Without ever dreaming it was he."—Charles XII cor. "Or he was not the illiterate personage that he affected to be."—Montgom. cor. "Yet was he the man who was to be the greatest apostle of the Gentiles."—Barclay cor. "Sweet was the thrilling ecstacy; I know not if 'twas love, or thou."—J. Hogg cor. "Time was, when none would cry, that oaf was I."—Dryden cor. "No matter where the vanquished be, or who."—Rowe cor. "No; I little thought it had been he."—Gratton cor. "That reverence, that godly fear, which is ever due to 'Him who can destroy both body and soul in hell.'"—Maturin cor. "It is we that they seek to please, or rather to astonish."—J. West cor. "Let the same be her that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac."—Bible cor. "Although I knew it to be him."—Dickens cor. "Dear gentle youth, is't none but thou?"—Dorset cor. "Who do they say it is?"—Fowler cor.

   "These are her garb, not she; they but express
    Her form, her semblance, her appropriate dress."—More cor.

UNDER NOTE I.—OF THE CASE DOUBTFUL.

"I had no knowledge of any connexion between them."—Col. Stone cor. "To promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same thing, as to be the actors of it ourselves." (That is, "For us to promote iniquity in others, is nearly the same thing as for us to be the actors of it ourselves.")—Murray cor. "It must arise from a delicate feeling in ourselves."—Blair and Murray cor. "Because there has not been exercised a competent physical power for their enforcement."—Mass. Legisl. cor. "PUPILAGE, n. The state of a pupil, or scholar."—Dictionaries cor. "Then the other part, being the definition, would include all verbs, of every description."—Peirce cor. "John's friendship for me saved me from inconvenience."—Id. "William's judgeship"—or, "William's appointment to the office of judge,—changed his whole demeanour."—Id. "William's practical acquaintance with teaching, was the cause of the interest he felt."—Id. "To be but one among many, stifleth the chidings of conscience."—Tupper cor. "As for the opinion that it is a close translation, I doubt not that many have been led into that error by the shortness of it."—Pope cor. "All presumption that death is the destruction of living beings, must go upon the supposition that they are compounded, and therefore discerptible."—Bp. Butler cor. "This argues rather that they are proper names."—Churchill cor. "But may it not be retorted, that this gratification itself, is that which excites our resentment?"—Campbell cor. "Under the common notion, that it is a system of the whole poetical art."—Blair cor. "Whose want of time, or whose other circumstances, forbid them to become classical scholars."—Lit. Jour. cor. "It would prove him not to have been a mere fictitious personage." Or: "It would preclude the notion that he was merely a fictitious personage."—Phil. Mu. cor. "For heresy, or under pretence that they are heretics or infidels."—Oath cor. "We may here add Dr. Horne's sermon on Christ, as being the Object of religious adoration."—Rel. World cor. "To say nothing of Dr. Priestley, as being a strenuous advocate," &c.—Id. "Through the agency of Adam, as being their public head." Or: "Because Adam was their public head."—Id. "Objections against the existence of any such moral plan as this."—Butler cor. "A greater instance of a man being a blockhead."—Spect. cor. "We may insure or promote what will make it a happy state of existence to ourselves."—Gurney cor. "Since it often undergoes the same kind of unnatural treatment."—Kirkham cor. "Their apparent foolishness"—"Their appearance of foolishness"—or, "That they appear foolishness,—is no presumption against this."—Butler cor. "But what arises from them as being offences; i.e., from their liability to be perverted."—Id. "And he went into the house of a certain man named Justus, one that worshiped God."—Acts cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF FALSE IDENTIFICATION.

"But popular, he observes, is an ambiguous word."—Blair cor. "The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is often made the subject of a verb."—Murray cor. "When any person, in speaking, introduces his name after the pronoun I, it is of the first person; as, 'I, James, of the city of Boston.'"—R. C. Smith cor. "The name of the person spoken to, is of the second person; as, 'James, come to me.'"—Id. "The name of the person or thing merely spoken of, or about, is of the third person; as, 'James has come.'"—Id. "The passive verb has no object, because its subject or nominative always represents what is acted upon, and the object of a verb must needs be in the objective case."—Id. "When a noun is in the nominative to an active verb, it denotes the actor."—Kirkham cor. "And the pronoun THOU or YE, standing for the name of the person or persons commanded, is its nominative."—Ingersoll cor. "The first person is that which denotes the speaker."—Brown's Institutes, p. 32. "The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its different variations or inflections throughout the moods and tenses."—Wright cor. "The first person is that which denotes the speaker or writer."—G. BROWN: for the correction of Parker and Fox, Hiley, and Sanborn. "The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or the person addressed."—Id.: for the same. "The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of."—Id.: for the same, "I is of the first person, singular; WE, of the first person, plural."—Mur. et al. cor. "THOU is of the second person, singular; YE or You, of the second person, plural."—Iid. "HE, SHE, or IT, is of the third person, singular; THEY, of the third person, plural."—Iid. "The nominative case denotes the actor, and is the subject of the verb."—Kirkham cor. "John is the actor, therefore the noun JOHN is in the nominative case."—Id. "The actor is always expressed by the nominative case, unless the verb be passive."—R. C. Smith cor. "The nominative case does not always denote an agent or actor."—Mack cor. "In mentioning each name, tell the part of speech."—John Flint cor. "Of what number is boy? Why?"—Id. "Of what number is pens? Why?"—Id. "The speaker is denoted by the first person; the person spoken to is denoted by the second person; and the person or thing spoken of is denoted by the third person."—Id. "What nouns are of the masculine gender? The names of all males are of the masculine gender."—Id. "An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind."—G. Brown's Grammars.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE VII; OF OBJECTIVES.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—OF THE OBJECTIVE IN FORM.

"But I do not remember whom they were for."—Abbott cor. "But if you can't help it, whom do you complain of?"—Collier cor. "Whom was it from? and what was it about?"—M. Edgeworth cor. "I have plenty of victuals, and, between you and me, something in a corner."—Day cor. "The upper one, whom I am now about to speak of."—Leigh Hunt cor. "And to poor us, thy enmity is most capital."—Shak. cor. "Which, thou dost confess, 'twere fit for thee to use, as them to claim." That is,—"as for them to claim."—Id. "To beg of thee, it is my more dishonour, than thee of them." That is,—"than for thee to beg of them."—Id. "There are still a few, who, like thee and me, drink nothing but water."—Gil Bias cor. "Thus, 'I shall fall,'—'Thou shalt love thy neighbour,'—'He shall be rewarded,'—express no resolution on the part of me, thee, or him." Or better:—"on the part of the persons signified by the nominatives, I, Thou, He."—Lennie and Bullions cor. "So saucy with the hand of her here—what's her name?"—Shak. cor. "All debts are cleared between you and me."—Id. "Her price is paid, and she is sold like thee."—HARRISON'S E. Lang., p. 172. "Search through all the most flourishing eras of Greece."—Dr. Brown cor. "The family of the Rudolphs has been long distinguished."—The Friend cor. "It will do well enough for you and me."—Edgeworth cor. "The public will soon discriminate between him who is the sycophant, and him who is the teacher."—Chazotte cor. "We are still much at a loss to determine whom civil power belongs to."—Locke cor. "What do you call it? and to whom does it belong?"—Collier cor. "He had received no lessons from the Socrateses, the Platoes, and the Confuciuses of the age."—Haller cor. "I cannot tell whom to compare them to."—Bunyan cor. "I see there was some resemblance betwixt this good man and me."—Id. "They, by those means, have brought themselves into the hands and house of I do not know whom."—Id. "But at length she said, there was a great deal of difference between Mr. Cotton and us."—Hutch. Hist. cor. "So you must ride on horseback after us."—Mrs. Gilpin cor. "A separation must soon take place between our minister and me,"—Werter cor. "When she exclaimed on Hastings, you, and me."—Shak. cor. "To whom? to thee? What art thou?"—Id. "That they should always bear the certain marks of him from whom they came."—Bp. Butler cor.

   "This life has joys for you and me,
    And joys that riches ne'er could buy."—Burns cor.

UNDER THE NOTE.—OF TIME OR MEASURE.

"Such as almost every child, ten years old, knows."—Town cor. "Four months' schooling will carry any industrious scholar, of ten or twelve years of age, completely through this book."—Id. "A boy of six years of age may be taught to speak as correctly, as Cicero did before the Roman senate."—Webster cor. "A lad about twelve years old, who was taken captive by the Indians."—Id. "Of nothing else than that individual white figure of five inches in length, which is before him."—Campbell cor. "Where lies the fault, that boys of eight or ten years of age are with great difficulty made to understand any of its principles?"—Guy cor. "Where language three centuries old is employed."—Booth cor. "Let a gallows be made, of fifty cubits in height." Or: "Let a gallows fifty cubits high be made."—Bible cor. "I say to this child, nine years old, 'Bring me that hat.' He hastens, and brings it me."—Osborn cor. "'He laid a floor, twelve feet long, and nine feet wide:' that is, the floor was long to the extent of twelve feet, and wide to the extent of nine feet."—Merchant cor. "The Goulah people are a tribe of about fifty thousand in strength." Or: "The Goulah people are a tribe about fifty thousand strong."—Examiner cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE VIII; NOM. ABSOLUTE.

"He having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed."—Inst. of E. G., p. 190. "I being young, they deceived me."—Ib., p. 279. "They refusing to comply, I withdrew."—Ib. "Thou being present, he would not tell what he knew."—Ib. "The child is lost; and I, whither shall I go?"—Ib. "O happy we! surrounded with so many blessings."—Ib. "'Thou too! Brutus, my son!' cried Cæsar, overcome."—Ib. "Thou! Maria! and so late! and who is thy companion?"—Mirror cor. "How swiftly our time passes away! and ah! we, how little concerned to improve it!"—Greenleaf's False Syntax, Gram., p. 47.

"There all thy gifts and graces we display, Thou, only thou, directing all our way."—Pope, Dunciad.

CHAPTER IV.—ADJECTIVES.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE IX.

UNDER NOTE I.—OF AGREEMENT.

"I am not recommending this kind of sufferings to your liking."—Sherlock cor. "I have not been to London these five years."—Webster cor. "Verbs of this kind are more expressive than their radicals."—Dr. Murray cor. "Few of us would be less corrupted than kings are, were we, like them, beset with flatterers, and poisoned with those vermin."—Kames cor. "But it seems these literati had been very ill rewarded for their ingenious labours."—R. Random cor. "If I had not left off troubling myself about things of that kind."—Swift cor. "For things of this sort are usually joined to the most noted fortune."—Bacon cor. "The nature of those riches and that long-suffering, is, to lead to repentance."—Barclay cor. "I fancy it is this kind of gods, that Horace mentions."—Addison cor. "During those eight days, they are prohibited from touching the skin."—Hope of Is. cor. "Besides, he had but a small quantity of provisions left for his army."—Goldsmith cor. "Are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than those of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities?"—Murray's Sequel, p. 115. "It distinguishes still more remarkably the feelings of the former from those of the latter."—Kames cor. "And these good tidings of the reign shall be published through all the world."—Campbell cor. "These twenty years have I been with thee."—Gen. cor. "In this kind of expressions, some words seem to be understood."—W. Walker cor. "He thought this kind of excesses indicative of greatness."—Hunt cor. "This sort of fellows is very numerous." Or thus: "Fellows of this sort are very numerous."—Spect. cor. "Whereas men of this sort cannot give account of their faith." Or: "Whereas these men cannot give account of their faith."—Barclay cor. "But the question is, whether those are the words."—Id. "So that expressions of this sort are not properly optative."—R. Johnson cor. "Many things are not such as they appear to be."—Sanborn cor. "So that all possible means are used."—Formey cor.

   "We have strict statutes, and most biting laws,
    Which for these nineteen years we have let sleep."—Shak. cor.

    "They could not speak, and so I left them both,
    To bear these tidings to the bloody king."—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF FIXED NUMBERS.

"Why, I think she cannot be above six feet two inches high."—Spect. cor. "The world is pretty regular for about forty rods east and ten west."—Id. "The standard being more than two feet above it."—Bacon cor. "Supposing, among other things, that he saw two suns, and two Thebeses."—Id. "On the right hand we go into a parlour thirty-three feet by thirty-nine."—Sheffield cor. "Three pounds of gold went to one shield."—1 Kings cor. "Such an assemblage of men as there appears to have been at that session."—The Friend cor. "And, truly, he has saved me from this labour."—Barclay cor. "Within these three miles may you see it coming."—Shak. cor. "Most of the churches, not all, had one ruling elder or more."—Hutch. cor. "While a Minute Philosopher, not six feet high, attempts to dethrone the Monarch of the universe."—Berkley cor. "The wall is ten feet high."—Harrison cor. "The stalls must be ten feet broad."—Walker cor. "A close prisoner in a room twenty feet square, being at the north side of his chamber, is at liberty to walk twenty feet southward, not to walk twenty feet northward."—Locke cor. "Nor, after all this care and industry, did they think themselves qualified."—C. Orator cor. "No fewer than thirteen Gypsies were condemned at one Suffolk assize, and executed."—Webster cor. "The king was petitioned to appoint one person or more."—Mrs. Macaulay cor. "He carries weight! he rides a race! 'Tis for a thousand pounds."—Cowper cor. "They carry three tiers of guns at the head, and at the stern, two tiers"—Joh. Dict. cor. "The verses consist of two sorts of rhymes."—Formey cor. "A present of forty camel-loads of the most precious things of Syria."—Wood's Dict. cor. "A large grammar, that shall extend to every minutia"—S. Barrett cor.

   "So many spots, like næves on Venus' soil,
    One gem set off with many a glitt'ring foil."—Dryden cor.

    "For, off the end, a double handful
    It had devour'd, it was so manful."—Butler cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—OF RECIPROCALS.

"That shall and will might be substituted one for the other."—Priestley cor. "We use not shall and will promiscuously the one for the other."—Brightland cor. "But I wish to distinguish the three high ones from one an other also."—Fowle cor. "Or on some other relation which two objects bear to each other."—Blair cor. "Yet the two words lie so near to each other in meaning, that, in the present case, perhaps either of them would have been sufficient."—Id. "Both orators use great liberties in their treatment of each other."—Id. "That greater separation of the two sexes from each other."—Id. "Most of whom live remote from one an other."—Webster cor. "Teachers like to see their pupils polite to one an other"—Id. "In a little time, he and I must keep company with each other only."—Spect. cor. "Thoughts and circumstances crowd upon one an other."—Kames cor. "They cannot perceive how the ancient Greeks could understand one an other."—Lit. Conv. cor. "The poet, the patriot, and the prophet, vied with one an other in his breast."—Hazlitt cor. "Athamas and Ino loved each other."—C. Tales cor. "Where two things are compared or contrasted one with the other." Or: "Where two things, are compared or contrasted with each other."—Blair and Mur. cor. "In the classification of words, almost all writers differ from one an other."—Bullions cor.

   "I will not trouble thee, my child. Farewell;
    We'll no more meet; we'll no more see each other."—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF COMPARATIVES.

"Errors in education should be less indulged than any others."—Locke cor. "This was less his case than any other man's that ever wrote."—Pref. to Waller cor. "This trade enriched some other people more than it enriched them."—Mur. cor. "The Chaldee alphabet, in which the Old Testament has reached us, is more beautiful than any other ancient character known."—Wilson cor. "The Christian religion gives a more lovely character of God, than any other religion ever did."—Murray cor. "The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any other in New Spain."—Robertson cor. "Cibber grants it to be a better poem of its kind than any other that ever was written"—Pope cor. "Shakspeare is more faithful to the true language of nature, than any other writer."—Blair cor. "One son I had—one, more than all my other sons, the strength of Troy." Or: "One son I had—one, the most of all my sons, the strength of Troy."—Cowper cor. "Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children, because he was the son of his old age."—Bible cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—OF SUPERLATIVES.

"Of all simpletons, he was the greatest"—Nutting cor. "Of all beings, man has certainly the greatest reason for gratitude."—Id. "This lady is prettier than any of her sisters."—Peyton cor. "The relation which, of all the class, is by far the most fruitful of tropes, I have not yet mentioned."—Blair cor. "He studied Greek the most of all noblemen."—W. Walker cor. "And indeed that was the qualification which was most wanted at that time."—Goldsmith cor. "Yet we deny that the knowledge of him as outwardly crucified, is the best of all knowledge of him."—Barclay cor. "Our ideas of numbers are, of all our conceptions, the most accurate and distinct"—Duncan cor. "This indeed is, of all cases, the one in which it is least necessary to name the agent"—J. Q. Adams cor. "The period to which you have arrived, is perhaps the most critical and important moment of your lives."—Id. "Perry's royal octavo is esteemed the best of all the pronouncing dictionaries yet known."—D. H. Barnes cor. "This is the tenth persecution, and, of all the ten the most bloody."—Sammes cor. "The English tongue is the most susceptible of sublime imagery, of all the languages in the world."—Bucke cor. "Of all writers whatever, Homer is universally allowed to have had the greatest Invention."—Pope cor. "In a version of this particular work, which, more than any other, seems to require a venerable, antique cast."—Id. "Because I think him the best-informed naturalist that has ever written."—Jefferson cor. "Man is capable of being the most social of all animals."—Sheridan cor. "It is, of all signs (or expressions) that which most moves us."—Id. "Which, of all articles, is the most necessary."—Id.

   "Quoth he, 'This gambol thou advisest,
    Is, of all projects, the unwisest.'"—S. Butler cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—OF INCLUSIVE TERMS.

"Noah and his family were the only antediluvians who survived the flood."—Webster cor. "I think it superior to any other grammar that we have yet had."—Blair cor. "We have had no other grammarian who has employed so much labour and judgement upon our native language, as has the author of these volumes."—British Critic cor. "Those persons feel most for the distresses of others, who have experienced distresses themselves."—L. Murray cor. "Never was any other people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation."—Id. et al. cor. "No other tongue is so full of connective particles as the Greek."—Blair cor. "Never was sovereign so much beloved by the people." Or: "Never was any other sovereign so much beloved by his people."—L. Murray cor. "Nothing else ever affected her so much as this misconduct of her child."—Id. et al. cor. "Of all the figures of speech, no other comes so near to painting as does metaphor."—Blair et al. cor. "I know no other writer so happy in his metaphors as is Mr. Addison."—Blair cor. "Of all the English authors, none is more happy in his metaphors than Addison."—Jamieson cor. "Perhaps no other writer in the world was ever so frugal of his words as Aristotle."—Blair and Jamieson cor. "Never was any other writer so happy in that concise and spirited style, as Mr. Pope."—Blair cor. "In the harmonious structure and disposition of his periods, no other writer whatever, ancient or modern, equals Cicero."—Blair and Jamieson cor. "Nothing else delights me so much as the works of nature."—L. Mur. cor. "No person was ever more perplexed than he has been to-day."—Id. "In no other case are writers so apt to err, as in the position of the word only."—Maunder cor. "For nothing is more tiresome than perpetual uniformity."—Blair cor.

"Naught else sublimes the spirit, sets it free, Like sacred and soul-moving poesy."—Sheffield cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—EXTRA COMPARISONS.

"How much better are ye than the fowls!"—Bible cor. "Do not thou hasten above the Most High."—Esdras cor. "This word, PEER, is principally used for the nobility of the realm."—Cowell cor. "Because the same is not only most generally received, &c."—Barclay cor. "This is, I say, not the best and most important evidence."—Id. "Offer unto God thanksgiving, and pay thy vows unto the Most High."—The Psalter cor. "The holy place of the tabernacle of the Most High."—Id. "As boys should be educated with temperance, so the first great lesson that should be taught them, is, to admire frugality."—Goldsmith cor. "More general terms are put for such as are more restricted."—Rev. J. Brown cor. "This, this was the unkindest cut of all."—Enfield's Speaker, p. 353. "To take the basest and most squalid shape."—Shak. cor. "I'll forbear: I have fallen out with my more heady will."—Id. "The power of the Most High guard thee from sin."—Percival cor. "Which title had been more true, if the dictionary had been in Latin and Welsh."—Verstegan cor. "The waters are frozen sooner and harder, than further upward, within the inlands."—Id. "At every descent, the worst may become more depraved."—Mann cor.

   "Or as a moat defensive to a house
    Against the envy of less happy lands."—Shak. cor.

    "A dreadful quiet felt, and worse by far
    Than arms, a sullen interval of war."—Dryden cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—ADJECTIVES CONNECTED.

"It breaks forth in its highest, most energetic, and most impassioned strain."—Kirkham cor. "He has fallen into the vilest and grossest sort of railing."—Barclay cor. "To receive that higher and more general instruction which the public affords."—J. O. Taylor cor. "If the best things have the best and most perfect operations."—Hooker cor. "It became the plainest and most elegant, the richest and most splendid, of all languages."—Bucke cor. "But the principal and most frequent use of pauses, is, to mark the divisions of the sense."—Blair cor. "That every thing belonging to ourselves is the best and the most perfect."— Clarkson cor. "And to instruct their pupils in the best and most thorough manner."—School Committee cor.

UNDER NOTE IX.—ADJECTIVES SUPERADDED.

"The Father is figured out as a venerable old man."—Brownlee cor. "There never was exhibited an other such masterpiece of ghostly assurance."—Id. "After the first three sentences, the question is entirely lost."—Spect. cor. "The last four parts of speech are commonly called particles."—Al. Murray cor. "The last two chapters will not be found deficient in this respect."—Todd cor. "Write upon your slates a list of the first ten nouns."—J. Abbott cor. "We have a few remains of two other Greek poets in the pastoral style, Moschus and Bion."—Blair cor. "The first nine chapters of the book of Proverbs are highly poetical."—Id. "For, of these five heads, only the first two have any particular relation to the sublime."—Id. "The resembling sounds of the last two syllables give a ludicrous air to the whole."—Kames cor. "The last three are arbitrary."—Id. "But in the sentence, 'She hangs the curtains,' hangs is an active-transitive verb."—Comly cor. "If our definition of a verb, and the arrangement of active-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, are properly understood."—Id. "These last two lines have an embarrassing construction."—Rush cor. "God was provoked to drown them all, but Noah and seven other persons."—Wood cor. "The first six books of the Æneid are extremely beautiful."—Formey cor. "Only a few instances more can here be given."—Murray cor. "A few years more will obliterate every vestige of a subjunctive form."—Nutting cor. "Some define them to be verbs devoid of the first two persons."—Crombie cor. "In an other such Essay-tract as this."—White cor. "But we fear that not an other such man is to be found."—Edward Irving cor. "O for an other such sleep, that I might see an other such man!" Or, to preserve poetic measure, say:—

"O for such sleep again, that I might see An other such man, though but in a dream!"—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE X.—ADJECTIVES FOR ADVERBS.

"The is an article, relating to the noun balm, agreeably to Rule 11th."—Comly cor. "Wise is an adjective, relating to the noun man's, agreeably to Rule 11th."—Id. "To whom I observed, that the beer was extremely good."—Goldsmith cor. "He writes very elegantly." Or: "He writes with remarkable elegance."—O. B. Peirce cor. "John behaves very civilly (or, with true civility) to all men."—Id. "All the sorts of words hitherto considered, have each of them some meaning, even when taken separately."—Beattie cor. "He behaved himself conformably to that blessed example."—Sprat cor. "Marvellously graceful."— Clarendon cor. "The Queen having changed her ministry, suitably to her wisdom."—Swift cor. "The assertions of this author are more easily detected."—Id. "The characteristic of his sect allowed him to affirm no more strongly than that."—Bentley cor. "If one author had spoken more nobly and loftily than an other."—Id. "Xenophon says expressly."— Id. "I can never think so very meanly of him."—Id. "To convince all that are ungodly among them, of all their ungodly deeds, which they have impiously committed."—Bible cor. "I think it very ably written." Or: "I think it written in a very masterly manner."—Swift cor. "The whole design must refer to the golden age, which it represents in a lively manner."—Addison cor. "Agreeably to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book."—Burder et al. cor. "Agreeably to the law of nature, children are bound to support their indigent parents."—Paley. "Words taken independently of their meaning, are parsed as nouns of the neuter gender."—Maltby cor.

"Conceit in weakest bodies strongliest works."—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE XI.—THEM FOR THOSE.

"Though he was not known by those letters, or the name CHRIST."—Bayly cor. "In a gig, or some of those things." Better: "In a gig, or some such vehicle."—M. Edgeworth cor. "When cross-examined by those lawyers."—Same. "As the custom in those cases is."—Same. "If you had listened to those slanders."—Same. "The old people were telling stories about those fairies; but, to the best of my judgement, there is nothing in them."—Same. "And is it not a pity that the Quakers have no better authority to substantiate their principles, than the testimony of those old Pharisees?"—Hibbard cor.

UNDER NOTE XII.—THIS AND THAT.

"Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear: that is the anticipation of good, this of evil."—Inst., p. 265. "The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy; but we should not therefore account these happy, and those miserable."—Inst., p. 266.

   "Ellen and Margaret, fearfully,
    Sought comfort in each other's eye;

    Then turned their ghastly look each one,
    That to her sire, this to her son."—Scott cor.

"Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids, In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades; Those by Apollo's silver bow were slain, These Cynthia's arrows stretch'd upon the plain."—Pope cor.

"Memory and forecast just returns engage, That pointing back to youth, this on to age."—Pope, on Man.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—EITHER AND NEITHER.

"These make the three great subjects of discussion among mankind; namely, truth, duty, and interest: but the arguments directed towards any of them are generically distinct."—Dr. Blair cor. "A thousand other deviations may be made, and still any of the accounts may be correct in principle; for all these divisions, and their technical terms, are arbitrary."—R. W. Green cor. "Thus it appears, that our alphabet is deficient; as it has but seven vowels to represent thirteen different sounds; and has no letter to represent any of five simple consonant sounds."—Churchill cor. "Then none of these five verbs can be neuter."—O. B. Peirce cor. "And the assertor[534] is in none of the four already mentioned."—Id. "As it is not in any of these four."—Id. "See whether or not the word comes within the definition of any of the other three simple cases."—Id. "No one of the ten was there."—Frazee cor. "Here are ten oranges, take any one of them."—Id. "There are three modes, by any of which recollection will generally be supplied; inclination, practice, and association."—Rippingham cor. "Words not reducible to any of the three preceding heads."—Fowler cor. "Now a sentence may be analyzed in reference to any of these four classes."—Id.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—WHOLE, LESS, MORE, AND MOST.

"Does not all proceed from the law, which regulates all the departments of the state?"—Blair cor. "A messenger relates to Theseus all the particulars."—Ld. Kames cor. "There are no fewer than twenty-nine diphthongs in the English language."—Ash cor. "The Redcross Knight runs through all the steps of the Christian life."—Spect. cor. "There were not fewer than fifty or sixty persons present."—Mills and Merchant cor. "Greater experience, and a more cultivated state of society, abate the warmth of imagination, and chasten the manner of expression."—Blair and Murray cor. "By which means, knowledge, rather than oratory, has become the principal requisite."—Blair cor. "No fewer than seven illustrious cities disputed the right of having given birth to the greatest of poets."—Lempriere cor. "Temperance, rather than medicines, is the proper means of curing many diseases."—Murray cor. "I do not suppose, that we Britons are more deficient in genius than our neighbours."—Id. "In which, he says, he has found no fewer than twelve untruths."—Barclay cor. "The several places of rendezvous were concerted, and all the operations were fixed."—Hume cor. "In these rigid opinions, all the sectaries concurred."—Id. "Out of whose modifications have been made nearly all complex modes."—Locke cor. "The Chinese vary each of their words on no fewer than five different tones."—Blair cor. "These people, though they possess brighter qualities, are not so proud as he is, nor so vain as she."—Murray cor. "It is certain, that we believe our own judgements more firmly, after we have made a thorough inquiry into the things."—Brightland cor. "As well as the whole course and all the reasons of the operation."—Id. "Those rules and principles which are of the greatest practical advantage."—Newman cor. "And all curse shall be no more."—Rev. cor.—(See the Greek.) "And death shall be no more."—Id. "But, in recompense, we have pleasanter pictures of ancient manners."—Blair cor. "Our language has suffered a greater number of injurious changes in America, since the British army landed on our shores, than it had suffered before, in the period of three centuries."—Webster cor. "All the conveniences of life are derived from mutual aid and support in society."—Ld. Kames cor.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES.

"To such as think the nature of it deserving of their attention."—Bp. Butler cor. "In all points, more deserving of the approbation of their readers."—Keepsake cor. "But to give way to childish sensations, was unbecoming to our nature."—Lempriere cor. "The following extracts are deserving of the serious perusal of all."—The Friend cor. "No inquiry into wisdom, however superficial, is undeserving of attention."—Bulwer cor. "The opinions of illustrious men are deserving of great consideration."—Porter cor. "And resolutely keep its laws. Uncaring for consequences." Or:—"Not heeding consequences."—Burns cor. "This is an item that is deserving of more attention."—Goodell cor.

"Leave then thy joys, unsuiting to such age:"—Or,

    "Leave then thy joys not suiting such an age,
    To a fresh comer, and resign the stage."—Dryden cor.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—FIGURE OF ADJECTIVES.

"The tall dark mountains and the deep-toned seas."—Dana. "O! learn from him To station quick-eyed Prudence at the helm."—Frost cor. "He went in a one-horse chaise."—David Blair cor. "It ought to be, 'in a one-horse chaise.'"—Crombie cor. "These are marked with the above-mentioned letters."—Folker cor. "A many-headed faction."—Ware cor. "Lest there should be no authority in any popular grammar, for the perhaps heaven-inspired effort."—Fowle cor. "Common-metre stanzas consist of four iambic lines; one of eight, and the next of six syllables. They were formerly written in two fourteen-syllable lines."—Goodenow cor. "Short-metre stanzas consist of four iambic lines; the third of eight, the rest of six syllables."—Id. "Particular-metre stanzas consist of six iambic lines; the third and sixth of six syllables, the rest of eight."—Id. "Hallelujah-metre stanzas consist of six iambic lines; the last two of eight syllables, and the rest of six."—Id. "Long-metre stanzas are merely the union of four iambic lines, of ten syllables each."—Id. "A majesty more commanding than is to be found among the rest of the Old-Testament poets."—Blair cor.

   "You, sulphurous and thought-executed fires,
    Vaunt-couriers to oak-cleaving thunderbolts,
    Singe my white head! And thou, all-shaking thunder,
    Strike flat the thick rotundity o' th' world!"—Lear, Act iii, Sc. 2.

CHAPTER V.—PRONOUNS.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE X AND ITS NOTES.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—OF AGREEMENT.

"The subject is to be joined with its predicate."—Wilkins cor. "Every one must judge of his own feelings."—Byron cor. "Every one in the family should know his or her duty."—Penn cor. "To introduce its possessor into that way in which he should go."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Do not they say, that every true believer has the Spirit of God in him?"—Barclay cor. "There is none in his natural state righteous; no, not one."—Wood cor. "If ye were of the world, the world would love its own."—Bible cor. "His form had not yet lost all its original brightness."—Milton cor. "No one will answer as if I were his friend or companion."—Steele cor. "But, in lowliness of mind, let each esteem others better than himself."—Bible cor. "And let none of you imagine evil in his heart against his neighbour."—Id. "For every tree is known by its own fruit."—Id. "But she fell to laughing, like one out of his right mind."—M. Edgeworth cor. "Now these systems, so far from having any tendency to make men better, have a manifest tendency to make them worse."—Wayland cor. "And nobody else would make that city his refuge any more."—Josephus cor. "What is quantity, as it respects syllables or words? It is the time which a speaker occupies in pronouncing them."—Bradley cor. "In such expressions, the adjective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning, that it is usually parsed as such."—Bullions cor. "The tongue is like a racehorse; which runs the faster, the less weight he carries." Or thus: "The tongue is like a racehorse; the less weight it carries, the faster it runs."—Addison, Murray, et al. cor. "As two thoughtless boys were trying to see which could lift the greatest weight with his jaws, one of them had several of his firm-set teeth wrenched from their sockets."—Newspaper cor. "Every body nowadays publishes memoirs; every body has recollections which he thinks worthy of recording."—Duchess D'Ab. cor. "Every body trembled, for himself, or for his friends."—Goldsmith cor.

   "A steed comes at morning: no rider is there;
    But his bridle is red with the sign of despair."—Campbell cor.

UNDER NOTE I.—PRONOUNS WRONG—OR NEEDLESS.

"Charles loves to study; but John, alas! is very idle."—Merchant cor. "Or what man is there of you, who, if his son ask bread, will give him a stone?"—Bible cor. "Who, in stead of going about doing good, are perpetually intent upon doing mischief."—Tillotson cor. "Whom ye delivered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius Pilate."—Bible cor. "Whom, when they had washed her, they laid in an upper chamber."—Id. "Then Manasseh knew that the Lord was God."—Id. "Whatever a man conceives clearly, he may, if he will be at the trouble, put into distinct propositions, and express clearly to others."—See Blair's Rhet., p. 93. "But the painter, being entirely confined to that part of time which he has chosen, cannot exhibit various stages of the same action."—Murray's Gram., i, 195. "What he subjoins, is without any proof at all."—Barclay cor. "George Fox's Testimony concerning Robert Barclay."—Title cor. "According to the advice of the author of the Postcript [sic—KTH]."—Barclay cor. "These things seem as ugly to the eye of their meditations, as those Ethiopians that were pictured on Nemesis's pitcher."—Bacon cor. "Moreover, there is always a twofold condition propounded with the Sphynx's enigmas."—Id. "Whoever believeth not therein, shall perish."—Koran cor. "When, at Sestius's entreaty, I had been at his house."—W. Walker cor.

   "There high on Sipylus's shaggy brow,
    She stands, her own sad monument of wo."—Pope cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—CHANGE OF NUMBER.

"So will I send upon you famine, and evil beasts, and they shall bereave you."—Bible cor. "Why do you plead so much for it? why do you preach it up?" Or: "Why do ye plead so much for it? why do ye preach it up?"—Barclay cor. "Since thou hast decreed that I shall bear man, thy darling."—Edward's Gram. cor. "You have my book, and I have yours; i.e., your book." Or thus: "Thou hast my book, and I have thine; i.e., thy book."—Chandler cor. "Neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what thou art."—Bullions cor. "Return, thou backsliding Israel, saith the Lord, and I will not cause mine anger to fall upon thee."—Bible cor. "The Almighty, unwilling to cut thee off in the fullness of iniquity, has sent me to give thee warning."—Ld. Kames cor. "Wast thou born only for pleasure? wast thou never to do any thing?"—Collier cor. "Thou shalt be required to go to God, to die, and to give up thy account."—Barnes cor. "And canst thou expect to behold the resplendent glow of the Creator? would not such a sight annihilate thee?"—Milton cor. "If the prophet had commanded thee to do some great thing, wouldst thou have refused?"—C. S. Journal cor. "Art thou a penitent? evince thy sincerity, by bringing forth fruits meet for repentance."—Vade-Mecum cor. "I will call thee my dear son: I remember all thy tenderness."—C. Tales cor. "So do thou, my son: open thy ears, and thy eyes."—Wright cor. "I promise you, this was enough to discourage you."—Bunyan cor. "Ere you remark an other's sin, Bid your own conscience look within."—Gay cor. "Permit that I share in thy wo, The privilege canst thou refuse?"—Perfect cor. "Ah! Strephon, how canst thou despise Her who, without thy pity, dies?"—Swift cor.

   "Thy verses, friend, are Kidderminster stuff;
    And I must own, thou'st measured out enough."—Shenst. cor.

    "This day, dear Bee, is thy nativity;
    Had Fate a luckier one, she'd give it thee."—Swift cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—WHO AND WHICH.

"Exactly like so many puppets, which are moved by wires."—Blair cor. "They are my servants, whom I brought forth[535] out of the land of Egypt."—Leviticus, xxv, 55. "Behold, I and the children whom God hath given me."—See Isaiah, viii, 18. "And he sent Eliakim, who was over the household, and Shebna the scribe."—Isaiah, xxxvii, 2. "In a short time the streets were cleared of the corpses which filled them."—M'Ilvaine cor. "They are not of those who teach things that they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake."—Barclay cor. "As a lion among the beasts of the forest, as a young lion among the flocks of sheep; which, if he go through, both treadeth down and teareth in pieces."—Bible cor. "Frequented by every fowl which nature has taught to dip the wing in water."—Johnson cor. "He had two sons, one of whom was adopted by the family of Maximus."—Lempriere cor. "And the ants, which are collected by the smell, are burned with fire."—The Friend cor. "They being the agents to whom this thing was trusted."—Nixon cor. "A packhorse which is driven constantly one way and the other, to and from market."—Locke cor. "By instructing children, whose affection will be increased."—Nixon cor. "He had a comely young woman, who travelled with him."—Hutchinson cor. "A butterfly, who thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to light upon a beehive."—Inst., p. 267. "It is an enormous elephant of stone, which disgorges from his uplifted trunk a vast but graceful shower."—Ware cor. "He was met by a dolphin, which sometimes swam before him, and sometimes behind him."—Edward's Gram. cor.

   "That Cæsar's horse, which, as fame goes,
    Had corns upon his feet and toes,
    Was not by half so tender-hoof'd,
    Nor trod upon the ground so soft."—Butler cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—NOUNS OF MULTITUDE.

"He instructed and fed the crowds that surrounded him."—Murray's Key. "The court, which gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary." p. 187. "Nor does he describe classes of sinners that do not exist."—Mag. cor. "Because the nations among which they took their rise, were not savage."—Murray cor. "Among nations that are in the first and rude periods of society."—Blair cor. "The martial spirit of those nations among which the feudal government prevailed."—Id. "France, which was in alliance with Sweden."—Priestley's Gram., p. 97. "That faction, in England, which most powerfully opposed his arbitrary pretensions."—Ib. "We may say, 'the crowd which was going up the street.'"—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 204. "Such members of the Convention which formed this Lyceum, as have subscribed this Constitution."—N. Y. Lyceum cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—CONFUSION OF SENSES.

"The name of the possessor shall take a particular form to show its case."—Kirkham cor. "Of which reasons, the principal one is, that no noun, properly so called, implies the presence of the thing named."—Harris cor. "Boston is a proper noun, which distinguishes the city of Boston from other cities."—Sanborn cor. "The word CONJUNCTION means union, or the act of joining together. Conjunctions are used to join or connect either words or sentences."—Id. "The word INTERJECTION means the act of throwing between. Interjections are interspersed among other words, to express strong or sudden emotion."—Id. "Indeed is composed of in and deed. The words may better be written separately, as they formerly were."—Cardell cor. "Alexander, on the contrary, is a particular name; and is employed to distinguish an individual only."—Jamieson cor. "As an indication that nature itself had changed its course." Or:—"that Nature herself had changed her course."—History cor. "Of removing from the United States and their territories the free people of colour."—Jenifer cor. "So that gh may be said not to have its proper sound." Or thus: "So that the letters, g and h, may be said not to have their proper sounds."—Webster cor. "Are we to welcome the loathsome harlot, and introduce her to our children?"—Maturin cor. "The first question is this: 'Is reputable, national, and present use, which, for brevity's sake, I shall hereafter simply denominate good use, always uniform, [i. e., undivided, and unequivocal,] in its decisions?"—Campbell cor. "In personifications, Time is always masculine, on account of his mighty efficacy; Virtue, feminine, by reason of her beauty and loveliness."—Murray, Blair, et al. cor. "When you speak to a person or thing, the noun or pronoun is in the second person."—Bartlett cor. "You now know the noun; for noun means name."—Id. "T. What do you see? P. A book. T. Spell book."—R. W. Green cor. "T. What do you see now? P. Two books. T. Spell books."—Id. "If the United States lose their rights as a nation."—Liberator cor. "When a person or thing is addressed or spoken to, the noun or pronoun is in the second person."—Frost cor. "When a person or thing is merely spoken of, the noun or pronoun is in the third person."—Id. "The word OX also, taking the same plural termination, makes OXEN."—Bucke cor.

   "Hail, happy States! yours is the blissful seat
    Where nature's gifts and art's improvements meet."—Everett cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—THE RELATIVE THAT.

(1.) "This is the most useful art that men possess."—L. Murray cor. "The earliest accounts that history gives us, concerning all nations, bear testimony to these facts."—Blair et al. cor. "Mr. Addison was the first that attempted a regular inquiry into the pleasures of taste."—Blair cor. "One of the first that introduced it, was Montesquieu."—Murray cor. "Massillon is perhaps the most eloquent sermonizer that modern times have produced."—Blair cor. "The greatest barber that ever lived, is our guiding star and prototype."—Hart cor.

(2.) "When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the nouns are derived."—Murray's Gram., p. 200. Better thus: "The prepositions which are subjoined to nouns, are generally the same that," &c.—Priestley cor. "The same proportions that are agreeable in a model, are not agreeable in a large building."—Kames cor. "The same ornaments that we admire in a private apartment, are unseemly in a temple."—Murray cor. "The same that John saw also in the sun."—Milton cor.

(3.) "Who can ever be easy, that is reproached with his own ill conduct?"—T. à Kempis cor. "Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green?"—Inst., p. 267. "Who that has either sense or civility, does not perceive the vileness of profanity?"—G. Brown.

(4.) "The second person denotes the person or thing that is spoken to."—Kirkham cor. "The third person denotes the person or thing that is spoken of."—Id. "A passive verb denotes action received, or endured by the person or thing that is signified by its nominative."—Id. "The princes and states that had neglected or favoured the growth of this power."—Bolingbroke cor. "The nominative expresses the name of the person or thing that acts, or that is the subject of discourse."—Hiley cor.

(5.) "Authors that deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty."—Blair cor. "Writers that deal," &c.—Murray cor. "The neuter gender denotes objects that are neither male nor female."—Merchant cor. "The neuter gender denotes things that have no sex."—Kirkham cor. "Nouns that denote objects neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender."—Wells's Gram. of late, p. 55. Better thus: "Those nouns which denote objects that are neither male nor female, are of the neuter gender."—Wells cor. "Objects and ideas that have been long familiar, make too faint an impression to give an agreeable exercise to our faculties."—Blair cor. "Cases that custom has left dubious, are certainly within the grammarian's province."—L. Murray cor. "Substantives that end in ery, signify action or habit."—Id. "After all that can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar accurate."—Id. "Possibly, all that I have said, is known and taught."—A. B. Johnson cor.

(6.) "It is a strong and manly style that should chiefly be studied."—Blair cor. "It is this [viz., precision] that chiefly makes a division appear neat and elegant."—Id. "I hope it is not I that he is displeased with."—L. Murray cor. "When it is this alone that renders the sentence obscure."—Campbell cor. "This sort of full and ample assertion, 'It is this that,' is fit to be used when a proposition of importance is laid down."—Blair cor. "She is not the person that I understood it to have been."—L. Murray cor. "Was it thou, or the wind, that shut the door?"—Inst., p. 267. "It was not I that shut it."—Ib.

(7.) "He is not the person that he seemed to be."—Murray and Ingersoll cor. "He is really the person that he appeared to be."—Iid. "She is not now the woman that they represented her to have been."—Iid. "An only child is one that has neither brother nor sister; a child alone is one that is left by itself, or unaccompanied."—Blair, Jam., and Mur., cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—RELATIVE CLAUSES CONNECTED.

(1.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of a thing; (i. e.,) of whatever we conceive to subsist, or of whatever we merely imagine."—Lowth cor. (2.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing which exists, or of which we have any notion."—Murray et al. cor. (3.) "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any person, place, or thing, that exists, or that we can have an idea of."—Frost cor. (4.) "A noun is the name of any thing which exists, or of which we form an idea."—Hallock cor. (5.) "A Noun is the name of any person, place, object, or thing, that exists, or that we may conceive to exist."—D. C. Allen cor. (6.) "The name of every thing which exists, or of which we can form a notion, is a noun."—Fisk cor. (7.) "An allegory is the representation of some one thing by an other that resembles it, and that is made to stand for it."—Blair's Rhet., p. 150. (8.) "Had he exhibited such sentences as contained ideas inapplicable to young minds, or such as were of a trivial or injurious nature."—L. Murray cor. (9.) "Man would have others obey him, even his own kind; but he will not obey God, who is so much above him, and who made him."—Penn cor. (10.) "But what we may consider here, and what few persons have noticed, is," &c.—Brightland cor. (11.) "The compiler has not inserted those verbs which are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and which are improperly terminated by t in stead of ed."—Murray, Fisk, Hart, Ingersoll et al., cor. (12.) "The remaining parts of speech, which are called the indeclinable parts, and which admit of no variations, (or, being words that admit of no variations,) will not detain us long."—Dr. Blair cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—THE RELATIVE AND PREPOSITION.

"In the temper of mind in which he was then."—Lowth's Gram., p. 102. "To bring them into the condition in which I am at present."—Add. cor. "In the posture in which I lay."—Lowth's Gram., p. 102. "In the sense in which it is sometimes taken."—Barclay cor. "Tools and utensils are said to be right, when they answer well the uses for which they were made."—Collier cor. "If, in the extreme danger in which I now am," &c. Or: "If, in my present extreme danger," &c.—Murray's Sequel, p. 116. "News was brought, that Dairus [sic—KTH] was but twenty miles from the place in which they then were."—Goldsmith cor. "Alexander, upon hearing this news, continued four days where he then was:" or—"in the place in which he then was."—Id. "To read in the best manner in which reading is now taught."—L. Murray cor. "It may be expedient to give a few directions as to the manner in which it should be studied."—Hallock cor. "Participles are words derived from verbs, and convey an idea of the acting of an agent, or the suffering of an object, with the time at which it happens." [536]—A. Murray cor.

"Had I but serv'd my God with half the zeal With which I serv'd my king, he would not thus, In age, have left me naked to my foes."—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE IX.—ADVERBS FOR RELATIVES. "In compositions that are not designed to be delivered in public."—Blair cor. "They framed a protestation in which they repeated their claims."—Priestley's Gram., p. 133; Murray's, 197. "Which have reference to inanimate substances, in which sex has no existence."—Harris cor. "Which denote substances in which sex never had existence."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 26. "There is no rule given by which the truth may be found out."—W. Walker cor. "The nature of the objects from which they are taken."—Blair cor. "That darkness of character, through which we can see no heart:" [i. e., generous emotion.]—L. Murray cor. "The states with which [or between which] they negotiated."—Formey cor. "Till the motives from which men act, be known."—Beattie cor. "He assigns the principles from which their power of pleasing flows."—Blair cor. "But I went on, and so finished this History, in that form in which it now appears."—Sewel cor. "By prepositions we express the cause for which, the instrument by which, and the manner in which, a thing is done."—A. Murray cor. "They are not such in the language from which they are derived."—Town cor. "I find it very hard to persuade several, that their passions are affected by words from which they have no ideas."—Burke cor. "The known end, then, for which we are placed in a state of so much affliction, hazard, and difficulty, is our improvement in virtue and piety."—Bp. Butler cor.

   "Yet such his acts as Greeks unborn shall tell,
    And curse the strife in which their fathers fell."—Pope cor.

UNDER NOTE X.—REPEAT THE NOUN.

"Youth may be thoughtful, but thoughtfulness in the young is not very common."—Webster cor. "A proper name is a name given to one person or thing."—Bartlett cor. "A common name is a name given to many things of the same sort."—Id. "This rule is often violated; some instances of its violation are annexed."—L. Murray et al. cor. "This is altogether careless writing. Such negligence respecting the pronouns, renders style often obscure, and always inelegant."—Blair cor. "Every inversion which is not governed by this rule, will be disrelished by every person of taste."—Kames cor. "A proper diphthong, is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded."—Brown's Institutes, p. 18. "An improper diphthong, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded."—Ib. "Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and the descendants of Jacob, are called Hebrews."—Wood cor. "In our language, every word of more than one syllable, has one of its syllables distinguished from the rest in this manner."—L. Murray cor. "Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be separated; as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when two consonants come between two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must be divided, as, ut-most, un-der."—Id. "Shall the intellect alone feel no pleasures in its energy, when we allow pleasures to the grossest energies of appetite and sense?"—Harris and Murray cor. "No man has a propensity to vice as such: on the contrary, a wicked deed disgusts every one, and makes him abhor the author."—Ld. Kames cor. "The same grammatical properties that belong to nouns, belong also to pronouns."—Greenleaf cor. "What is language? It is the means of communicating thoughts from one person to an other."—O. B. Peirce cor. "A simple word is a word which is not made up of other words."—Adam and Gould cor. "A compound word is a word which is made up of two or more words."—Iid. "When a conjunction is to be supplied, the ellipsis is called Asyndeton."—Adam cor.

UNDER NOTE XI.—PLACE OF THE RELATIVE.

"It gives to words a meaning which they would not have."—L. Murray cor. "There are in the English language many words, that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs."—Id. "Which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than do the auxiliaries which are used to form the potential mood."—Id. "These accents, which will be the subject of a following speculation, make different impressions on the mind."—Ld. Kames cor. "And others differed very much from the words of the writers to whom they were ascribed."—John Ward cor. "Where there is in the sense nothing which requires the last sound to be elevated, an easy fall will be proper."—Murray and Bullions cor. "In the last clause there is an ellipsis of the verb; and, when you supply it, you find it necessary to use the adverb not, in lieu of no."—Campbell and Murray cor. "Study is of the singular number, because the nominative I, with which it agrees, is singular."—R. C. Smith cor. "John is the person who is in error, or thou art."—Wright cor. "For he hath made him, who knew no sin, to be sin for us."—Harrison's E. Lang., p. 197.

   "My friend, take that of me, who have the power
    To seal th' accuser's lips."—Shakspeare cor.

UNDER NOTE XII.—WHAT FOR THAT.

"I had no idea but that the story was true."—Brown's Inst., p. 268. "The postboy is not so weary but that he can whistle."—Ib. "He had no intimation but that the men were honest."—Ib. "Neither Lady Haversham nor Miss Mildmay will ever believe but that I have been entirely to blame."—Priestley cor. "I am not satisfied but that the integrity of our friends is more essential to our welfare than their knowledge of the world."—Id. "Indeed, there is in poetry nothing so entertaining or descriptive, but that an ingenious didactic writer may introduce it in some part of his work."—Blair cor. "Brasidas, being bit by a mouse he had catched, let it slip out of his fingers: 'No creature,' says he, 'is so contemptible but that it may provide for its own safety, if it have courage.'"—Ld. Kames cor.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—ADJECTIVES FOR ANTECEDENTS.

"In narration, Homer is, at all times, remarkably concise, and therefore lively and agreeable."—Blair cor. "It is usual to talk of a nervous, a feeble, or a spirited style; which epithets plainly indicate the writer's manner of thinking."—Id. "It is too violent an alteration, if any alteration were necessary, whereas none is."—Knight cor. "Some men are too ignorant to be humble; and without humility there can be no docility."—Berkley cor. "Judas declared him innocent; but innocent he could not be, had he in any respect deceived the disciples."—Porteus cor. "They supposed him to be innocent, but he certainly was not so."—Murray et al. cor. "They accounted him honest, but he certainly was not so."—Felch cor. "Be accurate in all you say or do; for accuracy is important in all the concerns of life."—Brown's Inst., p. 268. "Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked; and indeed he is so, if the law is just."—Ib. "To be pure in heart, pious, and benevolent, (and all may be so,) constitutes human happiness."—Murray cor. "To be dexterous in danger, is a virtue; but to court danger to show our dexterity, is a weakness."—Penn cor.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—SENTENCES FOR ANTECEDENTS.

"This seems not so allowable in prose; which fact the following erroneous examples will demonstrate."—L. Murray cor. "The accent is laid upon the last syllable of a word; which circumstance is favourable to the melody."—Kames cor. "Every line consists of ten syllables, five short and five long; from which rule there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."—Id. "The soldiers refused obedience, as has been explained."—Nixon cor. "Caesar overcame Pompey—a circumstance which was lamented."—Id. "The crowd hailed William, agreeably to the expectations of his friends."—Id. "The tribunes resisted Scipio, who knew their malevolence towards him."—Id. "The censors reproved vice, and were held in great honour."—Id. "The generals neglected discipline, which fact has been proved."—Id. "There would be two nominatives to the verb was, and such a construction is improper."—Adam and Gould cor. "His friend bore the abuse very patiently; whose forbearance, however, served only to increase his rudeness; it produced, at length, contempt and insolence."—Murray and Emmons cor. "Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical; and some examples of ellipsis may be found, under nearly all the different parts of speech."—Murray, Guy, Smith, Ingersoll, Fisk, et al. cor.

UNDER NOTE XV.—REPEAT THE PRONOUN.

"In things of Nature's workmanship, whether we regard their internal or their external structure, beauty and design are equally conspicuous."—Kames cor. "It puzzles the reader, by making him doubt whether the word ought to be taken in its proper, or in its figurative sense."—Id. "Neither my obligations to the muses, nor my expectations from them, are so great."—Cowley cor. "The Fifth Annual Report of the Antislavery Society of Ferrisburgh and its vicinity."—Title cor. "Meaning taste in its figurative as well as its proper sense."—Kames cor. "Every measure in which either your personal or your political character is concerned."—Junius cor. "A jealous and righteous God has often punished such in themselves or in their offspring."—Extracts cor. "Hence their civil and their religious history are inseparable."—Milman cor. "Esau thus carelessly threw away both his civil and his religious inheritance."—Id. "This intelligence excited not only our hopes, but our fears likewise."—Jaudon cor. "In what way our defect of principle, and our ruling manners, have completed the ruin of the national spirit of union."—Dr. Brown cor. "Considering her descent, her connexion, and her present intercourse."—Webster cor. "His own and his wife's wardrobe are packed up in a firkin."—Parker and Fox cor.

UNDER NOTE XVI.—CHANGE THE ANTECEDENT.

"The sounds of e and o long, in their due degrees, will be preserved, and clearly distinguished."—L. Murray cor. "If any persons should be inclined to think," &c., "the author takes the liberty to suggest to them," &c.—Id. "And he walked in all the way of Asa his father; he turned not aside from it."—Bible cor. "If ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brethren their trespasses."—Id. "None ever fancied they were slighted by him, or had the courage to think themselves his betters."—Collier cor. "And Rebecca took some very good clothes of her eldest son Esau's, which were with her in the house, and put them upon Jacob her younger son."—Gen. cor. "Where all the attention of men is given to their own indulgence."—Maturin cor. "The idea of a father is a notion superinduced to that of the substance, or man—let one's idea of man be what it will."—Locke cor. "Leaving all to do as they list."—Barclay cor. "Each person performed his part handsomely."—J. Flint cor. "This block of marble rests on two layers of stones, bound together with lead, which, however, has not prevented the Arabs from forcing out several of them."—Parker and Fox cor.

   "Love gives to all our powers a double power,
    Above their functions and their offices." Or:—
    "Love gives to every power a double power,
    Exalts all functions and all offices."—Shak. cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XI; OF PRONOUNS.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE IDEA OF PLURALITY.

"The jury will be confined till they agree on a verdict."—Brown's Inst., p. 145. "And mankind directed their first cares towards the needful."—Formey cor. "It is difficult to deceive a free people respecting their true interest."—Life of Charles XII cor. "All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but their follies and vices are innumerable."—Swift cor. "Every sect saith, 'Give us liberty:' but give it them, and to their power, and they will not yield it to any body else."—Cromwell cor. "Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up themselves as a young lion."—Bible cor. "For all flesh had corrupted their way upon the earth."—Id. "There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put them in great consternation."—Goldsmith cor.

UNDER NOTE I.—THE IDEA OF UNITY.

"The meeting went on with its business as a united body."—Foster cor. "Every religious association has an undoubted right to adopt a creed for itself."—Gould cor. "It would therefore be extremely difficult to raise an insurrection in that state against its own government."—Dr. Webster cor. "The mode in which a lyceum can apply itself in effecting a reform in common schools."—N. Y. Lyc. cor. "Hath a nation changed its gods, which yet are no gods?"—Jer. cor. "In the holy Scriptures, each of the twelve tribes of Israel is often called by the name of the patriarch from whom it descended." Or better:—"from whom the tribe descended."—Adams cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—UNIFORMITY OF NUMBER.

"A nation, by the reparation of the wrongs which it has done, achieves a triumph more glorious than any field of blood can ever give."—Adams cor. "The English nation, from whom we descended, have been gaining their liberties inch by inch."—Webster cor. "If a Yearly Meeting should undertake to alter its fundamental doctrines, is there any power in the society to prevent it from doing so?"—Foster's Rep. cor. "There is[537] a generation that curse their father, and do not bless their mother."—Bible cor. "There is[537] a generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet are not washed from their filthiness."—Id. "He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the Lord their God is with them, and the shout of a king is among them."—Id. "My people have forgotten me, they have burnt incense to vanity."—Id. "When a quarterly meeting has come to a judgement respecting any difference, relative to any monthly meeting belonging to it" &c.—Discip. cor. "The number of such compositions is every day increasing, and it appears to be limited only by the pleasure or the convenience of writers."—Booth cor. "The Church of Christ has the same power now as ever, and is led by the same spirit into the same practices."—Barclay cor. "The army, whom their chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile their miserable march." Or thus: "The army, which its chief had thus abandoned, pursued meanwhile its miserable march."—Lockhart cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XII; OF PRONOUNS.

ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY AND.

"Discontent and sorrow manifested themselves in his countenance."—Brown's Inst., p. 146. "Both conversation and public speaking became more simple and plain, such as we now find them."—Blair cor. "Idleness and ignorance, if they be suffered to proceed, &c."—Johnson and Priestley cor. "Avoid questions and strife: they show a busy and contentious disposition."—Penn cor. "To receive the gifts and benefits of God with thanksgiving, and witness them blessed and sanctified to us by the word and prayer, is owned by us."—Barclay cor. "Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose between their duty and their reputation."—Junius cor. "All the sincerity, truth, and faithfulness, or disposition of heart or conscience to approve them, found among rational creatures, necessarily originate from God."—Rev. J. Brown cor. "Your levity and heedlessness, if they continue, will prevent all substantial improvement."—Brown's Inst., p. 269. "Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems them oppressive."—Ib. "Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because they cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection."—Ib. "Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners: they imply a want of solid merit."—Ib. "If love and unity continue, they will make you partakers of one an other's joy."—Ib. "Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter: they will destroy, like a canker, every germ of friendship."—Ib. "Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity: guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of them."—Ib. "Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of opinion, if he does not pervert them to the injury of others."—Ib.

"With the azure and vermilion Which are mix'd for my pavilion."—Byron cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XIII; OF PRONOUNS.

ANTECEDENTS CONNECTED BY OR OR NOR.

"Neither prelate nor priest can give his [flock or] flocks any decisive evidence that you are lawful pastors."—Brownlee cor. "And is there a heart of parent or of child, that does not beat and burn within him?"— Maturin cor. "This is just as if an eye or a foot should demand a salary for its service to the body."—Collier cor. "If thy hand or thy foot offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee."—Bible cor. "The same might as well be said of Virgil, or any great author; whose general character will infallibly raise many casual additions to his reputation."—Pope cor. "Either James or John,—one or the other,—will come."—Smith cor. "Even a rugged rock or a barren heath, though in itself disagreeable, contributes, by contrast, to the beauty of the whole."—Kames cor. "That neither Count Rechteren nor Monsieur Mesnager had behaved himself right in this affair."—Spect. cor. "If an Aristotle, a Pythagoras, or a Galileo, suffers for his opinions, he is a 'martyr.'"—Fuller cor. "If an ox gore a man or a woman, that he or she die; then the ox shall surely be stoned."—Exod. cor. "She was calling out to one or an other, at every step, that a Habit was ensnaring him."—Johnson cor. "Here is a task put upon children, which neither this author himself, nor any other, has yet undergone."—R. Johnson cor. "Hence, if an adjective or a participle be subjoined to the verb when the construction is singular, it will agree both in gender and in number with the collective noun."—Adam and Gould cor. "And if you can find a diphthong or a triphthong, be pleased to point that out too."—Bucke cor. "And if you can find a trissyllable or a polysyllable, point it out."—Id. "The false refuges in which the atheist or the sceptic has intrenched himself."—Chr. Spect. cor. "While the man or woman thus assisted by art, expects his charms or hers will be imputed to nature alone."—Opie cor. "When you press a watch, or pull a clock, it answers your question with precision; for it repeats exactly the hour of the day, and tells you neither more nor less than you desire to know."—Bolingbroke cor.

"Not the Mogul, or Czar of Muscovy, Not Prester John, or Cham of Tartary, Is in his mansion monarch more than I."—King cor.

CHAPTER VI.—VERBS.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XIV AND ITS NOTES.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—VERB AFTER THE NOMINATIVE.

"Before you left Sicily, you were reconciled to Verres."—Duncan cor. "Knowing that you were my old master's good friend."—Spect. cor. "When the judge dares not act, where is the loser's remedy?"—Webster cor. "Which extends it no farther than the variation of the verb extends."—Mur. cor. "They presently dry without hurt, as myself have often proved."—R. Williams cor. "Whose goings-forth have been from of old, from everlasting."—Micah, v, 2. "You were paid to fight against Alexander, not to rail at him."—Porter cor. "Where more than one part of speech are almost always concerned."—Churchill cor. "Nothing less than murders, rapines, and conflagrations, employs their thoughts." Or: "No less things than murders, rapines, and conflagrations, employ their thoughts."—Duncan cor. "I wondered where you were, my dear."—Lloyd cor. "When thou most sweetly singst."—Drummond cor. "Who dares, at the present day, avow himself equal to the task?"—Gardiner cor. "Every body is very kind to her, and not discourteous to me."—Byron cor. "As to what thou sayst respecting the diversity of opinions."—M. B. cor. "Thy nature, Immortality, who knows?"—Everest cor. "The natural distinction of sex in animals, gives rise to what, in grammar, are called genders."—Id. "Some pains have likewise been taken."—Scott cor. "And many a steed in his stables was seen."—Penwarne cor. "They were forced to eat what never was esteemed food."—Josephus cor. "This that you yourself have spoken, I desire that they may take their oaths upon."—Hutchinson cor. "By men whose experience best qualifies them to judge."—Committee cor. "He dares venture to kill and destroy several other kinds of fish."—Walton cor. "If a gudgeon meet a roach, He ne'er will venture to approach." Or thus: "If a gudgeon meets a roach, He dares not venture to approach."—Swift cor. "Which thou endeavourst to establish to thyself."—Barclay cor. "But they pray together much oftener than thou insinuat'st."—Id. "Of people of all denominations, over whom thou presidest."—N. Waln cor. "I can produce ladies and gentlemen whose progress has been astonishing."—Chazotte cor. "Which of these two kinds of vice is the more criminal?"—Dr. Brown cor. "Every twenty-four hours afford to us the vicissitudes of day and night."—Smith's False Syntax, New Gram., p. 103. Or thus: "Every period of twenty-four hours affords to us the vicissitudes of day and night."—Smith cor. "Every four years add an other day."—Smith's False Syntax, Gram., p. 103. Better thus: "Every fourth year adds an other day."—Smith cor. "Every error I could find, Has my busy muse employed."—Swift cor. "A studious scholar deserves the approbation of his teacher."—Sanborn cor. "Perfect submission to the rules of a school indicates good breeding."—Id. "A comparison in which more than two are concerned."—Lennie's Gram., p. 78. "By the facilities which artificial language affords them."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Now thyself hast lost both lop and top."—Spencer cor. "Glad tidings are brought to the poor."—Campbell cor. "Upon which, all that is pleasurable or affecting in elocution, chiefly depends."—Sher. cor. "No pains have been spared to render this work complete."—Bullions cor. "The United States contain more than a twentieth part of the land of this globe."—Clinton cor. "I am mindful that myself am strong."—Fowler cor. "Myself am (not is) weak;"—"Thyself art (not is) weak."—Id.

   "How pale each worshipful and reverend guest
    Rises from clerical or city feast!"—Pope cor.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—VERB BEFORE THE NOMINATIVE.

"Where were you born? In London."—Buchanan cor. "There are frequent occasions for commas."—Ingersoll cor. "There necessarily follow from thence these plain and unquestionable consequences."—Priestley cor. "And to this impression contributes the redoubled effort."—Kames cor. "Or, if he was, were there no spiritual men then?"—Barclay cor. "So, by these two also, are signified their contrary principles."—Id. "In the motions made with the hands, consists the chief part of gesture in speaking."—Blair cor. "Dares he assume the name of a popular magistrate?"—Duncan cor. "There were no damages as in England, and so Scott lost his wager."—Byron cor. "In fact, there exist such resemblances."—Kames cor. "To him give all the prophets witness."—Acts, x, 43. "That there were so many witnesses and actors."—Addison cor. "How do this man's definitions stand affected?"—Collier cor. "Whence come all the powers and prerogatives of rational beings?"—Id. "Nor do the scriptures cited by thee prove thy intent."—Barclay cor. "Nor does the scripture cited by thee prove the contrary."—Id. "Why then citest thou a scripture which is so plain and clear for it?"—Id. "But what say the Scriptures as to respect of persons among Christians?"—Id. "But in the mind of man, while in the savage state, there seem to be hardly any ideas but what enter by the senses;"—Robertson cor. "What sounds has each of the vowels?"—Griscom cor. "Out of this have grown up aristocracies, monarchies, despotisms, tyrannies."—Brownson cor. "And there were taken up, of fragments that remained to them, twelve baskets."—Bible cor. "There seem to be but two general classes."—Day cor. "Hence arise the six forms of expressing time."—Id. "There seem to be no other words required."—Chandler cor. "If there are two, the second increment is the syllable next to the last."—Bullions cor. "Hence arise the following advantages."—Id. "There are no data by which it can be estimated."—Calhoun cor. "To this class, belongs the Chinese language, in which we have nothing but naked primitives."—Fowler cor. [[Fist] "Nothing but naked roots" is faulty; because no word is a root, except some derivative spring from it."—G. B.] "There were several other grotesque figures that presented themselves."—Spect. cor. "In these consists that sovereign good which ancient sages so much extol."—Percival cor. "Here come those I have done good to against my will."—Shak. cor. "Where there are more than one auxiliary." Or: "Where there are more auxiliaries than one."—O. B. Peirce cor.

   "On me to cast those eyes where shines nobility."
        —Sidney cor.

    "Here are half-pence in plenty, for one you'll have twenty."
        —Swift cor.

    "Ah, Jockey, ill advisest thou. I wis,
    To think of songs at such a time as this."
        —Churchill cor.

UNDER NOTE I.—THE RELATIVE AND VERB.

"Thou, who lovest us, wilt protect us still."—A. Murray cor. "To use that endearing language, 'Our Father, who art in heaven.'"—Bates cor. "Resembling the passions that produce these actions."—Kames cor. "Except dwarf, grief, hoof, muff, &c., which take s to make the plural."—Ash cor. "As the cattle that go before me, and the children, be able to endure."—Gen. cor. "Where is the man who dares affirm that such an action is mad?"—Dr. Pratt cor. "The ninth book of Livy affords one of the most beautiful exemplifications of historical painting, that are anywhere to be met with."—Dr. Blair cor. "In some studies, too, that relate to taste and fine writing, which are our object," &c.—Id. "Of those affecting situations which make man's heart feel for man."—Id. "We see very plainly, that it is neither Osmyn nor Jane Shore that speaks."—Id. "It should assume that briskness and ease which are suited to the freedom of dialogue."—Id. "Yet they grant, that none ought to be admitted into the ministry, but such as are truly pious."—Barclay cor. "This letter is one of the best that have been written about Lord Byron."—Hunt cor. "Thus, besides what were sunk, the Athenians took above two hundred ships."—Goldsmith cor. "To have made and declared such orders as were necessary."—Hutchinson cor. "The idea of such a collection of men as makes an army."—Locke cor. "I'm not the first that has been wretched."—Southern cor. "And the faint sparks of it which are in the angels, are concealed from our view."—Calvin cor. "The subjects are of such a nature, as allows room (or, as to allow room) for much diversity of taste and sentiment."—Dr. Blair cor. "It is in order to propose examples of such perfection, as is not to be found in the real examples of society."—Formey cor. "I do not believe that he would amuse himself with such fooleries as have been attributed to him."—Id. "That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed."—Milton, P. L., B. i, l. 8. "With respect to the vehemence and warmth which are allowed in popular eloquence."—Dr. Blair cor. "Ambition is one of those passions that are never to be satisfied."—Home cor. "Thou wast he that led out and brought in Israel."—Bible cor. "Art thou the man of God, that came from Judah?"—Id.

   "How beauty is excell'd by manly grace
    And wisdom, which alone are truly fair."—Milton cor.

    "What art thou, speak, that on designs unknown,
    While others sleep, thus roamst the camp alone?"—Pope cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—NOMINATIVE WITH ADJUNCTS.

"The literal sense of the words is, that the action had been done."—Dr. Murray cor. "The rapidity of his movements was beyond example."—Wells cor. "Murray's Grammar, together with his Exercises and Key, has nearly superseded every thing else of the kind."—Murray's Rec. cor. "The mechanism of clocks and watches was totally unknown."—Hume cor. "The it, together with the verb to be, expresses a state of being."—Cobbett cor. "Hence it is, that the profuse variety of objects in some natural landscapes, occasions neither confusion nor fatigue."—Kames cor. "Such a clatter of sounds indicates rage and ferocity."—Gardiner cor. "One of the fields makes threescore square yards, and the other, only fifty-five."—Duncan cor. "The happy effects of this fable are worth attending to."—Bailey cor. "Yet the glorious serenity of its parting rays, still lingers with us."—Gould cor. "Enough of its form and force is retained to render them uneasy."—Maturin cor. "The works of nature, in this respect, are extremely regular."—Pratt cor. "No small addition of exotic and foreign words and phrases, has been made by commerce."—Bicknell cor. "The dialect of some nouns is noticed in the notes."—Milnes cor. "It has been said, that a discovery of the full resources of the arts, affords the means of debasement, or of perversion."—Rush cor. "By which means, the order of the words is disturbed."—Holmes cor. "The two-fold influence of these and the others, requires the verb to be in the plural form."—Peirce cor. "And each of these affords employment."—Percival cor. "The pronunciation of the vowels is best explained under the rules relative to the consonants."—Coar cor. "The judicial power of these courts extends to all cases in law and equity."—Hall and Baker cor. "One of you has stolen my money."—Humorist cor. "Such redundancy of epithets, in stead of pleasing, produces satiety and disgust."—Kames cor. "It has been alleged, that a compliance with the rules of Rhetoric, tends to cramp the mind."—Hiley cor. "Each of these is presented to us in different relations."—Hendrick cor. "The past tense of these verbs, (should, would, might, could,) is very indefinite with respect to time."—Bullions cor. "The power of the words which are said to govern this mood, is distinctly understood."—Chandler cor.

   "And now, at length, the fated term of years
    The world's desire hath brought, and lo! the God appears."
        —Lowth cor.

    "Variety of numbers still belongs
    To the soft melody of odes, or songs."
        —Brightland cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—COMPOSITE OR CONVERTED SUBJECTS.

"Many are the works of human industry, which to begin and finish, is hardly granted to the same man."—Johnson cor. "To lay down rules for these, is as inefficacious."—Pratt cor. "To profess regard and act injuriously, discovers a base mind."—L. Murray et al. cor. "To magnify to the height of wonder things great, new, and admirable, extremely pleases the mind of man."—Fisher cor. "In this passage, 'according as' is used in a manner which is very common."—Webster cor. "A CAUSE DE, is called a preposition; A CAUSE QUE, a conjunction."—Webster cor. "To these it is given to speak in the name of the Lord."—The Friend cor. "While wheat has no plural, oats has seldom any singular."—Cobbett cor. "He cannot assert that ll (i.e., double Ell) is inserted in fullness to denote the sound of u"—Cobb cor. "Ch, in Latin, has the power of k."—Gould cor. "Ti, before a vowel, and unaccented, has the sound of si or ci."—Id. "In words derived from French, as chagrin, chicanery, and chaise, ch is sounded like sh."—Bucke cor. "But, in the words schism, schismatic, &c., the ch is silent."—Id. "Ph, at the beginning of words, is always sounded like f."—Bucke cor. "Ph has the sound of f as in philosophy."—Webster cor. "Sh has one sound only, as in shall."—Id. "Th has two sounds."—Id. "Sc, before a, o, u, or r, has the sound of sk."—Id. "Aw has the sound of a in hall."—Bolles cor. "Ew sounds like u"—Id. "Ow, when both vowels are sounded, has the power of ou in thou."—Id. "Ui, when both vowels are pronounced in one syllable, sounds like wi short, as in languid."—Id.

   "Ui three other sounds at least expresses,
    As who hears GUILE, REBUILD, and BRUISE, confesses."
        —Brightland cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—EACH, ONE, EITHER, AND NEITHER.

"When each of the letters which compose this word, has been learned."—Dr. Weeks cor. "As neither of us denies that both Homer and Virgil have great beauties."—Dr. Blair cor. "Yet neither of them is remarkable for precision."—Id. "How far each of the three great epic poets has distinguished himself."—Id. "Each of these produces a separate, agreeable sensation."—Id. "On the Lord's day, every one of us Christians keeps the sabbath."—Tr. of Iren. cor. "And each of them bears the image of purity and holiness."—Hope of Is. cor. "Was either of these meetings ever acknowledged or recognized?"—Foster cor. "Whilst neither of these letters exists in the Eugubian inscription."—Knight cor. "And neither of them is properly termed indefinite."—Dr. Wilson cor. "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect their several verbs:" or,—"each of which has in effect its own verb."—Lowth cor. "Sometimes, when the word ends in s, neither of the signs is used."—A. Mur. cor. "And as neither of these manners offends the ear."—J. Walker cor. "Neither of these two tenses is confined to this signification only."—R. Johnson cor. "But neither of these circumstances is intended here."—Tooke cor. "So that all are indebted to each, and each is dependent upon all."—Bible Rep. cor. "And yet neither of them expresses any more action in this case, than it did in the other."—Bullions cor. "Each of these expressions denotes action."—Hallock cor. "Neither of these moods seems to be defined by distinct boundaries."—Butler cor. "Neither of these solutions is correct."—Bullions cor. "Neither bears any sign of case at all."—Fowler cor.

"Each in his turn, like Banquo's monarchs, stalks." Or:— "All in their turn, like Banquo's monarchs, stalk."—Byron cor.

"And tell what each doth by the other lose."—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—VERB BETWEEN TWO NOMINATIVES.

"The quarrels of lovers are but a renewal of love."—Adam et al. cor. "Two dots, one placed above the other, are called a Sheva."—Wilson cor. "A few centuries more or less are a matter of small consequence."—Id. "Pictures were the first step towards the art of writing; hieroglyphics were the second step."—Parker cor. "The comeliness of youth is modesty and frankness; of age, condescension and dignity." Or, much better: "The great ornaments of youth are," &c.—Murray cor. "Merit and good works are the end of man's motion."—Bacon cor. "Divers philosophers hold, that the lips are parcel of the mind."—Shak. cor. "The clothing of the natives was the skins of wild beasts." Or thus: "The clothes of the natives were skins of wild beasts."—Hist. cor. "Prepossessions in favour of our native town, are not a matter of surprise."—Webster cor. "Two shillings and sixpence are half a crown, but not a half crown."—Priestley and Bicknell cor. "Two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and uniting in one sound, are called a diphthong."—Cooper cor. "Two or more sentences united together are called a Compound Sentence."—Day cor. "Two or more words rightly put together, but not completing an entire proposition, are called a Phrase."—Id. "But the common number of times is five." Or, to state the matter truly: "But the common number of tenses is six."—Brit. Gram. cor. "Technical terms, injudiciously introduced, are an other source of darkness in composition."—Jamieson cor. "The United States are the great middle division of North America."—Morse cor. "A great cause of the low state of industry, was the restraints put upon it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 199; Churchill's, 414. "Here two tall ships become the victor's prey."—Rowe cor. "The expenses incident to an outfit are surely no object."—The Friend cor.

"Perhaps their loves, or else their sheep, Were all that did their silly thoughts so busy keep."—Milt. cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—CHANGE OF THE NOMINATIVE.

"Much care has been taken, to explain all the kinds of words."—Inf. S. Gr. cor. "Not fewer [years] than three years, are spent in attaining this faculty." Or, perhaps better: "Not less than three years' time, is spent in attaining this faculty." Or thus: "Not less time than three years, is spent," &c.—Gardiner cor. "Where this night are met in state Many friends to gratulate His wish'd presence."—Milton cor. "Peace! my darling, here's no danger, Here's no ox anear thy bed."—Watts cor. "But all of these are mere conjectures, and some of them very unhappy ones."—Coleridge cor. "The old theorists' practice of calling the Interrogatives and Repliers ADVERBS, is only a part of their regular system of naming words."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Where several sentences occur, place them in the order of the facts."—Id. "And that all the events in conjunction make a regular chain of causes and effects."—Kames cor. "In regard to their origin, the Grecian and Roman republics, though equally involved in the obscurities and uncertainties of fabulous events, present one remarkable distinction."—Adams cor. "In these respects, man is left by nature an unformed, unfinished creature."—Bp. Butler cor. "The Scriptures are the oracles of God himself."—Hooker cor. "And at our gates are all kinds of pleasant fruits."—S. Song cor. "The preterits of pluck, look, and toss, are, in speech, pronounced pluckt, lookt, tosst."—Fowler corrected.

   "Severe the doom that days prolonged impose,
    To stand sad witness of unnumbered woes!"—Melmoth cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—FORMS ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT STYLES.

1. Forms adapted to the Common or Familiar Style. "Was it thou[538] that built that house?"—Brown's Institutes, Key, p. 270. "That boy writes very elegantly."—Ib. "Could not thou write without blotting thy book?"—Ib. "Dost not thou think—or, Don't thou think, it will rain to-day?"—Ib. "Does not—or, Don't your cousin intend to visit you?"—Ib. "That boy has torn my book."—Ib. "Was it thou that spread the hay?"—Ib. "Was it James, or thou, that let him in?"—Ib. "He dares not say a word."—Ib. "Thou stood in my way and hindered me."—Ib.

"Whom do I see?—Whom dost thou see now?—Whom does he see?—Whom dost thou love most?—What art thou doing to-day?—What person dost thou see teaching that boy?—He has two new knives.—Which road dost thou take?—What child is he teaching?"—Ingersoll cor. "Thou, who mak'st my shoes, sellst many more." Or thus: "You, who make my shoes, sell many more."—Id.

"The English language has been much cultivated during the last two hundred years. It has been considerably polished and refined."—Lowth cor. "This style is ostentatious, and does not suit grave writing."—Priestley cor. "But custom has now appropriated who to persons, and which to things" [and brute animals].—Id. "The indicative mood shows or declares something; as, Ego amo, I love; or else asks a question; as, Amas tu? Dost thou love?"—Paul's Ac. cor. "Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may and should do something."—Murray cor. "The support of so many of his relations, was a heavy tax: but thou knowst (or, you know) he paid it cheerfully."—Id. "It may, and often does, come short of it."—Murray^s Gram., p. 359.

   "'Twas thou, who, while thou seem'd to chide,
    To give me all thy pittance tried."—Mitford cor.

2. Forms adapted to the Solemn or Biblical Style. "The Lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens; and his kingdom ruleth over all."—Psalms, ciii, 19. "Thou answeredst them, O Lord our God; thou wast a God that forgave[539] them, though thou tookest vengeance of their inventions."—See Psalms, xcix, 8. "Then thou spakest in vision to thy Holy One, and saidst, I have laid help upon one that is mighty."—Ib., lxxxix, 19. "'So then, it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God that showeth mercy;' who dispenseth his blessings, whether temporal or spiritual, as seemeth good in his sight."—Christian Experience of St. Paul, p. 344; see Rom., ix, 16.

   "Thou, the mean while, wast blending with my thought;
    Yea, with my life, and life's own secret joy."—Coleridge cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—EXPRESS THE NOMINATIVE.

"Who is here so base, that he would be a bondman?"—Shak. cor. "Who is here so rude, he would not be a Roman?"—Id. "There is not a sparrow which falls to the ground without his notice." Or better: "Not a sparrow falls to the ground, without his notice."—Murray cor. "In order to adjust them in such a manner as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period."—Id. and Blair cor. "But sometimes there is a verb which comes in." Better: "But sometimes there is a verb introduced."—Cobbett cor. "Mr. Prince has a genius which would prompt him to better things."—Spect. cor. "It is this that removes that impenetrable mist."—Harris cor. "By the praise which is given him for his courage."—Locke cor. "There is no man who would be more welcome here."—Steele cor. "Between an antecedent and a consequent, or what goes before, and what immediately follows."—Blair cor. "And as connected with what goes before and what follows."—Id. "No man doth a wrong for the wrong's sake."—Bacon cor. "All the various miseries of life, which people bring upon themselves by negligence or folly, and which might have been avoided by proper care, are instances of this."—Bp. Butler cor. "Ancient philosophers have taught many things in favour of morality, so far at least as it respects justice and goodness towards our fellow-creatures."—Fuller cor. "Indeed, if there be any such, who have been, or who appear to be of us, as suppose there is not a wise man among us all, nor an honest man, that is able to judge betwixt his brethren; we shall not covet to meddle in their matters."—Barclay cor. "There were some that drew back; there were some that made shipwreck of faith; yea, there were some that brought in damnable heresies."—Id. "The nature of the cause rendered this plan altogether proper; and, under similar circumstances, the orator's method is fit to be imitated."—Blair cor. "This is an idiom to which our language is strongly inclined, and which was formerly very prevalent."—Churchill cor. "His roots are wrapped about the heap, and he seeth the place of stones."—Bible cor.

"New York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823.

Dear friend,

I am sorry to hear of thy loss; but I hope it may be retrieved. I should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. I shall call to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. A. B."

"New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823.

Dear sir,

I have just received the kind note you favoured me with this morning; and I cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further information, I find I have not lost so much as I at first supposed; and I believe I shall still be able to meet all my engagements. I should, however, be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D."

See Brown's Institutes, p. 271.

   "Will martial flames forever fire thy mind,
    And wilt thou never be to Heaven resign'd?"—Pope cor.

UNDER NOTE IX.—APPLICATION OF MOODS.

First Clause of the Note.—The Subjunctive Present.

"He will not be pardoned unless he repent."—Inst., p. 191. "If thou find any kernelwort in this marshy meadow, bring it to me."—Neef cor. "If thou leave the room, do not forget to shut that drawer."—Id. "If thou grasp it stoutly, thou wilt not be hurt:" or, (familiarly,)—"thou will not be hurt."—Id. "On condition that he come, I will consent to stay."—Murray's Key, p. 208. "If he be but discreet, he will succeed."—Inst., p. 280. "Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob."—Gen., xxxi, 24. "If thou cast me off, I shall be miserable."—Inst., p. 280. "Send them to me, if thou please."—Ib. "Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utter folly."—Ib. "Though a liar speak the truth, he will hardly be believed."—Bartlett cor. "I will go, unless I be ill."—L. Murray cor. "If the word or words understood be supplied, the true construction will be apparent."—Id. "Unless thou see the propriety of the measure, we shall not desire thy support."—Id. "Unless thou make a timely retreat, the danger will be unavoidable."—Id. "We may live happily, though our possessions be small."—Id. "If they be carefully studied, they will enable the student to parse all the exercises."—Id. "If the accent be fairly preserved on the proper syllable, this drawling sound will never be heard."—Id. "One phrase may, in point of sense, be equivalent to an other, though its grammatical nature be essentially different."—Id. "If any man obey not our word by this epistle, note that man."—2 Thess., iii, 14. "Thy skill will be the greater, if thou hit it."—Putnam, Cobb, or Knowles, cor. "We shall overtake him, though he run."—Priestley et al. cor. "We shall be disgusted, if he give us too much."—Blair cor.

   "What is't to thee, if he neglect thy urn,
    Or without spices let thy body burn?"—Dryden cor.

Second Clause of Note IX.—The Subjunctive Imperfect.[540]

"And so would I, if I were he."—Inst., p. 191. "If I were a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism."—Cardell cor. "If he were to go, he would attend to your business."—Id. "If thou felt as I do, we should soon decide."—Inst., p. 280. "Though thou shed thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely a fool."—Ib. "If thou loved him, there would be more evidence of it."—Ib. "If thou convinced him, he would not act accordingly."—Murray cor. "If there were no liberty, there would be no real crime."—Formey cor. "If the house were burnt down, the case would be the same."—Foster cor. "As if the mind were not always in action, when it prefers any thing."—West cor. "Suppose I were to say, 'Light is a body.'"—Harris cor. "If either oxygen or azote were omitted, life would be destroyed."—Gurney cor. "The verb dare is sometimes used as if it were an auxiliary."—Priestley cor. "A certain lady, whom I could name, if it were necessary."—Spect. cor. "If the e were dropped, c and g would assume their hard sounds."—Buchanan cor. "He would no more comprehend it, than if it were the speech of a Hottentot."—Neef cor. "If thou knew the gift of God," &c.—Bible cor. "I wish I were at home."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Fact alone does not constitute right: if it did, general warrants were lawful."—Junius cor. "Thou lookst upon thy boy, as though thou guessed it."—Putnam, Cobb, or Knowles, cor. "He fought as if he contended for life."—Hiley cor. "He fought as if he were contending for his life."—Id.

   "The dewdrop glistens on thy leaf,
    As if thou shed for me a tear;
    As if thou knew my tale of grief,
    Felt all my sufferings severe."—Letham cor.

Last Clause of Note IX.—The Indicative Mood.

"If he knows the way, he does not need a guide."—Inst., p. 191. "And if there is no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected."—Murray cor. "I cannot say that I admire this construction though it is much used."—Priestley cor. "We are disappointed, if the verb does not immediately follow it."—Id. "If it was they, that acted so ungratefully, they are doubly in fault."—Murray cor. "If art becomes apparent, it disgusts the reader."—Jamieson cor. "Though perspicuity is more properly a rhetorical than a grammatical quality, I thought it better to include it in this book."—Campbell cor. "Although the efficient cause is obscure, the final cause of those sensations lies open."—Blair cor. "Although the barrenness of language, or the want of words, is doubtless one cause of the invention of tropes."—Id. "Though it enforces not its instructions, yet it furnishes a greater variety."—Id. "In other cases, though the idea is one, the words remain quite separate."—Priestley cor. "Though the form of our language is more simple, and has that peculiar beauty."—Buchanan cor. "Human works are of no significancy till they are completed."—Kames cor. "Our disgust lessens gradually till it vanishes altogether."—Id. "And our relish improves by use, till it arrives at perfection."—Id. "So long as he keeps himself in his own proper element."—Coke cor. "Whether this translation was ever published or not, I am wholly ignorant."—Sale cor. "It is false to affirm, 'As it is day, it is light,' unless it actually is day."—Harris cor. "But we may at midnight affirm, 'If it is day, it is light.'"—Id. "If the Bible is true, it is a volume of unspeakable interest."—Dickinson cor. "Though he was a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he suffered."—Bible cor. "If David then calleth (or calls) him Lord, how is he his son?"—Id.

"'Tis hard to say, if greater want of skill Appears in writing, or in judging, ill."—Pope cor.

UNDER NOTE X.—FALSE SUBJUNCTIVES.

"If a man has built a house, the house is his."—Wayland cor. "If God has required them of him, as is the fact, he has time."—Id. "Unless a previous understanding to the contrary has been had with the principal."—Berrian cor. "O! if thou hast hid them in some flowery cave."—Milton cor. "O! if Jove's will has linked that amorous power to thy soft lay."—Id. "SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD: If thou love, If thou loved."—Dr. Priestley, Dr. Murray, John Burn, David Blair, Harrison, and others. "Till Religion, the pilot of the soul, hath lent thee her unfathomable coil."—Tupper cor. "Whether nature or art contributes most to form an orator, is a trifling inquiry."—Blair cor. "Year after year steals something from us, till the decaying fabric totters of itself, and at length crumbles into dust."—Murray cor. "If spiritual pride has not entirely vanquished humility."—West cor. "Whether he has gored a son, or has gored a daughter."—Bible cor. "It is doubtful whether the object introduced by way of simile, relates to what goes before or to what follows."—Kames cor.

   "And bridle in thy headlong wave,
    Till thou our summons answer'd hast." Or:—
    "And bridle in thy headlong wave,
    Till thou hast granted what we crave."—Milt. cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XV AND ITS NOTE.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE IDEA OF PLURALITY.

"The gentry are punctilious in their etiquette."—G. B. "In France, the peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes."—Harvey cor. "The people rejoice in that which should cause sorrow."—Murray varied. "My people are foolish, they have not known me."—Bible and Lowth cor. "For the people speak, but do not write."—Phil. Mu. cor. "So that all the people that were in the camp, trembled."—Bible cor. "No company like to confess that they are ignorant."—Todd cor. "Far the greater part of their captives were anciently sacrificed."—Robertson cor. "More than one half of them were cut off before the return of spring."—Id. "The other class, termed Figures of Thought, suppose the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning."—Blair and Mur. cor. "A multitude of words in their dialect approach to the Teutonic form, and therefore afford excellent assistance."—Dr. Murray cor. "A great majority of our authors are defective in manner."—J. Brown cor. "The greater part of these new-coined words have been rejected."—Tooke cor. "The greater part of the words it contains, are subject to certain modifications or inflections."—The Friend cor. "While all our youth prefer her to the rest."—Waller cor. "Mankind are appointed to live in a future state."—Bp. Butler cor. "The greater part of human kind speak and act wholly by imitation."—Rambler, No. 146. "The greatest part of human gratifications approach so nearly to vice."—Id., No. 160.

   "While still the busy world are treading o'er
    The paths they trod five thousand years before."—Young cor.

UNDER THE NOTE.—THE IDEA OF UNITY.

"In old English, this species of words was numerous."—Dr. Murray cor. "And a series of exercises in false grammar is introduced towards the end."—Frost cor. "And a jury, in conformity with the same idea, was anciently called homagium, the homage, or manhood."—Webster cor. "With respect to the former, there is indeed a plenty of means."—Kames cor. "The number of school districts has increased since the last year."—Throop cor. "The Yearly Meeting has purchased with its funds these publications."—Foster cor. "Has the legislature power to prohibit assemblies?"—Sullivan cor. "So that the whole number of the streets was fifty."—Rollin cor. "The number of inhabitants was not more than four millions."—Smollett cor. "The house of Commons was of small weight."—Hume cor. "The assembly of the wicked hath (or has) inclosed me."—Psal. cor. "Every kind of convenience and comfort is provided."—C. S. Journal cor. "Amidst the great decrease of the inhabitants in Spain, the body of the clergy has suffered no diminution; but it has rather been gradually increasing."—Payne cor. "Small as the number of inhabitants is, yet their poverty is extreme."—Id. "The number of the names was about one hundred and twenty."—Ware and Acts cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVI AND ITS NOTES.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF—THE VERB AFTER JOINT NOMINATIVES.

"So much ability and [so much] merit are seldom found."—Mur. et al. cor. "The etymology and syntax of the language are thus spread before the learner."—Bullions cor. "Dr. Johnson tells us, that, in English poetry, the accent and the quantity of syllables are the same thing."—Adams cor. "Their general scope and tendency, having never been clearly apprehended, are not remembered at all."—L. Murray cor. "The soil and sovereignty were not purchased of the natives."—Knapp cor. "The boldness, freedom, and variety, of our blank verse, are infinitely more favourable to sublimity of style, than [are the constraint and uniformity of] rhyme."—Blair cor. "The vivacity and sensibility of the Greeks seem to have been much greater than ours."—Id. "For sometimes the mood and tense are signified by the verb, sometimes they are signified of the verb by something else."—R. Johnson cor. "The verb and the noun making a complete sense, whereas the participle and the noun do not."—Id. "The growth and decay of passions and emotions, traced through all their mazes, are a subject too extensive for an undertaking like the present."—Kames cor. "The true meaning and etymology of some of his words were lost."—Knight cor. "When the force and direction of personal satire are no longer understood."—Junius cor. "The frame and condition of man admit of no other principle."—Dr. Brown cor. "Some considerable time and care were necessary."—Id. "In consequence of this idea, much ridicule and censure have been thrown upon Milton."—Blair cor. "With rational beings, nature and reason are the same thing."—Collier cor. "And the flax and the barley were smitten."—Bible cor. "The colon and semicolon divide a period; this with, and that without, a connective."—Ware cor. "Consequently, wherever space and time are found, there God must also be."—Newton cor. "As the past tense and perfect participle of LOVE end in ED, it is regular."—Chandler cor. "But the usual arrangement and nomenclature prevent this from being readily seen."—N. Butler cor. "Do and did simply imply opposition or emphasis."—A. Murray cor. "I and an other make the plural WE; thou and an other are equivalent to YE; he, she, or it, and an other, make THEY."—Id. "I and an other or others are the same as WE, the first person plural; thou and an other or others are the same as YE, the second person plural; he, she, or it, and an other or others, are the same as THEY, the third person plural."—Buchanan and Brit. Gram. cor. "God and thou are two, and thou and thy neighbour are two."—Love Conquest cor. "Just as AN and A have arisen out of the numeral ONE."—Fowler cor. "The tone and style of all of them, particularly of the first and the last, are very different."—Blair cor. "Even as the roebuck and the hart are eaten."—Bible cor. "Then I may conclude that two and three do not make five."—Barclay cor. "Which, at sundry times, thou and thy brethren have received from us."—Id. "Two and two are four, and one is five:" i, e., "and one, added to four, is five."—Pope cor. "Humility and knowledge with poor apparel, excel pride and ignorance under costly array."—See Murray's Key, Rule 2d. "A page and a half have been added to the section on composition."—Bullions cor. "Accuracy and expertness in this exercise are an important acquisition."—Id.

   "Woods and groves are of thy dressing,
    Hill and dale proclaim thy blessing." Or thus:—
    "Hill and valley boast thy blessing."—Milton cor.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—THE VERB BEFORE JOINT NOMINATIVES.

"There are a good and a bad, a right and a wrong, in taste, as in other things."—Blair cor. "Whence have arisen much stiffness and affectation."—Id. "To this error, are owing, in a great measure, that intricacy and [that] harshness, in his figurative language, which I before noticed."—Blair and Jamieson cor. "Hence, in his Night Thoughts, there prevail an obscurity and a hardness of style."—Blair cor. See Jamieson's Rhet., p. 167. "There are, however, in that work, much good sense and excellent criticism."—Blair cor. "There are too much low wit and scurrility in Plautus." Or: "There is, in Plautus, too much of low wit and scurrility."—Id. "There are too much reasoning and refinement, too much pomp and studied beauty, in them." Or: "There is too much of reasoning and refinement, too much of pomp and studied beauty, in them."—Id. "Hence arise the structure and characteristic expression of exclamation."—Rush cor. "And such pilots are he and his brethren, according to their own confession."—Barclay cor. "Of whom are Hymeneus and Philetus; who concerning the truth have erred."—Bible cor. "Of whom are Hymeneus and Alexander; whom I have delivered unto Satan."—Id. "And so were James and John, the sons of Zebedee."—Id. "Out of the same mouth, proceed blessing and cursing."—Id. "Out of the mouth of the Most High, proceed not evil and good."—Id. "In which there are most plainly a right and a wrong."—Bp. Butler cor. "In this sentence, there are both an actor and an object."—R. C. Smith cor. "In the breastplate, were placed the mysterious Urim and Thummim."—Milman cor. "What are the gender, number, and person, of the pronoun[541] in the first example?"—R. C. Smith cor. "There seem to be a familiarity and a want of dignity in it."—Priestley cor. "It has been often asked, what are Latin and Greek?"—Lit. Journal cor. "For where do beauty and high wit, But in your constellation, meet?"—Sam. Butler cor. "Thence to the land where flow Ganges and Indus."—Milton cor. "On these foundations, seem to rest the midnight riot and dissipation of modern assemblies."—Dr. Brown cor. "But what have disease, deformity, and filth, upon which the thoughts can be allured to dwell?"—Dr. Johnson cor. "How are the gender and number of the relative known?"—Bullions cor.

   "High rides the sun, thick rolls the dust,
    And feebler speed the blow and thrust."—Scott cor.

UNDER NOTE I.—CHANGE THE CONNECTIVE.

"In every language, there prevails a certain structure, or analogy of parts, which is understood to give foundation to the most reputable usage."—Dr. Blair cor. "There runs through his whole manner a stiffness, an affectation, which renders him [Shaftsbury] very unfit to be considered a general model."—Id. "But where declamation for improvement in speech is the sole aim."—Id. "For it is by these, chiefly, that the train of thought, the course of reasoning, the whole progress of the mind, in continued discourse of any kind, is laid open."—Lowth cor. "In all writing and discourse, the proper composition or structure of sentences is of the highest importance."—Dr. Blair cor. "Here the wishful and expectant look of the beggar naturally leads to a vivid conception of that which was the object of his thoughts."—Campbell cor. "Who say, that the outward naming of Christ, with the sign of the cross, puts away devils."—Barclay cor. "By which an oath with a penalty was to be imposed on the members."—Junius cor. "Light, or knowledge, in what manner soever afforded us, is equally from God."—Bp. Butler cor. "For instance, sickness or untimely death is the consequence of intemperance."—Id. "When grief or blood ill-tempered vexeth him." Or: "When grief, with blood ill-tempered, vexes him"—Shak. cor. "Does continuity, or connexion, create sympathy and relation in the parts of the body?"—Collier cor. "His greatest concern, his highest enjoyment, was, to be approved in the sight of his Creator."—L. Murray cor. "Know ye not that there is[542] a prince, a great man, fallen this day in Israel?"—Bible cor. "What is vice, or wickedness? No rarity, you may depend on it."—Collier cor. "There is also the fear or apprehension of it."—Bp. Butler cor. "The apostrophe with s ('s) is an abbreviation for is, the termination of the old English genitive."—Bullions cor. "Ti, ce, OR ci, when followed by a vowel, usually has the sound of sh; as in partial, ocean, special."—Weld cor.

   "Bitter constraint of sad occasion dear
    Compels me to disturb your season due."—Milton cor.

    "Debauch'ry, or excess, though with less noise,
    As great a portion of mankind destroys."—Waller cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—AFFIRMATION WITH NEGATION.

"Wisdom, and not wealth, procures esteem."—Inst., Key, p. 272. "Prudence, and not pomp, is the basis of his fame."—Ib. "Not fear, but labour has overcome him."—Ib. "The decency, and not the abstinence, makes the difference."—Ib. "Not her beauty, but her talents attract attention."—Ib. "It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attract attention."—Ib. "It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attracts attention."—Ib.

   "His belly, not his brains, this impulse gives:
    He'll grow immortal; for he cannot live." Or thus:—
    "His bowels, not his brains, this impulse give:
    He'll grow immortal; for he cannot live."—Young cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—AS WELL AS, BUT, OR SAVE.

"Common sense, as well as piety, tells us these are proper."—Fam. Com. cor. "For without it the critic, as well as the undertaker, ignorant of any rule, has nothing left but to abandon himself to chance."—Kames cor. "And accordingly hatred, as well as love, is extinguished by long absence'."—Id. "But at every turn the richest melody, as well as the sublimest sentiments, is conspicuous."—Id. "But it, as well as the lines immediately subsequent, defies all translation."—Coleridge cor. "But their religion, as well as their customs and manners, was strangely misrepresented."—Bolingbroke, on History, Paris Edition of 1808, p. 93. "But his jealous policy, as well as the fatal antipathy of Fonseca, was conspicuous."—Robertson cor. "When their extent, as well as their value, was unknown."—Id. "The etymology, as well as the syntax, of the more difficult parts of speech, is reserved for his attention at a later period."—Parker and Fox cor. "What I myself owe to him, no one but myself knows."—Wright cor. "None, but thou, O mighty prince! can avert the blow."—Inst., Key, p. 272. "Nothing, but frivolous amusements, pleases the indolent."—Ib.

"Nought, save the gurglings of the rill, was heard."—G. B.

"All songsters, save the hooting owl, were mute."—G. B.

UNDER NOTE IV.—EACH, EVERY, OR NO.

"Give every word, and every member, its due weight and force."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 316. "And to one of these belongs every noun, and every third person of every verb."—Dr. Wilson cor. "No law, no restraint, no regulation, is required to keep him within bounds."—Lit. Journal cor. "By that time, every window and every door in the street was full of heads."—Observer cor. "Every system of religion, and every school of philosophy, stands back from this field, and leaves Jesus Christ alone, the solitary example." Or: "All systems of religion, and all schools of philosophy, stand back from this field, and leave Jesus Christ alone, the solitary example."—Abbott cor. "Each day, and each hour, brings its portion of duty."—Inst., Key, p. 272. "And every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented, resorted unto him."—Bible cor. "Every private Christian, every member of the church, ought to read and peruse the Scriptures, that he may know his faith and belief to be founded upon them."—Barclay cor. "And every mountain and every island was moved out of its place."—Bible cor.

   "No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride,
    No cavern'd hermit rests self-satisfied."—Pope.

UNDER NOTE V.—WITH, OR, &c., FOR AND.

"The sides, A, B, and C, compose the triangle."—Tobitt, Felch, and Ware cor. "The stream, the rock, and the tree, must each of them stand forth, so as to make a figure in the imagination."—Dr. Blair cor. "While this, with euphony, constitutes, finally, the whole."—O. B. Peirce cor. "The bag, with the guineas and dollars in it, was stolen."—Cobbett cor. "Sobriety, with great industry and talent, enables a man to perform great deeds." Or: "Sobriety, industry, and talent, enable a man to perform great deeds."—Id. "The it, together with the verb, expresses a state of being."—Id. "Where Leonidas the Spartan king, and his chosen band, fighting for their country, were cut off to the last man."—Kames cor.. "And Leah also, and her children, came near and bowed themselves."—Bible cor. "The First and the Second will either of them, by itself, coalesce with the Third, but they do not coalesce with each other."—Harris cor. "The whole must centre in the query, whether Tragedy and Comedy are hurtful and dangerous representations."—Formey cor. "Both grief and joy are infectious: the emotions which they raise in the spectator, resemble them perfectly."—Kames cor. "But, in all other words, the q and u are both sounded."—Ensell cor. "Q and u (which are always together) have the sound of kw, as in queen; or of k only, as in opaque." Or, better: "Q has always the sound of k; and the u which follows it, that of w; except in French words, in which the u is silent."—Goodenow cor. "In this selection, the a and i form distinct syllables."—Walker cor. "And a considerable village, with gardens, fields, &c., extends around on each side of the square."—Lib. cor. "Affection and interest guide our notions and behaviour in the affairs of life; imagination and passion affect the sentiments that we entertain in matters of taste."—Jamieson cor. "She heard none of those intimations of her defects, which envy, petulance, and anger, produce among children."—Johnson cor. "The King, Lords, and Commons, constitute an excellent form of government."—Crombie et al. cor. "If we say, 'I am the man who commands you,' the relative clause, with the antecedent man, forms the predicate."—Crombie cor.

   "The spacious firmament on high,
    The blue ethereal vault of sky,
    And spangled heav'ns, a shining frame,
    Their great Original proclaim."—Addison cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—ELLIPTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.

"There are a reputable and a disreputable practice." Or: "There is a reputable, and there is a disreputable practice."—Adams cor. "This man and this were born in her."—Milton cor. "This man and that were born in her."—Bible cor. "This and that man were born there."—Hendrick cor. "Thus le in l~ego, and le in l=egi, seem to be sounded equally long."—Adam and Gould cor. "A distinct and an accurate articulation form the groundwork of good delivery." Or: "A distinct and accurate articulation forms the groundwork of good delivery."—Kirkham cor. "How are vocal and written language understood?"—Sanders cor. "The good, the wise, and the learned man, are ornaments to human society." Or: "The good, wise, and learned man is an ornament to human society."—Bartlett cor. "In some points, the expression of song and that of speech are identical."—Rush cor. "To every room, there were an open and a secret passage."—Johnson cor. "There are such things as a true and a false taste; and the latter as often directs fashion, as the former."—Webster cor. "There are such things as a prudent and an imprudent institution of life, with regard to our health and our affairs."—Bp. Butler cor. "The lot of the outcasts of Israel, and that of the dispersed of Judah, however different in one respect, have in an other corresponded with wonderful exactness."—Hope of Israel cor. "On these final syllables, the radical and the vanishing movement are performed."—Rush cor. "To be young or old, and to be good, just, or the contrary, are physical or moral events."—Spurzheim cor., and Felch. "The eloquence of George Whitfield and that of John Wesley were very different in character each from the other."—Dr. Sharp cor. "The affinity of m for the series beginning with b, and that of n for the series beginning with t, give occasion for other euphonic changes."—Fowler cor.

   "Pylades' soul, and mad Orestes', were
    In these, if right the Greek philosopher." Or thus:—
    "Pylades' and Orestes' soul did pass
    To these, if we believe Pythagoras." Or, without ellipsis:—
    "Pylades and Orestes' souls did pass
    To these, if we believe Pythagoras."—Cowley corrected.

UNDER NOTE VII.—DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES.

"To be moderate in our views, and to proceed temperately in the pursuit of them, are the best ways to ensure success."—L. Murray cor. "To be of any species, and to have a right to the name of that species, are both one."—Locke cor. "With whom, to will, and to do, are the same."—Dr. Jamieson cor. "To profess, and to possess, are very different things."—Inst., Key, p. 272. "To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, are duties of universal obligation."—Ib. "To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, are all equally alien from the nature of thought."—Dr. Johnson. "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or parts of speech, and [a] stating [of] the accidents which belong to these, are called PARSING." Or, according to Note 1st above: "The resolving of a sentence into its elements, or parts of speech, with [a] stating [of] the accidents which belong to these, is called PARSING."—Bullions cor. "To spin and to weave, to knit and to sew, were once a girl's employments; but now, to dress, and to catch a beau, are all she calls enjoyments."—Kimball cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVII AND ITS NOTES.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY OR.

"We do not know in what either reason or instinct consists."—Johnson corrected. "A noun or a pronoun joined with a participle, constitutes a nominative case absolute."—Bicknell cor. "The relative will be of that case which the verb or noun following, or the preposition going before, uses to govern:" or,—"usually governs."—Adam, Gould, et al., cor. "In the different modes of pronunciation, which habit or caprice gives rise to."—Knight cor. "By which he, or his deputy, was authorized to cut down any trees in Whittlebury forest."—Junius cor. "Wherever objects were named, in which sound, noise, or motion, was concerned, the imitation by words was abundantly obvious."—Dr. Blair cor. "The pleasure or pain resulting from a train of perceptions in different circumstances, is a beautiful contrivance of nature for valuable purposes."—Kames cor. "Because their foolish vanity, or their criminal ambition, represents the principles by which they are influenced, as absolutely perfect."—D. Boileau cor. "Hence naturally arises indifference or aversion between the parties."—Dr. Brown cor. "A penitent unbeliever, or an impenitent believer, is a character nowhere to be found."—Tract cor. "Copying whatever is peculiar in the talk of all those whose birth or fortune entitles them to imitation."—Johnson cor. "Where love, hatred, fear, or contempt, is often of decisive influence."—Duncan cor. "A lucky anecdote, or an enlivening tale, relieves the folio page."—D'Israeli cor. "For outward matter or event fashions not the character within." Or: (according to the antique style of this modern book of proverbs:)—"fashioneth not the character within."—Tupper cor. "Yet sometimes we have seen that wine, or chance, has warmed cold brains."—Dryden cor. "Motion is a genus; flight, a species; this flight or that flight is an individual."—Harris cor. "When et, aut, vel, sive, or nec, is repeated before different members of the same sentence."—Adam, Gould, and Grant, cor. "Wisdom or folly governs us."—Fisk cor. "A or an is styled the indefinite article"—Folker cor. "A rusty nail, or a crooked pin, shoots up into a prodigy."—Spect. cor. "Is either the subject or the predicate in the second sentence modified?"—Prof. Fowler cor.

"Praise from a friend, or censure from a foe, Is lost on hearers that our merits know."—Pope cor.

UNDER THE RULE ITSELF.—NOMINATIVES CONNECTED BY NOR.

"Neither he nor she has spoken to him."—Perrin cor. "For want of a process of events, neither knowledge nor elegance preserves the reader from weariness."—Johnson cor. "Neither history nor tradition furnishes such information."—Robertson cor. "Neither the form nor the power of the liquids has varied materially."—Knight cor. "Where neither noise nor motion is concerned."—Blair cor. "Neither Charles nor his brother was qualified to support such a system."—Junius cor. "When, therefore, neither the liveliness of representation, nor the warmth of passion serves, as it were, to cover the trespass, it is not safe to leave the beaten track."—Campbell cor. "In many countries called Christian, neither Christianity, nor its evidence, is fairly laid before men."—Bp. Butler cor. "Neither the intellect nor the heart is capable of being driven."—Abbott cor. "Throughout this hymn, neither Apollo nor Diana is in any way connected with the Sun or Moon."—Coleridge cor. "Of which, neither he, nor this grammar, takes any notice."—R. Johnson cor. "Neither their solicitude nor their foresight extends so far."—Robertson cor. "Neither Gomara, nor Oviedo, nor Herrera, considers Ojeda, or his companion Vespucci, as the first discoverer of the continent of America."—Id. "Neither the general situation of our colonies, nor that particular distress which forced the inhabitants of Boston to take up arms, has been thought worthy of a moment's consideration."—Junius cor.

   "Nor war nor wisdom yields our Jews delight,
    They will not study, and they dare not fight."—Crabbe cor.

    "Nor time nor chance breeds such confusions yet,
    Nor are the mean so rais'd, nor sunk the great."—Rowe cor.

UNDER NOTE I.—NOMINATIVES THAT DISAGREE.

"The definite article, the, designates what particular thing or things are meant."—Merchant cor. "Sometimes a word, or several words, necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a sentence, are not expressed, but are omitted by ellipsis."—Burr cor. "Ellipsis, (better, Ellipses,) or abbreviations, are the wheels of language."—Maunder cor. "The conditions or tenor of none of them appears at this day." Or: "The tenor or conditions of none of them appear at this day."— Hutchinson cor. "Neither men nor money was wanting for the service." Or: "Neither money nor men were wanting for the service."—Id. "Either our own feelings, or the representation of those of others, requires emphatic distinction to be frequent."—Dr. Barber cor. "Either Atoms and Chance, or Nature, is uppermost: now I am for the latter part of the disjunction."—Collier cor. "Their riches or poverty is generally proportioned to their activity or indolence."—Cox cor. "Concerning the other part of him, neither he nor you seem to have entertained an idea."—Horne cor. "Whose earnings or income is so small."—Discip. cor. "Neither riches nor fame renders a man happy."—Day cor. "The references to the pages always point to the first volume, unless the Exercises or Key is mentioned." Or, better:—"unless mention is made of the Exercises or Key." Or: "unless the Exercises or Key be named."—L. Murray cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—COMPLETE THE CONCORD.

"My lord, you wrong my father; neither is he, nor am I, capable of harbouring a thought against your peace."—Walpole cor. "There was no division of acts; there were no pauses, or intervals, in the performance; but the stage was continually full; occupied either by the actors, or by the chorus."—Dr. Blair cor. "Every word ending in b, p, or f, is of this order, as also are many that end in v."—Dr. Murray cor. "Proud as we are of human reason, nothing can be more absurd than is the general system of human life and human knowledge."— Bolingbroke cor. "By which the body of sin and death is done away, and we are cleansed."—Barclay cor. "And those were already converted, and regeneration was begun in them."—Id. "For I am an old man, and my wife is well advanced in years."—Bible cor. "Who is my mother? or who are my brethren?"—See Matt., xii, 48. "Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor are the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering."— Bible cor. "Information has been obtained, and some trials have been made."—Martineau cor. "It is as obvious, and its causes are more easily understood."—Webster cor. "All languages furnish examples of this kind, and the English contains as many as any other."—Priestley cor. "The winters are long, and the cold is intense."—Morse cor. "How have I hated instruction, and how hath my heart despised reproof!"—Prov. cor. "The vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, and the fire of Vesta was extinguished."—Lempriere cor. "Riches beget pride; pride begets impatience."—Bullions cor. "Grammar is not reasoning, any more than organization is thought, or letters are sounds."—Enclytica cor. "Words are implements, and grammar is a machine."—Id.

UNDER NOTE III.—PLACE OF THE FIRST PERSON.

"Thou or I must undertake the business."—L. Murray cor. "He and I were there."—Ash cor. "And we dreamed a dream in one night, he and I."—Bible cor. "If my views remain the same as his and mine were in 1833."—Goodell cor. "My father and I were riding out."—Inst., Key, p. 273. "The premiums were given to George and me."—Ib. "Jane and I are invited."—Ib. "They ought to invite my sister and me."—Ib. "You and I intend to go."—Guy cor. "John and I are going to town."—Brit. Gram. cor. "He and I are sick."—James Brown cor. "Thou and I are well."—Id. "He and I are."—Id. "Thou and I are."—Id. "He, and I write."—Id. "They and I are well."—Id. "She, and thou, and I, were walking."—Id.

UNDER NOTE IV.—DISTINCT SUBJECT PHRASES.

"To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, is great injustice."—Inst., Key, p. 273. "To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy."—Id. "To write all substantives with capital letters, or to exclude capitals from adjectives derived from proper names, may perhaps be thought an offence too small for animadversion; but the evil of innovation is always something."—Dr. Barrow cor. "To live in such families, or to have such servants, is a blessing from God."—Fam. Com. cor. "How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, or what wars they maintained, is utterly unknown." Or: "How they portioned out the country, what revolutions they experienced, and what wars they maintained, are things utterly unknown."—Goldsmith cor. "To speak or to write perspicuously and agreeably, is an attainment of the utmost consequence to all who purpose, either by speech or by writing, to address the public."—Dr. Blair cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—MAKE THE VERBS AGREE.

"Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and go into the mountains, and seek that which is gone astray?"—Bible cor. "Did he not fear the Lord, and beseech the Lord, and did not the Lord repent of the evil which he had pronounced?"—Id. "And dost thou open thine eyes upon such a one, and bring me into judgement with thee?"—Id. "If any man among you seemeth to be religious, and bridleth not his tongue, but deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain."—Id. "If thou sell aught unto thy neighbour, or buy aught of thy neighbour's hand, ye shall not oppress one an other."—Id. "And if thy brother that dwelleth by thee, become poor, and be sold to thee, thou shalt not compel him to serve as a bond-servant."—Id. "If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there remember that thy brother hath aught against thee," &c.—Id. "Anthea was content to call a coach, and so to cross the brook." Or:—"and in that she crossed the brook."—Johnson cor. "It is either totally suppressed, or manifested only in its lowest and most imperfect form."—Blair cor. "But if any man is a worshiper of God, and doeth his will, him he heareth." Or: "If any man be a worshiper of God, and do his will, him will he hear."—Bible cor. "Whereby his righteousness and obedience, death and sufferings without, become profitable unto us, and are made ours."—Barclay cor. "Who ought to have been here before thee, and to have objected, if they had any thing against me."—Bible cor.

   "Yes! thy proud lords, unpitied land, shall see,
    That man has yet a soul, and dares be free."—Campbell cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—USE SEPARATE NOMINATIVES.

"H is only an aspiration, or breathing; and sometimes, at the beginning of a word, it is not sounded at all."—Lowth cor. "Man was made for society, and he ought to extend his good will to all men."—Id. "There is, and must be, a Supreme Being, of infinite goodness, power, and wisdom, who created, and who supports them."—Beattie cor. "Were you not affrighted, and did you not mistake a spirit for a body?"—Bp. Watson cor. "The latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction than or as, but it either agrees with the verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition, expressed or understood."—Mur. et al. cor. "He had mistaken his true interest, and he found himself forsaken."—Murray cor. "The amputation was exceedingly well performed, and it saved the patient's life."—Id. "The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of many, might have been, and probably they were, good."—Id. "This may be true, and yet it will not justify the practice."—Webster cor. "From the practice of those who have had a liberal education, and who are therefore presumed to be best acquainted with men and things."—Campbell cor. "For those energies and bounties which created, and which preserve, the universe."—J. Q. Adams cor. "I shall make it once for all, and I hope it will be remembered."—Blair cor. "This consequence is drawn too abruptly. The argument needed more explanation." Or: "This consequence is drawn too abruptly, and without sufficient explanation."—Id. "They must be used with more caution, and they require more preparation."—Id. "The apostrophe denotes the omission of an i, which was formerly inserted, and which made an addition of a syllable to the word."—Priestley cor. "The succession may be rendered more various or more uniform, but, in one shape or an other, it is unavoidable."—Kames cor. "It excites neither terror nor compassion; nor is it agreeable in any respect."—Id.

   "Cheap vulgar arts, whose narrowness affords
    No flight for thoughts,—they poorly stick at words."—Denham cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—MIXTURE OF DIFFERENT STYLES.

"Let us read the living page, whose every character delights and instructs us."—Maunder cor. "For if it is in any degree obscure, it puzzles, and does not please."—Kames cor. "When a speaker addresses himself to the understanding, he proposes the instruction of his hearers."—Campbell cor. "As the wine which strengthens and refreshes the heart."—H. Adams cor. "This truth he wraps in an allegory, and feigns that one of the goddesses had taken up her abode with the other."—Pope cor. "God searcheth and understandeth the heart." Or: "God searches and understands the heart."—T. à. Kempis cor. "The grace of God, that bringeth salvation, hath appeared to all men."—Titus, ii, 11. "Which things also we speak, not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth."—1 Cor., ii, 13. "But he has an objection, which he urges, and by which he thinks to overturn all."—Barclay cor. "In that it gives them not that comfort and joy which it gives to them who love it."—Id. "Thou here misunderstood the place and misapplied it." Or: "Thou here misunderstoodst the place and misappliedst it."—Id. Or: (as many of our grammarians will have it:) "Thou here misunderstoodest the place and misappliedst it."—Id. "Like the barren heath in the desert, which knoweth not when good cometh."—See Jer., xvii, 6. "It speaks of the time past, and shows that something was then doing, but not quite finished."—Devis cor. "It subsists in spite of them; it advances unobserved."—Pascal cor.

   "But where is he, the pilgrim of my song?—
    Methinks he lingers late and tarries long."—Byron cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—CONFUSION OF MOODS.

"If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them go (or be gone) astray," &c.—Matt., xviii, 12. Or: "If a man has a hundred sheep, and one of them goes (or is gone) astray," &c. Or: "If a man hath a hundred sheep, and one of them goeth (or is gone) astray," &c.—Kirkham cor. "As a speaker advances in his discourse, and increases in energy and earnestness, a higher and a louder tone will naturally steal upon him."—Id. "If one man esteem one day above an other, and an other esteem every day alike; let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind."—Barclay cor. See Rom., xiv, 5. "If there be but one body of legislators, it will be no better than a tyranny; if there be only two, there will want a casting voice."—Addison cor. "Should you come up this way, and I be still here, you need not be assured how glad I should be to see you."—Byron cor. "If he repent and become holy, let him enjoy God and heaven."—Brownson cor. "If thy fellow approach thee, naked and destitute, and thou say unto him, 'Depart in peace, be warmed and filled,' and yet thou give him not those things which are needful to him, what benevolence is there in thy conduct?"—Kirkham cor.

   "Get on your nightgown, lest occasion call us,
    And show us to be watchers."—Singer's Shakspeare.

    "But if it climb, with your assisting hand,
    The Trojan walls, and in the city stand."—Dryden cor.

    ————————"Though Heaven's King
    Ride on thy wings, and thou with thy compeers,
    Used to the yoke, draw his triumphant wheels."—Milton cor.

UNDER NOTE IX.—IMPROPER ELLIPSES.

"Indeed we have seriously wondered that Murray should leave some things as he has left them."—Reporter cor. "Which they neither have done nor can do."—Barclay cor. "The Lord hath revealed, and doth and will reveal, his will to his people; and hath raised up, and doth raise up, members of his body," &c.—Id. "We see, then, that the Lord hath given, and doth give, such."—Id. "Towards those that have declared, or do declare, themselves members."—Id. "For which we can give, and have given, our sufficient reasons."—Id. "When we mention the several properties of the different words in sentences, as we have mentioned those of the word William's above, what is the exercise called?"—R. C. Smith cor. "It is however to be doubted, whether this Greek idiom ever has obtained, or ever will obtain, extensively, in English."—Nutting cor. "Why did not the Greeks and Romans abound in auxiliary words as much as we do?"—Murray cor. "Who delivers his sentiments in earnest, as they ought to be delivered in order to move and persuade."—Kirkham cor.

UNDER NOTE X.—DO, USED AS A SUBSTITUTE.

"And I would avoid it altogether, if it could be avoided." Or: "I would avoid it altogether, if to avoid it were practicable."—Kames cor. "Such a sentiment from a man expiring of his wounds, is truly heroic; and it must elevate the mind to the greatest height to which it can be raised by a single expression."—Id. "Successive images, thus making deeper and deeper impressions, must elevate the mind more than any single image can."—Id. "Besides making a deeper impression than can be made by cool reasoning."—Id. "Yet a poet, by the force of genius alone, may rise higher than a public speaker can." Or:—"than can a public speaker."—Blair cor. "And the very same reason that has induced several grammarians to go so far as they have gone, should have induced them to go farther."—Priestley cor. "The pupil should commit the first section to memory perfectly, before he attempts (or enters upon) the second part of grammar."—Bradley cor. "The Greek ch was pronounced hard, as we now pronounce it in chord."—Booth cor. "They pronounce the syllables in a different manner from what they adopt (or, in a manner different from that which they are accustomed to use) at other times."—L. Murray cor. "And give him the cool and formal reception that Simon had given."—Scott cor. "I do not say, as some have said."—Bolingbroke cor. "If he suppose the first, he may the last."—Barclay cor. "Who are now despising Christ in his inward appearance, as the Jews of old despised him in his outward [advent]."—Id. "That text of Revelations must not be understood as he understands it."—Id. "Till the mode of parsing the noun is so familiar to him that he can parse it readily."—R. C. Smith cor. "Perhaps it is running the same course that Rome had run before."—Middleton cor. "It ought even on this ground to be avoided; and it easily may be, by a different construction."—Churchill cor. "These two languages are now pronounced in England as no other nation in Europe pronounces them."—Creighton cor. "Germany ran the same risk that Italy had run."—Bolingbroke, Murray, et al., cor.

UNDER NOTE XI.—PRETERITS AND PARTICIPLES.

"The beggars themselves will be broken in a trice."—Swift cor. "The hoop is hoisted above his nose."—Id. "And his heart was lifted up in the ways of the Lord."—2 Chron., xvii, 6. "Who sin so oft have mourned, Yet to temptation run."—Burns cor. "Who would not have let them appear."—Steele cor. "He would have had you seek for ease at the hands of Mr. Legality."—Bunyan cor. "From me his madding mind is turned: He woos the widow's daughter, of the glen."—Spenser cor. "The man has spoken, and he still speaks."—Ash cor. "For you have but mistaken me all this while."—Shak. cor. "And will you rend our ancient love asunder?"—Id. "Mr. Birney has pled (or pleaded) the inexpediency of passing such resolutions."—Liberator cor. "Who have worn out their years in such most painful labours."—Littleton cor. "And in the conclusion you were chosen probationer."—Spectator cor.

   "How she was lost, ta'en captive, made a slave;
    And how against him set that should her save."—Bunyan cor.

UNDER NOTE XII.—OF VERBS CONFOUNDED.

"But Moses preferred to while away his time."—Parker cor. "His face shone with the rays of the sun."—John Allen cor. "Whom they had set at defiance so lately."—Bolingbroke cor. "And when he had sat down, his disciples came unto him."—Bible cor. "When he had sat down on the judgement-seat." Or: "While he was sitting on the judgement-seat."— Id. "And, they having kindled a fire in the midst of the hall and sat down together, Peter sat down among them."—Id. "So, after he had washed their feet, and had taken his garments, and had sat down again,[or, literally,'sitting down again,'] he said to them, Do ye know what I have done to you?"—Id. "Even as I also overcame, and sat down with my Father in his throne."—Id. Or: (rather less literally:) "Even as I have overcome, and am sitting with my Father on his throne."—Id. "We have such a high priest, who sitteth on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the heavens."—Id. "And is now sitting at the right hand of the throne of God."—Id. "He set on foot a furious persecution."— Payne cor. "There lieth (or lies) an obligation upon the saints to help such."—Barclay cor. "There let him lie."—Byron cor. "Nothing but moss, and shrubs, and stunted trees, can grow upon it."—Morse cor. "Who had laid out considerable sums purely to distinguish themselves."— Goldsmith cor. "Whereunto the righteous flee and are safe."—Barclay cor. "He rose from supper, and laid aside his garments."—Id. "Whither—oh! whither—shall I flee?"—L. Murray cor. "Fleeing from an adopted murderer."—Id. "To you I flee for refuge."—Id. "The sign that should warn his disciples to flee from the approaching ruin."— Keith cor. "In one she sits as a prototype for exact imitation."—Rush cor. "In which some only bleat, bark, mew, whinny, and bray, a little better than others."—Id. "Who represented to him the unreasonableness of being affected with such unmanly fears."—Rollin cor. "Thou sawest every action." Or, familiarly: "Thou saw every action."—Guy cor. "I taught, thou taughtest, or taught, he or she taught."—Coar cor. "Valerian was taken by Sapor and flayed alive, A. D. 260."—Lempriere cor. "What a fine vehicle has it now become, for all conceptions of the mind!"—Blair cor. "What has become of so many productions?"—Volney cor. "What has become of those ages of abundance and of life?"—Keith cor. "The Spartan admiral had sailed to the Hellespont."—Goldsmith cor. "As soon as he landed, the multitude thronged about him."—Id. "Cyrus had arrived at Sardis."—Id. "Whose year had expired."—Id. "It might better have been, 'that faction which,'" Or; "'That faction which,' would have been better."—Murray's Gram., p. 157. "This people has become a great nation."—Murray and Ingersoll cor. "And here we enter the region of ornament."—Dr. Blair cor. "The ungraceful parenthesis which follows, might far better have been avoided." "Who forced him under water, and there held him until he was drowned."—Hist. cor.

   "I would much rather be myself the slave,
    And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him."—Cowper cor.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—WORDS THAT EXPRESS TIME.

"I finished my letter before my brother arrived." Or: "I had finished my letter when my brother arrived."—Kirkham cor. "I wrote before I received his letter."—Dr. Blair cor. "From what was formerly delivered."—Id. "Arts were at length introduced among them." Or: "Arts have been of late introduced among them."—Id. [But the latter reading suits not the Doctor's context.] "I am not of opinion that such rules can be of much use, unless persons see them exemplified." Or:—"could be," and "saw."—Id. "If we use the noun itself, we say, (or must say,) 'This composition is John's.'" Or: "If we used the noun itself, we should say," &c.—L. Murray cor. "But if the assertion refer to something that was transient, or to something that is not supposed to be always the same, the past tense must be preferred:" [as,] "They told him that Jesus of Nazareth was passing by."—Luke and L. Murray cor. "There is no particular intimation but that I have continued to work, even to the present moment."—R. W. Green cor. "Generally, as has been observed already, it is but hinted in a single word or phrase."—Campbell cor. "The wittiness of the passage has been already illustrated."—Id. "As was observed before."—Id. Or: "As has been observed already"—Id. "It has been said already in general terms."—Id. "As I hinted before."—Id. Or: "As I have hinted already."—Id. "What, I believe, was hinted once before."—Id. "It is obvious, as was hinted formerly, that this is but an artificial and arbitrary connexion."—Id. "They did anciently a great deal of hurt."— Bolingbroke cor. "Then said Paul, I knew not, brethren, that he was the high priest."—See Acts, xxiii, 5; Webster cor. "Most prepositions originally denoted the relations of place; and from these they were transferred, to denote, by similitude, other relations."—Lowth and Churchill cor. "His gift was but a poor offering, in comparison with his great estate."—L. Murray cor. "If he should succeed, and obtain his end, he would not be the happier for it." Or, better: "If he succeed, and fully attain his end, he will not be the happier for it."—Id. "These are torrents that swell to-day, and that will have spent themselves by to-morrow."—Dr. Blair cor. "Who have called that wheat on one day, which they have called tares on the next."—Barclay cor. "He thought it was one of his tenants."—Id. "But if one went unto them from the dead, they would repent."—Bible cor. "Neither would they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead."—Id. "But it is while men sleep, that the arch-enemy always sows his tares."—The Friend cor. "Crescens would not have failed to expose him."—Addison cor.

   "Bent is his bow, the Grecian hearts to wound;
    Fierce as he moves, his silver shafts resound."—Pope cor.

UNDER NOTE XIV.—VERBS OF COMMANDING, &C.

"Had I commanded you to do this, you would have thought hard of it."—G. B. "I found him better than I expected to find him."—L Murray's Gram., i, 187. "There are several smaller faults which I at first intended to enumerate."—Webster cor. "Antithesis, therefore, may, on many occasions, be employed to advantage, in order to strengthen the impression which we intend that any object shall make."—Dr. Blair cor. "The girl said, if her master would but have let her have money, she might have been well long ago."—Priestley et al. cor. "Nor is there the least ground to fear that we shall here be cramped within too narrow limits."—Campbell cor. "The Romans, flushed with success, expected to retake it."—Hooke cor. "I would not have let fall an unseasonable pleasantry in the venerable presence of Misery, to be entitled to all the wit that ever Rabelais scattered."—Sterne cor. "We expected that he would arrive last night."—Brown's Inst., p. 282. "Our friends intended to meet us."—Ib. "We hoped to see you."—Ib. "He would not have been allowed to enter."—Ib.

UNDER NOTE XV.—PERMANENT PROPOSITIONS.

"Cicero maintained, that whatsoever is useful is good."—G. B. "I observed that love constitutes the whole moral character of God."—Dwight cor. "Thinking that one gains nothing by being a good man."—Voltaire cor. "I have already told you, that I am a gentleman."—Fontaine cor. "If I should ask, whether ice and water are two distinct species of things."—Locke cor. "A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this is verse."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, i, 260. "The doctor affirmed that fever always produces thirst."—Brown's Inst., p. 282. "The ancients asserted, that virtue is its own reward."—Ib. "They should not have repeated the error, of insisting that the infinitive is a mere noun."—Tooke cor. "It was observed in Chap. III, that the distinctive OR has a double use."—Churchill cor. "Two young gentlemen, who have made a discovery that there is no God."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 206.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XVIII; INFINITIVES.

INSTANCES DEMANDING THE PARTICLE TO.

"William, please to hand me that pencil."—Smith cor. "Please to insert points so as to make sense."—P. Davis cor. "I have known lords to abbreviate almost half of their words."—Cobbett cor. "We shall find the practice perfectly to accord with the theory."—Knight cor. "But it would tend to obscure, rather than to elucidate, the subject."—L. Murray cor. "Please to divide it for them, as it should be divided"—J. Willetts cor. "So as neither to embarrass nor to weaken the sentence."—Blair and Mur. cor. "Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare, and to hear his heavenly discourse."—Same. "That we need not be surprised to find this to hold [i.e., to find the same to be true, or to find it so] in eloquence."—Blair cor. "Where he has no occasion either to divide or to explain" [the topic in debate.]—Id. "And they will find their pupils to improve by hasty and pleasant steps."—Russell cor. "The teacher, however, will please to observe," &c.—Inf. S. Gr. cor. "Please to attend to a few rules in what is called syntax."—Id. "They may dispense with the laws, to favour their friends, or to secure their office."—Webster cor. "To take back a gift, or to break a contract, is a wanton abuse."—Id. "The legislature has nothing to do, but to let it bear its own price."—Id. "He is not to form, but to copy characters."—Rambler cor. "I have known a woman to make use of a shoeing-horn."—Spect. cor. "Finding this experiment to answer, in every respect, their wishes."—Day cor. "In fine, let him cause his arrangement to conclude in the term of the question."—Barclay cor.

   "That he permitted not the winds of heaven
     To visit her too roughly."
                             [Omit "face," to keep the measure: or say,]
    "That he did never let the winds of heaven
     Visit her face too roughly."—Shak. cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE XIX.—OF INFINITIVES.

Instances after Bid, Dare, Feel, Hear, Let, Make, Need, See.

"I dare not proceed so hastily, lest I give offence."—See Murray's Key, Rule xii. "Their character is formed, and made to appear."—Butler cor. "Let there be but matter and opportunity offered, and you shall see them quickly revive again."—Bacon cor. "It has been made to appear, that there is no presumption against a revelation."—Bp. Butler cor. "MANIFEST, v. t. To reveal; to make appear; to show plainly."—Webster cor. "Let him reign, like good Aurelius, or let him bleed like Seneca:" [Socrates did not bleed, he was poisoned.]—Kirkham's transposition of Pope cor. "Sing I could not; complain I durst not."—Fothergill cor. "If T. M. be not so frequently heard to pray by them."—Barclay cor. "How many of your own church members were never heard to pray?"—Id. "Yea, we are bidden to pray one for an other."—Id. "He was made to believe that neither the king's death nor his imprisonment would help him."—Sheffield cor. "I felt a chilling sensation creep over me."—Inst., p. 279. "I dare say he has not got home yet."—Ib. "We sometimes see bad men honoured."—Ib. "I saw him move"—Felch cor. "For see thou, ah! see thou, a hostile world its terrors raise."—Kirkham cor. "But that he make him rehearse so."—Lily cor. "Let us rise."—Fowle cor.

   "Scripture, you know, exhorts us to it;
    It bids us 'seek peace, and ensue it.'"—Swift cor.

    "Who bade the mud from Dives' wheel
    Bedash the rags of Lazarus?
    Come, brother, in that dust we'll kneel,
    Confessing heaven that ruled it thus."—Christmas Book cor.

CHAPTER VII.—PARTICIPLES.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XX.

UNDER NOTE I.—EXPUNGE OF.

"In forming his sentences, he was very exact."—L. Murray. "For not believing which, I condemn them."—Barclay cor. "To prohibit his hearers from reading that book."—Id. "You will please them exceedingly in crying down ordinances."—Mitchell cor. "The warwolf subsequently became an engine for casting stones." Or:—"for the casting of stones."—Cons. Misc. cor. "The art of dressing hides and working in leather was practised."—Id. "In the choice they had made of him for restoring order."—Rollin cor. "The Arabians exercised themselves by composing orations and poems."—Sale cor. "Behold, the widow-woman was there, gathering sticks."—Bible cor. "The priests were busied in offering burnt-offerings."—Id. "But Asahel would not turn aside from following him."—Id. "He left off building Ramah, and dwelt in Tirzah."—Id. "Those who accuse us of denying it, belie us."—Barclay cor. "And breaking bread from house to house."—Acts, iv, 46. "Those that set about repairing the walls."—Barclay cor. "And secretly begetting divisions."—Id. "Whom he has made use of in gathering his church."—Id. "In defining and distinguishing the acceptations and uses of those particles."—W. Walker cor.

   "In making this a crime, we overthrow
    The laws of nations and of nature too."—Dryden cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—ARTICLES REQUIRE OF.

"The mixing of them makes a miserable jumble of truth and fiction."—Kames cor. "The same objection lies against the employing of statues."—Id. "More efficacious than the venting of opulence upon the fine arts."—Id. "It is the giving of different names to the same object."—Id. "When we have in view the erecting of a column."—Id. "The straining of an elevated subject beyond due bounds, is a vice not so frequent."—Id. "The cutting of evergreens in the shape of animals, is very ancient."—Id. "The keeping of juries without meat, drink, or fire, can be accounted for only on the same idea."—Webster cor. "The writing of the verbs at length on his slate, will be a very useful exercise."—Beck cor. "The avoiding of them is not an object of any moment."—Sheridan cor. "Comparison is the increasing or decreasing of the signification of a word by degrees."—Brit. Gram. cor. "Comparison is the increasing or decreasing of the quality by degrees."—Buchanan cor. "The placing of a circumstance before the word with which it is connected is the easiest of all inversion."—Id. "What is emphasis? It is the emitting of a stronger and fuller sound of voice," &c.—Bradley cor. "Besides, the varying of the terms will render the use of them more familiar."—A. Mur. cor. "And yet the confining of themselves to this true principle, has misled them."—Tooke cor. "What is here commanded, is merely the relieving of his misery."—Wayland cor. "The accumulating of too great a quantity of knowledge at random, overloads the mind in stead of adorning it."—Formey cor. "For the compassing of his point."—Rollin cor. "To the introducing of such an inverted order of things."—Bp. Butler cor. "Which require only the doing of an external action."—Id. "The imprisoning of my body is to satisfy your wills."—Fox cor. "Who oppose the conferring of such extensive command on one person."—Duncan cor. "Luxury contributed not a little to the enervating of their forces."—Sale cor. "The keeping of one day of the week for a sabbath."—Barclay cor. "The doing of a thing is contrary to the forbearing of it."—Id. "The doubling of the Sigma is, however, sometimes regular."—Knight cor. "The inserting of the common aspirate too, is improper."—Id. "But in Spenser's time the pronouncing of the ed [as a separate syllable,] seems already to have been something of an archaism."—Phil. Mu. cor. "And to the reconciling of the effect of their verses on the eye."—Id. "When it was not in their power to hinder the taking of the whole."—Dr. Brown cor. "He had indeed given the orders himself for the shutting of the gates."—Id. "So his whole life was a doing of the will of the Father."—Penington cor. "It signifies the suffering or receiving of the action expressed."—Priestley cor. "The pretended crime therefore was the declaring of himself to be the Son of God."—West cor. "Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its different parts of speech."—Beck cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—ADJECTIVES REQUIRE OF.

"There is no expecting of the admiration of beholders."—Baxter cor. "There is no hiding of you in the house."—Shak. cor. "For the better regulating of government in the province of Massachusetts."—Brit. Parl. cor. "The precise marking of the shadowy boundaries of a complex government."—Adams cor. "This state of discipline requires the voluntary foregoing of many things which we desire, and the setting of ourselves to what we have no inclination to."—Bp. Butler cor. "This amounts to an active setting of themselves against religion."—Id. "Which engaged our ancient friends to the orderly establishing of our Christian discipline."—Friends cor. "Some men are so unjust that there is no securing of our own property or life, but by opposing force to force."—Rev. John Brown cor. "An Act for the better securing of the Rights and Liberties of the Subject."—Geo. III cor. "Miraculous curing of the sick is discontinued."—Barclay cor. "It would have been no transgressing of the apostle's rule."—Id. "As far as consistent with the proper conducting of the business of the House."—Elmore cor. "Because he would have no quarrelling at the just condemning of them at that day." Or:—"at their just condemnation at that day."—Bunyan cor. "That transferring of this natural manner will insure propriety."—Rush cor. "If a man were porter of hell-gate, he should have old [i.e., frequent] turning of the key."—Singer's Shakspeare cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—POSSESSIVES REQUIRE OF.

"So very simple a thing as a man's wounding of himself."—Dr. Blair cor., and Murray. "Or with that man's avowing of his designs."—Blair, Mur., et al. cor. "On his putting of the question."—Adams cor. "The importance of teachers' requiring of their pupils to read each section many times over."—Kirkham cor. "Politeness is a kind of forgetting of one's self, in order to be agreeable to others."—Ramsay cor. "Much, therefore, of the merit and the agreeableness of epistolary writing, will depend on its introducing of us into some acquaintance with the writer."—Blair and Mack cor. "Richard's restoration to respectability depends on his paying of his debts."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Their supplying of ellipses where none ever existed; their parsing of the words of sentences already full and perfect, as though depending on words understood."—Id. "Her veiling of herself, and shedding of tears, &c., her upbraiding of Paris for his cowardice," &c.—Blair cor. "A preposition may be made known by its admitting of a personal pronoun after it, in the objective case."—Murray et al. cor. "But this forms no just objection to its denoting of time."—L. Mur. cor. "Of men's violating or disregarding of the relations in which God has here placed them."—Bp. Butler cor. "Success, indeed, no more decides for the right, than a man's killing of his antagonist in a duel."—Campbell cor. "His reminding of them."—Kirkham cor. "This mistake was corrected by his preceptor's causing of him to plant some beans."—Id. "Their neglecting of this was ruinous."—Frost cor. "That he was serious, appears from his distinguishing of the others as 'finite.'"—Felch cor. "His hearers are not at all sensible of his doing of it." Or:—"that he does it."—Sheridan cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—CHANGE THE EXPRESSION.

"An allegory is a fictitious story the meaning of which is figurative, not literal; a double meaning, or dilogy, is the saying of only one thing, when we have two in view."—Phil. Mu. cor. "A verb may generally be distinguished by the sense which it makes with any of the personal pronouns, or with the word TO, before it."—Murray et al. cor. "A noun may in general be distinguished by the article which comes before it, or by the sense which it makes of itself."—Merchant et al. cor. "An adjective may usually be known by the sense which it makes with the word thing; as, a good thing, a bad thing."—Iid. "It is seen to be in the objective case, because it denotes the object affected by the act of leaving."—O. B. Peirce cor. "It is seen to be in the possessive case, because it denotes the possessor of something."—Id. "The noun MAN is caused by the adjective WHATEVER to seem like a twofold nominative, as if it denoted, of itself, one person as the subject of the two remarks."—Id. "WHEN, as used in the last line, is a connective, because it joins that line to the other part of the sentence."—Id. "Because they denote reciprocation."—Id. "To allow them to make use of that liberty;"—"To allow them to use that liberty;"—or, "To allow them that liberty."—Sale cor. "The worst effect of it is, that it fixes on your mind a habit of indecision."—Todd cor. "And you groan the more deeply, as you reflect that you have not power to shake it off."—Id. "I know of nothing that can justify the student in having recourse to a Latin translation of a Greek writer."—Coleridge cor. "Humour is the conceit of making others act or talk absurdly."—Hazlitt cor. "There are remarkable instances in which they do not affect each other."—Bp. Butler cor. "That Cæsar was left out of the commission, was not from any slight."—Life cor. "Of the thankful reception of this toleration, I shall say no more," Or: "Of the propriety of receiving this toleration thankfully, I shall say no more."—Dryden cor. "Henrietta was delighted with Julia's skill in working lace."—O. B. Peirce cor. "And it is because each of them represents two different words, that the confusion has arisen."—Booth cor. "Æschylus died of a fracture of his skull, caused by an eagle's dropping of a tortoise on his head." Or:—"caused by a tortoise which an eagle let fall on his head."—Biog. Dict. cor. "He doubted whether they had it."—Felch cor. "To make ourselves clearly understood, is the chief end of speech."—Sheridan cor. "One cannot discover in their countenances any signs which are the natural concomitants of the feelings of the heart."—Id. "Nothing can be more common or less proper, than to speak of a river as emptying itself."—Campbell cor. "Our non-use of the former expression, is owing to this."—Bullions cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—DISPOSAL OF ADVERBS.

"To this generally succeeds the division, or the laying-down of the method of the discourse."—Dr. Blair cor. "To the pulling-down of strong holds."—Bible cor. "Can a mere buckling-on of a military weapon infuse courage?"—Dr. Brown cor. "Expensive and luxurious living destroys health."—L. Murray cor. "By frugal and temperate living, health is preserved." Or: "By living frugally and temperately, we preserve our health."—Id. "By the doing-away of the necessity."—The Friend cor. "He recommended to them, however, the immediate calling of—(or, immediately to call—) the whole community to the church."—Gregory cor. "The separation of large numbers in this manner, certainly facilitates the right reading of them."—Churchill cor. "From their mere admitting of a twofold grammatical construction."—Phil. Mu. cor. "His grave lecturing of his friend about it."—Id. "For the blotting-out of sin."—Gurney cor. "From the not-using of water."— Barclay cor. "By the gentle dropping-in of a pebble."—Sheridan cor. "To the carrying-on of a great part of that general course of nature."—Bp. Butler cor. "Then the not-interposing is so far from being a ground of complaint."—Id. "The bare omission, (or rather, the not-employing,) of what is used."—Campbell and Jamieson cor. "The bringing-together of incongruous adverbs is a very common fault."— Churchill cor. "This is a presumptive proof that it does not proceed from them."—Bp. Butler cor. "It represents him in a character to which any injustice is peculiarly unsuitable."—Campbell cor. "They will aim at something higher than a mere dealing-out of harmonious sounds."— Kirkham cor. "This is intelligible and sufficient; and any further account of the matter seems beyond the reach of our faculties."—Bp. Butler cor. "Apostrophe is a turning-off from the regular course of the subject."—Mur. et al. cor. "Even Isabella was finally prevailed upon to assent to the sending-out of a commission to investigate his conduct."—Life of Columbus cor. "For the turning-away of the simple shall slay them."—Bible cor.

   "Thick fingers always should command
    Without extension of the hand."—King cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—OF PARTICIPLES WITH ADJECTIVES.

"Is there any Scripture which speaks of the light as being inward?"—Barclay cor. "For I believe not positiveness therein essential to salvation."—Id. "Our inability to act a uniformly right part without some thought and care."—Bp. Butler cor. "On the supposition that it is reconcilable with the constitution of nature."—Id. "On the ground that it is not discoverable by reason or experience."—Id. "On the ground that they are unlike the known course of nature."—Id. "Our power to discern reasons for them, gives a positive credibility to the history of them."—Id. "From its lack of universality."—Id. "That they may be turned into passive participles in dus, is no decisive argument to prove them passive."—Grant cor. "With the implied idea that St. Paul was then absent from the Corinthians."—Kirkham cor. "Because it becomes gradually weaker, until it finally dies away into silence."—Id. "Not without the author's full knowledge."—Id. "Wit out of season is one sort of folly."—Sheffield cor. "Its general susceptibility of a much stronger evidence."— Campbell cor. "At least, that they are such, rarely enhances our opinion, either of their abilities or of their virtues."—Id. "Which were the ground of our unity."—Barclay cor. "But they may be distinguished from it by their intransitiveness."—L. Murray cor. "To distinguish the higher degree of our persuasion of a thing's possibility."—Churchill cor.

"That he was idle, and dishonest too, Was that which caused his utter overthrow."—Tobitt cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—OF COMPOUND VERBAL NOUNS.

"When it denotes subjection to the exertion of an other."—Booth cor. "In the passive sense, it signifies a subjection to the influence of the action."—Felch cor. "To be abandoned by our friends, is very deplorable."—Goldsmith cor. "Without waiting to be attacked by the Macedonians."—Id. "In progress of time, words were wanted to express men's connexion with certain conditions of fortune."—Dr. Blair cor. "Our acquaintance with pain and sorrow has a tendency to bring us to a settled moderation."—Bp. Butler cor. "The chancellor's attachment to the king, secured to the monarch his crown."—L. Murray et al. cor. "The general's failure in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace."— Iid. "John's long application to writing had wearied him."—Iid. "The sentence may be, 'John's long application to writing has wearied him.'"—Wright cor. "Much depends on the observance of this rule."— L. Murray cor. "He mentioned that a boy had been corrected for his faults."—Alger and Merchant cor. "The boy's punishment is shameful to him."—Iid. "The greater the difficulty of remembrance is, and the more important the being-remembered is to the attainment of the ultimate end."—Campbell cor. "If the parts in the composition of similar objects were always in equal quantity, their being-compounded (or their compounding) would make no odds."—Id. "Circumstances, not of such importance as that the scope of the relation is affected by their being-known"—or, "by the mention of them."—Id. "A passive verb expresses the receiving of an action, or represents its subject as being acted upon; as, 'John is beaten.'"—Frost cor. "So our language has an other great advantage; namely, that it is little diversified by genders."—Buchanan cor. "The slander concerning Peter is no fault of his."—Frost cor. "Without faith in Christ, there is no justification."—Penn cor. "Habituation to danger begets intrepidity; i.e., lessens fear."—Bp. Butler cor. "It is not affection of any kind, but action that forms those habits."—Id. "In order that we may be satisfied of the truth of the apparent paradox."—Campbell cor. "A trope consists in the employing of a word to signify something that is different from its original or usual meaning."—Blair, Jamieson, Murray, and Kirkham cor.; also Hiley. "The scriptural view of our salvation from punishment."—Gurney cor. "To submit and obey, is not a renouncing of the Spirit's leading."—Barclay cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—PARTICIPLES FOR INFINITIVES, &c.

"To teach little children is a pleasant employment." Or: "The teaching of little children," &c.—Bartlett cor. "To deny or compromise the principles of truth, is virtually to deny their divine Author."—Reformer cor. "A severe critic might point out some expressions that would bear retrenching"—"retrenchment"—or, "to be retrenched."—Dr. Blair cor. "Never attempt to prolong the pathetic too much."—Id. "I now recollect to have mentioned—(or, that I mentioned—) a report of that nature."—Whiting cor. "Nor of the necessity which there is, for their restraint—(or, for them to be restrained—) in them."—Bp. Butler cor. "But, to do what God commands because he commands it, is obedience, though it proceeds from hope or fear."—Id. "Simply to close the nostrils, does not so entirely prevent resonance."—Gardiner cor. "Yet they absolutely refuse to do so."—Harris cor. "But Artaxerxes could not refuse to pardon him."—Goldsmith cor. "The doing of them in the best manner, is signified by the names of these arts."—Rush cor. "To behave well for the time to come, may be insufficient."—Bp. Butler cor. "The compiler proposed to publish that part by itself."—Adam cor. "To smile on those whom we should censure, is, to bring guilt upon ourselves."—Kirkham cor. "But it would be great injustice to that illustrious orator, to bring his genius down to the same level."—Id. "The doubt that things go ill, often hurts more, than to be sure they do."—Shak. cor. "This is called the straining of a metaphor."— Blair and Murray cor. "This is what Aristotle calls the giving of manners to the poem."—Dr. Blair cor. "The painter's entire confinement to that part of time which he has chosen, deprives him of the power of exhibiting various stages of the same action."—L. Mur. cor. "It imports the retrenchment of all superfluities, and a pruning of the expression."—Blair et al. cor. "The necessity for us to be thus exempted is further apparent."—Jane West cor. "Her situation in life does not allow her to be genteel in every thing."—Same. "Provided you do not dislike to be dirty when you are invisible."—Same. "There is now an imperious necessity for her to be acquainted with her title to eternity."—Same. "Disregard to the restraints of virtue, is misnamed ingenuousness."—Same. "The legislature prohibits the opening of shops on Sunday."—Same. "To attempt to prove that any thing is right."—O. B. Peirce cor. "The comma directs us to make a pause of a second in duration, or less."—Id. "The rule which directs us to put other words into the place of it, is wrong."—Id. "They direct us to call the specifying adjectives, or adnames, adjective pronouns."—Id. "William dislikes to attend court."—Frost cor. "It may perhaps be worth while to remark, that Milton makes a distinction."—Phil. Mu. cor. "To profess regard and act injuriously, discovers a base mind."—Murray et al. cor. "To profess regard and act indifferently, discovers a base mind."—Weld cor. "You have proved beyond contradiction, that this course of action is the sure way to procure such an object."—Campbell cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—PARTICIPLES AFTER BE, IS, &c.

"Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood."—Brown's Inst., p. 235. [Correct by this the four false definitions of "Irony" cited from Murray, Peirce, Fisher, and Sanborn.] "This is, in a great measure, a delivering of their own compositions."—Buchanan cor. "But purity is a right use of the words of the language."—Jamieson cor. "But the most important object is the settling of the English quantity."—Walker cor. "When there is no affinity, the transition from one meaning to an other is a very wide step taken."—Campbell cor. "It will be a loss of time, to attempt further to illustrate it."—Id. "This leaves the sentence too bare, and makes it to be, if not nonsense, hardly sense."—Cobbett cor. "This is a requiring of more labours from every private member."—J. West cor. "Is not this, to use one measure for our neighbours and an other for ourselves?"—Same. "Do we not charge God foolishly, when we give these dark colourings to human nature?"—Same. "This is not, to endure the cross, as a disciple of Jesus Christ; but, to snatch at it, like a partisan of Swift's Jack."—Same. "What is spelling? It is the combining of letters to form syllables and words."—O. B. Peirce cor. "It is the choosing of such letters to compose words," &c.—Id. "What is parsing? (1.) It is a describing of the nature, use, and powers of words."—Id. (2.) "For Parsing is a describing of the words of a sentence as they are used."—Id. (3.) "Parsing is only a describing of the nature and relations of words as they are used."—Id. (4.) "Parsing, let the pupil understand and remember, is a statement of facts concerning words; or a describing of words in their offices and relations as they are."—Id. (5.) "Parsing is the resolving and explaining of words according to the rules of grammar."—Id. Better: "Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence according to the definitions and rules of grammar."—Brown's Inst., p. 28. (6.) "The parsing of a word, remember, is an enumerating and describing of its various qualities, and its grammatical relations to other words in the sentence."—Peirce cor. (7.) "For the parsing of a word is an enumerating and describing of its various properties, and [its] relations to [other words in] the sentence."—Id. (8.) "The parsing of a noun is an explanation of its person, number, gender, and case; and also of its grammatical relation in a sentence, with respect to some other word or words."—Ingersoll cor. (9.) "The parsing of any part of speech is an explanation of all its properties and relations."—Id. (10.)" Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its elements."—Fowler cor. "The highway of the upright is, to depart from evil."—Prov., xvi, 17. "Besides, the first step towards exhibiting the truth, should be, to remove the veil of error."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Punctuation is the dividing of sentences, and the words of sentences, by points for pauses."—Id. "An other fault is the using of the imperfect tense SHOOK in stead of the participle SHAKEN."—Churchill cor. "Her employment is the drawing of maps."—Alger cor. "To go to the play, according to his notion, is, to lead a sensual life, and to expose one's self to the strongest temptations. This is a begging of the question, and therefore requires no answer."—Formey cor. "It is an overvaluing of ourselves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities."—Comly's Key, in his Gram., p. 188; Fisk's Gram., p. 135. "What is vocal language? It is speech, or the expressing of ideas by the human voice."—C. W. Sanders cor.

UNDER NOTE IX.—VERBS OF PREVENTING.

"The annulling power of the constitution prevented that enactment from becoming a law."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Which prevents the manner from being brief."—Id. "This close prevents them from bearing forward as nominatives."—Rush cor. "Because this prevents it from growing drowsy."—Formey cor. "Yet this does not prevent him from being great."—Id. "To prevent it from being insipid."—Id. "Or whose interruptions did not prevent its continuance." Or thus: "Whose interruptions did not prevent it from being continued."—Id. "This by no means prevents them from being also punishments."—Wayland cor. "This hinders them not from being also, in the strictest sense, punishments."—Id. "The noise made by the rain and wind, prevented them from being heard."—Goldsmith cor. "He endeavoured to prevent it from taking effect."—Id. "So sequestered as to prevent them from being explored."—Jane West cor. "Who prevented her from making a more pleasant party."—Same. "To prevent us from being tossed about by every wind of doctrine."—Same. "After the infirmities of age prevented him from bearing his part of official duty."—R. Adam cor. "To prevent splendid trifles from passing for matters of importance."—Kames cor. "Which prevents him from exerting himself to any good purpose."—Beattie cor. "The nonobservance of this rule very frequently prevents us from being punctual in the performance of our duties."—Todd cor. "Nothing will prevent him from being a student, and possessing the means of study."—Id. "Does the present accident hinder you from being honest and brave?"—Collier cor. "The e is omitted to prevent two Ees from coming together."—Fowle cor. "A pronoun is used for, or in place of, a noun,—to prevent a repetition of the noun."—Sanborn cor. "Diversity in the style relieves the ear, and prevents it from being tired with the frequent recurrence of the rhymes."—Campbell cor.; also Murray. "Timidity and false shame prevent us from opposing vicious customs."—Mur. et al. cor. "To prevent them from being moved by such."—Campbell cor. "Some obstacle, or impediment, that prevents it from taking place."—Priestley cor. "Which prevents us from making a progress towards perfection."—Sheridan cor. "This method of distinguishing words, must prevent any regular proportion of time from being settled."—Id. "That nothing but affectation can prevent it from always taking place."—Id. "This did not prevent John from being acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." Or: "Notwithstanding this, John was acknowledged and solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy."—Henry, Webster, Sanborn, and Fowler cor.

UNDER NOTE X.—THE LEADING WORD IN SENSE.

"This would make it impossible for a noun, or any other word, ever to be in the possessive case."—O. B. Peirce cor. "A great part of our pleasure arises from finding the plan or story well conducted."—Dr. Blair cor. "And we have no reason to wonder that this was the case."—Id. "She objected only, (as Cicero says,) to Oppianicus as having two sons by his present wife."—Id. "The subjugation of the Britons by the Saxons, was a necessary consequence of their calling of these Saxons to their assistance."—Id. "What he had there said concerning the Saxons, that they expelled the Britons, and changed the customs, the religion, and the language of the country, is a clear and a good reason why our present language is Saxon, rather than British."—Id. "The only material difference between them, except that the one is short and the other more prolonged, is, that a metaphor is always explained by the words that are connected with it."—Id. et Mur. cor. "The description of Death, advancing to meet Satan on his arrival."—Rush cor. "Is not the bare fact, that God is the witness of it, sufficient ground for its credibility to rest upon?"—Chalmers cor. "As in the case of one who is entering upon a new study."—Beattie cor. "The manner in which these affect the copula, is called the imperative mood."—Wilkins cor. "We are freed from the trouble, because our nouns have scarcely any diversity of endings."—Buchanan cor. "The verb is rather indicative of the action as being doing, or done, than of the time of the event; but indeed the ideas are undistinguishable."—Booth cor. "Nobody would doubt that this is a sufficient proof."—Campbell cor. "Against the doctrine here maintained, that conscience as well as reason, is a natural faculty."—Beattie cor. "It is one cause why the Greek and English languages are much more easy to learn, than the Latin."—Bucke cor. "I have not been able to make out a solitary instance in which such has been the fact."—Lib. cor. "An angel, forming the appearance of a hand, and writing the king's condemnation on the wall, checked their mirth, and filled them with terror."—Wood cor. "The prisoners, in attempting to escape, aroused the keepers."—O. B. Peirce cor. "I doubt not, in the least, that this has been one cause of the multiplication of divinities in the heathen world."—Dr. Blair cor. "From the general rule he lays down, that the verb is the parent word of all language."—Tooke cor. "He was accused of being idle." Or: "He was accused of idleness."—Felch cor. "Our meeting is generally dissatisfied with him for so removing." Or: "with the circumstances of his removal."—Edmondson cor. "The spectacle is too rare, of men deserving solid fame while not seeking it."—Bush cor. "What further need was there that an other priest should rise?"—Heb., vii, 11.

UNDER NOTE XI.—REFERENCE OF PARTICIPLES.

"Viewing them separately, we experience different emotions." Or: "Viewed separately, they produce different emotions."—Kames cor. "But, this being left doubtful, an other objection occurs."—Id. "As he proceeded from one particular to an other, the subject grew under his hand."—Id. "But this is still an interruption, and a link of the chain is broken."—Id. "After some days' hunting,—(or, After some days spent in hunting,)—Cyrus communicated his design to his officers."—Rollin cor. "But it is made, without the appearance of being made in form."—Dr. Blair cor. "These would have had a better effect, had they been disjoined, thus."—Blair and Murray cor. "In an improper diphthong, but one of the vowels is sounded."—Murray, Alger, et al. cor. "And I being led to think of both together, my view is rendered unsteady."—Blair, Mur., and Jam. cor. "By often doing the same thing, we make the action habitual." Or: "What is often done, becomes habitual."—L. Murray cor. "They remain with us in our dark and solitary hours, no less than when we are surrounded with friends and cheerful society."—Id. "Besides showing what is right, one may further explain the matter by pointing out what is wrong."—Lowth cor. "The former teaches the true pronunciation of words, and comprises accent, quantity, emphasis, pauses, and tones."—L. Murray cor. "A person may reprove others for their negligence, by saying, 'You have taken great care indeed.'"—Id. "The word preceding and the word following it, are in apposition to each other."—Id. "He having finished his speech, the assembly dispersed."—Cooper cor. "Were the voice to fall at the close of the last line, as many a reader is in the habit of allowing it to do."—Kirkham cor. "The misfortunes of his countrymen were but negatively the effects of his wrath, which only deprived them of his assistance."—Kames cor. "Taking them as nouns, we may explain this construction thus."—Grant cor. "These have an active signification, except those which come from neuter verbs."—Id. "From its evidence not being universal." Or: "From the fact that its evidence is not universal."—Bp. Butler cor. "And this faith will continually grow, as we acquaint ourselves with our own nature."—Channing cor. "Monosyllables ending with any consonant but f, l, or s, never double the final consonant, when it is preceded by a single vowel; except add, ebb," &c.—Kirkham's Gram., p. 23. Or: "Words ending with any consonant except f, l, or s, do not double the final letter. Exceptions. Add, ebb, &c."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 3. (See my 2d Rule for Spelling, of which this is a partial copy.) "The relation of Maria as being the object of the action, is expressed by the change of the noun Maria to Mariam;" [i. e., in the Latin language.]—Booth cor. "In analyzing a proposition, one must first divide it into its logical subject and predicate."—Andrews and Stoddard cor. "In analyzing a simple sentence, one should first resolve it into its logical subject and logical predicate."—Wells cor.

UNDER NOTE XII.—OF PARTICIPLES AND NOUNS.

"The instant discovery of passions at their birth, is essential to our well-being."—Kames cor. "I am now to enter on a consideration of the sources of the pleasures of taste."—Blair cor. "The varieties in the use of them are indeed many."—Murray cor. "The changing of times and seasons, the removing and the setting-up of kings, belong to Providence alone."—Id. "Adherence to the partitions, seemed the cause of France; acceptance of the will, that of the house of Bourbon."—Bolingbroke cor. "An other source of darkness in composition, is the injudicious introduction of technical words and phrases."—Campbell cor. "These are the rules of grammar; by observing which, you may avoid mistakes."—L. Murray et al. cor. "By observing the rules, you may avoid mistakes."—Alger cor. "By observing these rules, he succeeded."—Frost cor. "The praise bestowed on him was his ruin."—Id. "Deception is not convincement."—Id. "He never feared the loss of a friend."—Id. "The making of books is his amusement."—Alger cor. "We call it the declining—(or, the declension—) of a noun."—Ingersoll cor. "Washington, however, pursued the same policy of neutrality, and opposed firmly the taking of any part in the wars of Europe."—Hall and Baker cor. "The following is a note of Interrogation, or of a question: (?)."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "The following is a note of Admiration, or of wonder: (!)."—Id. "The use or omission of the article A forms a nice distinction in the sense."—Murray cor. "The placing of the preposition before the word, which it governs, is more graceful."—Churchill cor. (See Lowth's Gram., p. 96; Murray's, i, 200; Fisk's, 141; Smith's, 167.) "Assistance is absolutely necessary to their recovery, and the retrieving of their affairs."—Bp. Butler cor. "Which termination, [ish,] when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or a lessening of the quality."—Mur. and Kirkham cor. "After what has been said, will it be thought an excess of refinement, to suggest that the different orders are qualified for different purposes?"—Kames cor. "Who has nothing to think of, but the killing of time."—West cor. "It requires no nicety of ear, as in the distinguishing of tones, or the measuring of time."—Sheridan cor. "The possessive case [is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which] denotes possession, or the relation of property."—S. R. Hall cor.

UNDER NOTE XIII.—PERFECT PARTICIPLES.

"Garcilasso was master of the language spoken by the Incas."—Robertson cor. "When an interesting story is broken off in the middle."—Kames cor. "Speaking of Hannibal's elephants driven back by the enemy."—Id. "If Du Ryer had not written for bread, he would have equalled them."—Formey cor. "Pope describes a rock broken off from a mountain, and hurling to the plain."—Kames cor. "I have written, Thou hast written, He hath or has written; &c."—Ash and Maltby cor. "This was spoken by a pagan."—Webster cor. "But I have chosen to follow the common arrangement."—Id. "The language spoken in Bengal."—Id. "And sound sleep thus broken off with sudden alarms, is apt enough to discompose any one."—Locke cor. "This is not only the case of those open sinners before spoken of."—Leslie cor. "Some grammarians have written a very perplexed and difficult doctrine on Punctuation."—Ensell cor. "There hath a pity arisen in me towards thee."—G. Fox Jun. cor. "Abel is the only man that has undergone the awful change of death."—De Genlis, Death of Adam.

"Meantime, on Afric's glowing sands, Smit with keen heat, the traveller stands."—Ode cor.

CHAPTER VIII.—ADVERBS.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XXI.

UNDER NOTE I.—THE PLACING OF ADVERBS.

"Not all that is favoured by good use, is proper to be retained."—L. Murray corrected. "Not everything favoured by good use, is on that account worthy to be retained."—Campbell cor. "Most men dream, but not all."—Beattie cor. "By hasty composition, we shall certainly acquire a very bad style."—Dr. Blair cor. "The comparisons are short, touching on only one point of resemblance."—Id. "Having once had some considerable object set before us."—Id. "The positive seems to be improperly called a degree." [543]—Adam and Gould cor. "In some phrases, the genitive only is used."—Iid. "This blunder is said to have actually occurred."—Smith cor. "But not every man is called James, nor every woman, Mary."—Buchanan cor. "Crotchets are employed for nearly the same purpose as the parenthesis."—Churchill cor. "There is a still greater impropriety in a double comparative."—Priestley cor. "We often have occasion to speak of time."—Lowth cor. "The following sentence cannot possibly be understood."—Id. "The words must generally be separated from the context."—Comly cor. "Words ending in ator, generally have the accent on the penultimate."—L. Mur. cor. "The learned languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, constructed differently from the English tongue."—Id. "Adverbs seem to have been originally contrived to express compendiously, in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more."—Id. "But it is so, only when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case."—Id. "'Enter boldly,' says he, 'for here too there are gods.'"—Harris cor. "For none ever work for so little a pittance that some cannot be found to work for less."—Sedgwick cor. "For sinners also lend to sinners, to receive again as much."—Bible cor. Or, as Campbell has it in his version:—"that they may receive as much in return."—Luke, vi, 34. "They must be viewed in exactly the same light."—L. Murray cor. "If he speaks but to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention."—Id.

UNDER NOTE II.—ADVERBS FOR ADJECTIVES.

"Upward motion is commonly more agreeable than motion downward."—Dr. Blair cor. "There are but two possible ways of justification before God."—Cox cor. "This construction sounds rather harsh."—Mur. and Ing. cor. "A clear conception, in the mind of the learner, of regular and well-formed letters."—C. S. Jour. cor. "He was a great hearer of * * * Attalus, Sotion, Papirius, Fabianus, of whom he makes frequent mention."—L'Estrange cor. "It is only the frequent doing of a thing, that makes it a custom."—Leslie cor. "Because W. R. takes frequent occasion to insinuate his jealousies of persons and things."—Barclay cor. "Yet frequent touching will wear gold."—Shak. cor. "Uneducated persons frequently use an adverb when they ought to use an adjective: as, 'The country looks beautifully;' in stead of beautiful." [544]— Bucke cor. "The adjective is put absolute, or without its substantive."—Ash cor. "A noun or a pronoun in the second person, may be put absolute in the nominative case."—Harrison cor. "A noun or a pronoun, when put absolute with a participle," &c.—Id. and Jaudon cor. "A verb in the infinitive mood absolute, stands independent of the remaining part of the sentence."—Wilbur and Liv. cor. "At my late return into England, I met a book entitled, 'The Iron Age.'"—Cowley cor. "But he can discover no better foundation for any of them, than the mere practice of Homer and Virgil."—Kames cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—HERE FOR HITHER, &C.

"It is reported, that the governor will come hither to-morrow."—Kirkham cor. "It has been reported that the governor will come hither to-morrow."—Id. "To catch a prospect of that lovely land whither his steps are tending."—Maturin cor. "Plautus makes one of his characters ask an other, whither he is going with that Vulcan shut up in a horn; that is, with a lantern in his hand."—Adams cor. "When we left Cambridge we intended to return thither in a few days."—Anon. cor. "Duncan comes hither to-night."—Churchill's Gram., p. 323. "They talked of returning hither last week."—See J. M. Putnam's Gram., p. 129.

UNDER NOTE IV.—FROM HENCE, &C.

"Hence he concludes, that no inference can be drawn from the meaning of the word, that a constitution has a higher authority than a law or statute,"—Webster cor. "Whence we may likewise date the period of this event."—L. Murray cor. "Hence it becomes evident that LANGUAGE, taken in the most comprehensive view, implies certain sounds, [or certain written signs,] having certain meanings."—Harris cor. "They returned to the city whence they came out."—A. Murray cor. "Respecting ellipses, some grammarians differ strangely in their ideas; and thence has arisen a very whimsical diversity in their systems of grammar."—G. Brown. "What am I, and whence? That is, What am I, and whence am I?"—Jaudon cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—THE ADVERB HOW.

"It is strange, that a writer so accurate as Dean Swift, should have stumbled on so improper an application of this particle."—Dr. Blair cor. "Ye know, that a good while ago God made choice among us," &c.—Bible cor. "Let us take care lest we sin; i.e.,—that we do not sin."—Priestley cor. "We see by these instances, that prepositions may be necessary, to connect such words as are not naturally connected by their own signification."—L. Murray cor. "Know ye not your own selves, that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates?"—Bible cor. "That thou mayst know that the earth is the Lord's."—Id.

UNDER NOTE VI.—WHEN, WHILE, OR WHERE.

"ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not requisite to complete the sense."—Adam, Gould, and Fisk, cor. "PLEONASM is the insertion of some word or words more than are absolutely necessary either to complete the construction, or to express the sense."—Iid. cor. "HYSTERON-PROTERON is a figure in which that is put in the former part of the sentence, which, according to the sense, should be in the latter."—Adam and Gould cor. "HYSTERON-PROTERON is a rhetorical figure in which that is said last, which was done first."—Webster cor. "A BARBARISM is a foreign or strange word, an expression contrary to the pure idiom of the language."—Adam and Gould cor. "A SOLECISM is an impropriety in respect to syntax, an absurdity or incongruity in speech."—Iid. cor. "An IDIOTISM is a manner of expression peculiar to one language childishly transferred to an other."—Iid. cor. "TAUTOLOGY is a disagreeable repetition, either of the same words, or of the same sense in different words."—Iid. cor. "BOMBAST, or FUSTIAN, is an inflated or ambitious style, in which high-sounding words are used, with little or no meaning, or upon a trifling occasion."—Iid. cor. "AMPHIBOLOGY is ambiguity of construction, phraseology which may be taken in two different senses."—Iid. cor. "IRONY is a figure in which one means the contrary of what is said."—Adam and Gould cor. "PERIPHRASIS, or CIRCUMLOCUTION, is the use of several words, to express what might be said in fewer."—Iid. cor. "HYPERBOLE is a figure in which a thing is magnified above the truth."—Iid. cor. "PERSONIFICATION is a figure which ascribes human life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract qualities."—Iid. cor. "APOSTROPHE is a turning from the tenor of one's discourse, into an animated address to some person, present or absent, living or dead, or to some object personified."—Iid. cor. "A SIMILE is a simple and express comparison; and is generally introduced by LIKE, AS, or so."—G. B., Inst., p. 233; Kirkham cor.; also Adam and Gould. "ANTITHESIS is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten their effect by contrast."—Inst., p. 234; Adam and Gould corrected. "VISION, or IMAGERY, is a figure in which what is present only to the mind, is represented as actually before one's eyes, and present to the senses."—G. B.; Adam cor. "EMPHASIS is a particular stress of voice laid on some word in a sentence."—Gould's Adam's Gram., p. 241. "EPANORTHOSIS, or CORRECTION, is the recalling or correcting by the speaker, of what he last said."—Ibid. "PARALIPSIS, or OMISSION, is the pretending to omit or pass by, what one at the same time declares."—Ibid. "INCREMENTUM, or CLIMAX in sense, is the rising of one member above an other to the highest."—Ibid. "METONYMY is a change of names: as when the cause is mentioned for the effect, or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing contained, or the sign for the thing signified."—Kirkham cor. "The Agreement of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form."—Brown's Inst., p. 104. "The Government of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification."—Ib. "Fusion is the converting of some solid substance into a fluid by heat."—G. B. "A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded together; as, oi in voice, ou in house."—Fisher cor. "An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which the sound of but one of the two vowels is heard; as, eo in people."—Id.

UNDER NOTE VII.—THE ADVERB NO FOR NOT.

"An adverb is added to a verb to show how, or when, or where, or whether or not, one is, does, or suffers."—Buchanan cor. "We must be immortal, whether we will or not."—Maturin cor. "He cares not whether the world was made for Cæsar or not."—A. Q. Rev. cor. "I do not know whether they are out or not."—Byron cor. "Whether it can be proved or not, is not the thing."—Bp. Butler cor. "Whether he makes use of the means commanded by God, or not."—Id. "Whether it pleases the world or not, the care is taken."—L'Estrange cor. "How comes this to be never heard of, nor in the least questioned, whether the Law was undoubtedly of Moses's writing or not?"—Tomline cor. "Whether he be a sinner or not, I do not know." Or, as the text is more literally translated by Campbell: "Whether he be a sinner, I know not."—Bible cor. "Can I make men live, whether they will or not?"—Shak. cor.

   "Can hearts not free, be tried whether they serve
    Willing or not, who will but what they must?"—Milton cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES.

"We need not, nor do we, confine the purposes of God." Or: "We need not, and do not, confine," &c.—Bentley cor. "I cannot by any means allow him that."—Id. "We must try whether or not we can increase the attention by the help of the senses."—Brightland cor. "There is nothing more admirable or more useful."—Tooke cor. "And what in time to come he can never be said to have done, he can never be supposed to do."—R. Johnson cor. "No skill could obviate, no remedy dispel, the terrible infection."—Goldsmith cor. "Prudery cannot be an indication either of sense or of taste."—Spurzheim cor. "But neither that scripture, nor any other, speaks of imperfect faith."—Barclay cor. "But neither this scripture, nor any other, proves that faith was or is always accompanied with doubting."—Id. "The light of Christ is not, and cannot be, darkness."—Id. "Doth not the Scripture, which cannot lie, give some of the saints this testimony?"—Id. "Which do not continue, and are not binding."—Id. "It not being perceived directly, any more than the air."—Campbell cor. "Let us be no Stoics, and no stocks, I pray."—Shak. cor. "Where there is no marked or peculiar character in the style."—Dr. Blair cor. "There can be no rules laid down, nor any manner recommended."—Sheridan cor.

"Bates. 'He hath not told his thought to the king?' K. Henry. 'No; and it is not meet he should.'" Or thus: "'No; nor is it meet he should.'"—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE IX.—EVER AND NEVER.

"The prayer of Christ is more than sufficient both to strengthen us, be we everso weak; and to overthrow all adversary power, be it everso strong."—Hooker cor. "He is like to have no share in it, or to be never the better for it." Or: "He is not likely to have any share in it, or to be ever the better for it."—Bunyan cor. "In some parts of Chili it seldom or never rains."—Willetts cor. "If Pompey shall but everso little seem to like it."—W. Walker cor. "Though everso great a posse of dogs and hunters pursue him."—Id. "Though you be everso excellent."—Id. "If you do amiss everso little."—Id. "If we cast our eyes everso little down."—Id. "A wise man scorneth nothing, be it everso small or homely."—M. F. Tupper cor. "Because they have seldom if ever an opportunity of learning them at all."—Clarkson cor. "We seldom or never see those forsaken who trust in God."—Atterbury cor.

   "Where, playing with him at bo-peep,
    He solved all problems, e'erso deep."—S. Butler cor.

UNDER NOTE X.—OF THE FORM OF ADVERBS.

"One can scarcely think that Pope was capable of epic or tragic poetry; but, within a certain limited region, he has been outdone by no poet."—Dr. Blair cor. "I who now read, have nearly finished this chapter."—Harris cor. "And yet, to refine our taste with respect to beauties of art or of nature, is scarcely endeavoured in any seminary of learning."—Kames cor. "The numbers being confounded, and the possessives wrongly applied, the passage is neither English nor grammar."—Buchanan cor. "The letter G is wrongly named Jee."—Creighton cor. "Lastly, remember that in science, as in morals, authority cannot make right what in itself is wrong."—O. B. Peirce cor. "They regulate our taste even where we are scarcely sensible of them."—Kames cor. "Slow action, for example, is imitated by words pronounced slowly."—Id. "Surely, if it be to profit withal, it must be in order to save."—Barclay cor. "Which is scarcely possible at best."—Sheridan cor. "Our wealth being nearly finished."—Harris cor.

CHAPTER IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XXII.

UNDER NOTE I.—OF TWO TERMS WITH ONE.

"The first proposal was essentially different from the second, and inferior to it."—Inst. "A neuter verb expresses the state which a subject is in, without acting upon any other thing, or being acted upon by an other."—A. Murray cor. "I answer, You may use stories and anecdotes, and ought to do so."—Todd cor. "ORACLE, n. Any person from whom, or place at which, certain decisions are obtained."—Webster cor. "Forms of government may, and occasionally must, be changed."—Lyttelton cor. "I have been, and I still pretend to be, a tolerable judge."—Sped. cor. "Are we not lazy in our duties, or do we not make a Christ of them?"—Baxter cor. "They may not express that idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles it, or is akin to it."—Dr. Blair cor. "We may therefore read them, we ought to read them, with a distinguishing eye."—Ib. "Compare their poverty with what they might possess, and ought to possess."—Sedgwick cor. "He is much better acquainted with grammar than they are."—L. Murray cor. "He was more beloved than Cinthio, but [he was] not so much admired."—L. Murray's Gram., i, 222. "Will it be urged, that the four gospels are as old as tradition, and even older?"—Campbell's Rhet., p. 207. "The court of chancery frequently mitigates and disarms the common law."—Spect. and Ware cor. "Antony, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing her, or being seen by her."—Goldsmith cor. "Into candid minds, truth enters as a welcome guest."—L. Murray cor. "There are many designs in which we may succeed, to our ultimate ruin."—Id. "From many pursuits in which we embark with pleasure, we are destined to land sorrowfully."—Id. "They gain much more than I, by this unexpected event."—Id.

UNDER NOTE II.—OF HETEROGENEOUS TERMS.

"Athens saw them entering her gates and filling her academies."—Chazotte cor. "Neither have we forgot his past achievements, nor do we despair of his future success."—Duncan cor. "Her monuments and temples had long been shattered, or had crumbled into dust."—Journal cor. "Competition is excellent; it is the vital principle in all these things."—Id. "Whether provision should, or should not, be made, in order to meet this exigency."—Ib.. "That our Saviour was divinely inspired, and that he was endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted."—L. Mur. cor. "It would be much more eligible, to contract or enlarge their extent by explanatory notes and observations, than to sweep away our ancient landmarks and set up others."—Id. "It is certainly much better to supply defects and abridge superfluities by occasional notes and observations, than to disorganize or greatly alter a system which has been so long established."—Id. "To have only one tune, or measure, is not much better than to have none at all."—Dr. Blair cor. "Facts too well known and too obvious to be insisted on."—Id. "In proportion as all these circumstances are happily chosen, and are of a sublime kind."—Id. "If the description be too general, and be divested of circumstances."—Id. "He gained nothing but commendation."—L. Mur. cor. "I cannot but think its application somewhat strained and misplaced."—Vethake cor. "Two negatives standing in the same clause, or referring to the same thing, destroy each other, and leave the sense affirmative."—Maunder cor. "Slates are thin plates of stone, and are often used to cover the roofs of houses."—Webster cor. "Every man of taste, and of an elevated mind, ought to feel almost the necessity of apologizing for the power he possesses."—Translator of De Staël cor. "They very seldom trouble themselves with inquiries, or make any useful observations of their own."—Locke cor.

"We've both the field and honour won; Our foes are profligate, and run."—S. Butler cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—IMPORT OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"THE is sometimes used before adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree."—Lennie, Bullions, and Brace cor. "The definite article THE is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree."—Lowth. Murray, et al, cor. "Conjunctions usually connect verbs in the same mood and tense." Or, more truly: "Verbs connected by a conjunction, are usually in the same mood and tense."—Sanborn cor. "Conjunctions connect verbs in the same style, and usually in the same mood, tense, and form." Or better: "Verbs connected by a conjunction, are usually of the same mood, tense, and form, as well as style."—Id. "The ruins of Greece or Rome are but the monuments of her former greatness."—P. E. Day cor. "It is not improbably, that in many of these cases the articles were used originally."—Priestley cor. "I cannot doubt that these objects are really what they appear to be."—Kames cor. "I question not that my reader will be as much pleased with it."—Spect. cor. "It is ten to one that my friend Peter is among them."—Id. "I doubt not that such objections as these will be made"—Locke cor. "I doubt not that it will appear in the perusal of the following sheets."—Buchanan cor. "It is not improbable, that in time these different constructions maybe appropriated to different uses."—Priestley cor. "But to forget and to remember at pleasure, are equally beyond the power of man."—Idler cor. "The nominative case follows the verb, in interrogative or imperative sentences."—L. Mur. cor. "Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive berries? or a vine, figs?"—Bible cor. "Whose characters are too profligate for the managing of them to be of any consequence."—Swift cor. "You, that are a step higher than a philosopher, a divine, yet have too much grace and wit to be a bishop."—Pope cor. "The terms rich and poor enter not into their language."—Robertson cor. "This pause is but seldom, if ever, sufficiently dwelt upon." Or: "This pause is seldom or never sufficiently dwelt upon."—Gardiner cor. "There would be no possibility of any such thing as human life or human happiness."—Bp. Butler cor. "The multitude rebuked them, that they should hold their peace."—Bible cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—THE CONJUNCTION THAN.

"A metaphor is nothing else than a short comparison." Or: "A metaphor is nothing but a short comparison."—Adam and Gould cor. "There being no other dictator here than use."—Murray's Gram., i, 364. "This construction is no otherwise known in English, than by supplying the first or the second person plural."—Buchanan cor. "Cyaxares was no sooner on the throne, than he was engaged in a terrible war."—Rollin cor. "Those classics contain little else than histories of murders."—Am. Mu. cor. "Ye shall not worship any other than God."—Sale cor. "Their relation, therefore, is not otherwise to be ascertained, than by their place."—Campbell cor. "For he no sooner accosted her, than he gained his point."—Burder cor. "And all the modern writers on this subject, have done little else than translate them."—Dr. Blair cor. "One who had no other aim than to talk copiously and plausibly."—Id. "We can refer it to no other cause than the structure of the eye."—Id. "No more is required than singly an act of vision."—Kames cor. "We find no more in its composition, than the particulars now mentioned."—Id. "He does not pretend to say, that it has any other effect than to raise surprise."—Id. "No sooner was the princess dead, than he freed himself."—Dr. S. Johnson cor. "OUGHT is an imperfect verb, for it has no modification besides this one."—Priestley cor. "The verb is palpably nothing else than the tie."—Neef cor. "Does he mean that theism is capable of nothing else than of being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"—Dr. Blair cor. "Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else than of being opposed to polytheism or atheism?"—L. Murray cor. "There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, than by means of something already known."—Ingersoll's Grammar, Titlepage: Dr. Johnson cor. "O fairest flower, no sooner blown than blasted!"—Milton cor. "Architecture and gardening cannot otherwise entertain the mind, than by raising certain agreeable emotions or feelings."—Kames cor. "Or, rather, they are nothing else than nouns."—Brit. Gram. cor.

   "As if religion were intended
    For nothing else than to be mended."—S. Butler cor.

UNDER NOTE V.—RELATIVES EXCLUDE CONJUNCTIONS.

"To prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than himself, a teacher whose shoes he was not worthy to bear."—Anon, or Mur. cor. "Has this word, which represents an action, an object after it, on which the action terminates?"—Osborne cor. "The stores of literature lie before him, from which he may collect for use many lessons of wisdom."— Knapp cor. "Many and various great advantages of this grammar over others, might be enumerated."—Greenleaf cor. "The custom which still prevails, of writing in lines from left to right, is said to have been introduced about the time of Solon, the Athenian legislator."—Jamieson cor. "The fundamental rule for the construction of sentences, the rule into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to communicate, in the clearest and most natural order, the ideas which we mean to express."—Blair and Jamieson cor. "He left a son of a singular character, who behaved so ill that he was put in prison."—L. Murray cor. "He discovered in the youth some disagreeable qualities which to him were wholly unaccountable."—Id. "An emphatical pause is made after something of peculiar moment has been said, on which we wish to fix the hearer's attention." Or: "An emphatical pause is made after something has been said which is of peculiar moment, and on which we wish to fix the hearer's attention."—Blair and Murray cor. "But we have duplicates of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure, and making different impressions on the ear,"—Murray cor.

UNDER NOTE VI.—OF THE WORD THAT.

"It will greatly facilitate the labours of the teacher, and, at the same time, it will relieve the pupil from many difficulties."—Frost cor. "While the pupil is engaged in the exercises just mentioned, it will be proper for him to study the whole grammar in course."—Bullions cor. "On the same ground on which a participle and an auxiliary are allowed to form a tense."—Beattie and Murray cor. "On the same ground on which the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the English tongue."—L. Murray cor. "The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same principle that is applied to the errors preceding them."—Murray and Ingersoll cor. "The brazen age began at the death of Trajan, and lasted till Rome was taken by the Goths."—Gould cor. "The introduction to the duodecimo edition is retained in this volume, for the same reason for which the original introduction to the Grammar is retained in the first volume."—L. Murray cor. "The verb must also agree in person with its subject or nominative."—Ingersoll cor. "The personal pronoun 'THEIR' is plural for the same reason for which 'WHO' is plural."—Id. "The Sabellians could not justly be called Patripassians, in the same sense in which the Noëtians were so called."—R. Adam cor. "This is one reason why we pass over such smooth language without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning."—L. Murray cor. "The first place at which the two armies came within sight of each other, was on the opposite banks of the river Apsus."—Goldsmith cor. "At the very time at which the author gave him the first book for his perusal."—Campbell cor. "Peter will sup at the time at which Paul will dine."—Fosdick cor. "Peter will be supping when Paul will enter."—Id. "These, while they may serve as models to those who may wish to imitate them, will give me an opportunity to cast more light upon the principles of this book."—Id.

   "Time was, like thee, they life possess'd,
    And time shall be, when thou shalt rest."—Parnell cor.

UNDER NOTE VII.—OF THE CORRESPONDENTS.

"Our manners should be neither gross nor excessively refined."—Murray's Key, ii, 165. "A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of being."—O. B. Peirce cor. "The old books are neither English grammars, nor in any sense grammars of the English language."—Id. "The author is apprehensive that his work is not yet so accurate and so much simplified as it may be."—Kirkham cor. "The writer could not treat some topics so extensively as [it] was desirable [to treat them]."—Id. "Which would be a matter of such nicety, that no degree of human wisdom could regulate it."—L. Murray cor. "No undertaking is so great or difficult, that he cannot direct it."—Duncan cor. "It is a good which depends neither on the will of others, nor on the affluence of external fortune."—Harris cor. "Not only his estate, but his reputation too, has suffered by his misconduct."—Murray and Ingersoll cor. "Neither do they extend so far as might be imagined at first view."—Dr. Blair cor. "There is no language so poor, but that it has (or, as not to have) two or three past tenses."—Id. "So far as this system is founded in truth, language appears to be not altogether arbitrary in its origin."—Id. "I have not such command of these convulsions as is necessary." Or: "I have not that command of these convulsions which is necessary."—Spect. cor. "Conversation with such as (or, those who) know no arts that polish life."—Id. "And which cannot be either very lively or very forcible."—Jamieson cor. "To such a degree as to give proper names to rivers."—Dr. Murray cor. "In the utter overthrow of such as hate to be reformed."—Barclay cor. "But still so much of it is retained, that it greatly injures the uniformity of the whole."—Priestley cor. "Some of them have gone to such a height of extravagance, as to assert," &c.—Id. "A teacher is confined, not more than a merchant, and probably not so much."—Abbott cor. "It shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in the world to come." Or: "It shall not be forgiven him, either in this world, or in the world to come."—Bible cor. "Which nobody presumes, or is so sanguine as to hope."—Swift cor. "For the torrent of the voice left neither time, nor power in the organs, to shape the words properly."—Sheridan cor. "That he may neither unnecessarily waste his voice by throwing out too much, nor diminish his power by using too little."—Id. "I have retained only such as appear most agreeable to the measures of analogy."—Littleton cor. "He is a man both prudent and industrious."—P. E. Day cor. "Conjunctions connect either words or sentences."—Brown's Inst., p. 169.

   "Such silly girls as love to chat and play,
    Deserve no care; their time is thrown away."—Tobitt cor.

    "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien,
    That to be hated she but needs be seen."—Pope cor.

    "Justice must punish the rebellious deed;
    Yet punish so that pity shall exceed."—Dryden cor.

UNDER NOTE VIII.—IMPROPER ELLIPSES.

"THAT, WHOSE, and AS, relate either to persons or to things." Or better:—"relate as well to persons as to things."—Sanborn cor. "WHICH and WHAT, as adjectives, relate either to persons or to things." Or better:—"relate to persons as well as to things."—Id. "Whether of a public or of a private nature."—J. Q. Adams cor. "Which are included among both the public and the private wrongs."—Id. "I might extract, both from the Old and from the New Testament, numberless examples of induction."—Id. "Many verbs are used both in an active and in a neuter signification." Or thus: "Many verbs are used in both an active and a neuter signification."—Lowth, Mur., et al., cor. "Its influence is likely to be considerable, both on the morals and on the taste of a nation."—Dr. Blair cor. "The subject afforded a variety of scenes, both of the awful and of the tender kind."—Id. "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace, and for the performance of our duty."—Mur. and Ing. cor. "Pronominal adjectives are of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and of adjectives."—Mur. et al. cor. "Pronominal adjectives have the nature both of the adjective and of the pronoun."—Frost cor. Or: "[Pronominal adjectives] partake of the properties of both adjectives and pronouns."—Bucke's Gram., p. 55. "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of compound part of speech, partaking the nature both of pronouns and of adjectives."—Nutting cor. "Nouns are used either in the singular or in the plural number." Or perhaps better: "Nouns are used in either the singular or the plural number."—David Blair cor. "The question is not, whether the nominative or the accusative ought to follow the particles THAN and AS; but, whether these particles are, in such particular cases, to be regarded as conjunctions or as prepositions"—Campbell cor. "In English, many verbs are used both as transitives and as intransitives."—Churchill cor. "He sendeth rain both on the just and on the unjust."—See Matt., v, 45. "A foot consists either of two or of three syllables."—David Blair cor. "Because they participate the nature both of adverbs and of conjunctions."—L. Murray cor. "Surely, Romans, what I am now about to say, ought neither to be omitted, nor to pass without notice."—Duncan cor. "Their language frequently amounts, not only to bad sense, but to nonsense."—Kirkham cor. "Hence arises the necessity of a social state to man, both for the unfolding, and for the exerting, of his nobler faculties."—Sheridan cor. "Whether the subject be of the real or of the feigned kind."—Dr. H. Blair cor. "Not only was liberty entirely extinguished, but arbitrary power was felt in its heaviest and most oppressive weight."—Id. "This rule is also applicable both to verbal Critics and to Grammarians."—Hiley cor. "Both the rules and the exceptions of a language must have obtained the sanction of good usage."—Id.

CHAPTER X.—PREPOSITIONS.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE NOTES TO RULE XXIII.

UNDER NOTE I.—CHOICE OF PREPOSITIONS.

"You have bestowed your favours upon the most deserving persons."—Swift corrected. "But, to rise above that, and overtop the crowd, is given to few."—Dr. Blair cor. "This [also is a good] sentence [, and] gives occasion for no material remark."—Blair's Rhet., p. 203. "Though Cicero endeavours to give some reputation to the elder Cato, and those who were his contemporaries." Or:—"to give some favourable account of the elder Cato," &c.—Dr. Blair cor. "The change that was produced in eloquence, is beautifully described in the dialogue."—Id. "Without carefully attending to the variation which they make in the idea."—Id. "All on a sudden, you are transported into a lofty palace."—Hazlitt cor. "Alike independent of one an other." Or: "Alike independent one of an other."—Campbell cor. "You will not think of them as distinct processes going on independently of each other."—Channing cor. "Though we say to depend on, dependent on, and dependence on, we say, independent of, and independently of."—Churchill cor. "Independently of the rest of the sentence."—Lowth's Gram., p. 80; Buchanan's, 83; Bullions's, 110; Churchill's, 348.[545] "Because they stand independent of the rest of the sentence."—Allen Fisk cor. "When a substantive is joined with a participle, in English, independently of the rest of the sentence."—Dr. Adam cor. "CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words con, together, and jungo, to join."—Merchant cor. "How different from this is the life of Fulvia!"—Addison cor. "LOVED is a participle or adjective, derived from the word love."—Ash cor. "But I would inquire of him, what an office is."—Barclay cor. "For the capacity is brought into action."—Id. "In this period, language and taste arrive at purity."—Webster cor. "And, should you not aspire to (or after) distinction in the republic of letters."—Kirkham cor. "Delivering you up to the synagogues, and into prisons."—Luke, xxi, 12. "He that is kept from falling into a ditch, is as truly saved, as he that is taken out of one."—Barclay cor. "The best of it is, they are but a sort of French Hugonots."—Addison cor. "These last ten examples are indeed of a different nature from the former."—R. Johnson cor. "For the initiation of students into the principles of the English language."—Ann. Rev. cor. "Richelieu profited by every circumstance which the conjuncture afforded."—Bolingbroke cor. "In the names of drugs and plants, the mistake of a word may endanger life."—Merchant's Key, p. 185. Or better: "In naming drugs or plants, to mistake a word, may endanger life."—L. Murray cor. "In order to the carrying of its several parts into execution."—Bp. Butler cor. "His abhorrence of the superstitious figure."—Priestley. "Thy prejudice against my cause."—Id. "Which is found in every species of liberty."—Hume cor. "In a hilly region on the north of Jericho."—Milman cor. "Two or more singular nouns coupled by AND require a verb or pronoun in the plural."—Lennie cor.

"Books should to one of these four ends conduce, To wisdom, piety, delight, or use."—Denham cor.

UNDER NOTE II.—TWO OBJECTS OR MORE.

"The Anglo-Saxons, however, soon quarrelled among themselves for precedence."—Const. Misc. cor. "The distinctions among the principal parts of speech are founded in nature."—Webster cor. "I think I now understand the difference between the active verbs and those which are passive or neuter."—Ingersoll cor. "Thus a figure including a space within three lines, is the real as well as nominal essence of a triangle."—Locke cor. "We must distinguish between an imperfect phrase and a simple sentence, and between a simple sentence and a compound sentence."—Lowth, Murray, et al., cor. "The Jews are strictly forbidden by their law to exercise usury towards one an other."—Sale cor. "All the writers have distinguished themselves among themselves."—Addison cor. "This expression also better secures the systematic uniformity of the three cases."—Nutting cor. "When two or more infinitives or clauses are connected disjunctively as the subjects of an affirmation, the verb must be singular."—Jaudon cor. "Several nouns or pronouns together in the same case, require a comma after each; [except the last, which must sometimes be followed by a greater point.]"—David Blair cor. "The difference between one vowel and an other is produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a different manner for each."—Churchill cor. "Thus feet composed of syllables, being pronounced with a sensible interval between one foot and an other, make a more lively impression than can be made by a continued sound."—Kames cor. "The superlative degree implies a comparison, sometimes between two, but generally among three or more."—R. C. Smith cor. "They are used to mark a distinction among several objects."—Lévizac cor.

UNDER NOTE III.—OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS.

"This would have been less worthy of notice."—Churchill cor. "But I passed it, as a thing unworthy of my notice."—Werter cor. "Which, in compliment to me, perhaps you may one day think worthy of your attention."—Bucke cor. "To think this small present worthy of an introduction to the young ladies of your very elegant establishment."— Id. "There are but a few miles of portage."—Jefferson cor. "It is worthy of notice, that our mountains are not solitary."—Id. "It is about one hundred feet in diameter." [546]—Id. "Entering a hill a quarter or half of a mile."—Id. "And herself seems passing to an awful dissolution, whose issue it is not given to human foresight to scan."—Id. "It was of a spheroidical form, about forty feet in diameter at the base, and had been about twelve feet in altitude."—Id. "Before this, it was covered with trees of twelve inches in diameter; and, round the base, there was an excavation of five feet in depth and five in width."—Id. "Then thou mayst eat grapes to thy fill, at thine own pleasure."—Bible cor. "Then he brought me back by the way of the gate of the outward sanctuary."—Id. "They will bless God, that he has peopled one half of the world with a race of freemen."—Webster cor. "Of what use can these words be, till their meaning is known?"—Town cor. "The tents of the Arabs now are black, or of a very dark colour."—The Friend cor. "They may not be unworthy of the attention of young men."—Kirkham cor. "The pronoun THAT is frequently applied to persons as well as to things."—Merchant cor. "And 'who' is in the same case that 'man' is in."—Sanborn cor. "He saw a flaming stone, apparently about four feet in diameter."—The Friend cor. "Pliny informs us, that this stone was of the size of a cart."—Id. "Seneca was about twenty years of age in the fifth year of Tiberius, when the Jews were expelled from Rome."—L'Estrange cor. "I was prevented from reading a letter which would have undeceived me."—Hawkesworth cor. "If the problem can be solved, we may be pardoned for the inaccuracy of its demonstration."—Booth cor. "The army must of necessity be the school, not of honour, but of effeminacy."—Dr. Brown cor. "Afraid of the virtue of a nation in its opposing of bad measures:" or,—"in its opposition to bad measures."—Id. "The uniting of them in various ways, so as to form words, would be easy."—Gardiner cor. "I might be excused from taking any more notice of it."—Watson cor. "Watch therefore; for ye know not at what hour your Lord will come."—Bible cor. "Here, not even infants were spared from the sword."—M'Ilvaine cor. "To prevent men from turning aside to false modes of worship."—John Allen cor. "God expelled them from the garden of Eden."—Burder cor. "Nor could he refrain from expressing to the senate the agonies of his mind."—Hume cor. "Who now so strenuously opposes the granting to him of any new powers."—Duncan cor. "That the laws of the censors have banished him from the forum."—Id. "We read not that he was degraded from his office in any other way."—Barclay cor. "To all to whom these presents shall come, greeting."—Hutchinson cor. "On the 1st of August, 1834."—Brit. Parl. cor.

   "Whether you had not some time in your life
    Err'd in this point on which you censure him."—Shak. cor.

UNDER NOTE IV.—OF NEEDLESS PREPOSITIONS.

"And the apostles and elders came together to consider this matter."—Barclay cor.; also Acts. "Adjectives, in our language, have neither case, nor gender, nor number; the only variation they have, is comparison."—Buchanan cor. "'It is to you that I am indebted for this privilege;' that is, 'To you am I indebted;' or, 'It is you to whom I am indebted.'"—Sanborn cor. "BOOKS is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, and neuter gender."—Ingersoll cor. "BROTHER'S is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case."—L. Murray cor. "VIRTUE'S is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, [neuter gender,] and possessive case."—Id. "When the authorities on one side greatly preponderate, it is vain to oppose the prevailing usage."—Campbell and Murray cor. "A captain of a troop of banditti, had a mind to be plundering Rome."—Collier cor. "And, notwithstanding its verbal power, we have added the TO and other signs of exertion."—Booth cor. "Some of these situations are termed CASES, and are expressed by additions to the noun, in stead of separate words:" or,—"and not by separate words."—Id. "Is it such a fast that I have chosen, that a man should afflict his soul for a day, and bow down his head like a bulrush?"—Bacon cor. Compare Isa., lviii, 5. "And this first emotion comes at last to be awakened by the accidental in stead of the necessary antecedent."—Wayland cor. "About the same time, the subjugation of the Moors was completed."—Balbi cor. "God divided between the light and the darkness."—Burder cor. "Notwithstanding this, we are not against outward significations of honour."—Barclay cor. "Whether these words and practices of Job's friends, ought to be our rule."—Id. "Such verb cannot admit an objective case after it."—Lowth cor. "For which, God is now visibly punishing these nations."—C. Leslie cor. "In this respect, Tasso yields to no poet, except Homer."—Dr. Blair cor. "Notwithstanding the numerous panegyrics on the ancient English liberty."—Hume cor. "Their efforts seemed to anticipate the spirit which became so general afterwards."—Id.

UNDER NOTE V.—THE PLACING OF THE WORDS.

"But how short of its excellency are my expressions!"—Baxter cor. "In his style, there is a remarkable union of harmony with ease."—Dr. H. Blair cor. "It disposes of the light and shade in the most artificial manner, that every thing may be viewed to the best advantage."—Id. "For brevity, Aristotle too holds an eminent rank among didactic writers."—Id. "In an introduction, correctness of expression should be carefully studied."—Id. "In laying down a method, one ought above all things to study precision."—Id. "Which shall make on the mind the impression of something that is one, whole, and entire."—Id. "At the same time, there are in the Odyssey some defects which must be acknowledged." Or: "At the same time, it must be acknowledged that there are some defects in the Odyssey."—Id. "In the concluding books, however, there are beauties of the tragic kind."—Id. "These forms of conversation multiplied by degrees, and grew troublesome."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 44. "When she has made her own choice, she sends, for form's sake, a congé-d'élire to her friends."—Ib., ii, 46. "Let us endeavour to establish to ourselves an interest in him who holds in his hand the reins of the whole creation."—Spectator cor.; also Kames. "Next to this, the measure most frequent in English poetry, is that of eight syllables."—David Blair cor. "To introduce as great a variety of cadences as possible."— Jamieson cor. "He addressed to them several exhortations, suitable to their circumstances."—L. Murray cor. "Habits of temperance and self-denial must be acquired."—Id. "In reducing to practice the rules prescribed."—Id. "But these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make upon the mind the impression of one object, not of many."—Blair and Mur. cor. "Errors with respect to the use of shall and will, are sometimes committed by the most distinguished writers."—N. Butler cor.

CHAPTER XI.—PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES.

CORRECTIONS OF THE PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES.

LESSON I.—ANY PARTS OF SPEECH.

"Such a one, I believe, yours will be proved to be."—Peet and Farnum cor. "Of the distinction between the imperfect and the perfect tense, it may be observed," &c.—L. Ainsworth cor. "The subject is certainly worthy of consideration."—Id. "By this means, all ambiguity and controversy on this point are avoided."—Bullions cor. "The perfect participle, in English, has both an active and a passive signification." Better: "The perfect participle, in English, has sometimes an active, and sometimes a passive, signification."—Id. "The old house has at length fallen down."—Id. "The king, the lords, and the commons, constitute the English form of government."—Id. "The verb in the singular agrees with the person next to it." Better: "The singular verb agrees in person with that nominative which is next to it."—Id. "Jane found Seth's gloves in James's hat."—O. C. Felton cor. "Charles's task is too great."—Id. "The conjugation of a verb is the naming of its several moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, in regular order."—Id. "The long-remembered beggar was his guest."—Id. "Participles refer to nouns or pronouns."—Id. "F has a uniform sound, in every position, except in OF." Better: "F has one unvaried sound, in every position, except in OF."—E. J. Hallock cor. "There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter."—Id. "When SO and THAT occur together, sometimes the particle SO is taken as an adverb."—Id. "The definition of the articles shows that they modify [the import of] the words to which they belong."—Id. "The auxiliary, SHALL, WILL, or SHOULD, is implied."—Id. "Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syllable."—Brown's Inst., p. 237. "Agreeably to this, we read of names being blotted out of God's book."—Burder, Hallock, and Webster, cor. "The first person is that which denotes the speaker."—Inst., p. 32. "Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice, on a certain letter or syllable in a word."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 235; Felton's, 134. "Thomas's horse was caught."—Felton cor. "You were loved."—Id. "The nominative and the objective end alike."—T. Smith cor. "The numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two; the singular and the plural."—Id. "I is called the pronoun of the first person, because it represents the person speaking."—Frost cor. "The essential elements of the phrase are an intransitive gerundive and an adjective."—Hazen cor. "Wealth is no justification for such impudence."—Id. "That he was a soldier in the revolution, is not doubted."—Id. "Fishing is the chief employment of the inhabitants."—Id. "The chief employment of the inhabitants, is the catching of fish."—Id. "The cold weather did not prevent the work from being finished at the time specified."—Id. "The man's former viciousness caused him to be suspected of this crime."—Id. "But person and number, applied to verbs, mean certain terminations."—Barrett cor. "Robert felled a tree."—Id. "Charles raised himself up."—Id. "It might not be a useless waste of time."—Id. "Neither will you have that implicit faith in the writings and works of others, which characterizes the vulgar."—Id. "I is of the first person, because it denotes the speaker."—Ib. "I would refer the student to Hedge's or Watts's Logic."—Id. "Hedge's Watts's, Kirwin's, and Collard's Logic."—Parker and Fox cor. "Letters that make a full and perfect sound of themselves, are called vowels." Or: "The letters which make," &c.—Cutler cor. "It has both a singular and a plural construction."—Id. "For he beholds (or beholdeth) thy beams no more."—Id. Carthon. "To this sentiment the Committee have the candour to incline, as it will appear by their summing-up."—Macpherson cor. "This reduces the point at issue to a narrow compass."—Id. "Since the English set foot upon the soil."—Exiles cor. "The arrangement of its different parts is easily retained by the memory."—Hiley cor. "The words employed are the most appropriate that could have been selected."—Id. "To prevent it from launching!"—Id. "Webster has been followed in preference to others, where he differs from them." Or: "Webster's Grammar has been followed in preference to others, where it differs from them."—Frazee cor. "Exclamation and interrogation are often mistaken the one for the other."—Buchanan cor. "When all nature is hushed in sleep, and neither love nor guilt keeps its vigils."—Felton cor. Or thus:—

   "When all nature's hush'd asleep.
    Nor love, nor guilt, doth vigils keep."

LESSON II.—ANY PARTS OF SPEECH.

"A Versifier and a Poet are two different things."—Brightland cor. "Those qualities will arise from the well-expressing of the subject."—Id. "Therefore the explanation of NETWORK is not noticed here."—Mason cor. "When emphasis or pathos is necessary to be expressed."—Humphrey cor. "Whether this mode of punctuation is correct, or whether it is proper to close the sentence with the mark of admiration, may be made a question."—Id. "But not every writer in those days was thus correct."—Id. "The sounds of A, in English orthoepy, are no fewer than four."—Id. "Our present code of rules is thought to be generally correct." Or: "The rules in our present code are thought to be generally correct."—Id. "To prevent it from running into an other"—Id. "Shakspeare, perhaps, the greatest poetical genius that England has produced."—Id. "This I will illustrate by example; but, before doing so, a few preliminary remarks may be necessary."—Id. "All such are entitled to two accents each, and some of them to two accents nearly equal."—Id. "But some cases of the kind are so plain, that no one needs to exercise (or, need exercise) his judgement therein."—Id. "I have forborne to use the word."—Id. "The propositions, 'He may study,' 'He might study,' 'He could study,' affirm an ability or power to study."—E. J. Hallock cor. "The divisions of the tenses have occasioned grammarians much trouble and perplexity."—Id. "By adopting a familiar, inductive method of presenting this subject, one may render it highly attractive to young learners."—Wells cor. "The definitions and rules of different grammarians were carefully compared with one an other:" or—"one with an other."—Id. "So as not wholly to prevent some sound from issuing."—Sheridan cor. "Letters of the Alphabet, not yet noticed."—Id. "'IT is sad,' 'IT is strange,' &c., seem to express only that the thing is sad, strange, &c."—Well-Wishers cor. "The winning is easier than the preserving of a conquest."—Same. "The United States find themselves the owners of a vast region of country at the west."—H. Mann cor. "One or more letters placed before a word are a prefix."—S. W. Clark cor. "One or more letters added to a word, are a Suffix."—Id. "Two thirds of my hair have fallen off." Or: "My hair has, two thirds of it, fallen off."—Id. "'Suspecting' describes us, the speakers, by expressing, incidentally, an act of ours."—Id. "Daniel's predictions are now about being fulfilled." Or thus: "Daniel's predictions are now receiving their fulfillment"—Id. "His scholarship entitles him to respect."—Id. "I doubted whether he had been a soldier."—Id. "The taking of a madman's sword to prevent him from doing mischief, cannot be regarded as a robbery."—Id. "I thought it to be him; but it was not he."—Id. "It was not I that you saw."—Id. "Not to know what happened before you were born, is always to be a boy."—Id. "How long were you going? Three days."—Id. "The qualifying adjective is placed next to the noun."—Id. "All went but I."—Id. "This is a parsing of their own language, and not of the author's."—Wells cor. "Those nouns which denote males, are of the masculine gender." Or: "Nouns that denote males, are of the masculine gender."—Wells, late Ed. "Those nouns which denote females, are of the feminine gender." Or: "Nouns that denote females, are of the feminine gender."—Wells, late Ed. "When a comparison among more than two objects of the same class is expressed, the superlative degree is employed."—Wells cor. "Where d or t goes before, the additional letter d or t, in this contracted form, coalesces into one letter with the radical d or t."—Dr. Johnson cor. "Write words which will show what kind of house you live in—what kind of book you hold in your hand—what kind of day it is."—Weld cor. "One word or more are often joined to nouns or pronouns to modify their meaning."—Id. "Good is an adjective; it explains the quality or character of every person to whom, or thing to which, it is applied." Or:—"of every person or thing that it is applied to."—Id. "A great public as well as private advantage arises from every one's devoting of himself to that occupation which he prefers, and for which he is specially fitted."—Wayland, Wells, and Weld, cor. "There was a chance for him to recover his senses." Or: "There was a chance that he might recover his senses."—Wells and Macaulay cor. "This may be known by the absence of any connecting word immediately preceding it."—Weld cor. "There are irregular expressions occasionally to be met with, which usage, or custom, rather than analogy, sanctions."—Id. "He added an anecdote of Quin relieving Thomson from prison." Or: "He added an anecdote of Quin as relieving Thomson from prison." Or: "He added an anecdote of Quin's relieving of Thomson from prison." Or better: "He also told how Quin relieved Thomson from prison."—Id. "The daily labour of her hands procures for her all that is necessary."—Id. "That it is I, should make no change in your determination."—Hart cor. "The classification of words into what are called the Parts of Speech."—Weld cor. "Such licenses may be explained among what are usually termed Figures."—Id.

"Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand."—Beattie.

"They fall successive, and successive rise."—Pope.

LESSON III.—ANY PARTS OF SPEECH.

"A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation from the usual form of a word."—See Brown's Institutes, p. 229. "A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from the usual construction of a word."—See Brown's Inst., p. 230. "Synecdoche is the naming of the whole of any thing for a part, or a part for the whole."—Weld cor. "Apostrophe is a turning-off[547] from the regular course of the subject, to address some person or thing."—Id. "Even young pupils will perform such exercises with surprising interest and facility, and will unconsciously gain, in a little time, more knowledge of the structure of language, than they can acquire by a drilling of several years in the usual routine of parsing."—Id. "A few rules of construction are employed in this part, to guide the pupil in the exercise of parsing."—Id. "The name of any person, object, or thing, that can be thought of, or spoken of, is a noun."—Id. "A dot, resembling our period, is used between every two words, as well as at the close of each verse."—W. Day cor. "The casting of types in matrices was invented by Peter Schoeffer, in 1452."—Id. "On perusing it, he said, that, so far [was it] from showing the prisoner's guilt [that] it positively established his innocence."—Id. "By printing the nominative and verb in Italic letters, we shall enable the reader to distinguish them at a glance."—Id. "It is well, no doubt, to avoid unnecessary words."—Id. "I meeting a friend the other day, he said to me, 'Where are you going?'"—Id. "To John, apples were first denied; then they were promised to him; then they were offered to him."—Lennie cor. "Admission was denied him."—Wells cor. "A pardon was offered to them."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 183. "A new potato was this day shown me."—Darwin, Webster, Frazee, and Weld, cor. "Those nouns or pronouns which denote males, are of the masculine gender."—S. S. Greene, cor. "There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative."—Id. "The first two refer to direction; the third refers to locality."—Id. "The following are some of the verbs which take a direct and an indirect object."—Id. "I was not aware that he was the judge of the supreme court."—Id. "An indirect question may refer to any of the five elements of a declarative sentence."—Id. "I am not sure that he will be present."—Id. "We left New York on Tuesday."—Id. "He left the city, as he told me, before the arrival of the steamer."—Id. "We told him that he must leave us;"—Id. "We told him to leave us."—Id. "Because he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left the place, in disgust."—Id. "He left the company, and took his brother with him."—Id. "This stating, or declaring, or denying of any thing, is called the indicative mood, or manner of speaking."—Weld cor. "This took place at our friend Sir Joshua Reynolds's."—Id. "The manner in which a young lady may employ herself usefully in reading, will be the subject of an other paper."—Id. "Very little time is necessary for Johnson to conclude a treaty with the bookseller."—Id. "My father is not now sick; but if he were, your services would be welcome."—Chandler's Common School Gram., Ed. of 1847, p. 79. "Before we begin to write or speak, we ought to fix in our minds a clear conception of the end to be aimed at."—Dr. Blair cor. "Length of days is in her right hand; and, in her left hand, are riches and honour."—See Proverbs, iii, 16. "The active and the passive present express different ideas."—Bullions cor. "An Improper Diphthong, (sometimes called a Digraph,) is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded."—Fowler cor. (See G. Brown's definition.) "The real origin of the words is to be sought in the Latin."—Fowler cor. "What sort of alphabet the Gothic languages possess, we know; what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine."—Id. "The Runic alphabet, whether borrowed or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity than either the oldest Teutonic or the Moeso-Gothic alphabet."—Id. "Common to the masculine and neuter genders."—Id. "In the Anglo-Saxon, HIS was common to both the masculine and the Neuter Gender."—Id. "When time, number, or dimension, is specified, the adjective follows the substantive."—Id. "Nor pain, nor grief nor anxious fear, Invades thy bounds."—Id. "To Brighton, the Pavilion lends a lath-and-plaster grace."—Fowler cor. "From this consideration, I have given to nouns but one person, the THIRD."—D. C. Allen cor.

   "For it seems to guard and cherish
    E'en the wayward dreamer—me."—Anon. cor.

CHAPTER XII.—GENERAL REVIEW.

CORRECTIONS UNDER ALL THE PRECEDING RULES AND NOTES.

LESSON I.—ARTICLES.

"And they took stones, and made a heap."—ALGER'S BIBLE: Gen., xxxi, 46. "And I do know many fools, that stand in better place."—Shak. cor. "It is a strong antidote to the turbulence of passion, and the violence of pursuit."—Kames cor. "The word NEWS may admit of either a singular or a plural application."—Wright cor. "He has gained a fair and honourable reputation."—Id. "There are two general forms, called the solemn and the familiar style." Or:—"called the solemn and familiar styles."—Sanborn cor. "Neither the article nor the preposition can be omitted."—Wright cor. "A close union is also observable between the subjunctive and the potential mood."—Id. "Should we render service equally to a friend, a neighbour, and an enemy?"—Id. "Till a habit is obtained, of aspirating strongly."—Sheridan cor. "There is a uniform, steady use of the same signs."—Id. "A traveller remarks most of the objects which he sees."—Jamieson cor. "What is the name of the river on which London stands? Thames."—G. B. "We sometimes find the last line of a couplet or a triplet stretched out to twelve syllables."—Adam cor. "The nouns which follow active verbs, are not in the nominative case."—David Blair cor. "It is a solemn duty to speak plainly of the wrongs which good men perpetrate."—Channing cor. "The gathering of riches is a pleasant torment."—L. Cobb cor. "It is worth being quoted." Or better: "It is worth quoting."—Coleridge cor. "COUNCIL is a noun which admits of a singular and a plural form."—Wright cor. "To exhibit the connexion between the Old Testament and the New."—Keith cor. "An apostrophe discovers the omission of a letter or of letters."—Guy cor. "He is immediately ordained, or rather acknowledged, a hero."—Pope cor. "Which is the same in both the leading and the following state."—Brightland cor. "Pronouns, as will be seen hereafter, have three distinct cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—D. Blair cor. "A word of many syllables is called a polysyllable."—Beck cor. "Nouns have two numbers; the singular and the plural."—Id. "They have three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter."—Id. "They have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Id. "Personal pronouns have, like nouns, two numbers; the singular and the plural;—three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter;—three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Id. "He must be wise enough to know the singular from the plural"—Id. "Though they may be able to meet every reproach which any one of their fellows may prefer."—Chalmers cor. "Yet for love's sake I rather beseech thee, being such a one as Paul the aged."—Bible cor.; also Webster. "A people that jeoparded their lives unto death."—Bible cor. "By preventing too great an accumulation of seed within too narrow a compass."—The Friend cor. "Who fills up the middle space between the animal and the intellectual nature, the visible and the invisible world."—Addison cor. "The Psalms abound with instances of the harmonious arrangement of words."—Murray cor. "On an other table, were a ewer and a vase, likewise of gold."—Mirror cor. "TH is said to have two sounds, a sharp and a flat."—Wilson cor. "The SECTION (§) is sometimes used in the subdividing of a chapter into lesser parts."—Brightland cor. "Try it in a dog, or a horse, or any other creature."—Locke cor. "But particularly in the learning of languages, there is the least occasion to pose children."—Id. "Of what kind is the noun RIVER, and why?"—R. C. Smith cor. "Is WILLIAM'S a proper or a common noun?"—Id. "What kind of article, then, shall we call the?" Or better: "What then shall we call the article the?"—Id.

   "Each burns alike, who can, or cannot write,
    Or with a rival's, or a eunuch's spite."—Pope cor.

LESSON II.—NOUNS, OR CASES.

"And there are stamped upon their imaginations ideas that follow them with terror and affright."—Locke cor. "There's not a wretch that lives on common charity, but's happier than I."—Ven. Pres. cor. "But they overwhelm every one who is ignorant of them."—H. Mann cor. "I have received a letter from my cousin, her that was here last week."—Inst., p. 129. "Gentlemen's houses are seldom without variety of company."—Locke cor. "Because Fortune has laid them below the level of others, at their masters' feet."—Id. "We blamed neither John's nor Mary's delay."—Nixon cor. "The book was written by order of Luther the reformer."—Id. "I saw on the table of the saloon Blair's sermons, and somebody's else, (I forget whose,) and [about the room] a set of noisy children."—Byron cor. "Or saith he it altogether for our sake?"—Bible cor. "He was not aware that the Duke was his competitor."—Sanborn cor. "It is no condition of an adjective, that the word must be placed before a noun." Or: "It is no condition on which a word becomes an adjective, that it must be placed before a noun."—Id., and Fowle cor. "Though their reason corrected the wrong ideas which they had taken in."—Locke cor. "It was he that taught me to hate slavery."—Morris cor. "It is he and his kindred, who live upon the labour of others."—Id. "Payment of tribute is an acknowledgement of him as being King—(of him as King—or, that he is King—) to whom we think it due."—C. Leslie cor. "When we comprehend what is taught us."—Ingersoll cor. "The following words, and parts of words, must be noticed."—Priestley cor. "Hence tears and commiseration are so often employed."—Dr. H. Blair cor. "JOHN-A-NOKES, n. A fictitious name used in law proceedings."—A. Chalmers cor. "The construction of words denoting matter, and the part grasped."—B. F. Fisk cor. "And such other names as carry with them the idea of something terrible and hurtful."—Locke cor. "Every learner then would surely be glad to be spared from the trouble and fatigue."—Pike cor. "It is not the owning of one's dissent from an other, that I speak against."—Locke cor. "A man that cannot fence, will be more careful to keep out of bullies and gamesters' company, and will not be half so apt to stand upon punctilios."—Id. "From such persons it is, that one may learn more in one day, than in a year's rambling from one inn to an other."—Id. "A long syllable is generally considered to be twice as long as a short one."—D. Blair cor. "I is of the first person, and the singular number. THOU is of the second person singular. HE, SHE, or IT, is of the third person singular. WE is of the first person plural. YE or YOU is of the second person plural. THEY is of the third person plural."—Kirkham cor. "This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is denoted by some word in the nominative case."—Id. "Nobody can think, that a boy of three or seven years of age should be argued with as a grown man."—Locke cor. "This was in the house of one of the Pharisees, not in Simon the leper's."—Hammond cor. "Impossible! it can't be I."—Swift cor. "Whose grey top shall tremble, He descending."—Milton, P. L., xii, 227. "Of what gender is woman, and why?"—R. C. Smith cor. "Of what gender, then, is man, and why?"—Id. "Who is this I; whom do you mean when you say I?"—R. W. Green cor. "It has a pleasant air, but the soil is barren."—Locke cor. "You may, in three days' time, go from Galilee to Jerusalem."—W. Whiston cor. "And that which is left of the meat-offering, shall be Aaron's and his sons'."—FRIENDS' BIBLE.

   "For none in all the world, without a lie,
    Can say of this, '_'T_is mine,' but Bunyan, I."—Bunyan cor.

LESSON III.—ADJECTIVES.

"When he can be their remembrancer and advocate at all assizes and sessions."—Leslie cor. "DOING denotes every manner of action; as, to dance, to play, to write, &c."—Buchanan cor. "Seven feet long,"—"eight feet long,"—"fifty feet long."—W. Walker cor. "Nearly the whole of these twenty-five millions of dollars is a dead loss to the nation."—Fowler cor. "Two negatives destroy each other."—R. W. Green cor. "We are warned against excusing sin in ourselves, or in one an other."—Friend cor. "The Russian empire is more extensive than any other government in the world."—Inst., p. 265. "You will always have the satisfaction to think it, of all your expenses, the money best laid out."—Locke cor. "There is no other passion which all mankind so naturally indulge, as pride."—Steele cor. "O, throw away the viler part of it."—Shak. cor. "He showed us an easier and more agreeable way."—Inst., p. 265. "And the last four are to point out those further improvements."—Jamieson and Campbell cor. "Where he has not clear ideas, distinct and different."—Locke cor. "Oh, when shall we have an other such Rector of Laracor!"—Hazlitt cor. "Speech must have been absolutely necessary previously to the formation of society." Or better thus: "Speech must have been absolutely necessary to the formation of society."—Jamieson cor. "Go and tell those boys to be still."—Inst., p. 265. "Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits, on sand: those are apt to be requited; these, forgot."—G. B. "None of these several interpretations is the true one."—G. B. "My friend indulged himself in some freaks not befitting the gravity of a clergyman."—G. B. "And their pardon is all that any of their impropriators will have to plead."—Leslie cor. "But the time usually chosen to send young men abroad, is, I think, of all periods, that at which they are least capable of reaping those advantages."—Locke cor. "It is a mere figment of the human imagination, a rhapsody of the transcendently unintelligible."—Jamieson cor. "It contains a greater assemblage of sublime ideas, of bold and daring figures, than is perhaps anywhere else to be met with."—Dr. Blair cor. "The order in which the last two words are placed should have been reversed."—Dr. Blair cor.; also L. Murray. "In Demosthenes, eloquence shone forth with higher splendour, than perhaps in any other that ever bore the name of orator."—Dr. Blair cor. "The circumstance of his poverty (or, that he is poor) is decidedly favourable."—Todd cor. "The temptations to dissipation are greatly lessened by his poverty."—Id. "For, with her death, those tidings came."—Shak. cor. "The next objection is, that authors of this sort are poor."—Cleland cor. "Presenting Emma, as Miss Castlemain, to these acquaintances:" or,—"to these persons of her acquaintance."—Opie cor. "I doubt not that it will please more persons than the opera:" or,—"that it will be more pleasing than the opera."—Spect. cor. "The world knows only two; these are Rome and I."—Ben Jonson cor. "I distinguish these two things from each other."—Dr. Blair cor. "And, in this case, mankind reciprocally claim and allow indulgence to one an other."—Sheridan cor. "The last six books are said not to have received the finishing hand of the author."—Dr. Blair cor. "The best-executed part of the work, is the first six books."—Id.

   "To reason how can we be said to rise?
    So hard the task for mortals to be wise!"—Sheffield cor.

LESSON IV.—PRONOUNS.

"Once upon a time, a goose fed her young by a pond's side:" or—"by a pondside."—Goldsmith cor. (See OBS. 33d on Rule 4th.) "If either has a sufficient degree of merit to recommend it to the attention of the public."—J. Walker cor. "Now W. Mitchell's deceit is very remarkable."—Barclay cor. "My brother, I did not put the question to thee, for that I doubted of the truth of thy belief."—Bunyan cor. "I had two elder brothers, one of whom was a lieutenant-colonel."—De Foe cor. "Though James is here the object of the action, yet the word James is in the nominative case."—Wright cor. "Here John is the actor; and the word John is known to be in the nominative, by its answering to the question, 'Who struck Richard?'"—Id. "One of the most distinguished privileges that Providence has conferred upon mankind, is the power of communicating their thoughts to one an other."—Dr. Blair cor. "With some of the most refined feelings that belong to our frame."—Id. "And the same instructions that assist others in composing works of elegance, will assist them in judging of, and relishing, the beauties of composition."—Id. "To overthrow all that had been yielded in favour of the army."—Macaulay cor. "Let your faith stand in the Lord God, who changes not, who created all, and who gives the increase of all."—Friends cor. "For it is, in truth, the sentiment of passion which lies under the figured expression, that gives it all its merit."—Dr. Blair cor. "Verbs are words that affirm the being, doing, or suffering of a thing, together with the time at which it happens."—A. Murray cor. "The bias will always hang on that side on which nature first placed it."—Locke cor. "They should be brought to do the things which are fit for them."—Id. "The various sources from which the English language is derived."—L. Murray cor. "This attention to the several cases in which it is proper to omit or to redouble the copulative, is of considerable importance."—Dr. Blair cor. "Cicero, for instance, speaking of the cases in which it is lawful to kill an other in self-defence, uses the following words."—Id. "But there is no nation, hardly are there any persons, so phlegmatic as not to accompany their words with some actions, or gesticulations, whenever they are much in earnest."—Id. "William's is said to be governed by coat, because coat follows William's" Or better:—"because coat is the name of the thing possessed by William."—R. C. Smith cor. "In life, there are many occasions on which silence and simplicity are marks of true wisdom."—L. Murray cor. "In choosing umpires whose avarice is excited."—Nixon cor. "The boroughs sent representatives, according to law."—Id. "No man believes but that there is some order in the universe."—G. B. "The moon is orderly in her changes, and she could not be so by accident."—Id. "The riddles of the Sphynx (or, The Sphynx's riddles) are generally of two kinds."—Bacon cor. "They must generally find either their friends or their enemies in power."—Dr. Brown cor. "For, of old, very many took upon them to write what happened in their own time."—Whiston cor. "The Almighty cut off the family of Eli the high priest, for their transgressions."—The Friend, vii, 109. "The convention then resolved itself into a committee of the whole."—Inst., p. 269. "The severity with which persons of this denomination were treated, appeared rather to invite them to the colony, than to deter them from flocking thither."—H. Adams cor. "Many Christians abuse the Scriptures and the traditions of the apostles, to uphold things quite contrary to them."—Barclay cor. "Thus, a circle, a square, a triangle, or a hexagon, pleases the eye by its regularity, and is a beautiful figure."—Dr. Blair cor. "Elba is remarkable for being the place to which Bonaparte was banished in 1814."—Olney's Geog. "The editor has the reputation of being a good linguist and critic."—Rel. Herald. "It is a pride which should be cherished in them."—Locke cor. "And to restore to us the hope of fruits, to reward our pains in their season."—Id. "The comic representation of Death's victim relating his own tale."—Wright cor. "As for Scioppius's Grammar, that wholly concerns the Latin tongue."—Wilkins cor.

   "And chiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer
    Before all temples th' upright heart and pure,
    Instruct me, for Thou knowst."—Milton, P. L., B. i, l. 17.

LESSON V.—VERBS.

"And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field."—Friends' Bible; also Bruce's, and Alger's. "Whereof every one bears [or beareth] twins."—BIBLE COR.: Song, vi, 6. "He strikes out of his nature one of the most divine principles that are planted in it."—Addison cor. "GENII [i.e., the word GENII] denotes aërial spirits."—Wright cor. "In proportion as the long and large prevalence of such corruptions has been obtained by force."—Halifax cor. "Neither of these is set before any word of a general signification, or before a proper name."—Brightland cor. "Of which, a few of the opening lines are all I shall give."—Moore cor. "The wealth we had in England, was the slow result of long industry and wisdom." Or: "The riches we had in England were," &c.—Davenant cor. "The following expression appears to be correct: 'Much public gratitude is due.'" Or this: "'Great public thanks are due.'"—-Wright cor. "He has been enabled to correct many mistakes."—Lowth cor. "Which road dost thou take here?"—Ingersoll cor. "Dost thou learn thy lesson?"—Id. "Did they learn their pieces perfectly?"—Id. "Thou learned thy task well."—Id. "There are some who can't relish the town, and others can't bear with the country."—Sir Wilful cor. "If thou meet them, thou must put on an intrepid mien."—Neef cor. "Struck with terror, as if Philip were something more than human."—Dr. Blair cor. "If the personification of the form of Satan were admissible, the pronoun should certainly have been masculine."—Jamieson cor. "If only one follows, there seems to be a defect in the sentence."—Priestley cor. "Sir, if thou hast borne him hence, tell me where thou hast laid him."—Bible cor. "Blessed are the people that know the joyful sound."—Id. "Every auditory takes in good part those marks of respect and awe with which a modest speaker commences a public discourse."—Dr. Blair cor. "Private causes were still pleaded in the forum; but the public were no longer interested, nor was any general attention drawn to what passed there."—Id. "Nay, what evidence can be brought to show, that the inflections of the classic tongues were not originally formed out of obsolete auxiliary words?"—L. Murray cor. "If the student observe that the principal and the auxiliary form but one verb, he will have little or no difficulty in the proper application of the present rule."—Id. "For the sword of the enemy, and fear, are on every side."—Bible cor. "Even the Stoics agree that nature, or certainty, is very hard to come at."—Collier cor. "His politeness, his obliging behaviour, was changed." Or thus: "His polite and obliging behaviour was changed."—Priestley and Hume cor. "War and its honours were their employment and ambition." Or thus: "War was their employment; its honours were their ambition."—Goldsmith cor. "Do A and AN mean the same thing?"—R. W. Green cor. "When several words come in between the discordant parts, the ear does not detect the error."—Cobbett cor. "The sentence should be, 'When several words come in,' &c."—Wright cor. "The nature of our language, the accent and pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our regular verbs."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 104. Or thus: "The nature of our language,—(that is, the accent and pronunciation of it,—) inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs."—Lowth cor. "The nature of our language, together with the accent and pronunciation of it, inclines us to contract even all our regular verbs."—Hiley cor. "Prompt aid, and not promises, is what we ought to give."—G. B. "The position of the several organs, therefore, as well as their functions, is ascertained."—Med. Mag. cor. "Every private company, and almost every public assembly, affords opportunities of remarking the difference between a just and graceful, and a faulty and unnatural elocution."—Enfield cor. "Such submission, together with the active principle of obedience, makes up in us the temper or character which answers to his sovereignty."—Bp. Butler cor. "In happiness, as in other things, there are a false and a true, an imaginary and a real."—A. Fuller cor. "To confound things that differ, and to make a distinction where there is no difference, are equally unphilosophical."—G. Brown.

   "I know a bank wheron doth wild thyme blow,
    Where oxlips and the nodding violet grow."—Shak. cor.

LESSON VI.—VERBS.

"Whose business or profession prevents their attendance in the morning."—Ogilby cor. "And no church or officer has power over an other."—Lechford cor. "While neither reason nor experience is sufficiently matured to protect them."—Woodbridge cor. "Among the Greeks and Romans, almost every syllable was known to have a fixed and determined quantity." Or thus: "Among the Greeks and Romans, all syllables, (or at least the far greater number,) were known to have severally a fixed and determined quantity."—Blair and Jamieson cor. "Their vanity is awakened, and their passions are exalted, by the irritation which their self-love receives from contradiction."—Tr. of Mad. De Staël cor. "He and I were neither of us any great swimmer."—Anon. "Virtue, honour—nay, even self-interest, recommends the measure."—L. Murray cor. (See Obs. 5th on Rule 16th.) "A correct plainness, an elegant simplicity, is the proper character of an introduction."—Dr. Blair cor. "In syntax, there is what grammarians call concord or agreement, and there is government."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "People find themselves able, without much study, to write and speak English intelligibly, and thus are led to think that rules are of no utility."—Webster cor. "But the writer must be one who has studied to inform himself well, who has pondered his subject with care, and who addresses himself to our judgement, rather than to our imagination."—Dr. Blair cor. "But practice has determined it otherwise; and has, in all the languages with which we are much acquainted, supplied the place of an interrogative mood, either by particles of interrogation, or by a peculiar order of the words in the sentence."—Lowth cor. "If the Lord hath stirred thee up against me, let him accept an offering."—Bible cor. "But if the priest's daughter be a widow, or divorced, and have no child, and she return unto her father's house, as in her youth, she shall eat of her father's meat."—Id. "Since we never have studied, and never shall study, your sublime productions."—Neef cor. "Enabling us to form distincter images of objects, than can be formed, with the utmost attention, where these particulars are not found."—Kames cor. "I hope you will consider that what is spoken comes from my love."—Shak. cor. "We shall then perceive how the designs of emphasis may be marred."—Rush cor. "I knew it was Crab, and went to the fellow that whips the dogs."—Shak. cor. "The youth was consuming by a slow malady."—Murray's Gram., p. 64; Ingersoll's, 45; Fisk, 82. "If all men thought, spoke, and wrote alike, something resembling a perfect adjustment of these points might be accomplished."—Wright cor. "If you will replace what has been, for a long time expunged from the language." Or: "If you will replace what was long ago expunged from the language."—Campbell and Murray cor. "As in all those faulty instances which I have just been giving."—Dr. Blair cor. "This mood is also used improperly in the following places."—L. Murray cor. "He seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to have known what it was that nature had bestowed upon him."—Johnson cor. "Of which I have already given one instance, the worst indeed that occurred in the poem."—Dr. Blair cor. "It is strange he never commanded you to do it."—Anon. "History painters would have found it difficult, to invent such a species of beings."—Addison cor. "Universal Grammar cannot be taught abstractedly; it must be explained with referenc [sic—KTH] to some language already known."—Lowth cor. "And we might imagine, that if verbs had been so contrived as simply to express these, no other tenses would have been needful."—Dr. Blair cor. "To a writer of such a genius as Dean Swift's, the plain style is most admirably fitted."—Id. "Please to excuse my son's absence."—Inst., p. 279. "Bid the boys come in immediately."—Ib.

   "Gives us the secrets of his pagan hell,
    Where restless ghosts in sad communion dwell."—Crabbe cor.

    "Alas! nor faith nor valour now remains;
    Sighs are but wind, and I must bear my chains."—Walpole cor.

LESSON VII.—PARTICIPLES.

"Of which the author considers himself, in compiling the present work, as merely laying the foundation-stone."—David Blair cor. "On the raising of such lively and distinct images as are here described."—Kames cor. "They are necessary to the avoiding of ambiguities."—Brightland cor. "There is no neglecting of it without falling into a dangerous error." Or better: "None can neglect it without falling," &c.—Burlamaqui cor. "The contest resembles Don Quixote's fighting of (or with) windmills."—Webster cor. "That these verbs associate with other verbs in all the tenses, is no proof that they have no particular time of their own."—L. Murray cor. "To justify myself in not following the track of the ancient rhetoricians."—Dr. H. Blair cor. "The putting-together of letters, so as to make words, is called Spelling."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "What is the putting-together of vowels and consonants called?"—Id. "Nobody knows of their charitableness, but themselves." Or: "Nobody knows that they are charitable, but themselves."—Fuller cor. "Payment was at length made, but no reason was assigned for so long a postponement of it."—Murray et al. cor. "Which will bear to be brought into comparison with any composition of the kind."—Dr. Blair cor. "To render vice ridiculous, is to do real service to the world."—Id. "It is a direct copying from nature, a plain rehearsal of what passed, or was supposed to pass, in conversation."—Id. "Propriety of pronunciation consists in giving to every word that sound which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 200; and again, p. 219. "To occupy the mind, and prevent us from regretting the insipidity of a uniform plain."—Kames cor. "There are a hundred ways in which any thing may happen."—Steele cor. "Tell me, seignior, for what cause (or why) Antonio sent Claudio to Venice yesterday."—Bucke cor. "As you are looking about for an outlet, some rich prospect unexpectedly opens to view."—Kames cor. "A hundred volumes of modern novels may be read without communicating a new idea." Or thus: "A person may read a hundred volumes of modern novels without acquiring a new idea."—Webster cor. "Poetry admits of greater latitude than prose, with respect to the coining, or at least the new compounding, of words."—Dr. Blair cor. "When laws were written on brazen tablets, and enforced by the sword."—Pope cor. "A pronoun, which saves the naming of a person or thing a second time, ought to be placed as near as possible to the name of that person or thing."—Kames cor. "The using of a preposition in this case, is not always a matter of choice."—Id. "To save the multiplying of words, I would be understood to comprehend both circumstances."—Id. "Immoderate grief is mute: complaint is a struggle for consolation."—Id. "On the other hand, the accelerating or the retarding of the natural course, excites a pain."—Id. "Human affairs require the distributing of our attention."—Id. "By neglecting this circumstance, the author of the following example has made it defective in neatness."—Id. "And therefore the suppressing of copulatives must animate a description."—Id. "If the omission of copulatives gives force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid."—Id. "It skills not, to ask my leave, said Richard."—Scott cor. "To redeem his credit, he proposed to be sent once more to Sparta."—Goldsmith cor. "Dumas relates that he gave drink to a dog."—Stone cor. "Both are, in a like way, instruments of our reception of such ideas from external objects."—Bp. Butler cor. "In order to your proper handling of such a subject."—Spect. cor. "For I do not recollect it preceded by an open vowel."—Knight cor. "Such is the setting up of the form above the power of godliness."—Barclay cor. "I remember that I was walking once with my young acquaintance."—Hunt cor. "He did not like to pay a debt."—Id. "I do not remember to have seen Coleridge when I was a child."—Id. "In consequence of the dry rot discovered in it, the mansion has undergone a thorough repair."—Maunder cor. "I would not advise the following of the German system in all its parts."—Lieber cor. "Would it not be to make the students judges of the professors?"—Id. "Little time should intervene between the proposing of them and the deciding upon them."—Verthake [sic—KTH] cor. "It would be nothing less than to find fault with the Creator."—Lit. Journal cor. "That we were once friends, is a powerful reason, both of prudence and of conscience, to restrain us from ever becoming enemies."—Secker cor. "By using the word as a conjunction, we prevent the ambiguity."—L. Murray cor.

   "He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem,
    But faith in Jesus has no part in them."—J Taylor cor.

LESSON VIII.—ADVERBS.

"Auxiliaries not only can be inserted, but are really understood."—Wright cor. "He was afterwards a hired scribbler in the Daily Courant."—Pope's Annotator cor. "In gardening, luckily, relative beauty never need stand (or, perhaps better, never needs to stand) in opposition to intrinsic beauty."—Kames cor. "I much doubt the propriety of the following examples."—Lowth cor. "And [we see] how far they have spread, in this part of the world, one of the worst languages possible"—Locke cor. "And, in this manner, merely to place him on a level with the beast of the forest."—R. C. Smith cor. "Whither, ah! whither, has my darling fled."—Anon. "As for this fellow, we know not whence he is."—Bible cor. "Ye see then, that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only."—Id. "The Mixed kind is that in which the poet sometimes speaks in his own person, and sometimes makes other characters speak."—Adam and Gould cor. "Interrogation is a rhetorical figure in which the writer or orator raises questions, and, if he pleases, returns answers."—Fisher cor. "Prevention is a figure in which an author starts an objection which he foresees may be made, and gives an answer to it."—Id. "Will you let me alone, or not?"—W. Walker cor. "Neither man nor woman can resist an engaging exterior."— Chesterfield cor. "Though the cup be everso clean."—Locke cor. "Seldom, or never, did any one rise to eminence, by being a witty lawyer." Or thus: "Seldom, if ever, has any one risen to eminence, by being a witty lawyer."—Dr. Blair cor. "The second rule which I give, respects the choice of the objects from which metaphors, and other figures, are to be drawn."—Id. "In the figures which it uses, it sets mirrors before us, in which we may behold objects reflected in their likeness."—Id. "Whose business it is, to seek the true measures of right and wrong, and not the arts by which he may avoid doing the one, and secure himself in doing the other."—Locke cor. "The occasions on which you ought to personify things, and those on which you ought not, cannot be stated in any precise rule."—Cobbett cor. "They reflect that they have been much diverted, but scarcely can they say about what."—Kames cor. "The eyebrows and shoulders should seldom or never be remarked by any perceptible motion."—J. Q. Adams cor. "And the left hand or arm should seldom or never attempt any motion by itself."—Id., right. "Not every speaker purposes to please the imagination."— Jamieson cor. "And, like Gallio, they care for none of these things." Or: "And, like Gallio, they care little for any of these things."—S. cor. "They may inadvertently be used where their meaning would be obscure."—L. Murray cor. "Nor can a man make him laugh."—Shak. cor. "The Athenians, in their present distress, scarcely knew whither to turn."—Goldsmith cor. "I do not remember where God ever delivered his oracles by the multitude."—Locke cor. "The object of this government is twofold, outward and inward."—Barclay cor. "In order rightly to understand what we read"—R. Johnson cor. "That a design had been formed, to kidnap or forcibly abduct Morgan."—Col. Stone cor. "But such imposture can never long maintain its ground."—Dr. Blair cor. "But surely it is as possible to apply the principles of reason and good sense to this art, as to any other that is cultivated among men."—Id. "It would have been better for you, to have remained illiterate, and even to have been hewers of wood."—L. Murray cor. "Dissyllables that have two vowels which are separated in the pronunciation, always have the accent on the first syllable."—Id. "And they all turned their backs, almost without drawing a sword." Or: "And they all turned their backs, scarcely venturing to draw a sword."—Kames cor. "The principle of duty naturally takes precedence of every other."—Id. "Not all that glitters, is gold."—Maunder cor. "Whether now, or everso many myriads of ages hence."—Edwards cor.

   "England never did, nor ever shall,
    Lie at the proud foot of a conqueror."—Shak. cor.

LESSON IX.—CONJUNCTIONS.

"He readily comprehends the rules of syntax, their use in the constructing of sentences, and their applicability to the examples before him."—Greenleaf cor. "The works of Æschylus have suffered more by time, than those of any other ancient tragedian."—Dr. Blair cor. "There is much more story, more bustle, and more action, than on the French theatre."—Id. (See Obs. 8th on Rule 16th.) "Such an unremitted anxiety, or such a perpetual application, as engrosses all our time and thoughts, is forbidden."—Jenyns cor. "It seems to be nothing else than the simple form of the adjective."—Wright cor. "But when I talk of reasoning, I do not intend any other than such as is suited to the child's capacity."—Locke cor. "Pronouns have no other use in language, than to represent nouns."—Jamieson cor. "The speculative relied no farther on their own judgement, than to choose a leader, whom they implicitly followed."—Kames cor. "Unaccommodated man is no more than such a poor, bare, forked animal as thou art."—Shak. cor. "A Parenthesis is a suggestion which is introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction."—Mur. et al. cor. "The Caret (marked thus ^) is placed where something that happened to be left out, is to be put into the line."—Iid. "When I visit them, they shall be cast down."—Bible cor. "Neither our virtues nor our vices are all our own."—Johnson and Sanborn cor. "I could not give him so early an answer as he had desired."—O. B. Peirce cor. "He is not so tall as his brother."—Nixon cor. "It is difficult to judge whether Lord Byron is serious or not."—Lady Blessington cor. "Some nouns are of both the second and the third declension."—Gould cor. "He was discouraged neither by danger nor by misfortune."—Wells cor. "This is consistent neither with logic nor with history."—Dial cor. "Parts of sentences are either simple or compound."—David Blair cor. "English verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables, than by feet:" or,—"than by the number of feet."—Id. "I know not what more he can do, than pray for him."—Locke cor. "Whilst they are learning, and are applying themselves with attention, they are to be kept in good humour."—Id. "A man cannot have too much of it, nor have it too perfectly."—Id. "That you may so run, as to obtain; and so fight, as to overcome." Or thus: "That you may so run, that you may obtain; and so fight, that you may overcome."—Penn cor. "It is the artifice of some, to contrive false periods of business, that they may seem men of despatch."—Bacon cor. "'A tall man and a woman.' In this phrase, there is no ellipsis; the adjective belongs only to the former noun; the quality respects only the man."—Ash cor. "An abandonment of the policy is neither to be expected nor to be desired."—Jackson cor. "Which can be acquired by no other means than by frequent exercise in speaking."—Dr. Blair cor. "The chief or fundamental rules of syntax are common to the English and the Latin tongue." Or:—"are applicable to the English as well as to the Latin tongue."—Id. "Then I exclaim, either that my antagonist is void of all taste, or that his taste is corrupted in a miserable degree." Or thus: "Then I exclaim, that my antagonist is either void of all taste, or has a taste that is miserably corrupted."—Id. "I cannot pity any one who is under no distress either of body or of mind."—Kames cor. "There was much genius in the world, before there were learning and arts to refine it."—Dr. Blair cor. "Such a writer can have little else to do, than to new-model the paradoxes of ancient scepticism."—Dr. Brown cor. "Our ideas of them being nothing else than collections of the ordinary qualities observed in them."—Duncan cor. "A non-ens, or negative, can give neither pleasure nor pain."—Kames cor. "So that they shall not justle and embarrass one an other."—Dr. Blair cor. "He firmly refused to make use of any other voice than his own."—Murray's Sequel, p. 113. "Your marching regiments, sir, will not make the guards their example, either as soldiers or as subjects."—Junius cor. "Consequently they had neither meaning nor beauty, to any but the natives of each country."—Sheridan cor.

   "The man of worth, who has not left his peer,
    Is in his narrow house forever darkly laid."—Burns cor.

LESSON X.—PREPOSITIONS.

"These may be carried on progressively beyond any assignable limits."—Kames cor. "To crowd different subjects into a single member of a period, is still worse than to crowd them into one period."—Id. "Nor do we rigidly insist on having melodious prose."—Id. "The aversion we have to those who differ from us."—Id. "For we cannot bear his shifting of the scene at every line."—Halifax cor. "We shall find that we come by it in the same way."—Locke cor. "Against this he has no better defence than that."—Barnes cor. "Searching the person whom he suspects of having stolen his casket."—Dr. Blair cor. "Who, as vacancies occur, are elected by the whole Board."—Lit. Jour. cor. "Almost the only field of ambition for a German, is science."—Lieber cor. "The plan of education is very different from the one pursued in the sister country."—Coley cor. "Some writers on grammar have contended, that adjectives sometimes relate to verbs, and modify their action."—Wilcox cor. "They are therefore of a mixed nature, participating the properties both of pronouns and of adjectives."— Ingersoll cor. "For there is no authority which can justify the inserting of the aspirate or the doubling of the vowel."—Knight cor. "The distinction and arrangement of active, passive, and neuter verbs."— Wright cor. "And see thou a hostile world spread its delusive snares."—Kirkham cor. "He may be precautioned, and be made to see how those join in the contempt."—Locke cor. "The contenting of themselves in the present want of what they wished for, is a virtue."— Id. "If the complaint be about something really worthy of your notice."—Id. "True fortitude I take to be the quiet possession of a man's self, and an undisturbed doing of his duty."—Id. "For the custom of tormenting and killing beasts, will, by degrees, harden their minds even towards men."—Id. "Children are whipped to it, and made to spend many hours of their precious time uneasily at Latin."—Id. "On this subject, [the Harmony of Periods,] the ancient rhetoricians have entered into a very minute and particular detail; more particular, indeed, than on any other head that regards language."—See Blair's Rhet., p. 122. "But the one should not be omitted, and the other retained." Or: "But the one should not be used without the other."—Bullions cor. "From some common forms of speech, the relative pronoun is usually omitted."—Murray and Weld cor. "There are very many causes which disqualify a witness for being received to testify in particular cases."—Adams cor. "Aside from all regard to interest, we should expect that," &c.—Webster cor. "My opinion was given after a rather cursory perusal of the book."—L. Murray cor. "And, [on] the next day, he was put on board of his ship." Or thus: "And, the next day, he was put aboard his ship."—Id. "Having the command of no emotions, but what are raised by sight."—Kames cor. "Did these moral attributes exist in some other being besides himself." Or:—"in some other being than himself."—Wayland cor. "He did not behave in that manner from pride, or [from] contempt of the tribunal."—Murray's Sequel, p. 113. "These prosecutions against William seem to have been the most iniquitous measures pursued by the court."—Murray and Priestley cor. "To restore myself to the good graces of my fair critics."—Dryden cor. "Objects denominated beautiful, please not by virtue of any one quality common to them all."—Dr. Blair cor. "This would have been less worthy of notice, had not a writer or two of high rank lately adopted it."—Churchill cor.

   "A Grecian youth, of talents rare,
    Whom Plato's philosophic care," &c.—WHITEHEAD: E. R., p. 196.

LESSON XI.—PROMISCUOUS.

"To excel has become a much less considerable object."—Dr. Blair cor. "My robe, and my integrity to Heav'n, are all I dare now call my own."—Enfield's Speaker, p. 347. "For thou the garland wearst successively."—Shak. cor.; also Enfield. "If then thou art a Roman, take it forth."—Id. "If thou prove this to be real, thou must be a smart lad indeed."—Neef cor. "And an other bridge of four hundred feet in length."—Brightland cor. "METONYMY is the putting of one name for an other, on account of the near relation which there is between them."—Fisher cor. "ANTONOMASIA is the putting of an appellative or common name for a proper name."—Id. "That it is I, should make no difference in your determination."—Bullions cor. "The first and second pages are torn." Or. "The first and the second page are torn." Or: "The first page and the second are torn."—Id. "John's absence from home occasioned the delay."—Id. "His neglect of opportunities for improvement, was the cause of his disgrace."—Id. "He will regret his neglect of his opportunities for improvement, when it is too late."—Id. "His expertness at dancing does not entitle him to our regard."—Id. "Cæsar went back to Rome, to take possession of the public treasure, which his opponent, by a most unaccountable oversight, had neglected to carry away with him."—Goldsmith cor. "And Cæsar took out of the treasury, gold to the amount of three thousand pounds' weight, besides an immense quantity of silver." [548]—Id. "Rules and definitions, which should always be as clear and intelligible as possible, are thus rendered obscure."—Greenleaf cor. "So much both of ability and of merit is seldom found." Or thus: "So much of both ability and merit is seldom found."[549]—L. Murray cor. "If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what has become of decency and virtue?"[550]—Murray's False Syntax, ii, 62. Or: "If such maxims and practices prevail, what will become of decency and virtue?"—Murray and Bullions cor. "Especially if the subject does not require so much pomp."—Dr. Blair cor. "However, the proper mixture of light and shade in such compositions,—the exact adjustment of all the figurative circumstances with the literal sense,—has ever been found an affair of great nicety."—Blair's Rhet., p. 151. "And adding to that hissing in our language, which is so much noticed by foreigners."—Addison, Coote, and Murray, cor. "To speak impatiently to servants, or to do any thing that betrays unkindness, or ill-humour, is certainly criminal." Or better: "Impatience, unkindness, or ill-humour, is certainly criminal."—Mur. et al. cor. "Here are a fullness and grandeur of expression, well suited to the subject."—Dr. Blair cor. "I single out Strada from among the moderns, because he had the foolish presumption to censure Tacitus."—L. Murray cor. "I single him out from among the moderns, because," &c.—Bolingbroke cor. "This rule is not always observed, even by good writers, so strictly as it ought to be."—Dr. Blair cor. "But this gravity and assurance, which are beyond boyhood, being neither wisdom nor knowledge, do never reach to manhood."—Pope cor. "The regularity and polish even of a turnpike-road, have some influence upon the low people in the neighbourhood."—Kames cor. "They become fond of regularity and neatness; and this improvement of their taste is displayed, first upon their yards and little enclosures, and next within doors."—Id. "The phrase, 'it is impossible to exist,' gives us the idea, that it is impossible for men, or any body, to exist."—Priestley cor. "I'll give a thousand pounds to look upon him."—Shak. cor. "The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent him from mistaking it."—Crombie and Murray cor. "When two words are set in contrast, or in opposition to each other, they are both emphatic."—L. Murray cor. "The number of the persons—men, women, and children—who were lost in the sea, was very great." Or thus: "The number of persons—men, women, and children—that were lost in the sea, was very great."—Id. "Nor is the resemblance between the primary and the resembling object pointed out."—Jamieson cor. "I think it the best book of the kind, that I have met with."—Mathews cor.

   "Why should not we their ancient rites restore,
    And be what Rome or Athens was before?"—Roscommon cor.

LESSON XII.—TWO ERRORS.

"It is labour only that gives relish to pleasure."—L. Murray cor. "Groves are never more agreeable than in the opening of spring."—Id. "His Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, soon made him known to the literati."—See Blair's Lect., pp. 34 and 45. "An awful precipice or tower from which we look down on the objects which are below."—Dr. Blair cor. "This passage, though very poetical, is, however, harsh and obscure; and for no other cause than this, that three distinct metaphors are crowded together."—Id. "I purpose to make some observations."—Id. "I shall here follow the same method that I have all along pursued."—Id. "Mankind at no other time resemble one an other so much as they do in the beginnings of society."—Id. "But no ear is sensible of the termination of each foot, in the reading of a hexameter line."—Id. "The first thing, says he, that a writer either of fables or of heroic poems does, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality."—Id. "The fourth book has always been most justly admired, and indeed it abounds with beauties of the highest kind."—Id. "There is in the poem no attempt towards the painting of characters."—Id. "But the artificial contrasting of characters, and the constant introducing of them in pairs and by opposites, give too theatrical and affected an air to the piece."—Id. "Neither of them is arbitrary or local."—Kames cor. "If the crowding of figures is bad, it is still worse to graft one figure upon an other."—Id. "The crowding-together of so many objects lessens the pleasure."—Id. "This therefore lies not in the putting-off of the hat, nor in the making of compliments."—Locke cor. "But the Samaritan Vau may have been used, as the Jews used the Chaldaic, both for a vowel and for a consonant."—Wilson cor. "But if a solemn and a familiar pronunciation really exist in our language, is it not the business of a grammarian to mark both?"—J. Walker cor. "By making sounds follow one an other agreeably to certain laws."—Gardiner cor. "If there were no drinking of intoxicating draughts, there could be no drunkards."—Peirce cor. "Socrates knew his own defects, and if he was proud of any thing, it was of being thought to have none."—Goldsmith cor. "Lysander, having brought his army to Ephesus, erected an arsenal for the building of galleys."—Id. "The use of these signs is worthy of remark."—Brightland cor. "He received me in the same manner in which I would receive you." Or thus: "He received me as I would receive you."—R. C. Smith cor. "Consisting of both the direct and the collateral evidence."—Bp. Butler cor. "If any man or woman that believeth hath widows, let him or her relieve them, and let not the church be charged."—Bible cor. "For men's sake are beasts bred."—W. Walker cor. "From three o'clock, there were drinking and gaming."—Id. "Is this he that I am seeking, or not?"—Id. "And for the upholding of every one's own opinion, there is so much ado."—Sewel cor. "Some of them, however, will necessarily be noticed."—Sale cor. "The boys conducted themselves very indiscreetly."—Merchant cor. "Their example, their influence, their fortune,—every talent they possess,—dispenses blessings on all persons around them."—Id. and Murray cor. "The two Reynoldses reciprocally converted each other."—Johnson cor. "The destroying of the last two, Tacitus calls an attack upon virtue itself."—Goldsmith cor. "Moneys are your suit."—Shak. cor. "Ch is commonly sounded like tch, as in church; but in words derived from Greek, it has the sound of k."—L. Murray cor. "When one is obliged to make some utensil serve for purposes to which it was not originally destined."—Campbell cor. "But that a baptism with water is a washing-away of sin, thou canst not hence prove."—Barclay cor. "Being spoken to but one, it infers no universal command."—Id. "For if the laying-aside of copulatives gives force and liveliness, a redundancy of them must render the period languid."—Buchanan cor. "James used to compare him to a cat, which always falls upon her legs."—Adam cor.

   "From the low earth aspiring genius springs,
    And sails triumphant borne on eagle's wings."—Lloyd cor.

LESSON XIII.—TWO ERRORS

"An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure style, for instance, is always faulty."—Dr. Blair cor. "Yet in this we find that the English pronounce quite agreeably to rule." Or thus: "Yet in this we find the English pronunciation perfectly agreeable to rule." Or thus: "Yet in this we find that the English pronounce in a manner perfectly agreeable to rule."—J. Walker cor. "But neither the perception of ideas, nor knowledge of any sort, is a habit, though absolutely necessary to the forming of habits."—Bp. Butler cor. "They were cast; and a heavy fine was imposed upon them."—Goldsmith cor. "Without making this reflection, he cannot enter into the spirit of the author, or relish the composition."—Dr. Blair cor. "The scholar should be instructed in relation to the finding of his words." Or thus: "The scholar should be told how to find his words."—Osborn cor. "And therefore they could neither have forged, nor have reversified them."—Knight cor. "A dispensary is a place at which medicines are dispensed to the poor."—L. Mur. cor. "Both the connexion and the number of words are determined by general laws."—Neef cor. "An Anapest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last one accented; as, c~ontr~av=ene, acquiésce."—L. Mur. cor. "An explicative sentence is one in which a thing is said, in a direct manner, to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer."—Lowth and Mur. cor. "BUT is a conjunction whenever it is neither an adverb nor a preposition." [551]—R. C. Smith cor. "He wrote in the name of King Ahasuerus, and sealed the writing with the king's ring."—Bible cor. "Camm and Audland had departed from the town before this time."—Sewel cor. "Before they will relinquish the practice, they must be convinced."—Webster cor. "Which he had thrown up before he set out."—Grimshaw cor. "He left to him the value of a hundred drachms in Persian money."—Spect cor. "All that the mind can ever contemplate concerning them, must be divided among the three."—Cardell cor. "Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants, of all that have fallen under my observation."—Spect. cor. "When you have once got him to think himself compensated for his suffering, by the praise which is given him for his courage."—Locke cor. "In all matters in which simple reason, or mere speculation is concerned."—Sheridan cor. "And therefore he should be spared from the trouble of attending to anything else than his meaning."—Id. "It is this kind of phraseology that is distinguished by the epithet idiomatical; a species that was originally the spawn, partly of ignorance, and partly of affectation."—Campbell and Murray cor. "That neither the inflection nor the letters are such as could have been employed by the ancient inhabitants of Latium."—Knight cor. "In those cases in which the verb is intended to be applied to any one of the terms."—L. Murray cor. "But these people who know not the law, are accursed."—Bible cor. "And the magnitude of the choruses has weight and sublimity."—Gardiner cor. "Dares he deny that there are some of his fraternity guilty?"—Barclay cor. "Giving an account of most, if not all, of the papers which had passed betwixt them."—Id. "In this manner, as to both parsing and correcting, should all the rules of syntax be treated, being taken up regularly according to their order."—L. Murray cor. "To Ovando were allowed a brilliant retinue and a body-guard."—Sketch cor. "Was it I or he, that you requested to go?"—Kirkham cor. "Let thee and me go on."—Bunyan cor. "This I nowhere affirmed; and I do wholly deny it."—Barclay cor. "But that I deny; and it remains for him to prove it."—Id. "Our country sinks beneath the yoke: She weeps, she bleeds, and each new day a gash Is added to her wounds."—Shak. cor. "Thou art the Lord who chose Abraham and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees."—Bible and Mur. cor. "He is the exhaustless fountain, from which emanate all these attributes that exist throughout this wide creation."—Wayland cor. "I am he who has communed with the son of Neocles; I am he who has entered the gardens of pleasure."—Wright cor.

   "Such were in ancient times the tales received,
    Such by our good forefathers were believed."—Rowe cor.

LESSON XIV.—TWO ERRORS.

"The noun or pronoun that stands before the active verb, usually represents the agent."—A. Murray cor. "Such seem to have been the musings of our hero of the grammar-quill, when he penned the first part of his grammar."—Merchant cor. "Two dots, the one placed above the other [:], are called Sheva, and are used to represent a very short e."—Wilson cor. "Great have been, and are, the obscurity and difficulty, in the nature and application of them" [: i.e.—of natural remedies].—Butler cor. "As two are to four, so are four to eight."—Everest cor. "The invention and use of arithmetic, reach back to a period so remote, as to be beyond the knowledge of history."— Robertson cor. "What it presents as objects of contemplation or enjoyment, fill and satisfy his mind."—Id. "If he dares not say they are, as I know he dares not, how must I then distinguish?"—Barclay cor. "He had now grown so fond of solitude, that all company had become uneasy to him."—Life of Cic. cor. "Violence and spoil are heard in her; before me continually are grief and wounds."—Bible cor. "Bayle's Intelligence from the Republic of Letters, which makes eleven volumes in duodecimo, is truly a model in this kind."—Formey cor. "Pauses, to be rendered pleasing and expressive, must not only be made in the right place, but also be accompanied with a proper tone of voice."—L. Murray cor. "To oppose the opinions and rectify the mistakes of others, is what truth and sincerity sometimes require of us."—Locke cor. "It is very probable, that this assembly was called, to clear some doubt which the king had, whether it were lawful for the Hollanders to throw off the monarchy of Spain, and withdraw entirely their allegiance to that crown." Or:—"About the lawfulness of the Hollanders' rejection of the monarchy of Spain, and entire withdrawment of their allegiance to that crown."—L. Murray cor. "A naming of the numbers and cases of a noun in their order, is called the declining of it, or its declension."—Frost cor. "The embodying of them is, therefore, only a collecting of such component parts of words."—Town cor. "The one is the voice heard when Christ was baptized; the other, when he was transfigured."—Barclay cor. "An understanding of the literal sense"—or, "To have understood the literal sense, would not have prevented them from condemning the guiltless."—Bp. Butler cor. "As if this were, to take the execution of justice out of the hands of God, and to give it to nature."—Id. "They will say, you must conceal this good opinion of yourself; which yet is an allowing of the thing, though not of the showing of it." Or:—"which yet is, to allow the thing, though not the showing of it."—Sheffield cor. "So as to signify not only the doing of an action, but the causing of it to be done."—Pike cor. "This, certainly, was both a dividing of the unity of God, and a limiting of his immensity."—Calvin cor. "Tones being infinite in number, and varying in almost every individual, the arranging of them under distinct heads, and the reducing of them to any fixed and permanent rules, may be considered as the last refinement in language."—Knight cor. "The fierce anger of the Lord shall not return, until he hath done it, and until he hath performed the intents of his heart."—Bible cor. "We seek for deeds more illustrious and heroic, for events more diversified and surprising."—Dr. Blair cor. "We distinguish the genders, or the male and the female sex, in four different ways."—Buchanan cor. "Thus, ch and g are ever hard. It is therefore proper to retain these sounds in those Hebrew names which have not been modernized, or changed by public use."—Dr. Wilson cor. "A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing which is conceived to subsist, or of which we have any notion."—Murray and Lowth cor. "A Noun is the name of any thing which exists, or of which we have, or can form, an idea."—Maunder cor. "A Noun is the name of any thing in existence, or of any thing of which we can form an idea."—Id. "The next thing to be attended to, is, to keep him exactly to the speaking of truth."—Locke cor. "The material, the vegetable, and the animal world, receive this influence according to their several capacities."—Dial cor. "And yet it is fairly defensible on the principles of the schoolmen; if those things can be called principles, which consist merely in words."—Campbell cor.

   "Art thou so bare, and full of wretchedness,
    And fearst to die? Famine is in thy cheeks,
    Need and oppression starve in thy sunk eyes."—Shak. cor.

LESSON XV.—THREE ERRORS.

"The silver age is reckoned to have commenced at the death of Augustus, and to have continued till the end of Trajan's reign."—Gould cor. "Language has indeed become, in modern times, more correct, and more determinate."—Dr. Blair cor. "It is evident, that those words are the most agreeable to the ear, which are composed of smooth and liquid sounds, and in which there is a proper intermixture of vowels and consonants."—Id. "It would have had no other effect, than to add to the sentence an unnecessary word."—Id. "But as rumours arose, that the judges had been corrupted by money in this cause, these gave occasion to much popular clamour, and threw a heavy odium on Cluentius."—Id. "A Participle is derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature both of the verb and of an adjective."—Ash and Devis cor. "I shall have learned my grammar before you will have learned yours."—Wilbur and Livingston cor. "There is no other earthly object capable of making so various and so forcible impressions upon the human mind, as a complete speaker."—Perry cor. "It was not the carrying of the bag, that made Judas a thief and a hireling."—South cor. "As the reasonable soul and the flesh are one man, so God and man are one Christ."—Creed cor. "And I will say to them who were not my people, Ye are my people; and they shall say, Thou art our God."—Bible cor. "Where there is in the sense nothing that requires the last sound to be elevated or suspended, an easy fall, sufficient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper."—L. Mur. cor. "Each party produce words in which the letter a is sounded in the manner for which they contend."—J. Walker cor. "To countenance persons that are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely one remove from an actual commission of the same crimes."—L. Mur. cor. "'To countenance persons that are guilty of bad actions,' is a phrase or clause which is made the subject of the verb 'is.'"—Id. "What is called the splitting of particles,—that is, the separating of a preposition from the noun which it governs, is always to be avoided."—Dr. Blair et al. cor. (See Obs. 15th on Rule 23d.) "There is properly but one pause, or rest, in the sentence; and this falls betwixt the two members into which the sentence is divided."—Iid. "To go barefoot, does not at all help a man on, in the way to heaven."—Steele cor. "There is nobody who does not condemn this in others, though many overlook it in themselves."—Locke cor. "Be careful not to use the same word in the same sentence either too frequently or in different senses."—L. Murray cor. "Nothing could have made her more unhappy, than to have married a man of such principles."—Id. "A warlike, various, and tragical age is the best to write of, but the worst to write in."—Cowley cor. "When thou instancest Peter's babtizing [sic—KTH] of Cornelius."—Barclay cor. "To introduce two or more leading thoughts or topics, which have no natural affinity or mutual dependence."—L. Murray cor. "Animals, again, are fitted to one an other, and to the elements or regions in which they live, and to which they are as appendices."—Id. "This melody, however, or so frequent varying of the sound of each word, is a proof of nothing, but of the fine ear of that people."—Jamieson cor. "They can, each in its turn, be used upon occasion."—Duncan cor. "In this reign, lived the poets Gower and Chaucer, who are the first authors that can properly be said to have written English."—Bucke cor. "In translating expressions of this kind, consider the [phrase] 'it is' as if it were they are."—W. Walker cor. "The chin has an important office to perform; for, by the degree of its activity, we disclose either a polite or a vulgar pronunciation."—Gardiner cor. "For no other reason, than that he was found in bad company."—Webster cor. "It is usual to compare them after the manner of polysyllables."—Priestley cor. "The infinitive mood is recognized more easily than any other, because the preposition TO precedes it."—Bucke cor. "Prepositions, you recollect, connect words, and so do conjunctions: how, then, can you tell a conjunction from a preposition?" Or:—"how, then, can you distinguish the former from the latter?"—R. C. Smith cor.

   "No kind of work requires a nicer touch,
    And, this well finish'd, none else shines so much."
        —Sheffield cor.

LESSON XVI.—THREE ERRORS.

"On many occasions, it is the final pause alone, that marks the difference between prose and verse: this will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines."—L. Murray cor. "I shall do all I can to persuade others to take for their cure the same measures that I have taken for mine."—Guardian cor.; also Murray. "It is the nature of extreme self-lovers, that they will set a house on fire, as it were, but to roast their eggs."—Bacon cor. "Did ever man struggle more earnestly in a cause in which both his honour and his life were concerned?"—Duncan cor. "So the rests, or pauses, which separate sentences or their parts, are marked by points."—Lowth cor. "Yet the case and mood are not influenced by them, but are determined by the nature of the sentence."—Id. "Through inattention to this rule, many errors have been committed: several of which are here subjoined, as a further caution and direction to the learner."—L. Murray cor. "Though thou clothe thyself with crimson, though thou deck thee with ornaments of gold, though thou polish thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair." [552]—Bible cor. "But that the doing of good to others, will make us happy, is not so evident; the feeding of the hungry, for example, or the clothing of the naked." Or: "But that, to do good to others, will make us happy, is not so evident; to feed the hungry, for example, or to clothe the naked."—Kames cor. "There is no other God than he, no other light than his." Or: "There is no God but he, no light but his."—Penn cor. "How little reason is there to wonder, that a powerful and accomplished orator should be one of the characters that are most rarely found."—Dr. Blair cor. "Because they express neither the doing nor the receiving of an action."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "To find the answers, will require an effort of mind; and, when right answers are given, they will be the result of reflection, and show that the subject is understood."—Id. "'The sun rises,' is an expression trite and common; but the same idea becomes a magnificent image, when expressed in the language of Mr. Thomson."—Dr. Blair cor. "The declining of a word is the giving of its different endings." Or: "To decline a word, is to give it different endings."—Ware cor. "And so much are they for allowing every one to follow his own mind."—Barclay cor. "More than one overture for peace were made, but Cleon prevented them from taking effect."—Goldsmith cor. "Neither in English, nor in any other language, is this word, or that which corresponds to it in meaning, any more an article, than TWO, THREE, or FOUR."—Webster cor. "But the most irksome conversation of all that I have met with in the neighbourhood, has been with two or three of your travellers."—Spect. cor. "Set down the first two terms of the supposition, one under the other, in the first place."—Smiley cor. "It is a useful practice too, to fix one's eye on some of the most distant persons in the assembly."—Dr. Blair cor. "He will generally please his hearers most, when to please them is not his sole or his chief aim."—Id. "At length, the consuls return to the camp, and inform the soldiers, that they could obtain for them no other terms than those of surrendering their arms and passing under the yoke."—Id. "Nor are mankind so much to blame, in their choice thus determining them."—Swift cor. "These forms are what are called the Numbers." Or: "These forms are called Numbers."—Fosdick cor. "In those languages which admit but two genders, all nouns are either masculine or feminine, even though they designate beings that are neither male nor female."—Id. "It is called Verb or Word by way of eminence, because it is the most essential word in a sentence, and one without which the other parts of speech cannot form any complete sense."—Gould cor. "The sentence will consist of two members, and these will commonly be separated from each other by a comma."—Jamieson cor. "Loud and soft in speaking are like the fortè and piano in music; they only refer to the different degrees of force used in the same key: whereas high and low imply a change of key."—Sheridan cor. "They are chiefly three: the acquisition of knowledge; the assisting of the memory to treasure up this knowledge; and the communicating of it to others."—Id.

"This kind of knaves I know, who in this plainness Harbour more craft, and hide corrupter ends, Than twenty silly ducking observants."—Shak. cor.

LESSON XVII.—MANY ERRORS.

"A man will be forgiven, even for great errors, committed in a foreign language; but, in the use he makes of his own, even the least slips are justly pointed out and ridiculed."—Amer. Chesterfield cor. "LET expresses not only permission, but entreaty, exhortation, and command."—Lowth cor.; also Murray, et al. "That death which is our leaving of this world, is nothing else than the putting-off of these bodies."—Sherlock cor. "They differ from the saints recorded in either the Old or the New Testament."—Newton cor. "The nature of relation, therefore, consists in the referring or comparing of two things to each other; from which comparison, one or both come to be denominated."—Locke cor. "It is not credible, that there is any one who will say, that through the whole course of his life he has kept himself entirely undefiled, without the least spot or stain of sin."—Witsius cor. "If to act conformably to the will of our Creator,—if to promote the welfare of mankind around us,—if to secure our own happiness, is an object of the highest moment; then are we loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." Or: "If, to act conformably to the will of our Creator, to promote the welfare of mankind around us, and to secure our own happiness, are objects of the highest moment; then," &c.—Murray et al. cor. "The verb being in the plural number, it is supposed, that the officer and his guard are joint agents. But this is not the case: the only nominative to the verb is 'officer.' In the expression, 'with his guard,' the noun 'guard' is in the objective case, being governed by the preposition with; and consequently it cannot form the nominative, or any part of it. The prominent subject for the agreement, the true nominative to the verb, or the term to which the verb peculiarly refers, is the word 'officer.'"—L. Murray cor. "This is an other use, that, in my opinion, contributes to make a man learned rather than wise; and is incapable of pleasing either the understanding or the imagination."—Addison cor. "The work is a dull performance; and is incapable of pleasing either the understanding or the imagination."—L. Murray cor. "I would recommend the 'Elements of English Grammar,' by Mr. Frost. The plan of this little work is similar to that of Mr. L. Murray's smallest Grammar; but, in order to meet the understanding of children, its definitions and language are simplified, so far as the nature of the subject will admit. It also embraces more examples for Parsing, than are usual in elementary treatises."—S. R. Hall cor. "More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in the first two months of winter; but what falls, makes a much greater show upon the earth, in winter than in summer, because there is a much slower evaporation."—L. Murray cor. "They often contribute also to render some persons prosperous, though wicked; and, what is still worse, to reward some actions, though vicious; and punish other actions, though virtuous."—Bp. Butler cor. "Hence, to such a man, arise naturally a secret satisfaction, a sense of security, and an implicit hope of somewhat further."—Id. "So much for the third and last cause of illusion, that was noticed above; which arises from the abuse of very general and abstract terms; and which is the principal source of the abundant nonsense that has been vented by metaphysicians, mystagogues, and theologians."—Campbell cor. "As to those animals which are less common, or which, on account of the places they inhabit, fall less under our observation, as fishes and birds, or which their diminutive size removes still further from our observation, we generally, in English, employ a single noun to designate both genders, the masculine and the feminine."—Fosdick cor. "Adjectives may always be distinguished by their relation to other words: they express the quality, condition, or number, of whatever things are mentioned."—Emmons cor. "An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner."—Brown's Inst., p. 29. "The joining-together of two objects, so grand, and the representing of them both, as subject at one moment to the command of God, produce a noble effect."—Dr. Blair cor. "Twisted columns, for instance, are undoubtedly ornamental; but, as they have an appearance of weakness, they displease the eye, whenever they are used to support any massy part of a building, or what seems to require a more substantial prop."—Id. "In a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon stones of a defined shape, is found an Alphabet different from the Greeks', the Latins', and the Hebrews', and also unlike that of any modern nation."—W. C. Fowler cor.

LESSON XVIII.—MANY ERRORS.

"The empire of Blefuscu is an island situated on the northeast side of Lilliput, from which it is parted by a channel of only 800 yards in width."—Swift and Kames cor. "The nominative case usually denotes the agent or doer; and any noun or pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is always in this case."—R. C. Smith cor. "There are, in his allegorical personages, an originality, a richness, and a variety, which almost vie with the splendours of the ancient mythology."—Hazlitt cor. "As neither the Jewish nor the Christian revelation has been universal, and as each has been afforded to a greater or a less part of the world at different times; so likewise, at different times, both revelations have had different degrees of evidence."—Bp. Butler cor. "Thus we see, that, to kill a man with a sword, and to kill one with a hatchet, are looked upon as no distinct species of action; but, if the point of the sword first enter the body, the action passes for a distinct species, called stabbing."—Locke cor. "If a soul sin, and commit a trespass against the Lord, and lie unto his neighbour concerning that which was delivered him to keep, or deceive his neighbour, or find that which was lost, and lie concerning it, and swear falsely; in any of all these that a man doeth, sinning therein, then it shall be," &c.—Bible cor. "As, to do and teach the commandments of God, is the great proof of virtue; so, to break them, and to teach others to break them, are the great proofs of vice."—Wayland cor. "The latter simile, in Pope's terrific maltreatment of it, is true neither to the mind nor to the eye."—Coleridge cor. "And the two brothers were seen, transported with rage and fury, like Eteocles and Polynices, each endeavouring to plunge his sword into the other's heart, and to assure himself of the throne by the death of his rival."—Goldsmith cor. "Is it not plain, therefore, that neither the castle, nor the planet, nor the cloud, which you here see, is that real one which you suppose to exist at a distance?"—Berkley cor. "I have often wondered, how it comes to pass, that every body should love himself best, and yet value his neighbours' opinion about himself more than his own."—Collier cor. "Virtue, ([Greek: Aretæ], Virtus,) as well as most of its species, when sex is figuratively ascribed to it, is made feminine, perhaps from its beauty and amiable appearance."—Harris cor. "Virtue, with most of its species, is made feminine when personified; and so is Vice, perhaps for being Virtue's opposite."—Brit. Gram. cor.; also Buchanan. "From this deduction, it may easily be seen, how it comes to pass, that personification makes so great a figure in all compositions in which imagination or passion has any concern."—Dr. Blair cor. "An Article is a word placed before a noun, to point it out as such, and to show how far its signification extends."—Folker cor. "All men have certain natural, essential, and inherent rights;—among which are the rights of enjoying and defending life and liberty; of acquiring, possessing, and protecting property; and, in a word, of seeking and obtaining happiness."—Const. of N. H. cor. "From those grammarians who form their ideas and make their decisions, respecting this part of English grammar, from the principles and construction of other languages,—of languages which do not in these points accord with our own, but which differ considerably from it,—we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that will be neither perspicuous nor consistent, and that will tend rather to perplex than to inform the learner."—Murray and Hall cor. "Indeed there are but very few who know how to be idle and innocent, or who have a relish for any pleasures that are not criminal; every diversion which the majority take, is at the expense of some one virtue or other, and their very first step out of business is into vice or folly."—Addison cor.

"Hail, holy Love! thou bliss that sumst all bliss! Giv'st and receiv'st all bliss; fullest when most Thou giv'st; spring-head of all felicity!"—Pollok cor.

CHAPTER XIII—GENERAL RULE.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE GENERAL RULE.

LESSON I.—ARTICLES.

(1.) "The article is a part of speech placed before nouns." Or thus: "An article is a word placed before nouns."—Comly cor. (2.) "The article is a part of speech used to limit nouns."—Gilbert cor. (3.) "An article is a word set before nouns to fix their vague signification."—Ash cor. (4.) "The adjective is a part of speech used to describe something named by a noun."—Gilbert cor. (5.) "A pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun."—Id. and Weld cor.: Inst., p. 45. (6.) "The pronoun is a part of speech which is often used in stead of a noun."—Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor. (7.) "A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to be acted upon."—Merchant cor. (8.) "The verb is a part of speech which signifies to be, to act, or to receive an action."—Comly cor. (9.) "The verb is the part of speech by which any thing is asserted."—Weld cor. (10.) "The verb is a part of speech, which expresses action or existence in a direct manner."—Gilbert cor. (11.) "A participle is a word derived from a verb, and expresses action or existence in an indirect manner."—Id. (12.) "The participle is a part of speech derived from the verb, and denotes being, doing, or suffering, and implies time, as a verb does."—Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor. (13.) "The adverb is a part of speech used to add some modification to the meaning of verbs, adjectives, and participles."—Gilbert cor. (14.) "An adverb is an indeclinable word added to a verb, [a participle,] an adjective, or an other adverb, to express some circumstance, accident, or manner of its signification."—Adam and Gould cor. (15.) "An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, a participle, or an other adverb, to express the circumstance of time, place, degree, or manner."—Dr. Ash cor. (16.) "An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, a participle, or, sometimes, an other adverb, to express some circumstance respecting the sense."—Beck cor. (17.) "The adverb is a part of speech, which is added to verbs, adjectives, participles, or to other adverbs, to express some modification or circumstance, quality or manner, of their signification."—Buchanan cor. (18.) "The adverb is a part of speech which we add to the verb, (whence the name,) to the adjective or participle likewise, and sometimes even to an other adverb."—Bucke cor. (19.) "A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences."—Gilbert and Weld cor. (20.) "The conjunction is a part of speech that joins words or sentences together."—Ash cor. (21.) "The conjunction is that part of speech which connects sentences, or parts of sentences, or single words."—D. Blair cor. (22.) "The conjunction is a part of speech that is used principally to connect sentences, so as, out of two, three, or more sentences, to make one."—Bucke cor. (23.) "The conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words or sentences together; but, chiefly, to join simple sentences into such as are compound."—Kirkham cor. (24.) "A conjunction is a word which joins words or sentences together, and shows the manner of their dependence, as they stand in connexion."—Brit. Gram. et al. cor. (25.) "A preposition is a word used to show the relation between other words, and govern the subsequent term."—Gilbert cor. (26.) "A preposition is a governing word which serves to connect other words, and to show the relation between them."—Frost cor. (27.) "A preposition is a governing particle used to connect words and show their relation."—Weld cor. (28.) "The preposition is that part of speech which shows the various positions of persons or things, and the consequent relations that certain words bear toward one an other."—David Blair cor. (29.) "The preposition is a part of speech, which, being added to certain other parts of speech, serves to show their state of relation, or their reference to each other."—Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor. (30.) "The interjection is a part of speech used to express sudden passion or strong emotion."—Gilbert cor. (31.) "An interjection is an unconnected word used in giving utterance to some sudden feeling or strong emotion."—Weld cor. (32.) "The interjection is that part of speech which denotes any sudden affection or strong emotion of the mind."—David Blair cor. (33.) "An interjection is an independent word or sound thrown into discourse, and denotes some sudden passion or strong emotion of the soul."—Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor.

    (34.) "The scene might tempt some peaceful sage
          To rear a lonely hermitage."—Gent. of Aberdeen cor.

    (35.) "Not all the storms that shake the pole,
          Can e'er disturb thy halcyon soul,
            And smooth unalter'd brow."—Barbauld's Poems, p. 42.

LESSON II.—NOUNS.

"The throne of every monarchy felt the shock."—Frelinghuysen cor. "These principles ought to be deeply impressed upon the mind of every American."—Dr. N. Webster cor. "The words CHURCH and SHIRE are radically the same."—Id. "They may not, in their present form, be readily accommodated to every circumstance belonging to the possessive case of nouns."—L. Murray cor. "Will, in the second and third persons, only foretells."—Id.; Lowth's Gram., p. 41. "Which seem to form the true distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative mood."—L. Murray cor. "The very general approbation which this performance of Walker's has received from the public."—Id. "Lest she carry her improvements of this kind too far." Or thus: "Lest she carry her improvements in this way too far."—Id. and Campbell cor. "Charles was extravagant, and by his prodigality became poor and despicable."—L. Murray cor. "We should entertain no prejudice against simple and rustic persons."—Id. "These are indeed the foundation of all solid merit."—Dr. Blair cor. "And his embellishment, by means of figures, musical cadences, or other ornaments of speech."—Id. "If he is at no pains to engage us by the employment of figures, musical arrangement, or any other ornament of style."—Id. "The most eminent of the sacred poets, are, David, Isaiah, and the author of the Book of Job."—Id. "Nothing in any poem, is more beautifully described than the death of old Priam."—Id. "When two vowels meet together, and are joined in one syllable, they are called a diphthong."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "How many Esses would goodness' then end with? Three; as goodness's."—Id. "Birds is a noun; it is the common name of feathered animals."—Kirkham cor. "Adam gave names to all living creatures." Or thus: "Adam gave a name to every living creature."—Bicknell cor. "The steps of a flight of stairs ought to be accommodated to the human figure." Or thus: "Stairs ought to be accommodated to the ease of the users."—Kames cor. "Nor ought an emblem, more than a simile, to be founded on a low or familiar object."—Id. "Whatever the Latin has not from the Greek, it has from the Gothic."—Tooke cor. "The mint, and the office of the secretary of state, are neat buildings."—The Friend cor. "The scenes of dead and still existence are apt to pall upon us."—Blair cor. "And Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus, the angelical doctor and the subtle, are the brightest stars in the scholastic constellation."—Lit. Hist. cor. "The English language has three methods of distinguishing the sexes."—Murray et al. cor.; also R. C. Smith. "In English, there are the three following methods of distinguishing the sexes."—Jaudon cor. "There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes."—Lennie et al. cor.; also Merchant. "The sexes are distinguished in three ways."—Maunder cor. "Neither discourse in general, nor poetry in particular, can be called altogether an imitative art."—Dr. Blair cor.

   "Do we for this the gods and conscience brave,
    That one may rule and all the rest enslave?"—Rowe cor.

LESSON III.—ADJECTIVES.

"There is a deal more of heads, than of either heart or horns."—Barclay cor. "For, of all villains, I think he has the most improper name."—Bunyan cor. "Of all the men that I met in my pilgrimage, he, I think, bears the wrongest name."—Id. "I am surprised to see so much of the distribution, and so many of the technical terms, of the Latin grammar, retained in the grammar of our tongue."—Priestley cor. "Nor did the Duke of Burgundy bring him any assistance."—Hume and Priestley cor. "Else he will find it difficult to make an obstinate person believe him."—Brightland cor. "Are there any adjectives which form the degrees of comparison in a manner peculiar to themselves?"—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Yet all the verbs are of the indicative mood."—Lowth cor. "The word candidate is absolute, in the nominative case."—L. Murray cor. "An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented."—L. Murray, D. Blair, Jamieson, Kirkham, Bullions, Guy, Merchant, and others. "A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the last two [syllables] unaccented."—Murray et al. cor. "It is proper to begin with a capital the first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or[553] other piece of writing."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 195; John Flint's, 105. "Five and seven make twelve, and one more makes thirteen."—L. Murray cor. "I wish to cultivate a nearer acquaintance with you."—Id. "Let us consider the means which are proper to effect our purpose." Or thus: "Let us consider what means are proper to effect our purpose."—Id. "Yet they are of so similar a nature as readily to mix and blend."—Dr. Blair cor. "The Latin is formed on the same model, but is more imperfect."—Id. "I know very well how great pains have been taken." Or thus: "I know very well how much care has been taken."—Temple cor. "The management of the breath requires a great deal of care."—Dr. Blair cor. "Because the mind, during such a momentary stupefaction, is, in a great measure, if not totally, insensible."—Kames cor. "Motives of reason and interest alone are not sufficient."—Id. "To render the composition distinct in its parts, and on the whole impressive."—Id. "A and an are named the Indefinite article, because they denote indifferently any one thing of a kind."—Maunder cor. "The is named the Definite article, because it points out some particular thing or things."—Id. "So much depends upon the proper construction of sentences, that, in any sort of composition, we cannot be too strict in our attention to it." Or:—"that, in every sort of composition, we ought to be very strict in our attention to it." Or:—"that, in no sort of composition, can we be too strict," &c.—Dr. Blair cor. "Every sort of declamation and public speaking was carried on by them." Or thus: "All sorts of declamation and public speaking, were carried on by them."—Id. "The former has, on many occasions, a sublimity to which the latter never attains."—Id. "When the words, therefore, consequently, accordingly, and the like, are used in connexion with conjunctions, they are adverbs."—Kirkham cor. "Rude nations make few or no allusions to the productions of the arts."—Jamieson cor. "While two of her maids knelt on each side of her." Or, if there were only two maids kneeling, and not four: "While two of her maids knelt one on each side of her."—Mirror cor. "The personal pronouns of the third person, differ from one an other in meaning and use, as follows."—Bullions cor. "It was happy for the state, that Fabius continued in the command with Minutius: the phlegm of the former was a check on the vivacity of the latter."—L. Murray and others cor.: see Maunders Gram., p. 4. "If it be objected, that the words must and ought, in the preceding sentences, are both in the present tense." Or thus: "If it be objected, that in all the preceding sentences the words must and ought are in the present tense."—L. Murray cor. "But it will be well, if you turn to them now and then." Or:—"if you turn to them occasionally."—Bucke cor. "That every part should have a dependence on, and mutually contribute to support, every other."—Rollin cor. "The phrase, 'Good, my lord,' is not common, and is low." Or:—"is uncommon, and low."—Priestley cor.

   "That brother should not war with brother,
    And one devour or vex an other."—Cowper cor.

LESSON IV.—PRONOUNS.

"If I can contribute to our country's glory." Or:—"to your glory and that of my country."—Goldsmith cor. "As likewise of the several subjects, which have in effect each its verb."—Lowth cor. "He is likewise required to make examples for himself." Or: "He himself is likewise required to make examples."—J. Flint cor. "If the emphasis be placed wrong, it will pervert and confound the meaning wholly." Or: "If the emphasis be placed wrong, the meaning will be perverted and confounded wholly." Or: "If we place the emphasis wrong, we pervert and confound the meaning wholly."—L. Murray cor.; also Dr. Blair. "It was this, that characterized the great men of antiquity; it is this, that must distinguish the moderns who would tread in their steps."—Dr. Blair cor. "I am a great enemy to implicit faith, as well the Popish as the Presbyterian; for, in that, the Papists and the Presbyterians are very much alike."—Barclay cor. "Will he thence dare to say, the apostle held an other Christ than him that died?"—Id. "Why need you be anxious about this event?" Or: "What need have you to be anxious about this event?"—Collier cor. "If a substantive can be placed after the verb, the latter is active."—A. Murray cor. "To see bad men honoured and prosperous in the world, is some discouragement to virtue." Or: "It is some discouragement to virtue, to see bad men," &c.—L. Murray cor. "It is a happiness to young persons, to be preserved from the snares of the world, as in a garden enclosed."—Id. "At the court of Queen Elizabeth, where all was prudence and economy."—Bullions cor. "It is no wonder, if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who was so remarkable for her prudence and economy."—Priestley, Murray, et al cor. "A defective verb is a verb that wants some parts. The defective verbs are chiefly the auxiliaries and the impersonal verbs."—Bullions cor. "Some writers have given to the moods a much greater extent than I have assigned to them."—L. Murray cor. "The personal pronouns give such information as no other words are capable of conveying."—M'Culloch cor. "When the article a, an, or the, precedes the participle, the latter also becomes a noun."—Merchant cor. "To some of these, there is a preference to be given, which custom and judgement must determine."—L. Murray cor. "Many writers affect to subjoin to any word the preposition with which it is compounded, or that of which it literally implies the idea."—Id. and Priestley cor.

   "Say, dost thou know Vectidius? Whom, the wretch
    Whose lands beyond the Sabines largely stretch?"—Dryden cor.

LESSON V.—VERBS.

"We should naturally expect, that the word depend would require from after it."—Priestley's Gram., p. 158. "A dish which they pretend is made of emerald."—L. Murray cor. "For the very nature of a sentence implies that one proposition is expressed."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 311. "Without a careful attention to the sense, we should be naturally led, by the rules of syntax, to refer it to the rising and setting of the sun."—Dr. Blair cor. "For any rules that can be given, on this subject, must be very general."—Id. "He would be in the right, if eloquence were what he conceives it to be."—Id. "There I should prefer a more free and diffuse manner."—Id. "Yet that they also resembled one an other, and agreed in certain qualities."—Id. "But, since he must restore her, he insists on having an other in her place."—Id. "But these are far from being so frequent, or so common, as they have been supposed to be."—Id. "We are not led to assign a wrong place to the pleasant or the painful feelings."—Kames cor. "Which are of greater importance than they are commonly thought."—Id. "Since these qualities are both coarse and common, let us find out the mark of a man of probity."—Collier cor. "Cicero did what no man had ever done before him; he drew up a treatise of consolation for himself."—Biographer cor. "Then there can remain no other doubt of the truth."—Brightland cor. "I have observed that some satirists use the term." Or: "I have observed some satirists to use the term."—Bullions cor. "Such men are ready to despond, or to become enemies."—Webster cor. "Common nouns are names common to many things."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "To make ourselves heard by one to whom we address ourselves."—Dr. Blair cor. "That, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and may relish its beauties." Or:—"and to relish its beauties."—L. Murray cor. "On the stretch to keep pace with the author, and comprehend his meaning."—Dr. Blair cor. "For it might have been sold for more than three hundred pence, and the money have been given to the poor."—Bible cor. "He is a beam that has departed, and has left no streak of light behind."—Ossian cor. "No part of this incident ought to have been represented, but the whole should have been reserved for a narrative."—Kames cor. "The rulers and people debauching themselves, a country is brought to ruin." Or: "When the rulers and people debauch themselves, they bring ruin on a country."—Ware cor. "When a title, (as Doctor, Miss, Master, &c.,) is prefixed to a name, the latter only, of the two words, is commonly varied to form the plural; as, 'The Doctor Nettletons,'—'The two Miss Hudsons.'"—A. Murray cor. "Wherefore that field has been called, 'The Field of Blood,' unto this day."—Bible cor. "To comprehend the situations of other countries, which perhaps it may be necessary for him to explore."—Dr. Brown cor. "We content ourselves now with fewer conjunctive particles than our ancestors used."—Priestley cor. "And who will be chiefly liable to make mistakes where others have erred before them."—Id. "The voice of nature and that of revelation unite." Or: "Revelation and the voice of nature unite." Or: "The voice of nature unites with revelation." Or: "The voice of nature unites with that of revelation."—Wayland cor.

   "This adjective, you see, we can't admit;
    But, changed to 'WORSE,' the word is just and fit."—Tobitt cor.

LESSON VI.—PARTICIPLES.

"Its application is not arbitrary, or dependent on the caprice of readers."—L. Murray cor. "This is the more expedient, because the work is designed for the benefit of private learners."—Id. "A man, he tells us, ordered by his will, to have a statue erected for him."—Dr. Blair cor. "From some likeness too remote, and lying too far out of the road of ordinary thought."—Id. "In the commercial world, money is a fluid, running from hand to hand."—Dr. Webster cor. "He pays much attention to the learning and singing of songs."—Id. "I would not be understood to consider the singing of songs as criminal."—Id. "It is a case decided by Cicero, the great master of writing."—Editor of Waller cor. "Did they ever bear a testimony against the writing of books?"— Bates's Rep. cor. "Exclamations are sometimes mistaken for interrogations."—Hist. of Print, cor. "Which cannot fail to prove of service."—Smith cor. "Hewn into such figures as would make them incorporate easily and firmly."—Beat, or Mur. cor. "After the rule and example, there are practical inductive questions."—J. Flint cor. "I think it will be an advantage, that I have collected my examples from modern writings."—Priestley cor. "He was eager to recommend it to his fellow-citizens."—Id. and Hume cor. "The good lady was careful to serve me with every thing."—Id. "No revelation would have been given, had the light of nature been sufficient, in such a sense as to render one superfluous and useless."—Bp. Butler cor. "Description, again, is a representation which raises in the mind the conception of an object, by means of some arbitrary or instituted symbols."—Dr. Blair cor. "Disappointing the expectation of the hearers, when they look for an end." Or:—"for the termination of our discourse."—Id. "There is a distinction, which, in the use of them, is worthy of attention."— Maunder cor. "A model has been contrived, which is not very expensive, and which is easily managed."—Ed. Reporter cor. "The conspiracy was the more easily discovered, because the conspirators were many."—L. Murray cor. "Nearly ten years had that celebrated work been published, before its importance was at all understood."—Id. "That the sceptre is ostensibly grasped by a female hand, does not reverse the general order of government."—West cor. "I have hesitated about signing the Declaration of Sentiments."—Lib. cor. "The prolonging of men's lives when the world needed to be peopled, and the subsequent shortening of them when that necessity had ceased."—Rev. John Brown cor. "Before the performance commences, we see displayed the insipid formalities of the prelusive scene."—Kirkham cor. "It forbade the lending of money, or the sending of goods, or the embarking of capital in anyway, in transactions connected with that foreign traffic."—Brougham cor. "Even abstract ideas have sometimes the same important prerogative conferred upon them."—Jamieson cor. "Ment, like other terminations, changes y into i, when the y is preceded by a consonant."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 25. "The term PROPER is from the French propre, own, or the Latin proprius; and a Proper noun is so called, because it is peculiar to the individual or family bearing the name. The term COMMON is from the Latin communis, pertaining equally to several or many; and a Common noun is so called, because it is common to every individual comprised in the class."—Fowler cor.

   "Thus oft by mariners are showed (Unless the men of Kent are liars)
    Earl Godwin's castles overflowed, And palace-roofs, and steeple-
                                                 spires."—Swift cor.

LESSON VII.—ADVERBS.

"He spoke to every man and woman who was there."—L. Murray cor. "Thought and language act and react upon each other."—Murray's Key, p. 264. "Thought and expression act and react upon each other."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 356. "They have neither the leisure nor the means of attaining any knowledge, except what lies within the contracted circle of their several professions."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 160. "Before they are capable of understanding much, or indeed any thing, of most other branches of education."—Olney cor. "There is no more beauty in one of them, than in an other."—L. Murray cor. "Which appear to be constructed according to no certain rule."—Dr. Blair cor. "The vehement manner of speaking became less universal."—Or better:—"less general."—Id. "Not all languages, however, agree in this mode of expression." Or: "This mode of expression, however, is not common to all languages."—Id. "The great occasion of setting apart this particular day."—Atterbury cor. "He is much more promising now, than he was formerly."—L. Murray cor. "They are placed before a participle, without dependence on the rest of the sentence."—Id. "This opinion does not appear to have been well considered." Or: "This opinion appears to have been formed without due consideration."—Id. "Precision in language merits a full explication; and merits it the more, because distinct ideas are, perhaps, but rarely formed concerning it."—Dr. Blair cor. "In the more sublime parts of poetry, he is less distinguished." Or:—"he is not so highly distinguished."—Id. "Whether the author was altogether happy in the choice of his subject, may be questioned."—Id. "But, with regard to this matter also, there is a great error in the common practice."—Webster cor. "This order is the very order of the human mind, which makes things we are sensible of, a means to come at those that are not known." Or:—"which makes things that are already known, its means of finding out those that are not so."—Foreman cor. "Now, who is not discouraged, and does not fear want, when he has no money?"—C. Leslie cor. "Which the authors of this work consider of little or no use."—Wilbur and Liv. cor. "And here indeed the distinction between these two classes begins to be obscure."—Dr. Blair cor. "But this is a manner which deserves to be avoided." Or:—"which does not deserve to be imitated."—Id. "And, in this department, a person effects very little, whenever he attempts too much."—Campbell and Murray cor. "The verb that signifies mere being, is neuter."—Ash cor. "I hope to tire but little those whom I shall not happen to please."—Rambler cor. "Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and who pronounced others very indistinctly."—Sheridan cor. "The learner may point out the active, passive, and neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons for thus distinguishing them." Or: "The learner may point out the active, the passive, and the neuter verbs in the following examples, and state the reasons for calling them so."—C. Adams cor. "These words are almost always conjunctions."—Barrett cor.

"How glibly nonsense trickles from his tongue! How sweet the periods, neither said nor sung!"—Pope cor.

LESSON VIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.

"Who, at least, either knew not, or did not love to make, a distinction." Or better thus: "Who, at least, either knew no distinction, or did not like to make any."—Dr. Murray cor. "It is childish in the last degree to let this become the ground of estranged affection."—L. Murray cor. "When the regular, and when the irregular verb, is to be preferred [sic—KTH], p. 107."—Id. "The books were to have been sold this day." Or:—"on this day."—Priestley cor. "Do, an you will." Or: "Do, if you will."—Shak. cor. "If a man had a positive idea either of infinite duration or of infinite space, he could add two infinites together." Or: "If a man had a positive idea of what is infinite, either in duration or in space, he could," &c.—Murray's proof-text cor. "None shall more willingly agree to and advance the same than I."—Morton cor. "That it cannot but be hurtful to continue it."—Barclay cor. "A conjunction joins words or sentences."—Beck cor. "The copulative conjunction connects words or sentences together, and continues the sense."—Frost cor. "The copulative conjunction serves to connect [words or clauses,] and continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a cause, or a supposition."—L. Murray cor. "All construction is either true or apparent; or, in other words, either literal or figurative."—Buchanan and Brit. Gram. cor. "But the divine character is such as none but a divine hand could draw." Or: "But the divine character is such, that none but a divine hand could draw it."—A. Keith cor. "Who is so mad, that, on inspecting the heavens, he is insensible of a God?"—Gibbons cor. "It is now submitted to an enlightened public, with little further desire on the part of the author, than for its general utility."—Town cor. "This will sufficiently explain why so many provincials have grown old in the capital without making any change in their original dialect."— Sheridan cor. "Of these, they had chiefly three in general use, which were denominated ACCENTS, the term being used in the plural number."—Id. "And this is one of the chief reasons why dramatic representations have ever held the first rank amongst the diversions of mankind."—Id. "Which is the chief reason why public reading is in general so disgusting."—Id. "At the same time in which they learn to read." Or: "While they learn to read."—Id. "He is always to pronounce his words with exactly the same accent that he uses in speaking."—Id. "In order to know what an other knows, and in the same manner in which he knows it."—Id. "For the same reason for which it is, in a more limited state, assigned to the several tribes of animals."—Id. "Were there masters to teach this, in the same manner in which other arts are taught." Or: "Were there masters to teach this, as other arts are taught."—Id.

"Whose own example strengthens all his laws; Who is himself that great sublime he draws."—Pope cor.

LESSON IX.—PREPOSITIONS.

"The word so has sometimes the same meaning as ALSO, LIKEWISE, or THE SAME."—Priestley cor. "The verb use relates not to 'pleasures of the imagination;' but to the terms fancy and imagination, which he was to employ as synonymous."—Dr. Blair cor. "It never can view, clearly and distinctly, more than one object at a time."—Id. "This figure [Euphemism] is often the same as the Periphrasis."—Adam and Gould cor. "All the intermediate time between youth and old age."—W. Walker cor. "When one thing is said to act upon an other, or do something to it."—Lowth cor. "Such a composition has as much of meaning in it, as a mummy has of life." Or: "Such a composition has as much meaning in it, as a mummy has life."—Lit. Conv. cor. "That young men, from fourteen to eighteen years of age, were not the best judges."—Id. "This day is a day of trouble, and of rebuke, and of blasphemy."—Isaiah, xxxvii, 3. "Blank verse has the same pauses and accents that occur in rhyme."—Kames cor. "In prosody, long syllables are distinguished by the macron (¯); and short ones by what is called the breve (~)."—Bucke cor. "Sometimes both articles are left out, especially from poetry."—Id. "From the following example, the pronoun and participle are omitted." Or: "In the following example, the pronoun and participle are not expressed."—L. Murray cor. [But the example was faulty. Say.] "Conscious of his weight and importance,"—or, "Being conscious of his own weight and importance, he did not solicit the aid of others."—Id. "He was an excellent person; even in his early youth, a mirror of the ancient faith."—Id. "The carrying of its several parts into execution."—Bp. Butler cor. "Concord is the agreement which one word has with an other, in gender, number, case, or person."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 142. "It might perhaps have given me a greater taste for its antiquities."—Addison cor. "To call on a person, and to wait on him."—Priestley cor. "The great difficulty they found in fixing just sentiments."—Id. and Hume cor. "Developing the differences of the three."—James Brown cor. "When the singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es to form the plural."—L. Murray cor. "We shall present him a list or specimen of them." "It is very common to hear of the evils of pernicious reading, how it enervates the mind, or how it depraves the principles."—Dymond cor. "In this example, the verb arises is understood before 'curiosity' and before 'knowledge.'"—L. Murray et al. cor. "The connective is frequently omitted, when several words have the same construction."—Wilcox cor. "He shall expel them from before you, and drive them out from your sight."—Bible cor. "Who makes his sun to shine and his rain to descend, upon the just and the unjust." Or thus: "Who makes his sun shine, and his rain descend, upon the just and the unjust."—M'Ilvaine cor.

LESSON X.—MIXED EXAMPLES.

"This sentence violates an established rule of grammar."—L. Murray cor. "The words thou and shall are again reduced to syllables of short quantity."—Id. "Have the greatest men always been the most popular? By no means."—Lieber cor. "St. Paul positively stated, that 'He that loveth an other, hath fulfilled the law.'"—Rom., xiii, 8. "More organs than one are concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant."—M'Culloch cor. "If the reader will pardon me for descending so low."—Campbell cor. "To adjust them in such a manner as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the grace of the period." Or: "To adjust them so, that they shall consist equally," &c.—Dr. Blair and L. Mur. cor. "This class exhibits a lamentable inefficiency, and a great want of simplicity."—Gardiner cor. "Whose style, in all its course, flows like a limpid stream, through which we see to the very bottom."—Dr. Blair cor.; also L. Murray. "We admit various ellipses." Or thus: "An ellipsis, or omission, of some words, is frequently admitted."—Lennie's Gram., p. 116. "The ellipsis, of articles may occur thus."—L. Murray cor. "Sometimes the article a is improperly applied to nouns of different numbers; as, 'A magnificent house and gardens.'"—Id. "In some very emphatical expressions, no ellipsis should be allowed."—Id. "Ellipses of the adjective may happen in the following manner."—Id. "The following examples show that there may be an ellipsis of the pronoun."—Id. "Ellipses of the verb occur in the following instances."—Id. "Ellipses of the adverb may occur in the following manner."—Id. "The following brief expressions are all of them elliptical." [554]—Id. "If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only will discourse be rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning will often be left ambiguous."—Id.; also J. S. Hart and Dr. Blair cor. "He regards his word, but thou dost not regard thine."—Bullions, Murray, et al., cor. "I have learned my task, but you have not learned yours."—Iid. "When the omission of a word would obscure the sense, weaken the expression, or be attended with impropriety, no ellipsis must be indulged."—Murray and Weld cor. "And therefore the verb is correctly put in the singular number, and refers to them all separately and individually considered."—L. Murray cor. "He was to me the most intelligible of all who spoke on the subject."—Id. "I understood him better than I did any other who spoke on the subject."—Id. "The roughness found on the entrance into the paths of virtue and learning decreases as we advance." Or: "The roughnesses encountered in the paths of virtue and learning diminish as we advance."—Id. "There is nothing which more promotes knowledge, than do steady application and habitual observation."—Id. "Virtue confers on man the highest dignity of which he is capable; it should therefore be the chief object of his desire."—Id. and Merchant cor. "The supreme Author of our being has so formed the human soul, that nothing but himself can be its last, adequate, and proper happiness."—Addison and Blair cor. "The inhabitants of China laugh at the plantations of our Europeans: 'Because,' say they, 'any one may place trees in equal rows and uniform figures.'"—Iid. "The divine laws are not to be reversed by those of men."—L. Murray cor. "In both of these examples, the relative which and the verb was are understood."—Id. et al. cor. "The Greek and Latin languages, though for many reasons they cannot be called dialects of one and the same tongue, are nevertheless closely connected."—Dr. Murray cor. "To ascertain and settle whether a white rose or a red breathes the sweetest fragrance." Or thus: "To ascertain and settle which of the two breathes the sweeter fragrance, a white rose or a red one."—J. Q. Adams cor. "To which he can afford to devote but little of his time and labour."—Dr. Blair cor.

"Avoid extremes; and shun the fault of such As still are pleased too little or too much."—Pope cor.

LESSON XI.—OF BAD PHRASES.

"He might as well leave his vessel to the direction of the winds."—South cor. "Without good-nature and gratitude, men might as well live in a wilderness as in society."—L'Estrange cor. "And, for this reason, such lines very seldom occur together."—Dr. Blair cor. "His greatness did not make him happy."—Crombie cor. "Let that which tends to cool your love, be judged in all."—Crisp cor. "It is worth observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man so weak but it mates and masters the fear of death."—Bacon cor. "Accent dignifies the syllable on which it is laid, and makes it more audible than the rest."—Sheridan and Murray cor. "Before he proceeds to argue on either side."—Dr. Blair cor. "The general change of manners, throughout Europe."—Id. "The sweetness and beauty of Virgil's numbers, through all his works."—Id. "The French writers of sermons, study neatness and elegance in the division of their discourses."—Id. "This seldom fails to prove a refrigerant to passion."—Id. "But their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, excuse themselves for not standing forth to demand vengeance."—Murray's Sequel, p. 114. "Alleging, that their decrial of the church of Rome, was a uniting with the Turks."—Barclay cor. "To which is added the Catechism by the Assembly of Divines."—N. E. Prim. cor. "This treachery was always present in the thoughts of both of them."— Robertson cor. "Thus far their words agree." Or: "Thus far the words of both agree."—W. Walker cor. "Aparithmesis is an enumeration of the several parts of what, as a whole, might be expressed in few words."—Gould cor. "Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is a figure in which what might be expressed in a few words, is branched out into several parts."—Dr. Adam cor. "Which may sit from time to time, where you dwell, or in the vicinity."—J. O. Taylor cor. "Place together a large-sized animal and a small one, of the same species." Or: "Place together a large and a small animal of the same species."—Kames cor. "The weight of the swimming body is equal to that of the quantity of fluid displaced by it."—Percival cor. "The Subjunctive mood, in all its tenses, is similar to the Optative."—Gwilt cor. "No feeling of obligation remains, except that of an obligation to fidelity."—Wayland cor. "Who asked him why whole audiences should be moved to tears at the representation of some story on the stage."—Sheridan cor. "Are you not ashamed to affirm that the best works of the Spirit of Christ in his saints are as filthy rags?"—Barclay cor. "A neuter verb becomes active, when followed by a noun of kindred signification."—Sanborn cor. "But he has judged better in forbearing to repeat the article the."—Dr. Blair cor. "Many objects please us, and are thought highly beautiful, which have scarcely any variety at all."—Id. "Yet they sometimes follow them."—Emmons cor. "For I know of nothing more important in the whole subject, than this doctrine of mood and tense."—R. Johnson cor. "It is by no means impossible for an error to be avoided or suppressed."—Philol. Museum cor. "These are things of the highest importance to children and youth."—Murray cor. "He ought to have omitted the word many." Or: "He might better have omitted the word many."—Dr. Blair cor. "Which might better have been separated." Or: "Which ought rather to have been separated."—Id. "Figures and metaphors, therefore, should never be used profusely."—Id. and Jam. cor. "Metaphors, or other figures, should never be used in too great abundance."—Murray and Russell cor. "Something like this has been alleged against Tacitus."— Bolingbroke cor.

   "O thou, whom all mankind in vain withstand,
    Who with the blood of each must one day stain thy hand!"
        —Sheffield cor.

LESSON XII.—OF TWO ERRORS.

"Pronouns sometimes precede the terms which they represent."—L. Murray cor. "Most prepositions originally denoted relations of place."—Lowth cor. "WHICH is applied to brute animals, and to things without life."—Bullions cor. "What thing do they describe, or of what do they tell the kind?"—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Iron cannons, as well as brass, are now universally cast solid."—Jamieson cor. "We have philosophers, more eminent perhaps than those of any other nation."—Dr. Blair cor. "This is a question about words only, and one which common sense easily determines."—Id. "The low pitch of the voice, is that which approaches to a whisper."—Id. "Which, as to the effect, is just the same as to use no such distinctions at all."—Id. "These two systems, therefore, really differ from each other but very little."—Id. "It is needless to give many instances, as examples occur so often."—Id. "There are many occasions on which this is neither requisite nor proper."—Id. "Dramatic poetry divides itself into two forms, comedy and tragedy."—Id. "No man ever rhymed with more exactness than he." [I.e., than Roscommon.]—Editor of Waller cor. "The Doctor did not reap from his poetical labours a profit equal to that of his prose."—Johnson cor. "We will follow that which we find our fathers practised." Or: "We will follow that which we find to have been our fathers' practice."—Sale cor. "And I should deeply regret that I had published them."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Figures exhibit ideas with more vividness and power, than could be given them by plain language."—Kirkham cor. "The allegory is finely drawn, though the heads are various."—Spect. cor. "I should not have thought it worthy of this place." Or: "I should not have thought it worthy of being placed here."—Crombie cor. "In this style, Tacitus excels all other writers, ancient or modern."—Kames cor. "No other author, ancient or modern, possesses the art of dialogue so completely as Shakspeare."— Id. "The names of all the things we see, hear, smell, taste, or feel, are nouns."—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "Of what number are the expressions, 'these boys,' 'these pictures,' &c.?"—Id. "This sentence has faults somewhat like those of the last."—Dr. Blair cor. "Besides perspicuity, he pursues propriety, purity, and precision, in his language; which qualities form one degree, and no inconsiderable one, of beauty."—Id. "Many critical terms have unfortunately been employed in a sense too loose and vague; none with less precision, than the word sublime."—Id. "Hence no word in the language is used with a more vague signification, than the word beauty."—Id. "But still, in speech, he made use of general terms only."—Id. "These give life, body, and colouring, to the facts recited; and enable us to conceive of them as present, and passing before our eyes."—Id. "Which carried an ideal chivalry to a still more extravagant height, than the adventurous spirit of knighthood had ever attained in fact."—Id. "We write much more supinely, and with far less labour, than did the ancients."—Id. "This appears indeed to form the characteristical difference between the ancient poets, orators, and historians, and the modern."—Id. "To violate this rule, as the English too often do, shows great incorrectness."—Id. "It is impossible, by means of any training, to prevent them from appearing stiff and forced."—Id. "And it also gives to the speaker the disagreeable semblance of one who endeavours to compel assent."—Id. "And whenever a light or ludicrous anecdote is proper to be recorded, it is generally better to throw it into a note, than to run the hazard of becoming too familiar."—Id. "It is the great business of this life, to prepare and qualify ourselves for the enjoyment of a better."—L. Murray cor. "From some dictionaries, accordingly, it was omitted; and in others it is stigmatized as a barbarism."—Crombie cor. "You cannot see a thing, or think of one, the name of which is not a noun."—Mack cor. "All the fleet have arrived, and are moored in safety." Or better: "The whole fleet has arrived, and is moored in safety."—L. Murray cor.

LESSON XIII.—OF TWO ERRORS.

"They have severally their distinct and exactly-limited relations to gravity."—Hasler cor. "But where the additional s would give too much of the hissing sound, the omission takes place even in prose."—L. Murray cor. "After o, it [the w] is sometimes not sounded at all; and sometimes it is sounded like a single u."—Lowth cor. "It is situation chiefly, that decides the fortunes and characters of men."—Hume cor.; also Murray. "The vice of covetousness is that [vice] which enters more deeply into the soul than any other."—Murray et al. cor. "Of all vices, covetousness enters the most deeply into the soul."—Iid. "Of all the vices, covetousness is that which enters the most deeply into the soul."—Campbell cor. "The vice of covetousness is a fault which enters more deeply into the soul than any other."—Guardian cor. "WOULD primarily denotes inclination of will; and SHOULD, obligation: but they vary their import, and are often used to express simple events." Or:—"but both of them vary their import," &c. Or:—"but both vary their import, and are used to express simple events."—Lowth, Murray, et al. cor.; also Comly and Ingersoll; likewise Abel Flint. "A double condition, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made by the word HAD; as, 'Had he done this, he had escaped.'"—Murray and Ingersoll cor. "The pleasures of the understanding are preferable to those of the imagination, as well as to those of sense."—L. Murray cor. "Claudian, in a fragment upon the wars of the giants, has contrived to render this idea of their throwing of the mountains, which in itself has so much grandeur, burlesque and ridiculous."—Dr. Blair cor. "To which not only no other writings are to be preferred, but to which, even in divers respects, none are comparable."—Barclay cor. "To distinguish them in the understanding, and treat of their several natures, in the same cool manner that we use with regard to other ideas."—Sheridan cor. "For it has nothing to do with parsing, or the analyzing of language."—Kirkham cor. Or: "For it has nothing to do with the parsing, or analyzing, of language."—Id. "Neither has that language [the Latin] ever been so common in Britain."—Swift cor. "All that I purpose, is, to give some openings into the pleasures of taste."—Dr. Blair cor. "But the following sentences would have been better without it."—L. Murray cor. "But I think the following sentence would be better without it." Or: "But I think it should be expunged from the following sentence."— Priestley cor. "They appear, in this case, like ugly excrescences jutting out from the body."—Dr. Blair cor. "And therefore the fable of the Harpies, in the third book of the Æneid, and the allegory of Sin and Death, in the second book of Paradise Lost, ought not to have been inserted in these celebrated poems."—Id. "Ellipsis is an elegant suppression, or omission, of some word or words, belonging to a sentence."—Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor. "The article A or AN is not very proper in this construction."—D. Blair cor. "Now suppose the articles had not been dropped from these passages."—Bucke cor. "To have given a separate name to every one of those trees, would have been an endless and impracticable undertaking."—Blair cor. "Ei, in general, has the same sound as long and slender a." Or better: "Ei generally has the sound of long or slender a."—L. Murray cor. "When a conjunction is used with apparent redundance, the insertion of it is called Polysyndeton."—Adam and Gould cor. "EACH, EVERY, EITHER, and NEITHER, denote the persons or things that make up a number, as taken separately or distributively."—M'Culloch cor. "The principal sentence must be expressed by a verb in the indicative, imperative, or potential mood"—S. W. Clark cor. "Hence he is diffuse, where he ought to be urgent."—Dr. Blair cor. "All sorts of subjects admit of explanatory comparisons."—Id. et al. cor. "The present or imperfect participle denotes being, action, or passion, continued, and not perfected."—Kirkham cor. "What are verbs? Those words which chiefly express what is said of things."—Fowle cor.

   "Of all those arts in which the wise excel,
    The very masterpiece is writing-well."—Sheffield cor.

    "Such was that muse whose rules and practice tell,
    That art's chief masterpiece is writing-well."—Pope cor.

LESSON XIV.—OF THREE ERRORS.

"From some words, the metaphorical sense has justled out the original sense altogether; so that, in respect to the latter, they have become obsolete."—Campbell cor. "Surely, never any other mortal was so overwhelmed with grief, as I am at this present moment."—Sheridan cor. "All languages differ from one an other in their modes of inflection."—Bullions cor. "The noun and the verb are the only indispensable parts of speech: the one, to express the subject spoken of; and the other, the predicate, or what is affirmed of the subject."—M'Culloch cor. "The words Italicized in the last three examples, perform the office of substantives."—L. Murray cor. "A sentence so constructed is always a mark of carelessness in the writer."—Dr. Blair cor. "Nothing is more hurtful to the grace or the vivacity of a period, than superfluous and dragging words at the conclusion."—Id. "When its substantive is not expressed with it, but is referred to, being understood."—Lowth cor. "Yet they always have substantives belonging to them, either expressed or understood."—Id. "Because they define and limit the import of the common names, or general terms, to which they refer."—Id. "Every new object surprises them, terrifies them, and makes a strong impression on their minds."—Dr. Blair cor. "His argument required a more full development, in order to be distinctly apprehended, and to have its due force."—Id. "Those participles which are derived from active-transitive verbs, will govern the objective case, as do the verbs from which they are derived."—Emmons cor. "Where, in violation of the rule, the objective case whom follows the verb, while the nominative I precedes it."—L. Murray cor. "To use, after the same conjunction, both the indicative and the subjunctive mood, in the same sentence, and under the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety."—Lowth, Murray, et al. cor. "A nice discernment of the import of words, and an accurate attention to the best usage, are necessary on these occasions."—L. Murray cor. "The Greeks and Romans, the former especially, were, in truth, much more musical than we are; their genius was more turned to take delight in the melody of speech."—Dr. Blair cor. "In general, if the sense admits it early, the sooner a circumstance is introduced, the better; that the more important and significant words may possess the last place, and be quite disencumbered."—Murray et al. cor.; also Blair and Jamieson. "Thus we find it in both the Greek and the Latin tongue."—Dr. Blair cor. "Several sentences, constructed in the same manner, and having the same number of members, should never be allowed to come in succession."— Blair et al. cor. "I proceed to lay down the rules to be observed in the conduct of metaphors; and these, with little variation, will be applicable to tropes of every kind."—Dr. Blair cor. "By selecting words with a proper regard to their sounds, we may often imitate other sounds which we mean to describe."—Dr. Blair and L. Mur. cor. "The disguise can scarcely be so perfect as to deceive."—Dr. Blair cor. "The sense does not admit of any other pause, than one after the second syllable 'sit;' this therefore must be the only pause made in the reading."—Id. "Not that I believe North America to have been first peopled so lately as in the twelfth century, the period of Madoc's migration."—Webster cor. "Money and commodities will always flow to that country in which they are most wanted, and in which they will command the most profit."—Id. "That it contains no visible marks of certain articles which are of the utmost importance to a just delivery."—Sheridan cor. "And Virtue, from her beauty, we call a fair and favourite maid."—Mack cor. "The definite article may relate to nouns of either number."—Inf. S. Gram. cor.

LESSON XV.—OF MANY ERRORS.

(1.) "Compound words are[, by L. Murray and others, improperly] included among the derivatives."—L. Murray corrected. (2.) "The Apostrophe, placed above the line, thus ', is used to abbreviate or shorten words. But its chief use is, to denote the possessive case of nouns."—Id. (3.) "The Hyphen, made thus -, connects the parts of compound words. It is also used when a word is divided."—Id. (4.) "The Acute Accent, made thus ´, denotes the syllable on which stress is laid, and sometimes also, that the vowel is short: as, 'Fáncy.' The Grave Accent, made thus `, usually denotes, (when applied to English words,) that the stress is laid where a vowel ends the syllable: as, 'Fàvour.'"—Id. (5.) "The stress is laid on long vowels or syllables, and on short ones, indiscriminately. In order to distinguish the long or open vowels from the close or short ones, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave accent on the former, and the acute on the latter."—Id. (6.) "The Diæresis, thus made ¨, is placed over one of two contiguous vowels, to show that they are not a diphthong."—Id. (7.) "The Section, made thus §, is sometimes used to mark the subdivisions of a discourse or chapter."—Id. (8.) "The Paragraph, made thus ¶, sometimes denotes the beginning of a new subject, or of a passage not connected with the text preceding. This character is now seldom used [for such a purpose], except in the Old and New Testaments." Or better:—"except in the Bible."—Id. (9.) "The Quotation Points, written thus " ", mark the beginning and the end of what is quoted or transcribed from some speaker or author, in his own words. In type, they are inverted commas at the beginning, apostrophes at the conclusion."—Id. (10.) "The Brace was formerly used in poetry at the end of a triplet, or where three lines rhymed together in heroic verse; it also serves to connect several terms with one, when the one is common to all, and thus to prevent a repetition of the common term."—Id. (11.) "Several asterisks put together, generally denote the omission of some letters belonging to a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression; but sometimes they imply a defect in the manuscript from which the text is copied."—Id. (12.) "The Ellipsis, made thus ——, or thus ****, is used where some letters of a word, or some words of a verse, are omitted."—Id. (13.) "The Obelisk, which is made thus [Obelisk]; and the Parallels, which are made thus ||; and sometimes the letters of the alphabet; and also the Arabic figures; are used as references to notes in the margin, or at the bottom, of the page."—Id. (14.) "The note of interrogation should not be employed, where it is only said that a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question; as, 'The Cyprians asked me why I wept.'"—Id. et al. cor. (15.) "The note of interrogation is improper after mere expressions of admiration, or of any other emotion, though they may bear the form of questions."—Iid. (16.) "The parenthesis incloses something which is thrown into the body of a sentence, in an under tone; and which affects neither the sense, nor the construction, of the main text."—Lowth cor. (17.) "Simple members connected by a relative not used restrictively, or by a conjunction that implies comparison, are for the most part divided by the comma."—Id. (18.) "Simple members, or sentences, connected as terms of comparison, are for the most part separated by the comma."—L. Murray et al. cor. (19.) "Simple sentences connected by a comparative particle, are for the most part divided by the comma."—Russell cor. (20.) "Simple sentences or clauses connected to form a comparison, should generally be parted by the comma."—Merchant cor. (21.) "The simple members of sentences that express contrast or comparison, should generally be divided by the comma."—Jaudon cor. (22.) "The simple members of a comparative sentence, when they are long, are separated by a comma."—Cooper cor. (23.) "Simple sentences connected to form a comparison, or phrases placed in opposition, or contrast, are usually separated by the comma."—Hiley and Bullions cor. (24.) "On whichever word we lay the emphasis,—whether on the first, the second, the third, or the fourth,—every change of it strikes out a different sense."—L. Murray cor. (25.) "To say to those who do not understand sea phrases, 'We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea,' would give them little or no information."—Murray and Hiley cor. (26.) "Of those dissyllables which are sometimes nouns and sometimes verbs, it may be observed, that the verb is commonly accented on the latter syllable, and the noun on the former."—L. Murray cor. (27.) "And this gives to our language an advantage over most others, in the poetical or rhetorical style."—Id. et al. cor. (28.) "And this gives to the English language an advantage over most others, in the poetical and the rhetorical style."—Lowth cor. (29.) "The second and the third scholar may read the same sentence; or as many may repeat the text, as are necessary to teach it perfectly to the whole class."—Osborn cor.

    (30.) "Bliss is the same, in subject, or in king,
          In who obtain defence, or who defend."
        —Pope's Essay on Man, IV, 58.

LESSON XVI.—OF MANY ERRORS.

"The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Coreans, speak languages differing from one an other, and from that of the inhabitants of China; while all use the same written characters, and, by means of them, correspond intelligibly with one an other in writing, though ignorant of the language spoken by their correspondents: a plain proof, that the Chinese characters are like hieroglyphics, and essentially independent of language."—Jamieson cor.; also Dr. Blair. "The curved line, in stead of remaining round, is changed to a square one, for the reason before mentioned."—Knight cor. "Every reader should content himself with the use of those tones only, that he is habituated to in speech; and should give to the words no other emphasis, than what he would give to the same words, in discourse. [Or, perhaps the author meant:—and should give to the emphatic words no other intonation, than what he would give, &c.] Thus, whatever he utters, will be delivered with ease, and will appear natural."—Sheridan cor. "A stop, or pause, is a total cessation of sound, during a perceptible, and, in musical or poetical compositions, a measurable space of time."— Id. "Pauses, or rests, in speaking or reading, are total cessations of the voice, during perceptible, and, in many cases, measurable spaces of time."—L. Murray et al. cor. "Those derivative nouns which denote small things of the kind named by their primitives, are called Diminutive Nouns: as, lambkin, hillock, satchel, gosling; from lamb, hill, sack, goose."—Bullions cor. "Why is it, that nonsense so often escapes detection, its character not being perceived either by the writer or by the reader?"—Campbell cor. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. Interjections are so called, because they are generally thrown in between the parts of discourse, and have no reference to the structure of those parts."—M'Culloch cor. "The verb OUGHT has no other inflection than OUGHTEST, and this is nearly obsolete."— Macintosh cor. "But the arrangement, government, and agreement of words, and also their dependence upon others, are referred to our reason."—Osborn cor. "ME is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, and objective case."—Guy cor. "The noun SELF is usually added to a pronoun; as, herself, himself, &c. The compounds thus formed are called reciprocal pronouns."— Id. "One cannot but think, that our author would have done better, had he begun the first of these three sentences, with saying, 'It is novelty, that bestows charms on a monster.'"—Dr. Blair cor. "The idea which they present to us, of nature resembling art, of art considered as an original, and nature as a copy, seems not very distinct, or well conceived, nor indeed very material to our author's purpose."—Id. "This faulty construction of the sentence, evidently arose from haste and carelessness."—Id. "Adverbs serve to modify terms of action or quality, or to denote time, place, order, degree, or some other circumstance which we have occasion to specify."—Id. "We may naturally expect, that the more any nation is improved by science, and the more perfect its language becomes, the more will that language abound with connective particles."—Id. "Mr. Greenleaf's book is far better adapted to the capacity of learners, than any other that has yet appeared, on the subject."—Feltus and Onderdonk's false praise Englished. "Punctuation is the art of marking, in writing or in print, the several pauses, or rests, which separate sentences, or the parts of sentences; so as to denote their proper quantity or proportion, as it is exhibited in a just and accurate delivery."—Lowth cor. "A compound sentence must generally be resolved into simple ones, and these be separated by the comma." Or better: "A compound sentence is generally divided, by the comma, into its simple members."—Greenleaf and Fisk cor. "Simple sentences should in general be separated from one an other by the comma, unless a greater point is required; as, 'Youth is passing away, age is approaching, and death is near.'"—S. R. Hall cor. "V has always one uniform sound, which is that of f flattened, as in thieve from thief: thus v bears to f the same relation that b does to p, d to t, hard g to k, or z to s."—L. Murray and Fisk cor.; also Walker; also Greenleaf. "The author is explaining the difference between sense and imagination, as powers of the human mind."—L. Murray cor. Or, if this was the critic's meaning: "The author is endeavouring to explain a very abstract point, the distinction between the powers of sense and those of imagination, as two different faculties of the human mind."— Id.; also Dr. Blair cor. "HE—(from the Anglo-Saxon HE—) is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. Decline HE."—Fowler cor.

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE CRITICAL NOTES.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE I.—OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

"The passive voice denotes an action received." Or: "The passive voice denotes the receiving of an action."—Maunder corrected. "Milton, in some of his prose works, has many very finely-turned periods."—Dr. Blair and Alex. Jam. cor. "These will be found to be wholly, or chiefly, of that class."—Dr. Blair cor. "All appearances of an author's affecting of harmony, are disagreeable."—Id. and Jam. cor. "Some nouns have a double increase; that is, they increase by more syllables than one: as iter, itin~eris."—Adam et al. cor. "The powers of man are enlarged by progressive cultivation."—Gurney cor. "It is always important to begin well; to make a favourable impression at the first setting out."—Dr. Blair cor. "For if one take a wrong method at his first setting-out, it will lead him astray in all that follows."— Id. "His mind is full of his subject, and all his words are expressive."— Id. "How exquisitely is all this performed in Greek!"—Harris cor. "How unworthy is all this to satisfy the ambition of an immortal soul!"—L. Murray cor. "So as to exhibit the object in its full grandeur, and its most striking point of view."—Dr. Blair cor. "And that the author know how to descend with propriety to the plain style, as well as how to rise to the bold and figured."— Id. "The heart alone can answer to the heart."— Id. "Upon the first perception of it." Or: "As it is first perceived."—Harris cor. "Call for Samson, that he may make sport for us."—Bible cor. "And he made sport before them."— Id. "The term 'to suffer,' in this definition, is used in a technical sense; and means simply, to receive an action, or to be acted upon."—Bullions cor. "The text only is what is meant to be taught in schools."—Brightland cor. "The perfect participle denotes action or existence perfected or finished."—Kirkham cor. "From the intricacy and confusion which are produced when they are blended together."—L. Murray cor. "This very circumstance, that the word is employed antithetically renders it important in the sentence."—Kirkham cor. "It [the pronoun that,] is applied both to persons and to things."—L. Murray cor. "Concerning us, as being everywhere traduced."—Barclay cor. "Every thing else was buried in a profound silence."—Steele cor. "They raise fuller conviction, than any reasonings produce."—Dr. Blair cor. "It appears to me nothing but a fanciful refinement." Or: "It appears to me nothing more than a fanciful refinement"— Id. "The regular and thorough resolution of a complete passage."—Churchill cor. "The infinitive is distinguished by the word TO, which immediately precedes it."—Maunder cor. "It will not be a gain of much ground, to urge that the basket, or vase, is understood to be the capital."—Kames cor. "The disgust one has to drink ink in reality, is not to the purpose, where the drinking of it is merely figurative."— Id. "That we run not into the extreme of pruning so very closely."—See L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 318. "Being obliged to rest for a little while on the preposition itself." Or: "Being obliged to rest a while on the preposition itself." Or: "Being obliged to rest [for] a moment on the preposition alone."—Blair and Jam. cor. "Our days on the earth are as a shadow, and there is no abiding."—Bible cor. "There may be attempted a more particular expression of certain objects, by means of imitative sounds."—Blair, Jam., and Mur. cor. "The right disposition of the shade, makes the light and colouring the more apparent."—Dr. Blair cor. "I observe that a diffuse style is apt to run into long periods."— Id. "Their poor arguments, which they only picked up in the highways."—Leslie cor. "Which must be little else than a transcribing of their writings."—Barclay cor. "That single impulse is a forcing-out of almost all the breath." Or: "That single impulse forces out almost all the breath."—Hush cor. "Picini compares modulation to the turning-off from a road."—Gardiner cor. "So much has been written on and off almost every subject."—Sophist cor. "By the reading of books written by the best authors, his mind became highly improved." Or: "By the study of the most instructive books, his mind became highly improved."—L. Mur. cor. "For I never made a rich provision a token of a spiritual ministry."—Barclay cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE II.—OF DOUBTFUL REFERENCE.

"However disagreeable the task, we must resolutely perform our duty."—L. Murray cor. "The formation of all English verbs, whether they be regular or irregular, is derived from the Saxon tongue."—Lowth cor. "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and nothing do they affect more remarkably than language."—Campbell cor. "Time and chance have an influence on all things human, and on nothing a more remarkable influence than on language."—Jamieson cor. "That Archytases, who was a virtuous man, happened to perish once upon a time, is with him a sufficient ground." &c.—Phil Mu. cor. "He will be the better qualified to understand the meaning of the numerous words into which they enter as material parts."—L. Murray cor. "We should continually have the goal in view, that it may direct us in the race."— Id. "But Addison's figures seem to rise of their own accord from the subject and constantly to embellish it" Or:—"and they constantly embellish it."—Blair and Jam. cor. "So far as they signify persons, animals, and things that we can see, it is very easy to distinguish nouns."—Cobbett cor. "Dissyllables ending in y or mute e, or accented on the final syllable, may sometimes be compared like monosyllables."—Frost cor. "If the foregoing objection be admitted, it will not overrule the design."—Rush cor. "These philosophical innovators forget, that objects, like men, are known only by their actions."—Dr. Murray cor. "The connexion between words and ideas, is arbitrary and conventional; it has arisen mainly from the agreement of men among themselves."—Jamieson cor. "The connexion between words and ideas, may in general be considered as arbitrary and conventional, or as arising from the agreement of men among themselves."—Dr. Blair cor. "A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and who had great abilities to manage and multiply and defend his corruptions."—Swift cor. "They have no more control over him than have any other men."—Wayland cor. "All his old words are true English, and his numbers are exquisite."—Spect. cor. "It has been said, that not Jesuits only can equivocate."—Mur. in Ex. and Key, cor. "In Latin, the nominative of the first or second person, is seldom expressed."—Adam and Gould cor. "Some words have the same form in both numbers."—Murray et al. cor. "Some nouns have the same form in both numbers."—Merchant et al. cor. "Others have the same form in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine."—Frost cor. "The following list denotes the consonant sounds, of which there are twenty-two." Or: "The following list denotes the twenty-two simple sounds of the consonants."—Mur. et al. cor. "And is the ignorance of these peasants a reason for other persons to remain ignorant; or does it render the subject the less worthy of our inquiry?"—Harris and Mur. cor. "He is one of the most correct, and perhaps he is the best, of our prose writers."—Lowth cor. "The motions of a vortex and of a whirlwind are perfectly similar." Or: "The motion of a vortex and that of a whirlwind are perfectly similar."—Jamieson cor. "What I have been saying, throws light upon one important verse in the Bible; which verse I should like to hear some one read."—Abbott cor. "When there are any circumstances of time, place, and the like, by which the principal terms of our sentence must be limited or qualified."—Blair, Jam. and Mur. cor. "Interjections are words that express emotion, affection, or passion, and that imply suddenness." Or: "Interjections express emotion, affection, or passion, and imply suddenness."—Bucke cor. "But the genitive expressing the measure of things, is used in the plural number only."—Adam and Gould cor. "The buildings of the institution have been enlarged; and an expense has been incurred, which, with the increased price of provisions, renders it necessary to advance the terms of admission."—L. Murray cor. "These sentences are far less difficult than complex ones."—S. S. Greene cor.

"Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife They sober lived, nor ever wished to stray."—Gray cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE III.—OF DEFINITIONS.

(1.) "A definition is a short and lucid description of a thing, or species, according to its nature and properties."—G. BROWN: Rev. David Blair cor. (2.) "Language, in general, signifies the expression of our ideas by certain articulate sounds, or written words, which are used as the signs of those ideas."—Dr. Hugh Blair cor. (3.) "A word is one or more syllables used by common consent as the sign of an idea."—Bullions cor. (4.) "A word is one or more syllables used as the sign of an idea, or of some manner of thought."—Hazen cor. (5.) "Words are articulate sounds, or their written signs, used to convey ideas."—Hiley cor. (6.) "A word is one or more syllables used orally or in writing, to represent some idea."—Hart cor. (7.) "A word is one or more syllables used as the sign of an idea."—S. W. Clark cor. (8.) "A word is a letter or a combination of letters, a sound or a combination of sounds, used as the sign of an idea."—Wells cor. (9.) "Words are articulate sounds, or their written signs, by which ideas are communicated."—Wright cor. (10.) "Words are certain articulate sounds, or their written representatives, used by common consent as signs of our ideas."—Bullions, Lowth, Murray, et al. cor. (11.) "Words are sounds or written symbols used as signs of our ideas."—W. Allen cor. (12.) "Orthography literally means correct writing"—Kirkham and Smith cor. [The word orthography stands for different things: as, 1. The art or practice of writing words with their proper letters; 2. That part of grammar which treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and spelling.] (13.) "A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered alone."—Inst., p. 16; Hazen, Lennie, and Brace, cor. (14-18.) "Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper letters."—G. BROWN: Lowth and Churchill cor.; also Murray, Ing. et al.; also Comly; also Bullions; also Kirkham and Sanborn. (19.) "A syllable is one or more letters, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word."—Lowth, Mur., et al., cor. (20.) "A syllable is a letter or a combination of letters, uttered in one complete sound."—Brit. Gram. and Buch. cor. (21.) "A syllable is one or more letters representing a distinct sound, or what is uttered by a single impulse of the voice."—Kirkham cor. (22.) "A syllable is so much of a word as is sounded at once, whether it be the whole or a part."—Bullions cor. (23.) "A syllable is so many letters as are sounded at once; and is either a word, or a part of a word."—Picket cor. (24.) "A diphthong is a union of two vowels in one syllable, as in bear and beat."—Bucke cor. Or: "A diphthong is the meeting of two vowels in one syllable."—Brit. Gram., p. 15; Buchanan's, 3. (25.) "A diphthong consists of two vowels put together in one syllable; as ea in beat, oi in voice."—Guy cor. (26.) "A triphthong consists of three vowels put together in one syllable; as, eau in beauty."—Id. (27.) "But a triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable."—Bucke cor. Or: "A triphthong is the meeting of three vowels in one syllable."—British Gram., p. 21; Buchanan's, 3. (28.) "What is a noun? A noun is the name of something; as, a man, a boy."—Brit. Gram. and Buchanan cor. (29.) "An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, to describe the object named or referred to."—Maunder cor. (30.) "An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, to describe or define the object mentioned."—R. C. Smith cor. (31.) "An adjective is a word which, without assertion or time, serves to describe or define something; as, a good man, every boy."—Wilcox cor. (32.) "An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses a quality."—Mur. and Lowth cor. (33.) "An adjective expresses the quality, not of the noun or pronoun to which it is applied, but of the person or thing spoken of; and it may generally be known by the sense which it thus makes in connexion with its noun; as, 'A good man,' 'A genteel woman.'"—Wright cor. (34.) "An adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb."—Wilcox cor. (35.) "An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb, to modify the sense, or denote some circumstance."—Bullions cor. (36.) "A substantive, or noun, is a name given to some object which the senses can perceive, the understanding comprehend, or the imagination entertain."—Wright cor. (37-54.) "Genders are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex."—Brown's Inst., p. 35: Bullions cor.: also Frost; also Perley; also Cooper; also L. Murray et al.; also Alden et al.; also Brit. Gram., with Buchanan; also Fowle; also Burn; also Webster; also Coar; also Hall; also Wright; also Fisher; also W. Allen; also Parker and Fox; also Weld; also Weld again. (55 and 56.) "A case, in grammar, is the state or condition of a noun or pronoun, with respect to some other word in the sentence."—Bullions cor.; also Kirkham. (57.) "Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words."—Brown's Inst., p. 36. (58.) "Government is the power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification."—Sanborn et al. cor. See Inst., p. 104. (59.) "A simple sentence is a sentence which contains only one assertion, command, or question."—Sanborn et al. cor. (60.) "Declension means the putting of a noun or pronoun through the different cases and numbers."—Kirkham cor. Or better: "The declension of a word is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases."—See Inst., p. 37. (61.) "Zeugma is a figure in which two or more words refer in common to an other which literally agrees with only one of them."—B. F. Fish cor. (62.) "An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, smite, smote, smitten."—Inst., p. 75. (63). "A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is."—Inst., p. 46.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IV.—OF COMPARISONS.

"Our language abounds more in vowel and diphthong sounds, than most other tongues." Or: "We abound more in vowel and diphthongal sounds, than most nations."—Dr. Blair cor. "A line thus accented has a more spirited air, than one which takes the accent on any other syllable."—Kames cor. "Homer introduces his deities with no greater ceremony, that [what] he uses towards mortals; and Virgil has still less moderation than he."—Id. "Which the more refined taste of later writers, whose genius was far inferior to theirs, would have taught them to avoid."—Dr. Blair cor. "As a poetical composition, however, the Book of Job is not only equal to any other of the sacred writings, but is superior to them all, except those of Isaiah alone."—Id. "On the whole, Paradise Lost is a poem which abounds with beauties of every kind, and which justly entitles its author to be equalled in fame with any poet."—Id. "Most of the French writers compose in short sentences; though their style, in general, is not concise; commonly less so than that of most English writers, whose sentences are much longer."—Id. "The principles of the Reformation were too deeply fixed in the prince's mind, to be easily eradicated."—Hume cor. "Whether they do not create jealousy and animosity, more than sufficient to counterbalance the benefit derived from them."—Leo Wolf cor. "The Scotch have preserved the ancient character of their music more entire, than have the inhabitants of any other country."—Gardiner cor. "When the time or quantity of one syllable exceeds that of the rest, that syllable readily receives the accent."—Rush cor. "What then can be more obviously true, than that it should be made as just as we can make it."—Dymond cor. "It was not likely that they would criminate themselves more than, they could not avoid."—Clarkson cor. "In their understandings they were the most acute people that have ever lived."—Knapp cor. "The patentees have printed it with neat types, and upon better paper than was used formerly."—John Ward cor. "In reality, its relative use is not exactly like that of any other word."—Felch cor. "Thus, in stead of having to purchase two books,—the Grammar and the Exercises,—the learner finds both in one, for a price at most not greater than that of the others."—Alb. Argus cor. "They are not improperly regarded as pronouns, though they are less strictly such than the others."—Bullions cor. "We have had, as will readily be believed, a much better opportunity of becoming conversant with the case, than the generality of our readers can be supposed to have had."—Brit. Friend cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE V.—OF FALSITIES.

"The long sound of i is like a very quick union of the sound of a, as heard in bar, and that of e, as heard in be."—Churchill cor. "The omission of a word necessary to grammatical propriety, is of course an impropriety, and not a true ellipsis."—Priestley cor. "Not every substantive, or noun, is necessarily of the third person."—A. Murray cor. "A noun is in the third person, when the subject is merely spoken of; and in the second person, when the subject is spoken to; and in the first person, when it names the speaker as such."—Nutting cor. "With us, no nouns are literally of the masculine or the feminine gender, except the names of male and female creatures."—Dr. Blair cor. "The apostrophe is a little mark, either denoting the possessive case of nouns, or signifying that something is shortened: as, 'William's hat;'—'the learn'd,' for 'the learned.'"—Inf. S. Gram. cor. "When a word beginning with a vowel coupled with one beginning with a consonant, the indefinite article must not be repeated, if the two words be adjectives belonging to one and the same noun; thus, 'Sir Matthew Hale was a noble and impartial judge;'—'Pope was an elegant and nervous writer.'"—Maunder cor.[555] "W and y are consonants, when they precede a vowel heard in the same syllable: in every other situation, they are vowels."—L. Mur. et al. cor. See Inst., p. 16. "The is not varied before adjectives and substantives, let them begin as they will."—Bucke cor. "A few English prepositions, and many which we have borrowed from other languages, are often prefixed to words, in such a manner as to coalesce with them, and to become parts of the compounds or derivatives thus formed."—Lowth cor. "H, at the beginning of syllables not accented, is weaker, but not entirely silent; as in historian, widowhood."—Rev. D. Blair cor. "Not every word that will make sense with to before it, is a verb; for to may govern nouns, pronouns, or participles."—Kirkham cor. "Most verbs do, in reality, express actions; but they are not intrinsically the mere names of actions: these must of course be nouns."—Id. "The nominative denotes the actor or subject; and the verb, the action which is performed or received by this actor or subject."—Id. "But if only one creature or thing acts, more than one action may, at the same instant, be done; as, 'The girl not only holds her pen badly, but scowls and distorts her features, while she writes.'"—Id. "Nor is each of these verbs of the singular number because it denotes but one action which the girl performs, but because the subject or nominative is of the singular number, and the words must agree."—Id. "And when I say, 'Two men walk,' is it not equally apparent, that walk is plural because it agrees with men?"—Id. "The subjunctive mood is formed by using the simple verb in a suppositive sense, and without personal inflection."—Beck cor. "The possessive case of nouns, except in instances of apposition or close connexion, should always be distinguished by the apostrophe."—Frost cor. "'At these proceedings of the Commons:' Here of is a sign of the objective case; and 'Commons' is of that case, being governed by this preposition."—A. Murray cor. "Here let it be observed again, that, strictly speaking, all finite verbs have numbers and persons; and so have nearly all nouns and pronouns, even when they refer to irrational creatures and inanimate things."—Barrett cor. "The noun denoting the person or persons addressed or spoken to, is in the nominative case independent: except it be put in apposition with a pronoun of the second person; as, 'Woe to you lawyers;'—'You political men are constantly manoeuvring.'"—Frost cor. "Every noun, when used in a direct address and set off by a comma, becomes of the second person, and is in the nominative case absolute; as, 'Paul, thou art beside thyself."—Jaudon cor. "Does the conjunction ever join words together? Yes; the conjunction sometimes joins words together, and sometimes sentences, or certain parts of sentences."—Brit. Gram. cor.; also Buchanan. "Every noun of the possessive form has a governing noun, expressed or understood: as, St. James's. Here Palace is understood. But one possessive may govern an other; as, 'William's father's house.'"—Buchanan cor. "Every adjective (with the exceptions noted under Rule 9th) belongs to a noun or pronoun expressed or understood."—L. Murray et al. cor. "Not every adjective qualifies a substantive, expressed or understood."—Bullions cor. "Not every adjective belongs to a noun expressed or understood."—Ingersoll cor. "Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns, and serve to describe things."—R. C. Smith cor. "English adjectives, in general, have no modifications in which they can agree with the nouns to which they relate."—Allen Fisk cor. "The adjective, if it denote unity or plurality, must agree with its substantive in number."—Buchanan cor. "Not every adjective and participle, by a vast many, belongs to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood."—Frost cor. "Not every verb of the infinitive mood, supposes a verb before it, expressed or understood."—Buchanan cor. "Nor has every adverb its verb, expressed or understood; for some adverbs relate to participles, to adjectives, or to other adverbs."—Id. "A conjunction that connects one sentence to an other, is not always placed betwixt the two propositions or sentences which it unites."—Id. "The words for all that, are by no means 'low;' but the putting of this phrase for yet or still, is neither necessary nor elegant."—L. Murray cor.; also Dr. Priestley. "The reader or hearer then understands from AND, that the author adds one proposition, number, or thing, to an other. Thus AND often, very often, connects one thing with an other thing, or one word with an other word."—James Brown cor. "'Six AND six are twelve.' Here it is affirmed, that the two sixes added together are twelve."—Id. "'John AND his wife have six children.' This is an instance in which AND connects two nominatives in a simple sentence. It is not here affirmed that John has six children, and that his wife has six other children."—Id. "That 'Nothing can be great which is not right,' is itself a great falsity: there are great blunders, great evils, great sins."—L. Murray cor. "The highest degree of reverence should be paid to the most exalted virtue or goodness."—Id. "There is in all minds some knowledge, or understanding."—L. Murray et al. cor. "Formerly, the nominative and objective cases of our pronouns, were more generally distinguished in practice, than they now are."—Kirkham cor. "As it respects a choice of words and expressions, the just rules of grammar may materially aid the learner."—S. S. Greene cor. "The name of whatever exists, or is conceived to exist, is a noun."—Fowler cor. "As not all men are brave, brave is itself distinctive."—Id.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VI.—OF ABSURDITIES.

(1.) "And sometimes two unaccented syllables come together."—Dr. Blair cor. (2.) "What nouns frequently stand together?" Or: "What nouns are frequently used one after an other?"—Sanborn cor. (3.) "Words are derived from other words in various ways."—Idem et al. cor. (4.) "The name PREPOSITION is derived from the two Latin words præ and pono, which signify before and place."—Mack cor. (5.) "He was much laughed at for such conduct."—Bullions cor. (6.) "Every pronominal adjective belongs to some noun, expressed or understood."—Ingersoll cor. (7.) "If he [Addison] fails in any thing, it is in strength and precision; the want of which renders his manner not altogether a proper model."—Dr. Blair cor. (8.) "Indeed, if Horace is deficient in any thing his fault is this, of not being sufficiently attentive to juncture, or the connexion of parts."—Id. (9.) "The pupil is now supposed to be acquainted with the ten parts of speech, and their most usual modifications."—Taylor cor. (10.) "I could see, feel, taste, and smell the rose."—Sanborn cor. (11.) "The vowels iou are sometimes pronounced distinctly in two syllables; as in various, abstemious; but not in bilious."—Murray and Walker cor. (12.) "The diphthong aa generally sounds like a short; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; in Baäl and Gaäl, we make no diphthong."—L. Mur. cor. (13.) "Participles cannot be said to be 'governed by the article;' for any participle, with an article before it, becomes a substantive, or an adjective used substantively: as, the learning, the learned."—Id. (14.) "From words ending with y preceded by a consonant, we form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, agent nouns, perfect participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing the y into i, and adding es, ed, er, eth, or est."—Walker, Murray, et al. cor. (15.) "But y preceded by a vowel, remains unchanged, in the derivatives above named; as, boy, boys."—L. Murray et al. cor. (16.) "But when the final y is preceded by a vowel, it remains unchanged before an additional syllable; as, coy, coyly."—Iid. (17.) "But y preceded by a vowel, remains unchanged, in almost all instances; as, coy, coyly."—Kirkham cor. (18.) "Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound."—Wright cor. (19.) "The neuter pronoun it may be employed to introduce a nominative of any person, number, or gender: as, 'It is he:'—'It is she;'—'It is they;'—'It is the land.'"—Bucke cor. (20 and 21.) "It is and it was, are always singular; but they may introduce words of a plural construction: as, 'It was the heretics that first began to rail.' SMOLLETT."—Merchant cor.; also Priestley et al. (22.) "W and y, as consonants, have each of them one sound."—Town cor. (23.) "The word as is frequently a relative pronoun."—Bucke cor. (24.) "From a series of clauses, the conjunction may sometimes be omitted with propriety."—Merchant cor. (25.) "If, however, the two members are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary; as, 'Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness.'"—L. Murray et al. cor. (26-27.) "The mind has difficulty in taking effectually, in quick succession, so many different views of the same object."—Dr. Blair cor.; also L. Mur. (28.) "Pronominal adjectives are a kind of definitives, which may either accompany their nouns, or represent them understood."—Kirkham cor. (29.) "When the nominative or antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb or pronoun must agree with it in the plural number."—Id. et al. cor. (30-34.) "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed."— Brown's Inst., p. 176; Greenleaf cor.; also Wilbur and Livingston; also Goldsbury; also P. E. Day; also Kirkham, Frazee, and Miller. (35.) "Here the boy is represented as acting: the word boy is therefore in the nominative case."—Kirkham cor. (36.) "Do, be, have, and will, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs."—Cooper cor. (37.) "Names of males are masculine. Names of females are feminine."—Adam's Gram., p. 10; Beck cor. (38.) "'To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's.' Here to-day's and yesterday's are substantives."—L. Murray et al. cor. (39.) "In this example, to-day's and yesterday's are nouns in the possessive case."—Kirkham cor. (40.) "An Indian in Britain would be much surprised to find by chance an elephant feeding at large in the open fields."—Kames cor. (41.) "If we were to contrive a new language, we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea: apart from previous usage, there would be no impropriety in calling oxen men, or rational beings oxen."—L. Murray cor. (42.) "All the parts of a sentence should form a consistent whole."—Id et al. cor.

(43.) "Full through his neck the weighty falchion sped, Along the pavement rolled the culprit's head."—Pope cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VII.—OF SELF-CONTRADICTION.

(1.) "Though 'The king, with the lords and commons,' must have a singular rather than a plural verb, the sentence would certainly stand better thus: 'The king, the lords, and the commons, form an excellent constitution.'"—Mur. and Ing. cor. (2-3.) "L has a soft liquid sound; as in love, billow, quarrel. This letter is sometimes silent; as in half, task [sic for 'talk'—KTH], psalm."—Mur. and Fisk cor.; also Kirkham. (4.) "The words means and amends, though regularly derived from the singulars mean and amend, are not now, even by polite writers, restricted to the plural number. Our most distinguished modern authors often say, 'by this means,' as well as, 'by these means.'"—Wright cor. (5.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an enemy, his crimes."—Mur. cor. (6.) "The auxiliary have, or any form of the perfect tense, belongs not properly to the subjunctive mood. We suppose past facts by the indicative: as, If I have loved, If thou hast loved, &c."—Merchant cor. (7.) "There is also an impropriety in using both the indicative and the subjunctive mood with the same conjunction; as, 'If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray,' &c. [This is Merchant's perversion of the text. It should be, 'and one of them go astray:' or, 'be gone astray,' as in Matt., xviii. 12.]"—Id. (8.) "The rising series of contrasts conveys transcendent dignity and energy to the conclusion."—Jamieson cor. (9.) "A groan or a shriek is instantly understood, as a language extorted by distress, a natural language which conveys a meaning that words are not adequate to express. A groan or a shriek speaks to the ear with a far more thrilling effect than words: yet even this natural language of distress may be counterfeited by art."—Dr. Porter cor. (10.) "If these words [book and pen] cannot be put together in such a way as will constitute plurality, then they cannot be 'these words;' and then, also, one and one cannot be two."—James Brown cor. (11.) "Nor can the real pen and the real book be added or counted together in words, in such a manner as will not constitute plurality in grammar."—Id. (12.) "Our is a personal pronoun, of the possessive case. Murray does not decline it."—Mur. cor. (13.) "This and that, and their plurals these and those, are often opposed to each other in a sentence. When this or that is used alone, i.e., without contrast, this is applied to what is present or near; that, to what is absent or distant."—Buchanan cor. (14.) "Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their imperfect participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all its variations."—"Be is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before either the perfect or the imperfect participle of an other verb; but, in every other situation, it is a principal verb."—Kirkham cor. (15.) "A verb in the imperative mood is almost always of the second person."—"The verbs, according to a foreign idiom, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative, agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person."—Id. (16.) "A personal pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is."—"Pronouns of the first person do not disagree in person with the nouns they represent."—Id. (17.) "Nouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—"Personal pronouns have, like nouns, three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Beck cor. (18.) "In many instances the preposition suffers a change and becomes an adverb by its mere application."—L. Murray cor. (19.) "Some nouns are used only in the plural; as, ashes, literati, minutiæ. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, series, species. Among the inferior parts of speech, there are some pairs or couples."—Rev. D. Blair cor. (20.) "Concerning the pronominal adjectives, that may, or may not, represent their nouns."—O. B. Peirce cor. (21.) "The word a is in a few instances employed in the sense of a preposition; as, 'Simon Peter saith unto them, I go a fishing;' i. e., I go to fishing."—Weld cor. (22.) "So, too, verbs that are commonly transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object."—Bullions cor.

(23.) "When first young Maro, in his boundless mind, A work t' outlast imperial Rome design'd."—Pope cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE VIII.—OF SENSELESS JUMBLING.

"There are two numbers, called the singular and the plural, which distinguish nouns as signifying either one thing, or many of the same kind."—Dr. H. Blair cor. "Here James Monroe is addressed, he is spoken to; the name is therefore a noun of the second person."—Mack cor. "The number and person of an English verb can seldom be ascertained until its nominative is known."—Emmons cor. "A noun of multitude, or a singular noun signifying many, may have a verb or a pronoun agreeing with it in either number; yet not without regard to the import of the noun, as conveying the idea of unity or plurality."—Lowth et al. cor. "To form the present tense and the past imperfect of our active or neuter verbs, the auxiliary do, and its preterit did, are sometimes used: as, I do now love; I did then love."—Lowth cor. "If these be perfectly committed to memory, the learner will be able to take twenty lines for his second lesson, and the task may be increased each day."—Osborn cor. "Ch is generally sounded in the same manner as if it were tch: as in Charles, church, cheerfulness, and cheese. But, in Latin or Greek words, ch is pronounced like k: as in Chaos, character, chorus, and chimera. And, in words derived from the French, ch is sounded like sh: as in Chagrin, chicanery, and chaise."—Bucke cor. "Some nouns literally neuter, are made masculine or feminine by a figure of speech."—L. Murray et al. cor. "In the English language, words may be classified under ten general heads: the sorts, or chief classes, of words, are usually termed the ten parts of speech."—Nutting cor. "'Mercy is the true badge of nobility.' Nobility is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by of."—Kirkham cor. "Gh is either silent, as in plough, or has the sound of f, as in laugh."—Town cor. "Many nations were destroyed, and as many languages or dialects were lost and blotted out from the general catalogue."—Chazotte cor. "Some languages contain a greater number of moods than others, and each exhibits its own as forms peculiar to itself."—L. Murray cor. "A SIMILE is a simple and express comparison; and is generally introduced by like, as, or so."—Id. See Inst., p. 233. "The word what is sometimes improperly used for the conjunction that."—Priestley, Murray, et al., cor. "Brown makes no ado in condemning the absurd principles of preceding works, in relation to the gender of pronouns."—O. B. Peirce cor. "The nominative usually precedes the verb, and denotes the agent of the action."—Wm. Beck cor. "Primitive words are those which are not formed from other words more simple."—Wright cor. "In monosyllables, the single vowel i always preserves its long sound before a single consonant with e final; as in thine, strive: except in give and live, which are short; and in shire, which has the sound of long e."—L. Murray, et al. cor. "But the person or thing that is merely spoken of, being frequently absent, and perhaps in many respects unknown to the hearer, it is thought more necessary, that the third person should be marked by a distinction of gender."—Lowth, Mur., et al., cor. "Both vowels of every diphthong were, doubtless, originally vocal. Though in many instances they are not so at present, the combinations in which one only is heard, still retain the name of diphthongs, being distinguished from others by the term improper."—L. Mur., et al. cor. "Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner."—Inst., p. 33; A. Mur. cor. "The word THAT is a demonstrative adjective, whenever it is followed by a noun to which it refers."—L. Mur. cor.

   "The guilty soul by Jesus wash'd,
    Is future glory's deathless heir."—Fairfield cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE IX.—OF WORDS NEEDLESS.

"A knowledge of grammar enables us to express ourselves better in conversation and in writing."—Sanborn cor. "And hence we infer, that there is no dictator here but use."—Jamieson cor. "Whence little is gained, except correct spelling and pronunciation."—Town cor. "The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on with confidence."—Merchant cor. "Shalt thou build me a house to dwell in?" Or: "Shalt thou build a house for me to dwell in?"—Bible cor. "The house was deemed polluted which was entered by so abandoned a woman."—Dr. Blair cor. "The farther he searches, the firmer will be his belief."—Keith cor. "I deny not that religion consists in these things."—Barclay cor. "Except the king delighted in her, and she were called by name."—Bible cor. "The proper method of reading these lines, is, to read them as the sense dictates."—Dr. Blair cor. "When any words become obsolete, or are used only in particular phrases, it is better to dispense with their service entirely, and give up the phrases."—Campbell and Mur cor. "Those savage people seemed to have no element but war."—L. Mur. cor. "Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case."—J. Flint cor. "The orator, as circumstances require, will employ them all."—Dr. Blair cor. "By deferring repentence [sic—KTH], we accumulate our sorrows."—L. Murray cor. "There is no doubt that public speaking became early an engine of government."—Dr. Blair cor. "The different meanings of these two words, may not at first occur."—Id. "The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon."—L. Murray et al. cor. "They have had a greater privilege than we."—L. Mur. cor. "Every thing should be so arranged, that what goes before, may give light and force to what follows."—Dr. Blair cor. "So that his doctrines were embraced by great numbers."—Hist. cor. "They have taken an other and shorter cut."—South cor. "The imperfect tense of a regular verb is formed from the present by adding d or ed; as, love, loved."—Frost cor. "The pronoun their does not agree in number with the noun 'man', for which it stands."—Kirkham cor. "This mark [!] denotes wonder, surprise, joy, grief, or sudden emotion."—Bucke cor. "We all are accountable, each for himself."—L. Mur. et al. cor. "If he has commanded it, I must obey."—R. C. Smith cor. "I now present him a form of the diatonic scale."—Barber cor. "One after an other, their favourite rivers have been reluctantly abandoned." Or: "One after an other of their favourite rivers have they reluctantly abandoned."—Hodgson cor. "Particular and peculiar are words of different import."—Dr. Blair cor. "Some adverbs admit of comparison; as, soon, sooner, soonest."—Bucke cor. "Having exposed himself too freely in different climates, he entirely lost his health."—L. Mur. cor. "The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person."—Buchanan cor. "Write twenty short sentences containing adjectives."—Abbott cor. "This general tendency of the language seems to have given occasion to a very great corruption."— Churchill's Gram., p. 113. "The second requisite of a perfect sentence is unity."—L. Murray cor. "It is scarcely necessary to apologize for omitting their names."—Id. "The letters of the English alphabet are twenty-six."—Id. et al. cor. "He who employs antiquated or novel phraseology, must do it with design; he cannot err from inadvertence, as he may with respect to provincial or vulgar expressions."—Jamieson cor. "The vocative case, in some grammars, is wholly omitted; why, if we must have cases, I could never understand."—Bucke cor. "Active verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary verb have; passive verbs, with the auxiliary am or be."—Id. "What then may AND be called? A conjunction."—Smith cor. "Have they ascertained who gave the information?"—Bullions cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE X.—OF IMPROPER OMISSIONS.

"All words signifying concrete qualities of things, are called adnouns, or adjectives."—Rev. D. Blair cor. "The macron [[=]] signifies a long or accented syllable, and the breve [[~]] indicates a short or unaccented syllable."—Id. "Whose duty it is, to help young ministers."—Friends cor. "The passage is closely connected with what precedes and what follows."—Phil. Mu. cor. "The work is not completed, but it soon will be."—R. C. Smith cor. "Of whom hast thou been afraid, or whom hast thou feared?"—Bible cor. "There is a God who made, and who governs, the world."—Bp. Butler cor. "It was this that made them so haughty."—Goldsmith cor. "How far the whole charge affected him, it is not easy to determine."—Id. "They saw these wonders of nature, and worshiped the God that made them."—Bucke cor. "The errors frequent in the use of hyperboles, arise either from overstraining them, or from introducing them on unsuitable occasions."—L. Mur. cor. "The preposition in is set before the names of countries, cities, and large towns; as, 'He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham.' But, before the names of villages, single houses, or foreign cities, at is used; as, 'He lives at Hackney.'"—Id. et al. cor. "And, in such recollection, the thing is not figured as in our view, nor is any image formed."—Kames cor. "Intrinsic beauty and relative beauty must be handled separately."—Id. "He should be on his guard not to do them injustice by disguising them or placing them in a false light."—Dr. Blair cor. "In perusing that work, we are frequently interrupted by the author's unnatural thoughts."—L. Murray cor. "To this point have tended all the rules which I have just given."—Dr. Blair cor. "To this point have tended all the rules which have just been given."—L. Murray cor. "Language, as written, or as oral, is addressed to the eye, or to the ear."—Journal cor. "He will learn, Sir, that to accuse and to prove are very different."—Walpole cor. "They crowded around the door so as to prevent others from going out."—Abbott cor. "A word denoting one person or thing, is of the singular number; a word denoting more than one person or thing: is of the plural number."—J. Flint cor. "Nouns, according to the sense or relation in which they are used, are in the nominative, the possessive, or the objective case: thus, Nom. man. Poss. man's, Obj. man."—Rev. D. Blair cor. "Nouns or pronouns in the possessive case are placed before the nouns which govern them, and to which they belong."—Sanborn cor. "A teacher is explaining the difference between a noun and a verb."—Abbott cor. "And therefore the two ends, or extremities, must directly answer to the north and the south pole."—Harris cor. "WALKS or WALKETH, RIDES or RIDETH, and STANDS or STANDETH, are of the third person singular."—Kirkham cor. "I grew immediately roguish and pleasant, to a high degree, in the same strain."—Swift cor. "An Anapest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last one accented."—Rev. D. Blair cor.; also Kirkham et al.; also L. Mur. et al. "But hearing and vision differ not more than words spoken and words written." Or: "But hearing and vision do not differ more than spoken words and written."—Wilson cor. "They are considered by some authors to be prepositions."—Cooper cor. "When those powers have been deluded and have gone astray."—Phil Mu. cor. "They will understand this, and will like it."—Abbott cor. "They had been expelled from their native country Romagna."—Hunt cor. "Future time is expressed in two different ways."—Adam and Gould cor. "Such as the borrowing of some noted event from history."—Kames cor. "Every finite verb must agree with its nominative in number and person."—Bucke cor. "We are struck, we know not how, with the symmetry of any handsome thing we see."—L. Murray cor. "Under this head, I shall consider every thing that is necessary to a good delivery."—Sheridan cor. "A good ear is the gift of nature; it may be much improved, but it cannot be acquired by art."—L. Murray cor. "'Truth' is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case."—Bullions cor. by Brown's Form. "'Possess' is a regular active-transitive verb, found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number."—Id. "'Fear' is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: and is the subject of is: according to the Rule which says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.' Because the meaning is—'fear is.'"—Id. "'Is' is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number: and agrees with its nominative fear; according to the Rule which says, 'Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number' Because the meaning is—'fear is.'"—Id. "Ae in the word Gælic, has the sound of long a."—Wells cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XI.—OF LITERARY BLUNDERS.

"Repeat some adverbs that are composed of the prefix or preposition a and nouns."—Kirkham cor. "Participles are so called, because they participate or partake the properties of verbs and of adjectives or nouns. The Latin word participium, which signifies a participle, is derived from participo, to partake."—Merchant cor. "The possessive precedes an other noun, and is known by the sign 's, or by this ', the apostrophe only."—Beck cor. "Reciprocal pronouns, or compound personal pronouns, are formed by adding self or selves to the simple possessives of the first and second persons, and to the objectives of the third person; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves."—Id. "The word SELF, and its plural SELVES, when used separately as names, must be considered as nouns; but when joined to the simple pronouns, they are not nouns, but parts of the compound personal pronouns."—Wright cor. "The Spondee 'rolls round,' expresses beautifully the majesty of the sun in his course."—Webster and Frazee cor. "Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, 'John learned his lesson.'"—Frazee cor. "Prosody primarily signified accent, or the modulation of the voice; and, as the name implies, related to poetry, or song."—Hendrick cor. "On such a principle of forming them, there would be as many moods as verbs; and, in stead of four moods, we should have four thousand three hundred, which is the number of verbs in the English language, according to Lowth." [556]—Hallock cor. "The phrases, 'To let out blood,'—'To go a hunting,' are not elliptical; for out is needless, and a is a preposition, governing hunting."—Bullions cor. "In Rhyme, the last syllable of every line corresponds in sound with that of some other line or lines."—Id. "The possessive case plural, where the nominative ends in s, has the apostrophe only; as, 'Eagles' wings,'—'lions' whelps,'—'bears' claws.'"—Weld cor. "'Horses-manes,' plural, should be written possessively, 'horses' manes:'" [one "mane" is never possessed by many "horses."]—Id. "W takes its usual form from the union of two Vees, V being the figure of the Roman capital letter which was anciently called U."—Fowler cor. "In the sentence, 'I saw the lady who sings,' what word is nominative to SINGS?"—J. Flint cor. "In the sentence, 'This is the pen which John made,' what word expresses the object of MADE?"—Id. "'That we fall into no sin:' no is a definitive or pronominal adjective, not compared, and relates to sin."—Rev. D. Blair cor. "'That all our doings may be ordered by thy governance:' all is a pronominal adjective, not compared, and relates to doings."—Id. "'Let him be made to study.' Why is the sign to expressed before study? Because be made is passive; and passive verbs do not take the infinitive after them without the preposition to."—Sanborn cor. "The following verbs have both the preterit tense and the perfect participle like the present: viz., Cast, cut, cost, shut, let, bid, shed, hurt, hit, put, &c."—Buchanan cor. "The agreement which any word has with an other in person, number, gender, or case, is called CONCORD; and the power which one word has over an other, in respect to ruling its case, mood, or form, is called GOVERNMENT."—Bucke cor. "The word ticks tells what the watch is doing."—Sanborn cor. "The Breve ([~]) marks a short vowel or syllable, and the Macron ([=]), a long one."—Bullions and Lennie cor. "'Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor.' The first you is in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb make."—Kirkham cor. "Uoy in buoy is a proper triphthong; eau in flambeau is an improper triphthong."—Sanborn cor. "'While I of things to come, As past rehearsing, sing.'—POLLOK. That is, 'While I sing of things to come, as if I were rehearsing things that are past.'"—Kirkham cor. "A simple sentence usually has in it but one nominative, and but one finite verb."—Folker cor. "An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed."—Brown's Inst., p. 75. "But, when the antecedent is used in a restricted sense, a comma is sometimes inserted before the relative; as, 'There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue.'"—L. Murray's Gram., p. 273. Or: "But, when the antecedent is used in a restricted sense, no comma is usually inserted before the relative; as, 'There is in the female sex no charm which can supply the place of virtue.'"—Kirkham cor. "Two capitals used in this way, denote different words; but one repeated, marks the plural number: as, L. D. Legis Doctor; LL. D. Legum Doctor."—Gould cor. "Was any person present besides the mercer? Yes; his clerk."—L. Murray cor. "The word adjective comes from the Latin adjectivum; and this, from ad, to, and jacio, I cast."—Kirkham cor. "Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before his eyes, and present to his senses. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Cataline: 'I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined country. The furious countenance of Ceth[=e]'gus rises to my view, while with savage joy he is triumphing in your miseries.'"—Dr. Blair cor.; also L. Murray. "When two or more verbs follow the same nominative, an auxiliary that is common to them both or all, is usually expressed to the first, and understood to the rest: as, 'He has gone and left me;' that is, 'He has gone and has left me.'"—Comly cor. "When I use the word pillar to denote a column that supports an edifice, I employ it literally."—Hiley cor. "In poetry, the conjunction nor is often used for neither; as

    'A stately superstructure, that nor wind,
    Nor wave, nor shock of falling years, could move.'—POLLOK."—Id.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XII—OF PERVERSIONS.

"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth."—Genesis, i, 1. "Canst thou by searching find out God?"—Job, xi, 7. "Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty; just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints."—Rev., xv. 3. "Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven."—Matt., vii, 21. "Though he was rich, yet for your sakes he became poor."—2 Cor., viii, 9. "Whose foundation was overthrown with a flood."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Job, xxii, 16. "Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me;" &c.—Matt., xi, 29. "I go to prepare a place for you."—John, xiv, 2. "And you hath he quickened, who were dead in trespasses and sins."—Ephesians, ii, 1. "Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah."—Amos, vii, 12; Lowth's Gram., p. 44. Or: "Go, flee away into the land of Judah."—Hart cor. "Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further."—Job, xxxviii, 11. "The day is thine, the night also is thine."—Psal., lxxiv, 16. "Tribulation worketh patience; and patience, experience; and experience, hope."—Romans, v, 4. "Then shall the dust return to the earth as it was; and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it."—Ecclesiastes, xii, 7. "At the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an adder. Thine eyes shall behold strange women, and thine heart shall utter perverse things: Yea, thou shalt be as he that lieth down in the midst of the sea."—Prov., xxiii, 32, 33, 34. "The memory of the just is blessed; but the name of the wicked shall rot."—Prov., x, 7. "He that is slow to anger, is better than the mighty; and he that ruleth his spirit, than he that taketh a city."—Prov., xvi, 32. "For whom the Lord loveth, he correcteth; even as a father the son in whom he delighteth."—Prov., iii, 12. "The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter."—Brown's Inst. of E. Gram., p. 54. "Teach me to feel another's woe, To hide the fault I see."—Pope's Univ. Prayer. "Surely thou art one of them; for thou art a Galilean."—Mark, xiv, 70. "Surely thou also art one of them; for thy speech bewrayeth thee."—Matt., xxvi, 73. "Strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life."—Matt., vii, 14. "Thou buildest the wall, that thou mayest be their king."—Nehemiah, vi, 6. "There is forgiveness with thee, that thou mayest be feared."—Psalms, cxxx, 4. "But yesterday, the word of Cæsar might Have stood against the world."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 250. "The North-East spends his rage."—Thomson's Seasons, p. 34. "Tells how the drudging goblin swet."—Milton's Allegro, l. 105. "And to his faithful champion hath in place Borne witness gloriously."—Milton's Sam. Agon., l. 1752. "Then, if thou fall'st, O Cromwell, Thou fall'st a blessed martyr."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 173. Better: "Then, if thou fall, O Cromwell! thou fallst a blessed martyr."—Shak. and Kirk. cor. "I see the dagger-crest of Mar, I see the Moray's silver star, Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, That up the lake comes winding far!"—Scott's Lady of the Lake, p. 162. "Each beast, each insect, happy in its own."—Pope, on Man, Ep. i, l. 185. "And he that is learning to arrange his sentences with accuracy and order, is learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order."—Blair's Lect., p. 120. "We, then, as workers together with him, beseech you also that ye receive not the grace of God in vain."—2 Cor., vi, 1. "And on the boundless of thy goodness calls."—Young's Last Day, B. ii, l. 320. "Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom, in minds attentive to their own."—Cowper's Task, B. vi, l. 90. "O! let me listen to the words of life!"—Thomson's Paraphrase on Matt. vi. "Save that, from yonder ivy-mantled tower." &c.—Gray's Elegy, l. 9. "Weighs the men's wits against the Lady's hair."—Pope's Rape of the Lock, Canto v, l. 72. "Till the publication of Dr. Lowth's small Introduction, the grammatical study of our language formed no part of the ordinary method of instruction."—Hiley's Preface, p. vi. "Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee."—Gen., xiii, 8.

"What! canst thou not forbear me half an hour?"—Shakspeare.

"Till then who knew the force of those dire arms?"—Milton.

    "In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold;
    Alike fantastic, if too new or old:
    Be not the first by whom the new are tried
    Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."—Pope, on Criticism, l. 333.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIII.—OF AWKWARDNESS.

"They slew Varus, whom I mentioned before."—L. Murray cor. "Maria rejected Valerius, whom she had rejected before." Or: "Maria rejected Valerius a second time."—Id. "In the English language, nouns have but two different terminations for cases."—Churchill's Gram., p. 64. "Socrates and Plato were the wisest men, and the most eminent philosophers in Greece."—Buchanan's Gram., Pref., p. viii. "Whether more than one were concerned in the business, does not yet appear." Or: "How many were concerned in the business, does not yet appear."—L. Murray cor. "And that, consequently, the verb or pronoun agreeing with it, can never with propriety be used in the plural number."—Id. et al. cor. "A second help may be, frequent and free converse with others of your own sex who are like minded."—Wesley cor. "Four of the semivowels, namely, l, m, n, and r, are termed LIQUIDS, on account of the fluency of their sounds."—See Brown's Inst., p. 16. "Some conjunctions are used in pairs, so that one answers to an other, as its regular correspondent."—Lowth et al. cor. "The mutes are those consonants whose sounds cannot be protracted; the semivowels have imperfect sounds of their own, which can be continued at pleasure."—Murray et al. cor. "HE and SHE are sometimes used as nouns, and, as such, are regularly declined: as, 'The hes in birds.'—BACON. 'The shes of Italy.'—SHAK."—Churchill cor. "The separation of a preposition from the word which it governs, is [censured by some writers, as being improper."—C. Adams cor. "The word WHOSE, according to some critics, should be restricted to persons; but good writers still occasionally use it with reference to things."—Priestley et al. cor. "New and surpassing wonders present themselves to our view."—Sherlock cor. "The degrees of comparison are often inaccurately applied and construed."—Alger's Murray. Or: "Passages are often found in which the degrees of comparison have not an accurate construction."—Campbell cor.; also Murray et al. "The sign of possession is placed too far from the name, to form a construction that is either perspicuous or agreeable."—L. Murray cor. "The simple tenses are those which are formed by the principal verb without an auxiliary."—Id. "The more intimate men are, the more they affect one another's happiness."—Id. "This is the machine that he invented."—Nixon cor. "To give this sentence the interrogative form, we must express it thus." Or: "This sentence, to have the interrogative form, should be expressed thus."—L. Murray cor. "Never employ words that are susceptible of a sense different from that which you intend to convey."—Hiley cor. "Sixty pages are occupied in explaining what, according to the ordinary method, would not require more than ten or twelve."—Id. "The participle in ing always expresses action, suffering, or being, as continuing, or in progress."—Bullions cor. "The first participle of all active verbs, has usually an active signification; as, 'James is building the house.' Often, however, it takes a passive meaning; as, 'The house is building.'"—Id. "Previously to parsing this sentence, the young pupil may be taught to analyze it, by such questions as the following: viz."—Id. "Since that period, however, attention has been paid to this important subject."—Id. and Hiley cor. "A definition of a word is a brief explanation of what it means."—G. BROWN: Hiley cor.

UNDER CRITICAL NOTE XIV.—OF IGNORANCE.

"What is a verb? It is a word which signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon." Or thus: "What is an assertor? Ans. 'One who affirms positively; an affirmer, supporter, or vindicator.'—WEBSTER'S DICT."—Peirce cor. "Virgil wrote the Æneid."—Kirkham cor. "Which, to a supercilious or inconsiderate native of Japan, would seem very idle and impertinent."—Locke cor. "Will not a look of disdain cast upon you throw you into a ferment?"—Say cor. "Though only the conjunction if is here set before the verb, there are several others, (as that, though, lest, unless, except,) which may be used with the subjunctive mood."—L. Murray cor. "When proper names have an article before them, they are used as common names."—Id. et al. cor. "When a proper noun has an article before it, it is used as a common noun."—Merchant cor. "Seeming to rob the death-field of its terrors."—Id. "For the same reason, we might, without any detriment to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular."—Kirkham cor. "It removes all possibility of being misunderstood."—Abbott cor. "Approximation to perfection is all that we can expect."—Id. "I have often joined in singing with musicians at Norwich."—Gardiner cor. "When not standing in regular prosaic order." Or:—"in the regular order of prose."—O. B. Peirce cor. "Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire."—Kirkham cor. "Others begin to talk before their mouths are open, prefixing the mouth-closing M to most of their words; as, 'M-yes,' for 'Yes.'"—Gardiner cor. "That noted close of his 'esse videatur,' exposed him to censure among his contemporaries."—Dr. Blair cor. "A man's own is what he has, or possesses by right; the word own being a past participle of the verb to owe, which formerly signified to have or possess."—Kirkham cor. "As requires so; expressing a comparison of manner; as, 'As the one dieth, so dieth the other.'"—L. Mur. et al. cor. "To obey our parents, is an obvious duty."—Parker and Fox cor. "Almost all the political papers of the kingdom have touched upon these things."—H. C. Wright cor. "I shall take the liberty to make a few observations on the subject."—Hiley cor. "His loss I have endeavoured to supply, so far as by additional vigilance and industry I could."—Id. "That they should make vegetation so exuberant as to anticipate every want."—Frazee cor. "The guillemets, or quotation points, [""] denote that one or more words are extracted from an other author."—P. E. Day cor. "Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, was one of the most noted cities of ancient times."—Id. "It may, however, be rendered definite by the mention of some particular time; as, yesterday, last week, &c."—Bullions cor. "The last is called heroic measure, and is the same that is used by Milton, Young, Thomson, Pollok. &c."—Id. "Perennial ones must be sought in the delightful regions above."—Hallock cor. "Intransitive verbs are those which are inseparable from the effect produced." Or better: "Intransitive verbs are those which express action without governing an object."—Cutler cor. "The Feminine gender belongs to women, and animals of the female kind."—Id. "Wo unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites!"—ALGER'S BIBLE: Luke, xi, 44. "A pyrrhic, which has both its syllables short."—Day cor. "What kind of jessamine? A jessamine in flower, or a flowery jessamine."—Barrett cor. "LANGUAGE, a word derived from LINGUA, the tongue, now signifies any series of sounds or letters formed into words, and used for the expression of thought."—Id. See this Gram. of E. Grammars, p. 145. "Say 'none,' not 'ne'er a one.'"—Staniford cor. "'E'er a one,' [is sometimes used for 'any'] or 'either.'"—Pond cor.

   "Earth loses thy pattern for ever and aye;
    O sailor-boy! sailor-boy! peace to thy soul."
        —Dymond.

    "His brow was sad; his eye beneath
    Flashed like a falchion from its sheath."
        —Longfellow's Ballads, p. 129.

[Fist] [The examples exhibited for exercises under Critical Notes 15th and 16th, being judged either incapable of correction, or unworthy of the endeavour, are submitted to the criticism of the reader, without any attempt to amend them, or to offer substitutes in this place.]

PROMISCUOUS CORRECTIONS OF FALSE SYNTAX.

LESSON I.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"Why is our language less refined than that of Italy, Spain, or France?"—L. Murray cor. "Why is our language less refined than the French?"—Ingersoll cor. "I believe your Lordship will agree with me, in the reason why our language is less refined than that of Italy, Spain, or France."—Swift cor. "Even in this short sentence, 'why our language is less refined than those of Italy, Spain, or France,' we may discern an inaccuracy; the pronominal adjective 'those' is made plural, when the substantive to which it refers, or the thing for which it stands, 'the language of Italy, Spain, or France,' is singular."—Dr. H. Blair cor. "The sentence would have run much better in this way:—'why our language is less refined than the Italian, the Spanish, or the French.'"—Id. "But when arranged in an entire sentence, as they must be to make a complete sense, they show it still more evidently."—L. Murray cor. "This is a more artificial and refined construction, than that in which the common connective is simply used."—Id. "I shall present to the reader a list of certain prepositions or prefixes, which are derived from the Latin and Greek languages."—Id. "A relative sometimes comprehends the meaning of a personal pronoun and a copulative conjunction."—Id. "Personal pronouns, being used to supply the places of nouns, are not often employed in the same clauses with the nouns which they represent."—Id. and Smith cor. "There is very seldom any occasion for a substitute where the principal word is present."—L. Mur. cor. "We hardly consider little children as persons, because the term person gives us the idea of reason, or intelligence."—Priestley et al. cor. "The occasions for exerting these two qualities are different."—Dr. Blair et al. cor. "I'll tell you with whom time ambles withal, with whom time trots withal, with whom time gallops withal, and with whom he stands still withal. I pray thee, with whom doth he trot withal?"—Buchanan's Gram., p. 122. "By greatness, I mean, not the bulk of any single object only but the largeness of a whole view."—Addison cor. "The question may then be put, What more does he than mean?"—Dr. Blair cor. "The question might be put, What more does he than mean?"—Id. "He is surprised to find himself at so great a distance from the object with which he set out."—Id.; also Murray cor. "Few rules can be given which will hold good in all cases."—Lowth and Mur. cor. "Versification is the arrangement of words into metrical lines, according to the laws of verse."—Johnson cor. "Versification is the arrangement of words into rhythmical lines of some particular length, so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity."—L. Murray et al. cor. "Amelia's friend Charlotte, to whom no one imputed blame, was too prompt in her own vindication."—L. Murray cor. "Mr. Pitt's joining of the war party in 1793, the most striking and the most fatal instance of this offence, is the one which at once presents itself."—Brougham cor. "To the framing of such a sound constitution of mind."—Lady cor. "'I beseech you,' said St. Paul to his Ephesian converts, 'that ye walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye are called.' "—See Eph., iv, 1. "So as to prevent it from being equal to that."—Booth cor. "When speaking of an action as being performed." Or: "When speaking of the performance of an action."—Id. "And, in all questions of actions being so performed, est is added for the second person."—Id. "No account can be given of this, but that custom has blinded their eyes." Or: "No other account can be given of this, than that custom has blinded their eyes."—Dymond cor.

   "Design, or chance, makes others wive;
    But nature did this match contrive."—Waller cor.

LESSON II.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"I suppose each of you thinks it is his own nail."—Abbott cor. "They are useless, because they are apparently based upon this supposition."—Id. "The form, or manner, in which this plan may be adopted is various."—Id. "The making of intellectual effort, and the acquiring of knowledge, are always pleasant to the human mind."—Id. "This will do more than the best lecture that ever was delivered."—Id. "The doing of easy things is generally dull work."—Id. "Such are the tone and manner of some teachers."—Id. "Well, the fault is, that some one was disorderly at prayer time."—Id. "Do you remember to have spoken on this subject in school?"—Id. "The course above recommended, is not the trying of lax and inefficient measures"—Id. "Our community agree that there is a God."—Id. "It prevents them from being interested in what is said."—Id. "We will also suppose that I call an other boy to me, whom I have reason to believe to be a sincere Christian."—Id. "Five minutes' notice is given by the bell."—Id. "The Annals of Education give notice of it." Or: "The work entitled 'Annals of Education' gives notice of it."—Id. "Teachers' meetings will be interesting and useful."—Id. "She thought a half hour's study would conquer all the difficulties."—Id. "The difference between an honest and a hypocritical confession."—Id. "There is no point of attainment at which we must stop."—Id. "Now six hours' service is as much as is expected of teachers."—Id. "How many are seven times nine?"—Id. "Then the reckoning proceeds till it comes to ten hundred."—Frost cor. "Your success will depend on your own exertions; see, then, that you be diligent."—Id. "Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense: If I be known, If thou be known, If he be known;" &c.—Id. "If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved;" &c.—Frost right. "An Interjection is a word used to express sudden emotion. Interjections are so called because they are generally thrown in between the parts of discourse, without any reference to the structure of those parts."—Frost cor. "The Cardinal numbers are those which simply tell how many; as, one, two, three."—Id. "More than one organ are concerned in the utterance of almost every consonant." Or thus: "More organs than one are concerned in the utterance of almost any consonant."—Id. "To extract from them all the terms which we use in our divisions and subdivisions of the art."—Holmes cor. "And there were written therein lamentations, and mourning, and woe."—Bible cor. "If I were to be judged as to my behaviour, compared with that of John."—Whiston's Jos. cor. "The preposition to, signifying in order to, was anciently preceded by for; as, 'What went ye out for to see?'"—L. Murray's Gram., p. 184. "This makes the proper perfect tense, which in English is always expressed by the auxiliary verb have; as, 'I have written.'"—Dr. Blair cor. "Indeed, in the formation of character, personal exertion is the first, the second, and the third virtue."—Sanders cor. "The reducing of them to the condition of the beasts that perish."—Dymond cor. "Yet this affords no reason to deny that the nature of the gift is the same, or that both are divine." Or: "Yet this affords no reason to aver that the nature of the gift is not the same, or that both are not divine."—Id. "If God has made known his will."—Id. "If Christ has prohibited them, nothing else can prove them right."—Id. "That the taking of them is wrong, every man who simply consults his own heart, will know."—Id. "From these evils the world would be spared, if one did not write."—Id. "It is in a great degree our own fault."—Id. "It is worthy of observation, that lesson-learning is nearly excluded."—Id. "Who spares the aggressor's life, even to the endangering of his own."—Id. "Who advocates the taking of the life of an aggressor."—Id. "And thence up to the intentionally and voluntarily fraudulent."—Id. "And the contention was so sharp between them, that they departed asunder one from the other."—SCOTT'S, FRIENDS', ALGER'S, BRUCE'S BIBLE, AND OTHERS: Acts, xv, 39. "Here the man is John, and John is the man; so the words are imagination and fancy; but THE imagination and THE fancy are not words: they are intellectual powers."—Rev. M. Harrison cor. "The article, which is here so emphatic in the Greek, is quite forgotten in our translation."—Id. "We have no fewer than twenty-four pronouns."—Id. "It will admit of a pronoun joined to it."—Id. "From intercourse and from conquest, all the languages of Europe participate one with an other."—Id. "It is not always necessity, therefore, that has been the cause of our introducing of terms derived from the classical languages."—Id. "The man of genius stamps upon it any impression that pleases him." Or: "any impression that he chooses."—Id. "The proportion of names ending in SON preponderates greatly among the Dano-Saxon population of the North."—Id. "As a proof of the strong similarity between the English language and the Danish."—Id. "A century from the time when (or at which) Hengist and Horsa landed on the Isle of Thanet."—Id.

   "I saw the colours waving in the wind,
    And them within, to mischief how combin'd."—Bunyan cor.

LESSON III.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"A ship excepted: of which we say, 'She sails well.'"—Jonson cor. "Honesty is reckoned of little worth."—Lily cor. "Learn to esteem life as you ought."—Dodsley cor. "As the soundest health is less perceived than the lightest malady, so the highest joy toucheth us less sensibly than the smallest sorrow."—Id. "Youth is no apology for frivolousness."—Whiting cor. "The porch was of the same width as the temple."—Milman cor. "The other tribes contributed neither to his rise nor to his downfall."—Id. "His whole religion, with all its laws, would have been shaken to its foundation."—Id. "The English has most commonly been neglected, and children have been taught only in the Latin syntax."—J. Ward cor. "They are not noticed in the notes."— Id. "He walks in righteousness, doing what he would have others do to him."—Fisher cor. "They stand independent of the rest of the sentence."—Ingersoll cor. "My uncle and his son were in town yesterday."—Lennie cor. "She and her sisters are well."—Id. "His purse, with its contents, was abstracted from his pocket."—Id. "The great constitutional feature of this institution being, that directly after the acrimony of the last election is over, the acrimony of the next begins."—Dickens cor. "His disregarding of his parents' advice has brought him into disgrace."—Farnum cor. "Can you tell me why his father made that remark?"—Id. "Why does our teacher detain us so long?"—Id. "I am certain that the boy said so."—Id. "WHICH means any thing or things before named; and THAT may represent any person or persons, thing or things, that have been speaking, spoken to, or spoken of."—Perley cor. "A certain number of syllables occurring in a particular order, form a foot. Poetic feet are so called because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along."—L. Murray et al. cor. "Questions asked by a principal verb only—as, 'Teach I?' 'Burns he?' &c.,—are archaisms, and now peculiar to the poets."—A. Murray cor. "Tell whether the 18th, the 19th, the 20th, the 21st, the 22d, or the 23d rule is to be used, and repeat the rule."—Parker and Fox cor. "The resolution was adopted without much deliberation, and consequently caused great dissatisfaction." Or: "The resolution, which caused great dissatisfaction, was adopted without much deliberation."— Iid. "The man is now much noticed by the people thereabouts."—Webb's Edward's Gram. cor. "The sand prevents them from sticking to one an other."—Id. "Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses."—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 29; Ingersoll's, 121; Smith's, 90; Merchant's, 64; Nutting's, 68; L. Murray, Guy, Russell, Bacon, Frost, Alger, S. Putnam, Goldsbury, Felton, et al. cor. "Defective verbs are those which want some of the moods or tenses."—Lennie et al. cor. "Defective verbs want some of the parts common to other verbs."—Bullions cor. "A Defective verb is one that wants some of the parts common to verbs."—Id. "To the irregular verbs may be added the defective; which are not only irregular, but also wanting in some parts."—Lowth cor. "To the irregular verbs may be added the defective; which are not only wanting in some parts, but are, when inflected, irregular."—Churchill cor. "When two or more nouns occur together in the possessive case."—Farnum cor. "When several short sentences come together"—Id. "Words are divided into ten classes, called Parts of Speech."—L. Ainsworth cor. "A passive verb has its agent or doer always in the objective case, governed by a preposition."—Id. "I am surprised at your inattention."—Id. "SINGULAR: Thou lovest, not You love. You has always a plural verb."—Bullions cor. "How do you know that love is of the first person? Ans. Because we, the pronoun, is of the first person."—Id. and Lennie cor. "The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea."—Gray's Elegy, l. 2: Bullions cor. "Iambic verses have their second, fourth, and other even syllables accented."—Bullions cor. "Contractions that are not allowable in prose, are often made in poetry."—Id. "Yet to their general's voice they soon obey'd"— Milton. "It never presents to his mind more than one new subject at the same time."—Felton cor. "An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality considered apart from its substance."—Brown's Inst. of E. Gram., p. 32. "A noun is of the first person when it denotes the speaker."—Felton cor. "Which of the two brothers is a graduate?"— Hallock cor. "I am a linen-draper bold, As all the world doth know."—Cowper. "Oh the pain, the bliss of dying!"—Pope. "This do; take to you censers, thou, Korah, and all thy company."—Bible cor. "There are three participles; the imperfect, the perfect, and the preperfect: as, reading, read, having read. Transitive verbs have an active and passive participle: that is, their form for the perfect is sometimes active, and sometimes passive; as, read, or loved."—S. S. Greene cor.

"O Heav'n, in my connubial hour decree My spouse this man, or such a man as he."—Pope cor.

LESSON IV.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"The past tenses (of Hiley's subjunctive mood) represent conditional past facts or events, of which the speaker is uncertain."—Hiley cor. "Care also should be taken that they be not introduced too abundantly."—Id. "Till they have become familiar to the mind." Or: "Till they become familiar to the mind."—Id. "When once a particular arrangement and phraseology have become familiar to the mind."—Id. "I have furnished the student with the plainest and most practical directions that I could devise."—Id. "When you are conversant with the Rules of Grammar, you will be qualified to commence the study of Style."—Id. "C before e, i, or y, always has a soft sound, like s."—L. Murray cor. "G before e, i, or y, is generally soft; as in genius, ginger, Egypt."—Id. "C before e, i, or y, always sounds soft, like s."—Hiley cor. "G is generally soft before e, i, or y; as in genius, ginger, Egypt."—Id. "A perfect alphabet must always contain just as many letters as there are elementary sounds in the language: the English alphabet, having fewer letters than sounds, and sometimes more than one letter for the same sound, is both defective and redundant."—Id. "A common noun is a name, given to a whole class or species, and is applicable to every individual of that class."—Id. "Thus an adjective has usually a noun either expressed or understood."—Id. "Emphasis is extraordinary force used in the enunciation of such words as we wish to make prominent in discourse." Or: "Emphasis is a peculiar stress of voice, used in the utterance of words specially significant."—Dr. H. Blair cor.; also L. Murray. "So simple a question as. 'Do you ride to town to-day?' is capable of as many as four different acceptations, the sense varying as the emphasis is differently placed."—Iid. "Thus, bravely, for 'in a brave manner.' is derived from brave-like."—Hiley cor. "In this manner, several different parts of speech are often formed from one root by means of different affixes."—Id. "Words derived from the same root, are always more or less allied in signification."—Id. "When a noun of multitude conveys the idea of unity, the verb and pronoun should be singular; but when it conveys the idea of plurality, the verb and pronoun must be plural."—Id. "They have spent their whole time to make the sacred chronology agree with the profane."—Id. "I have studied my lesson, but you have not looked at yours."—Id. "When words are connected in pairs, there is usually a comma after each pair."— Hiley, Bullions, and Lennie, cor. "When words are connected in pairs, the pairs should be marked by the comma."—Farnum cor. "His book entitled, 'Studies of Nature,' is deservedly a popular work."—Biog. Dict. cor.

   "Here rests his head upon the lap of earth,
    A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown."—GRAY.

"'Youth,' here, is in the nominative case, (the verb 'rests' being, in this instance, transitive,) and is the subject of the sentence. The meaning is, 'A youth here rests his head,' &c."—Hart cor. "The pronoun I, as well as the interjection O, should be written with a capital." Or: "The pronoun I, and the interjection O, should be written with capitals"—Weld cor. "The pronoun I should always be written with a capital."—Id. "He went from London to York."—Id. "An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb, to modify its meaning."—Id. (See Lesson 1st under the General Rule.) "SINGULAR signifies, 'expressing only one;' denoting but one person or thing. PLURAL, (Latin pluralis, from plus, more,) signifies, 'expressing more than one.'"—Weld cor. "When the present ends in e, d only is added to form the imperfect tense and the perfect participle of regular verbs."—Id. "Synæresis is the contraction of two syllables into one; as, seest for seëst, drowned for drown-ed."—Id. (See Brown's Inst. p. 230.) "Words ending in ee are often inflected by mere consonants, and without receiving an additional syllable beginning with e: as, see, seest, sees; agree, agreed, agrees."—Weld cor. "In monosyllables, final f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, is doubled; as in staff, mill, grass."—Id. "Before ing, words ending in ie drop the e, and change the i into y; as, die, dying."—Id." One number may be used for the other—or, rather, the plural may be used for the singular; as, we for I, you for thou."—S. S. Greene cor. "STR~OB'ILE, n. A pericarp made up of scales that lie one over an other."—Worcester cor.

   "Yet ever, from the clearest source, hath run
    Some gross alloy, some tincture of the man."—Lowth cor.

LESSON V.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"The possessive case is usually followed by a noun, expressed or understood, which is the name of the thing possessed."—Felton cor. "Hadmer of Aggstein was as pious, devout, and praying a Christian, as was Nelson, Washington, or Jefferson; or as is Wellington, Tyler, Clay, or Polk."—H. C. Wright cor. "A word in the possessive case is not an independent noun, and cannot stand by itself."—J. W. Wright cor. "Mary is not handsome, but she is good-natured; and good-nature is better than beauty."—St. Quentin cor. "After the practice of joining all words together had ceased, a note of distinction was placed at the end of every word."—L. Murray et al. cor. "Neither Henry nor Charles dissipates his time."—Hallock cor. "'He had taken from the Christians above thirty small castles.' KNOLLES:"—Brown's Institutes, p. 200; Johnson's Quarto Dict., w. What. "In what character Butler was admitted, is unknown." Or: "In whatever character Butler was admitted, that character is unknown."—Hallock cor. "How are the agent of a passive and the object of an active verb often left?"—Id. "By SUBJECT, is meant the word of whose object something is declared." Or: "By SUBJECT, is meant the word which has something declared of the thing signified."—Chandler cor. "Care should also be taken that a transitive verb be not used in stead of a neuter or intransitive; as, lay for lie, raise for rise, set for sit, &c."—Id. "On them depends the duration of our Constitution and our country."—Calhoun cor. "In the present sentence, neither the sense nor the measure requires WHAT."—Chandler cor. "The Irish thought themselves oppressed by the law that forbid them to draw with their horses' tails."—Brightland cor. "So and willingly are adverbs. So is an adverb of degree, and qualifies willingly. Willingly is an adverb of manner, and qualifies deceives."—Cutler cor. "Epicurus, for experiment's sake, confined himself to a narrower diet than that of the severest prisons."—Id. "Derivative words are such as are formed from other words by prefixes or suffixes; as, injustice, goodness, falsehood."—Id. "The distinction here insisted on is as old as Aristotle, and should not be lost from sight." Or: "and it should still be kept in view."—Hart cor. "The Tenses of the Subjunctive and Potential Moods." Or: "The Tenses of the Subjunctive and the Potential Mood."—Id. "A triphthong is a union of three vowels, uttered by a single impulse of the voice; as, uoy in buoy"—Pardon Davis cor. "A common noun is the name of a species or kind."—Id. "The superlative degree implies a comparison either between two or among more."—Id. "An adverb is a word serving to give an additional idea to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb."—Id. "When several nouns in the possessive case occur in succession, each showing possession of things of the same sort, it is generally necessary to add the sign of the possessive case to each of them: as, 'He sells men's, women's, and children's shoes.'—'Dogs', cats', and tigers' feet are digitated.'"—Id. "'A rail-road is being made,' should be, 'A railroad is making;' 'A school-house is being built,' should be, 'A schoolhouse is building.'"—Id. "Auxiliaries are of themselves verbs; yet they resemble, in their character and use, those terminational or other inflections which, in other languages, serve to express the action in the mood, tense, person, and number desired."—Id. "Please to hold my horse while I speak to my friend."—Id. "If I say, 'Give me the book,' I demand some particular book."—Noble Butler cor. "Here are five men."—Id. "After the active verb, the object may be omitted; after the passive, the name of the agent may be omitted."—Id. "The Progressive and Emphatic forms give, in each case, a different shade of meaning to the verb."—Hart cor. "THAT may be called a Redditive Conjunction, when it answers to so or SUCH."—Ward cor. "He attributes to negligence your want of success in that business."—Smart cor. "Do WILL and GO express but one action?" Or: "Does 'will go' express but one action?"—Barrett cor. "Language is the principal vehicle of thought."—G. Brown's Inst., Pref., p. iii. "Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to those that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persons only; older and oldest, to either persons or things."—Bullions cor. "If there are any old maids still extant, while misogynists are so rare, the fault must be attributable to themselves."—Kirkham cor. "The second method, used by the Greeks, has never been the practice of any other people of Europe."—Sheridan cor. "Neither consonant nor vowel is to be dwelt upon beyond its common quantity, when it closes a sentence." Or: "Neither consonants nor vowels are to be dwelt upon beyond their common quantity, when they close a sentence." Or, better thus: "Neither a consonant nor a vowel, when it closes a sentence, is to be protracted beyond its usual length."—Id. "Irony is a mode of speech, in which what is said, is the opposite of what is meant."—McElligott's Manual, p. 103. "The person speaking, and the person or persons spoken to, are supposed to be present."—Wells cor.; also Murray. "A Noun is a name, a word used to express the idea of an object."—Wells cor. "A syllable is such a word, or part of a word, as is uttered by one articulation."—Weld cor.

   "Thus wond'rous fair; thyself how wond'rous then!
    Unspeakable, who sitst above these heavens."—Milton, B. v, l. 156.

    "And feel thy sovran vital lamp; but thou
    Revisitst not these eyes, that roll in vain."—Id., iii, 22.

"Before all temples th' upright heart and pure."—Id., i, 18.

"In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den."—Id., vii, 458.

    "The rogue and fool by fits are fair and wise;
    And e'en the best, by fits, what they despise."—Pope cor.

THE KEY.—PART IV.—PROSODY.

CHAPTER I.—PUNCTUATION.

SECTION I.—THE COMMA.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

"A short simple sentence should rarely be divided by the comma."—Felton cor. "A regular and virtuous education is an inestimable blessing."—L. Mur. cor. "Such equivocal expressions mark an intention to deceive."—Id. "They are this and that, with their plurals these and those."—Bullions cor. "A nominative and a verb sometimes make a complete sentence; as, He sleeps."—Felton cor. "TENSE expresses the action as connected with certain relations of time; MOOD represents it as further modified by circumstances of contingency, conditionality, &c."—Bullions cor. "The word noun means name."—Ingersoll cor. "The present or active participle I explained then."—Id. "Are some verbs used both transitively and intransitively?"—Cooper cor. "Blank verse is verse without rhyme."—Brown's Institutes, p. 235. "A distributive adjective denotes each one of a number considered separately."—Hallock cor.

   "And may at last my weary age
    Find out the peaceful hermitage."
        —MILTON: Ward's Gr., 158; Hiley's, 124.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING SIMPLE SENTENCES.

"A noun without an article to limit it, is taken in its widest sense."—Lennie, p. 6. "To maintain a steady course amid all the adversities of life, marks a great mind."—Day cor. "To love our Maker supremely and our neighbour as ourselves, comprehends the whole moral law."—Id. "To be afraid to do wrong, is true courage."—Id. "A great fortune in the hands of a fool, is a great misfortune."—Bullions cor. "That he should make such a remark, is indeed strange."—Farnum cor. "To walk in the fields and groves, is delightful."—Id. "That he committed the fault, is most certain."—Id. "Names common to all things of the same sort or class, are called Common nouns; as, man, woman, day."—Bullions cor. "That it is our duty to be pious, admits not of any doubt."—Id. "To endure misfortune with resignation, is the characteristic of a great mind."—Id. "The assisting of a friend in such circumstances, was certainly a duty."—Id. "That a life of virtue is the safest, is certain."—Hallock cor. "A collective noun denoting the idea of unity, should be represented by a pronoun of the singular number."—Id.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"When the sun had arisen, the enemy retreated."—Day cor. "If he become rich, he may be less industrious."—Bullions cor. "The more I study grammar, the better I like it."—Id. "There is much truth in the old adage, that fire is a better servant than master."—Id. "The verb do, when used as an auxiliary, gives force or emphasis to the expression."—P. E. Day cor. "Whatsoever is incumbent upon a man to do, it is surely expedient to do well."—Adams cor. "The soul, which our philosophy divides into various capacities, is still one essence."—Channing cor. "Put the following words in the plural, and give the rule for forming it."—Bullions cor. "We will do it, if you wish."—Id. "He who does well, will be rewarded."—Id. "That which is always true, is expressed in the present tense."—Id. "An observation which is always true, must be expressed in the present tense."—Id. "That part of orthography which treats of combining letters to form syllables and words, is called SPELLING."—Day cor. "A noun can never be of the first person, except it is in apposition with a pronoun of that person."—Id. "When two or more singular nouns or pronouns refer to the same object, they require a singular verb and pronoun."—Id. "James has gone, but he will return in a few days."—Id. "A pronoun should have the same person, number, and gender, as the noun for which it stands."—Id. "Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid."—Bullions cor. "She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence."—Murray's Exercises, p. 6. "The man who has no sense of religion, is little to be trusted."—Bullions cor. "He who does the most good, has the most pleasure."—Id. "They were not in the most prosperous circumstances, when we last saw them."—Id. "If the day continue pleasant, I shall return."—Felton cor. "The days that are past, are gone forever."—Id. "As many as are friendly to the cause, will sustain it."—Id. "Such as desire aid, will receive it."—Id. "Who gave you that book, which you prize so much?"—Bullions cor. "He who made it, now preserves and governs it."—Id.

   "Shall he alone, whom rational we call,
    Be pleas'd with nothing, if not blest with all?"—Pope.

UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING SIMPLE MEMBERS.

"Newcastle is the town in which Akenside was born."—Bucke cor. "The remorse which issues in reformation, is true repentance."—Campbell cor. "Men who are intemperate, are destructive members of community."— Alexander cor. "An active-transitive verb expresses an action which extends to an object."—Felton cor. "They to whom much is given, will have much, to answer for."—L. Murray cor. "The prospect which we have, is charming."—Cooper cor. "He is the person who informed me of the matter."—Id. "These are the trees that produce no fruit."—Id. "This is the book which treats of the subject."—Id. "The proposal was such as pleased me."—Id. "Those that sow in tears, shall reap in joy."—Id. "The pen with which I write, makes too large a mark."—Ingersoll cor. "Modesty makes large amends for the pain it gives the persons who labour under it, by the prejudice it affords every worthy person, in their favour."—Id. "Irony is a figure whereby we plainly intend something very different from what our words express."—Bucke cor. "Catachresis is a figure whereby an improper word is used in stead of a proper one."—Id. "The man whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."—Frost cor.

UNDER RULE III.—OF MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

"John, James, and Thomas, are here: that is, John, and James, and Thomas, are here."—Cooper cor. "Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 116. "To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and Case."—Id., ib., p. 9. "Wheat, corn, rye, and oats, are extensively cultivated."—Bullions cor. "In many, the definitions, rules, and leading facts, are prolix, inaccurate, and confused."—Finch cor. "Most people consider it mysterious, difficult, and useless."—Id. "His father, and mother, and uncle, reside at Rome."—Farnum cor. "The relative pronouns are who, which, and that."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 23. "That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative, and sometimes a conjunction."—Bullions cor. "Our reputation, virtue, and happiness, greatly depend on the choice of our companions."—Day cor. "The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful."—Felton cor. "Do, be, have, and will, are sometimes principal verbs."—Id. "John, and Thomas, and Peter, reside at Oxford."—Webster cor. "The most innocent pleasures are the most rational, the most delightful, and the most durable."—Id. "Love, joy, peace, and blessedness, are reserved for the good."—Id. "The husband, wife, and children, suffered extremely."—L. Murray cor. "The husband, wife, and children, suffer extremely."—Sanborn cor. "He, you, and I, have our parts assigned us."—Id.

   "He moaned, lamented, tugged, and tried,
    Repented, promised, wept, and sighed."—Cowper.

UNDER RULE IV.—OF ONLY TWO WORDS.

"Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds."—L. Murray cor. "The hive of a city or kingdom, is in the best condition, when there is the least noise or buzz in it."—Id. "When a direct address is made, the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case, independent."—Ingersoll cor. "The verbs love and teach, make loved and taught, in the imperfect and participle."—Id. "Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 152. "Thou or I am in fault."—Id., p. 152. "A verb is a word that expresses action or being."—P. E. Day cor. "The Objective Case denotes the object of a verb or a preposition."—Id. "Verbs of the second conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive."—Id. "Verbs of the fourth conjugation may be either transitive or intransitive."—Id. "If a verb does not form its past indicative by adding d or ed to the indicative present, it is said to be irregular."—Id. "The young lady is studying rhetoric and logic."—Cooper cor. "He writes and speaks the language very correctly."—Id. "Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into his own hands."—Mur. cor. "This accident or characteristic of nouns, is called their Gender."—Bullions cor.

   "Grant that the powerful still the weak control;
    Be man the wit and tyrant of the whole."—Pope cor.

UNDER EXCEPTION I.—TWO WORDS WITH ADJUNCTS.

"Franklin is justly considered the ornament of the New World, and the pride of modern philosophy."—Day cor. "Levity, and attachment to worldly pleasures, destroy the sense of gratitude to Him."—L. Mur. cor. "In the following Exercise, point out the adjectives, and the substantives which they qualify."—Bullions cor. "When a noun or pronoun is used to explain, or give emphasis to, a preceding noun or pronoun."—Day cor. "Superior talents, and brilliancy of intellect, do not always constitute a great man."—Id. "A word that makes sense after an article, or after the phrase speak of, is a noun."—Bullions cor. "All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three."—Hiley cor. "He would not do it himself, not let me do it."—Lennie's Gram., p. 64. "The old writers give examples of the subjunctive mood, and give other moods to explain what is meant by the words in the subjunctive."—O. B. Peirce cor.

UNDER EXCEPTION II.—TWO TERMS CONTRASTED.

"We often commend, as well as censure, imprudently."—L. Mur. cor. "It is as truly a violation of the right of property, to take a little, as to take much; to purloin a book or a penknife, as to steal money; to steal fruit, as to steal a horse; to defraud the revenue, as to rob my neighbour; to overcharge the public, as to overcharge my brother; to cheat the post-office, as to cheat my friend."—Wayland cor. "The classification of verbs has been, and still is, a vexed question."—Bullions cor. "Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and not common to all, are called Proper nouns."—Id. "A hero would desire to be loved, as well as to be reverenced."—Day cor. "Death, or some worse misfortune, now divides them." Better: "Death, or some other misfortune, soon divides them."—Murray's Gram., p. 151. "Alexander replied, 'The world will not permit two suns, nor two sovereigns.'"—Goldsmith cor.

   "From nature's chain, whatever link you strike,
    Tenth, or ten-thousandth, breaks the chain alike."—Pope.

UNDER EXCEPTION III.—OF AN ALTERNATIVE OF WORDS.

"Metre, or Measure, is the number of poetical feet which a verse contains."—Hiley cor. "The Cæsura, or division, is the pause which takes place in a verse, and which divides it into two parts."—Id. "It is six feet, or one fathom, deep."—Bullions cor. "A Brace is used in poetry, at the end of a triplet, or three lines which rhyme together."—Felton cor. "There are four principal kinds of English verse, or poetical feet."—Id. "The period, or full stop, denotes the end of a complete sentence."—Sanborn cor. "The scholar is to receive as many jetons, or counters, as there are words in the sentence."—St. Quentin cor. "That [thing], or the thing, which purifies, fortifies also the heart."—O. B. Peirce cor. "That thing, or the thing, which would induce a laxity in public or private morals, or indifference to guilt and wretchedness, should be regarded as the deadly Sirocco."—Id. "What is, elliptically, what thing, or that thing which."—Sanborn cor. "Demonstrate means show, or point out precisely."—Id. "The man, or that man, who endures to the end, shall be saved."—Hiley cor.

UNDER EXCEPTION IV.—OF A SECOND COMMA.

"That reason, passion, answer one great aim."—POPE: Bullions and Hiley cor. "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 269; Cooper's Murray, 182; Comly, 145; Ingersoll, 282; Sanborn, 268; Kirkham, 212; et al. "Every good gift, and every perfect gift, is from above."—James, i, 17. "Every plant, and every tree, produces others after its kind."—Day cor. "James, and not John, was paid for his services."—Id. "The single dagger, or obelisk [Dagger], is the second."—Id. "It was I, not he, that did it."—St. Quentin cor. "Each aunt, each cousin, hath her speculation."—Byron. "'I shall see you when you come,' is equivalent to, 'I shall see you then, or at that time, when you come.'"—N. Butler cor.

   "Let wealth, let honour, wait the wedded dame;
    August her deed, and sacred be her fame."—Pope cor.

UNDER RULE V.—OF WORDS IN PAIRS.

"My hopes and fears, joys and sorrows, centre in you."—Greenleaf or Sanborn cor. "This mood implies possibility or liberty, will or obligation."—Ingersoll cor. "Substance is divided into body and spirit, into extended and thinking."—Brightland cor. "These consonants, [d and t,] like p and b, f and v, k and hard g, and s and z, are letters of the same organ."—J. Walker cor. "Neither fig nor twist, pigtail nor Cavendish, has passed my lips since; nor ever shall again."—Cultivator cor. "The words whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever, are called Compound Relative Pronouns."—Day cor. "Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, likeness or unlikeness, govern the dative."—Bullions cor.

UNDER RULE VI.—OF WORDS ABSOLUTE.

"Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me."—Psalm xxiii 4. "Depart, ye wicked."—J. W. Wright cor. "He saith unto his mother. Woman, behold thy son!"—John, xix, 26. "Thou, God, seest me."—Bullions cor. "John, write me a letter. Henry, go home."—O. B. Peirce cor., twice. "Now, G. Brown, let us reason together."—Id. "Mr. Smith, you say, on page 11th, 'The objective case denotes the object'"—Id. "Gentlemen, will you always speak as you mean?"—Id. "John, I sold my books to William, for his brothers."—Id. "Walter, and Seth, I will take my things, and leave yours."—Id. "Henry, Julia and Jane left their umbrella, and took yours."—Id. "John, harness the horses, and go to the mine for some coal."—Id. "William, run to the store, for a few pounds of tea."—Id. "The king being dead, the parliament was dissolved."—Chandler cor.

   "Cease, fond Nature, cease thy strife,
    And let me languish into life."
        —Pope, Brit. Poets, vi, 317.

    "Forbear, great man, in arms renown'd, forbear."
        —Hiley's Gram., p. 127.

    "Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind!
    Each prayer accepted, and each wish resign'd."
        —Pope, Brit. Poets, vi, 335.

UNDER RULE VII.—OF WORDS IN APPOSITION.

"We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice," &c.—Constit. of U. S. "The Lord, the covenant God of his people, requires it."—A. S. Mag. cor. "He, as a patriot, deserves praise."—Hallock cor. "Thomson, the watchmaker and jeweller from London, was of the party."—Bullions cor. "Every body knows that the person here spoken of by the name of 'the Conqueror,' is William, duke of Normandy."—L. Mur. cor. "The words myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, and their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves, are called Compound Personal Pronouns."—Day cor.

   "For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey,
      This pleasing, anxious being e'er resign'd,
    Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day
       Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind?"—GRAY: Mur. Seq.

UNDER THE EXCEPTIONS CONCERNING APPOSITION.

"Smith & Williams's store; Nicholas the emperor's army."—Day cor. "He was named William the Conqueror."—Id. "John the Baptist was beheaded."—Id. "Alexander the coppersmith did me much evil."—2 Tim., iv, 14. "A nominative in immediate apposition: as, 'The boy Henry speaks.'"—Smart cor. "A noun objective can be in apposition with some other; as, 'I teach the boy Henry.'"—Id.

UNDER RULE VIII.—OF ADJECTIVES.

"But he found me, not singing at my work, ruddy with health, vivid with cheerfulness; but pale," &c.—DR. JOHNSON: Murray's Sequel, p. 4. "I looked up, and beheld an inclosure, beautiful as the gardens of paradise, but of a small extent."—HAWKESWORTH: ib., p. 20. "A is an article, indefinite, and belongs to 'book.'"—Bullions cor. "The first expresses the rapid movement of a troop of horse over the plain, eager for the combat."—Id. "He [, the Indian chieftain, King Philip,] was a patriot, attached to his native soil; a prince, true to his subjects, and indignant of their wrongs; a soldier, daring in battle, firm in adversity, patient of fatigue, of hunger, of every variety of bodily suffering, and ready to perish in the cause he had espoused."—W. Irving.

   "For thee, who, mindful of th' unhonour'd dead,
    Dost in these lines their artless tale relate."
        —GRAY: Mur. Seq., p. 258.

    "Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest;
    Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood."
        —GRAY: Enf. Sp., p. 245.

    "Idle after dinner [,] in his chair,
    Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair."
        —Murray's Gram., p. 257.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING ADJECTIVES.

"When an attribute becomes a title, or is emphatically applied to a name, it follows it: as, Charles the Great; Henry the First; Lewis the Gross."—Webster cor. "Feed me with food convenient for me."—Prov., xxx, 8. "The words and phrases necessary to exemplify every principle progressively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively adapted to the illustration of the principles to which they are referred."—Ingersoll cor. "The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb which expresses being or action unlimited by person or number."—Day cor. "A man diligent in his business, prospers."—Frost cor.

"Oh wretched state! oh bosom black as death!" —SHAK.: Enfield, p. 368.

UNDER RULE IX.—OF FINITE VERBS.

"The Singular denotes one; the Plural, more than one."—Bullions and Lennie cor. "The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause longer than the comma; the Colon, longer than the semicolon; and the Period, longer than the colon."—Hiley cor. "The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semicolon, a pause double that of the Comma; the Colon, double that of the semicolon; and the Period, double that of the colon."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 266. "WHO is applied only to persons; WHICH, to animals and things; WHAT, to things only; and THAT, to persons, animals, and things."—Day cor. "A or an is used before the singular number only; the, before either singular or plural."—Bullions cor. "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist."—Day cor.; also Pope. "Words are formed of syllables; syllables, of letters."—St. Quentin cor. "The conjugation of an active verb is styled the ACTIVE VOICE; and that of a passive verb, the PASSIVE VOICE."—Frost cor.; also Smith: L. Murray's Gram., p. 77. "The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the objective, the accusative."—L. Murray cor. "Benevolence is allied to few vices; selfishness, to fewer virtues."—Kames cor. "Orthography treats of Letters; Etymology, of words; Syntax, of Sentences; and Prosody, of Versification."—Hart cor.

   "Earth praises conquerors for shedding blood;
    Heaven, those that love their foes, and do them good."—Waller.

UNDER RULE X.—OF INFINITIVES.

"His business is, to observe the agreement or disagreement of words."—Bullions cor. "It is a mark of distinction, to be made a member of this society."—Farnum cor. "To distinguish the conjugations, let the pupil observe the following rules."—Day cor. "He was now sent for, to preach before the Parliament."—E. Williams cor. "It is incumbent on the young, to love and honour their parents."—Bullions cor. "It is the business of every man, to prepare for death."—Id. "It argued the sincerest candor, to make such an acknowledgement."—Id. "The proper way is, to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the second elliptical."—Id. "ENEMY is a name. It is a term of distinction, given to a certain person, to show the character in which he is represented."—Peirce cor. "The object of this is, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g."—Hart cor. "The design of grammar is, to facilitate the reading, writing, and speaking of a language."—Barrett cor. "Four kinds of type are used in the following pages, to indicate the portions that are considered more or less elementary."—Hart cor.

UNDER RULE XI.—OF PARTICIPLES.

"The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown."—Murray's Grammar, p. 66. "The officer, having received his orders, proceeded to execute them."—Day cor. "Thus used, it is in the present tense."—Bullions, E. Gr., 2d Ed., p. 35. "The imperfect tense has three distinct forms, corresponding to those of the present tense."—Bullions cor. "Every possessive case is governed by some noun, denoting the thing possessed."—Id. "The word that, used as a conjunction, is [generally] preceded by a comma."—Hiley's Gram., p. 114. "His narrative, being composed upon so good authority, deserves credit."—Cooper cor. "The hen, being in her nest, was killed and eaten there by the eagle."—Murray cor. "Pronouns, being used in stead of nouns, are subject to the same modifications."—Sanborn cor. "When placed at the beginning of words, they are consonants."—Hallock cor. "Man, starting from his couch, shall sleep no more."—Young. "His and her, followed by a noun, are possessive pronouns; not followed by a noun, they are personal pronouns."—Bullions cor.

   "He, with viny crown advancing,
    First to the lively pipe his hand address'd."—Collins.

UNDER THE EXCEPTION CONCERNING PARTICIPLES.

"But when they convey the idea of many acting individually, or separately, they are of the plural number."—Day cor. "Two or more singular antecedents connected by and, [when they happen to introduce more than one verb and more than one pronoun,] require verbs and pronouns of the plural number."—Id. "Words ending in y preceded by a consonant change y into i, when a termination is added."—N. Butler cor. "A noun used without an article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest sense."—Ingersoll cor. "Two nouns meaning the same person or thing, frequently come together."—Bucke cor. "Each one must give an account to God for the use, or abuse, of the talents committed to him."—Cooper cor. "Two vowels united in one sound, form a diphthong."—Frost cor. "Three vowels united in one sound, form a triphthong."—Id. "Any word joined to an adverb, is a secondary adverb."—Barrett cor. "The person spoken to, is put in the Second person; the person spoken of, in the Third person."—Cutler cor. "A man devoted to his business, prospers."—Frost cor.

UNDER RULE XII.—OF ADVERBS.

"So, in indirect questions; as, 'Tell me when he will come.'"—Butler cor. "Now, when the verb tells what one person or thing does to an other, it is transitive."—Bullions cor. "Agreeably to your request, I send this letter."—Id. "There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a different classification."—Id. "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant-man seeking good pearls."—Scott's Bible, Smith's, and Bruce's. "Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea."—Same. "Cease, however, is used as a transitive verb by our best writers."—Webster cor. "Time admits of three natural divisions; namely, Present, Past, and Future."—Day cor. "There are three kinds of comparison; namely, Regular, Irregular, and Adverbial"—Id. "There are five personal pronouns; namely, I, thou, he, she, and it."—Id. "Nouns have three cases: viz., the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective."—Bullions cor. "Hence, in studying Grammar, we have to study words."—Frazee cor. "Participles, like verbs, relate to nouns and pronouns."—Miller cor. "The time of the participle, like that of the infinitive, is estimated from the time of the leading verb."—Bullions cor.

   "The dumb shall sing, the lame his crutch forego,
    And leap exulting, like the bounding roe."—Pope.

UNDER RULE XIII.—OF CONJUNCTIONS.

"But he said, Nay; lest, while ye gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them."—Scott's Bible et al. "Their intentions were good: but, wanting prudence, they missed the mark at which they aimed."—L. Mur. cor. "The verb be often separates the name from its attribute; as, 'War is expensive.'"—Webster cor. "Either and or denote an alternative; as, 'I will take either road at your pleasure.'"—Id. "Either is also a substitute for a name; as, 'Either of the roads is good.'"—Id. "But, alas! I fear the consequence."—Day cor. "Or, if he ask a fish, will he for a fish give him a serpent?"—Luke, xi, 11. "Or, if he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion?"—ALGER'S BIBLE: Luke, xi, 12. "The infinitive sometimes performs the office of a nominative case; as, 'To enjoy is to obey.'—POPE."—Cutler cor. "The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular; as, book, books."—Bullions, P. Lessons, p. 16. "As, 'I were to blame, if I did it.'"—Smart cor.

   "Or, if it be thy will and pleasure,
    Direct my plough to find a treasure."

UNDER RULE XIV.—OF PREPOSITIONS.

"Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, and person."—Butler and Bullions cor. "In the first two examples, the antecedent is person, or something equivalent; in the last [one], it is thing."—N. Butler cor. "In what character he was admitted, is unknown."—Id. "To what place he was going, is not known."—Id. "In the preceding examples, John, Cæsar, and James, are the subjects."—Id. "Yes is generally used to denote assent, in answer to a question."—Id. "That, in its origin, is the passive participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, [thegan, thicgan, thicgean, or thigan,] to take."—Id. "But, in all these sentences, as and so are adverbs."—Id. "After an interjection or an exclamatory sentence, is usually placed the mark of exclamation."—D. Blair cor. "Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can have no distinction of voice."—Bullions cor. "To the inflection of verbs, belong Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons."—Id. "As and so, in the antecedent member of a comparison, are properly Adverbs." Better: "As OR so, in the antecedent member of a comparison, is properly an adverb."—Id. "In the following Exercise, point out the words in apposition."—Id. "In the following Exercise, point out the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor."—Id. "Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint."—Brown's Institutes, p. 49. "No one's interest is concerned, except mine."—Hallock cor. "In most of the modern languages, there are four concords."—St. Quentin cor. "In illustration of these remarks, let us suppose a case."—Hart cor. "On the right management of the emphasis, depends the life of pronunciation."—J. S. Hart and L. Murray cor. See Blair's Rhet., p. 330.

UNDER RULE XV.—OF INTERJECTIONS.

"Behold, he is in the desert."—Friend's Bible. "And Lot said unto them, Oh, not so, my Lord."—Alger's Bible. "Oh, let me escape thither, (is it not a little one?) and my soul shall live."—Friend's Bible, and Alger's. "Behold, I come quickly."—Rev., xxii, 7. "Lo, I am with you always."—Day cor. "And, lo, I am with you alway."—Alger's Bible: Day cor.; also Scott and Bruce. "Ha, ha, ha; how laughable that is!"—Bullions cor. "Interjections of laughter; ha, ha, Ha."—Wright cor.

UNDER RULE XVI.—OF WORDS REPEATED.

"Lend, lend your wings!" &c.—Pope. "To bed, to bed, to bed. There is a knocking at the gate. Come, come, come. What is done, cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed."—SHAKSPEARE: Burghs Speaker, p. 130. "I will roar, that the duke shall cry, Encore, encore, let him roar, let him roar, once more, once more."—Id., ib., p. 136.

   "Vital spark of heavenly flame!
    Quit, oh quit this mortal frame!"—Pope.

    "O the pleasing, pleasing anguish,
    When we love, and when we languish."—Addison.

    "Praise to God, immortal praise,
    For the love that crowns our days!"—Barbauld.

UNDER RULE XVII.—OF DEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"Thus, of an infant, we say, 'It is a lovely creature.'"—Bullions cor. "No being can state a falsehood in saying, 'I am;' for no one can utter this, if it is not true."—Cardell cor. "I know they will cry out against this, and say, 'Should he pay,' means, 'If he should pay.'"—O. B. Peirce cor. "For instance, when we say, 'The house is building,' the advocates of the new theory ask,—'building what?' We might ask in turn, When you say, 'The field ploughs well,'—ploughs what? 'Wheat sells well,'—sells what? If usage allows us to say, 'Wheat sells at a dollar,' in a sense that is not active; why may it not also allow us to say, 'Wheat is selling at a dollar' in a sense that is not active?"—Hart cor. "Man is accountable,' equals, 'Mankind are accountable.'"—Barrett cor. "Thus, when we say, 'He may be reading,' may is the real verb; the other parts are verbs by name only."—Smart cor. "Thus we say, an apple, an hour, that two vowel sounds may not come together."—Id. "It would be as improper to say, an unit, as to say, an youth; to say, an one, as to say, an wonder."—Id. "When we say, 'He died for the truth,' for is a preposition."—Id. "We do not say, 'I might go yesterday;' but, 'I might have gone yesterday.'"—Id. "By student, we understand, one who has by matriculation acquired the rights of academical citizenship; but, by bursché, we understand, one who has already spent a certain time at the university."—Howitt cor.

SECTION II.—THE SEMICOLON.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF COMPLEX MEMBERS.

"The buds spread into leaves, and the blossoms swell to fruit; but they know not how they grow, nor who causes them to spring up from the bosom of the earth."—Day cor. "But he used his eloquence chiefly against Philip, king of Macedon; and, in several orations, he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him."—Bullions cor. "For the sake of euphony, the n is dropped before a consonant; and, because most words begin with a consonant, this of course is its more common form."—Id. "But if I say, 'Will a man be able to carry this burden?' it is manifest the idea is entirely changed; the reference is not to number, but to the species; and the answer might be, 'No; but a horse will.'"—Id. "In direct discourse, a noun used by the speaker or writer to designate himself [in the special relation of speaker or writer], is said to be of the first person; used to designate the person addressed, it is said to be of the second person; and, when used to designate a person or thing [merely] spoken of, it is said to be of the third person."—Id. "Vice stings us, even in our pleasures; but virtue consoles us, even in our pains."—Day cor. "Vice is infamous, though in a prince; and virtue, honourable, though in a peasant."—Id. "Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a noun; because, 'A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing.'"—Bullions cor.

   "This is the sword with which he did the deed;
    And that, the shield by which he was defended."—Bucke cor.

UNDER RULE II.—OF SIMPLE MEMBERS. "A deathlike paleness was diffused over his countenance; a chilling terror convulsed his frame; his voice burst out at intervals into broken accents."—Jerningham cor. "The Lacedemonians never traded; they knew no luxury; they lived in houses built of rough materials; they ate at public tables; fed on black broth; and despised every thing effeminate or luxurious."—Whelpley cor. "Government is the agent; society is the principal."—Wayland cor. "The essentials of speech were anciently supposed to be sufficiently designated by the Noun and the Verb; to which was subsequently added the Conjunction."—Bullions cor. "The first faint gleamings of thought in its mind, are but reflections from the parents' own intellect; the first manifestations of temperament, are from the contagious parental fountain; the first aspirations of soul, are but the warmings and promptings of the parental spirit."—Jocelyn cor. "Older and oldest refer to maturity of age; elder and eldest, to priority of right by birth. Farther and farthest denote place or distance; further and furthest, quantity or addition."—Bullions cor. "Let the divisions be natural; such as obviously suggest themselves to the mind; such as may aid your main design; and such as may be easily remembered."—Goldsbury cor.

   "Gently make haste, of labour not afraid;
    A hundred times consider what you've said."—Dryden cor.

UNDER RULE III.—OF APPOSITION, &C.

(1.) "Adjectives are divided [, in Frost's Practical Grammar,] into two classes; adjectives denoting quality, and adjectives denoting number."—Frost cor. (2.) "There are [, according to some authors,] two classes of adjectives; qualifying adjectives, and limiting adjectives."—N. Butler cor. (3-5.) "There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter."—Frost et al. cor.; also L. Mur. et al.; also Hendrick: Inst., p. 35. (6.) "The Singular denotes one; the Plural, more than one."—Hart cor. (7.) "There are three cases; viz., the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective."—Hendrick cor. (8.) "Nouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Kirkham cor. (9.) "In English, nouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Smith cor. (10.) "Grammar is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, Prosody."—Hazen. (11.) "It is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, Prosody."—Mur. et al. cor. (12.) "It is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography. Etymology, Syntax, Prosody."—Bucke cor. (13.) "It is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."—Lennie, Bullions, et al. (14.) "It is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."—Hendrick cor. (15.) "Grammar is divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."—Chandler cor. (16.) "It is divided into four parts; Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."—Cooper and Frost cor. (17.) "English Grammar has been usually divided into four parts; viz., Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody."—Nutting cor. (18.) "Temperance leads to happiness; intemperance, to misery."—Hiley and Hart cor. (19, 20.) "A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an enemy, his crimes."—Hiley cor.; also Murray. (21.) "Many writers use a plural noun after the second of two numeral adjectives; thus, 'The first and second pages are torn.'"—Bullions cor. (22.) "Of these, [i. e., of Cases,] the Latin has six; the Greek, five; the German, four; the Saxon, six; the French, three; &c."—Id.

   "In ing it ends, when doing is expressed;
    In d, t, n, when suffering's confessed."—Brightland cor.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"In old books, i is often used for j; v, for u; vv, for w; and ii or ij, for y."—Hart cor. "The forming of letters into words and syllables, is also called Spelling."—Id. "Labials are formed chiefly by the lips; dentals, by the teeth; palatals, by the palate; gutturals, by the throat; nasals, by the nose; and linguals, by the tongue."—Id. "The labials are p, b, f, v; the dentals, t, d, s, z; the palatals, g soft and j; the gutturals, k, q, and c and g hard; the nasals, m and n; and the linguals, l and r."—Id. "Thus, 'The man, having finished his letter, will carry it to the post-office.'"—Id. "Thus, in the sentence, 'He had a dagger concealed under his cloak,' concealed is passive, signifying being concealed; but, in the former combination, it goes to make up a form the force of which is active."—Id. "Thus, in Latin, 'He had concealed the dagger,' would be, 'Pugionem abdiderat;' but, 'He had the dagger concealed,' would be, 'Pugionem abditum habebat."—Id. "Here, for instance, means, 'in this place;' now, 'at this time;' &c."—Id. "Here when both declares the time of the action, and so is an adverb; and also connects the two verbs, and so resembles a conjunction."—Id. "These words were all, no doubt, originally other parts of speech; viz., verbs, nouns, and adjectives."—Id. "The principal parts of a sentence, are the subject, the attribute, and the object; in other words, the nominative, the verb, and the objective."—Id. "Thus, the adjective is connected with the noun; the adverb, with the verb or adjective; the pronoun, with its antecedent; &c." "Between refers to two; among, to more than two."—Id. "At is used after a verb of rest; to, after a verb of motion."—Id. "Verbs are of three kinds; Active, Passive, and Neuter."—L. Murray. [Active] "Verbs are divided into two classes; Transitive and Intransitive."—Hendrick cor. "The Parts of Speech, in the English language, are nine; viz., the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and Conjunction."—Bullions cor. See Lennie. "Of these, the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb, are declined; the rest are indeclinable."—Bullions, Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 18. "The first expression is called 'the Active form;' the second, 'the Passive form.'"—Weld cor.

   "O, 'tis a godlike privilege to save;
    And he that scorns it, is himself a slave."—Cowper cor.

SECTION III.—THE COLON.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF ADDITIONAL REMARKS.

"Of is a preposition: it expresses the relation between fear and Lord."—Bullions cor. "Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man: that tends to excite pride; this, discontentment."—Id. et al cor. "Religion raises men above themselves; irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes: this binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of perishable earth; that opens for them a prospect to the skies."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 189. "Love not idleness: it destroys many."—Ingersoll cor. "Children, obey your parents: 'Honour thy father and mother,' is the first commandment with promise."—Bullions cor. "Thou art my hiding-place and my shield; I hope in thy word."—Psalm cxix, 114. "The sun shall not smite thee by day, nor the moon by night. The Lord shall preserve thee from all evil: he shall preserve thy soul."—Psalm cxxi, 6. "Here to Greece is assigned the highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered—the nations of antiquity: she is one of them."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 114.

   "From short (as usual) and disturb'd repose,
    I wake: how happy they who wake no more!"—Young, N. T., p. 3.

UNDER RULE II.—OF GREATER PAUSES.

"A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it; but a tase [sic—KTH] for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment: as, 'When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, we can have no relish for those of vice.'"—Bullions cor. "The Indicative mood simply declares a thing: as, 'He loves;' 'He is loved:' or it asks a question; as, 'Lovest thou me?'"—Id. and Lennie cor.; also Murray. "The Imperfect (or Past) tense represents an action or event indefinitely as past; as, 'Cæsar came, and saw, and conquered:' or it represents the action definitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain time now entirely past; as, 'My father was coming home when I met him.'"—Bullions cor. "Some nouns have no plural; as, gold, silver, wisdom: others have no singular: as, ashes, shears, tongs: others are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, means, news."—Day cor. "The same verb may be transitive in one sense, and intransitive in an other: thus, in the sentence, 'He believes my story,' believes is transitive; but, in this phrase, 'He believes in God,' it is intransitive."—Butler cor. "Let the divisions be distinct: one part should not include an other, but each should have its proper place, and be of importance in that place; and all the parts, well fitted together and united, should present a perfect whole."—Goldsbury cor. "In the use of the transitive verb, there are always three things implied; the actor, the act, and the object acted upon: in the use of the intransitive, there are only two; the subject, or the thing spoken of, and the state or action attributed to it."—Bullions cor.

   "Why labours reason? instinct were as well;
    Instinct, far better: what can choose, can err."—Young, vii, 622.

UNDER RULE III.—OF INDEPENDENT QUOTATIONS.

"The sentence may run thus: 'He is related to the same person, and is governed by him.'"—Hart cor. "Always remember this ancient proverb: 'Know thyself.'"—Hallock cor. "Consider this sentence: 'The boy runs swiftly.'"—Frazee cor. "The comparative is used thus: 'Greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity.' The same idea is expressed by the superlative, when the word other is left out: thus, 'Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity.'"—Bullions and Lennie cor. "Burke, in his speech on the Carnatic war, makes the following allusion to the well known fable of Cadmus sowing dragon's teeth:—'Every day you are fatigued and disgusted with this cant: 'The Carnatic is a country that will soon recover, and become instantly as prosperous as ever.' They think they are talking to innocents, who believe that by the sowing of dragon's teeth, men may come up ready grown and ready made.'"—Hiley and Hart cor.

   "For sects he car'd not: 'They are not of us,
    Nor need we, brethren, their concerns discuss.'"—Crabbe cor.

    "Habit, with him, was all the test of truth:
    'It must be right; I've done it from my youth.'
    Questions he answer'd in as brief a way:
    'It must be wrong; it was of yesterday.'"—Id.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"This would seem to say, 'I doubt nothing, save one thing; namely, that he will fulfill his promise:' whereas that is the very thing not doubted."—Bullions cor. "The common use of language requires, that a distinction be made between morals and manners: the former depend upon internal dispositions; the latter, upon outward and visible accomplishments."—Beattie cor. "Though I detest war in each particular fibre of my heart, yet I honour the heroes among our fathers, who fought with bloody hand. Peacemakers in a savage way, they were faithful to their light: the most inspired can be no more; and we, with greater light, do, it may be, far less."—T. Parker cor. "The article the, like a, must have a substantive joined with it; whereas that, like one, may have it understood: thus, speaking of books, I may select one, and say, 'Give me that;' but not, 'Give me the;'—[so I may say,] 'Give me one;' but not, 'Give me a.'"—Bullions cor. "The Present tense has three distinct forms: the simple; as, I read: the emphatic; as, I do read: and the progressive; as, I am reading." Or thus: "The Present tense has three distinct forms;—the simple; as, 'I read;'—the emphatic; as, 'I do read;'—and the progressive; as, 'I am reading.'"—Id. "The tenses in English are usually reckoned six: the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future, and the Second-future."—Id. "There are three participles; the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, loving, loved, having loved." Or, better: "There are three participles from each verb; namely, the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect; as, turning, turned, having turned."—Murray et al. cor. "The participles are three; the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect: as, loving, loved, having loved." Better: "The participles of each verb are three; the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Preperfect: as, turning, turned, having turned."—Hart cor. "Will is conjugated regularly, when it is a principal verb: as, present, I will; past, I willed; &c."—Frazee cor. "And both sounds of x are compound: one is that of gz, and the other, that of ks."—Id. "The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful."—L. Mur., p. 28: Cooper cor. "The pronoun stands in stead of the noun: as, 'The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful.'"—L. Murray cor. "A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun, to prevent too frequent a repetition of it: as, 'The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful.'"—Id. "A Pronoun is a word used in the room of a noun, or as a substitute for one or more words: as, 'The man is happy; he is benevolent; he is useful.'"—Cooper cor. "A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things; as, Animal, tree, insect, fish, fowl."—Id. "Nouns have three persons; the first, the second, and the third."—Id.

   "So saying, her rash hand in evil hour
    Forth reaching to the fruit, she pluck'd, she eat:
    Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat,
    Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe,
    That all was lost."—MILTON, P. L., Book ix, l. 780.

SECTION IV.—THE PERIOD.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF DISTINCT SENTENCES.

"The third person is the position of a word by which an object is merely spoken of; as, 'Paul and Silas were imprisoned.'—'The earth thirsts.'—'The sun shines.'"—Frazee cor.

"Two, and three, and four, make nine. If he were here, he would assist his father and mother; for he is a dutiful son. They live together, and are happy, because they enjoy each other's society. They went to Roxbury, and tarried all night, and came back the next day."—Goldsbury cor.

"We often resolve, but seldom perform. She is wiser than her sister. Though he is often advised, yet he does not reform. Reproof either softens or hardens its object. He is as old as his classmates, but not so learned. Neither prosperity, nor adversity, has improved him. Let him that standeth, take heed lest he fall. He can acquire no virtue, unless he make some sacrifices."—Id.

   "Down from his neck, with blazing gems array'd,
    Thy image, lovely Anna! hung portray'd;
    Th' unconscious figure, smiling all serene,
    Suspended in a golden chain was seen."—Falconer.

UNDER RULE II.—OF ALLIED SENTENCES.

"This life is a mere prelude to an other which has no limits. It is a little portion of duration. As death leaves us, so the day of judgement will find us."—Merchant cor.

"He went from Boston to New York.—He went (I say) from Boston; he went to New York. In walking across the floor, he stumbled over a chair."—Goldsbury corrected.

"I saw him on the spot, going along the road, looking towards the house. During the heat of the day, he sat on the ground, under the shade of a tree."—Goldsbury corrected.

"'George came home; I saw him yesterday.' Here the word him can extend only to the individual George."—Barrett corrected.

"Commas are often used now, where parentheses were [adopted] formerly. I cannot, however, esteem this an improvement."—Bucke's Classical Grammar, p. 20.

   "Thou, like a sleeping, faithless sentinel,
    Didst let them pass unnotic'd, unimprov'd.
    And know, for that thou slumberst on the guard,
    Thou shalt be made to answer at the bar
    For every fugitive."—COTTON: Hallock and Enfield cor.

UNDER RULE III.—OF ABBREVIATIONS.

"The term pronoun (Lat. pronomen) strictly means a word used for, or in stead of, a noun."—Bullions corrected.

"The period is also used after abbreviations; as, A. D., P. S., G. W.
Johnson."—N. Butler cor.

"On this principle of classification, the later Greek grammarians divided words into eight classes, or parts of speech: viz., the Article, Noun, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction."— Bullions cor.

"'Metre [Melody] is not confined to verse: there is a tune in all good prose; and Shakspeare's was a sweet one.'—Epea Pter., ii, 61. [First American Ed., ii, 50.] Mr. H. Tooke's idea was probably just, agreeing with Aristotle's; but [, if so, it is] not accurately expressed."— Churchill cor.

"Mr. J. H. Tooke was educated at Eton and at Cambridge, in which latter college he took the degree of A. M. Being intended for the established church of England, he entered into holy orders when young; and obtained the living of Brentford, near London, which he held ten or twelve years."—Tooke's Annotator cor.

   "I, nor your plan, nor book condemn;
    But why your name? and why A. M.?"—Lloyd cor.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"If thou turn away thy foot from the sabbath," &c.—Isaiah, lviii, 13.
"He that hath eeris of hervnge, here he."—WICKLIFFE: Matt., xi, 15.
"See General Rules for Spelling, iii, v, and vii."—N. Butler cor. "False
witnesses did rise up."—Ps., xxxv, 11.

"An explicative sentence is used for explaining; an interrogative sentence, for inquiring; an imperative sentence, for commanding."— Barrett cor. "In October, corn is gathered in the field by men, who go from hill to hill with baskets, into which they put the ears.—Susan labours with her needle for a livelihood.—Notwithstanding his poverty, he is a man of integrity."—Golds, cor.

"A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable; a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable."—Frazee cor.

"If I say, 'If it did not rain, I would take a walk;' I convey the idea that it does rain at the time of speaking. 'If it rained,' or, 'Did it rain,' in [reference to] the present time, implies that it does not rain. 'If it did not rain,' or, 'Did it not rain,' in [reference to the] present time, implies that it does rain. Thus, in this peculiar application, an affirmative sentence always implies a negation; and a negative sentence, an affirmation."—Id. "'If I were loved' and, 'Were I loved;' imply I am not loved: 'If I were not loved,' and, 'Were I not loved,' imply I am loved. A negative sentence implies an affirmation, and an affirmative sentence implies a negation, in these forms of the subjunctive."—Id.

"What is Rule III?"—Hart cor. "How is Rule III violated?"—Id. "How do you parse letter in the sentence, 'James writes a letter?' Ans. Letter is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by the verb writes, according to Rule III, which says, 'A transitive verb governs the objective case.'"—Id.

   "Creation sleeps. 'Tis as the gen'ral pulse
    Of life stood still, and nature made a pause;
    An awful pause! prophetic of her end.
    And let her prophecy be soon fulfill'd:
    Fate, drop the curtain; I can lose no more."—Young.

SECTION V.—THE DASH.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF ABRUPT PAUSES.

"And there is something in your very strange story, that resembles—Does
Mr. Bevil know your history particularly?"—Burgh's Speaker, p. 149.
"Sir,—Mr. Myrtle—Gentlemen—You are friends—I am but a
servant—But—"—Ib., p. 118.

"An other man now would have given plump into this foolish story; but
I—No, no, your humble servant for that."—GARRICK, Neck or Nothing.

"Do not plunge thyself too far in anger, lest thou hasten thy trial; which if—Lord have mercy on thee for a hen!"—SHAKSPEARE, All's Well.

   "But ere they came,—O, let me say no more!
    Gather the sequel by that went before."—IDEM, Com. of Errors.

UNDER RULE II.—OF EMPHATIC PAUSES.

"M,—Malvolio;—M,—why, that begins my name."—SINGER'S SHAK., Twelfth
Night.

"Thus, by the creative influence of the Eternal Spirit, were the heavens and the earth finished in the space of six days—so admirably finished—an unformed chaos changed into a system of perfect order and beauty—that the adorable Architect himself pronounced it very good, and all the sons of God shouted for joy."—Historical Reader, p. 10.

"If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop remained in my country, I never would lay down my arms—never, never, never."—Pitt's Speech.

   "Madam, yourself are not exempt in this,—
    Nor your son Dorset;—Buckingham, nor you."—SHAK.

UNDER RULE III.—OF FAULTY DASHES.

"'You shall go home directly, Le Fevre,' said my uncle Toby, 'to my house; and we'll send for a doctor to see what's the matter; and we'll have an apothecary; and the corporal shall be your nurse: and I'll be your servant, Le Fevre.'"—Sterne cor.

"He continued: 'Inferior artists may be at a stand, because they want materials.'"—Harris cor. "Thus, then, continued he: 'The end, in other arts, is ever distant and removed.'"—Id.

"The nouns must be coupled with and; and when a pronoun is used, it must be plural, as in the example. When the nouns are disjoined, the pronoun must be singular."—Lennie cor.

"Opinion is a common noun, or substantive, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case."—Wright cor.

   "The mountain, thy pall and thy prison, may keep thee;
    I shall see thee no more, but till death I will weep thee."
        —See Felton's Gram., p. 93.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"If to accommodate man and beast, heaven and earth—if this be beyond me, 'tis not possible.—What consequence then follows? Or can there be any other than this?—if I seek an interest of my own, detached from that of others, I seek an interest which is chimerical, and can never have existence."—Harris.

"Again: I must have food and clothing. Without a proper genial warmth, I instantly perish. Am I not related, in this view, to the very earth itself?—to the distant sun, from whose beams I derive vigour?"—Id.

"Nature instantly ebbed again; the film returned to its place; the pulse fluttered—stopped—went on—throbbed—stopped again—moved—stopped.— Shall I go on?—No."—Sterne cor.

"Write ten nouns of the masculine gender;—ten of the feminine;—ten of the neuter; ten indefinite in gender."—Davis cor.

"The infinitive mood has two tenses; the indicative, six; the potential, four; the subjunctive, two; and the imperative, one."—Frazee cor. "Now notice the following sentences: 'John runs.'—'Boys run.'—'Thou runnest.'"—Id.

"The Pronoun sometimes stands for a name; sometimes for an adjective, a sentence, or a part of a sentence; and, sometimes, for a whole series of propositions."—Peirce cor.

   "The self-applauding bird, the peacock, see;
    Mark what a sumptuous pharisee is he!"—Cowper cor.

SECTION VI.—THE EROTEME.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF QUESTIONS DIRECT.

"When will his ear delight in the sound of arms? When shall I, like Oscar, travel in the light of my steel?"—Ossian, Vol. i, p. 357. "Will Henry call on me, while he shall be journeying south?"—Peirce cor.

"An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used in asking a question; as, 'Who is he? and what does he want?'"—P. E. Day cor. "Who is generally used when we would inquire about some unknown person or persons; as, 'Who is that man?'"—Id. "Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live forever?"—Zech., i. 5.

"It is true, that some of our best writers have used than whom; but it is also true that they have used other phrases which we have rejected as ungrammatical: then why not reject this too?—The sentences in the exercises, with than who, are correct as they stand."—Lennie cor.

"When the perfect participle of an active-intransitive verb is annexed to the neuter verb to be, what does the combination form?"—Hallock cor. "Those adverbs which answer to the question where? whither? or whence? are called adverbs of place."—Id. "Canst thou by searching find out God? canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection? It is as high as heaven; what canst thou do? deeper than hell; what canst thou know?"—SCOTT, ALGER, BRUCE, AND OTHERS: Job, xi, 7 and 8.

   "Where, where, for shelter shall the wicked fly,
    When consternation turns the good man pale?"—Young.

UNDER RULE II.—OF QUESTIONS UNITED.

"Who knows what resources are in store, and what the power of God may do for thee?"—STERNE: Enfield's Speaker, p. 307.

"God is not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it? or hath he spoken, and shall he not make it good?"—SCOTT'S BIBLE, ALGER'S, FRIENDS', BRUCE'S, AND OTHERS: Numb., xxiii, 19. "Hath the Lord said it, and shall he not do it? hath he spoken it, and shall he not make it good?"—Lennie and Bullions cor.

   "Who calls the council, states the certain day,
    Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way?"—Pope's Essay.

UNDER RULE III.—OF QUESTIONS INDIRECT.

"To be, or not to be;—that is the question."—Shak. et al. cor. "If it be asked, why a pause should any more be necessary to emphasis than to an accent,—or why an emphasis alone will not sufficiently distinguish the members of sentences from each other, without pauses, as accent does words,—the answer is obvious: that we are preacquainted with the sound of words, and cannot mistake them when distinctly pronounced, however rapidly; but we are not preacquainted with the meaning of sentences, which must be pointed out to us by the reader or speaker."—Sheridan cor.

"Cry, 'By your priesthood, tell me what you are.'"—Pope cor.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"Who else can he be?"—Barrett cor. "Where else can he go?"—Id. "In familiar language, here, there, and where, are used for hither, thither, and whither."—N. Butler cor. "Take, for instance, this sentence: 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"—Hart cor. "Take, for instance, the sentence before quoted: 'Indolence undermines the foundation of virtue.'"—Id. "Under the same head, are considered such sentences as these: 'He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.'—'Gad, a troop shall overcome him.'"—Id.

"Tenses are certain modifications of the verb, which point out the distinctions of time."—Bullions cor. "Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful."—Id. See Murray's Exercises, p. 5. "The capital letters used by the Romans to denote numbers, were C, I, L, V, X; which are therefore called Numeral Letters. I denotes one; V, five; X, ten; L, fifty; and C, a hundred."—Bullions cor. "'I shall have written;' viz., at or before some future time or event."—Id. "In Latin words, the liquids are l and r only; in Greek words, l, r, m, and n."—Id. "Each legion was divided into ten cohorts; each cohort, into three maniples; and each maniple, into two centuries."—Id. "Of the Roman literature previous to A. U. 514, scarcely a vestige remains."—Id.

   "And that which He delights in, must be happy.
    But when? or where? This world was made for Cæsar."—CATO.

    "Look next on greatness. Say where greatness lies.
    Where, but among the heroes and the wise?"—Pope.

SECTION VII—THE ECPHONEME.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF INTERJECTIONS, &c.

(1.) "O! that he were wise!"—Bullions cor. (2.) "O! that his heart were tender!"—See Murray's Ex. or Key, under Rule xix. (3 and 4.) "Oh! what a sight is here!"—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 71; (§37;) Pract. Les., p. 82; Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 111. (5-9.) "O Virtue! how amiable thou art!"—Farnum's Gram., p. 12; Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 111. (10.) "Oh! that I had been more diligent!"—Hart cor.; and Hiley. (11.) "O! the humiliation to which vice reduces us!"—Farnum and Mur. cor. (12.) "O! that he were more prudent!"—Farnum cor. (13 and 14.) "Ah me!"—Davis cor.

(15.) "Lately, alas! I knew a gentle boy," &c.—Dial cor.

(16 and 17.) "Wo is me, Alhama!"—Byron's Poems: Wells cor.

UNDER RULE II.—OF INVOCATIONS.

"Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore!"—Ossian. "Cease a little while, O wind! stream, be thou silent a while! let my voice be heard around. Let my wanderer hear me! Salgar! it is Colma who calls. Here is the tree, and the rock. Salgar, my love! I am here. Why delayest thou thy coming? Lo! the calm moon comes forth. The flood is bright in the vale."—Id., Vol. i, p. 369.

   "Ah, stay not, stay not! guardless and alone:
    Hector! my lov'd, my dearest, bravest son!"—Pope, II., xxii, 61.

UNDER RULE III.—OF EXCLAMATORY QUESTIONS.

"How much better is wisdom than gold!"—See Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 272. "O Virtue! how amiable art thou!"—See Murray's Grammar, 2d Edition, p. 95. "At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness!"—Brown's Institutes, p. 117; see English Reader, p. 135. "Alas! how few and transitory are the joys which this world affords to man!"—P. E. Day cor. "Oh! how vain and transitory are all things here below!"—Id.

   "And O! what change of state, what change of rank,
    In that assembly everywhere was seen!"—Pollok cor.; also Day.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"O Shame! where is thy blush?"—Shak.[557] "John, give me my hat."—Barrett cor. "What! is Moscow in flames?"—Id. "O! what happiness awaits the virtuous!"—Id.

"Ah, welladay! do what we can for him, said Trim, maintaining his point,—the poor soul will die."—Sterne or Enfield cor.; also Kirkham.

"Will John return to-morrow?"—Barrett cor. "Will not John return to-morrow?"—Id. "John, return to-morrow."—Id. "Soldiers, stand firm."—Id. "If mea, which means my, is an adjective in Latin, why may not my be so called in English? and if my is an adjective, why not Barrett's?"—Id.

"O Absalom, my son!"—See 2 Sam., xix, 4. "O star-eyed Science! whither hast thou fled?"—Peirce cor. "Why do you tolerate your own inconsistency, by calling it the present tense?"—Id. "Thus the declarative mood [i.e., the indicative mood] may be used in asking a question: as, 'What man is frail?'"—Id. "What connection has motive, wish, or supposition, with the the term subjunctive?"—Id. "A grand reason, truly, for calling it a golden key!"—Id. "What 'suffering' the man who can say this, must be enduring!"—Id. "What is Brown's Rule in relation to this matter?"—Id. "Alas! how short is life!"—P. E. Day cor. "Thomas, study your book."—Id. "Who can tell us who they are?"—Sanborn cor. "Lord, have mercy on my son; for he is lunatic, and sorely vexed."—See Matt., xvii, 15. "O ye wild groves! O where is now your bloom?"—Felton cor.

"O who of man the story will unfold?"—Farnum cor..

    "Methought I heard Horatio say, To-morrow.
    Go to—I will not hear of it—to-morrow!"—COTTON.

    "How his eyes languish! how his thoughts adore
    That painted coat which Joseph never wore!"

SECTION VIII.—THE CURVES.

CORRECTIONS UNDER RULE I.—OF PARENTHESES.

"Another [, better written as a phrase, An other,] is composed of the indefinite article an, (which etymologically means one,) and other; and denotes one other."—Hallock cor.

"Each mood has its peculiar Tense, Tenses, or Times."—Bucke cor.

"In some very ancient languages, (as the Hebrew,) which have been employed chiefly for expressing plain sentiments in the plainest manner, without aiming at any elaborate length or harmony of periods, this pronoun [the relative] occurs not so often."—L. Murray cor.

"Before I shall say those things, O Conscript Fathers! about the public affairs, which are to be spoken at this time; I shall lay before you, in few words, the motives of the journey and the return."—Brightland cor.

   "Of well-chose words some take not care enough,
    And think they should be, like the subject, rough."—Id.

"Then, having showed his wounds, he'd sit him down."—Bullions cor.

UNDER RULE II.—OF INCLUDED POINTS.

"Then Jael smote the nail into his temples, and fastened it into the ground: (for he was fast asleep, and weary:) so he died."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Judges, iv, 21.

"Every thing in the Iliad has manners, (as Aristotle expresses it,) that is, every thing is acted or spoken."—Pope cor.

"Those nouns that end in f, or fe. (except some few which I shall mention presently,) form plurals by changing those letters into ves: as, thief, thieves: wife, wives."—Bucke cor.

"As requires as; (expressing equality of degree;) thus, 'Mine is as good as yours.' As [requires] so; (expressing equality or proportion;) thus, 'As the stars, so shall thy seed be.' So [requires] as; (with a negative expressing inequality;) as, 'He is not so wise as his brother.' So [requires] that; (expressing a consequence:) as, 'I am so weak that I cannot walk.'" [558]—Bullions cor.

   "A captious question, sir, (and yours is one,)
    Deserves an answer similar, or none."—Cowper cor.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"Whatever words the verb TO BE serves to unite, referring to the same thing, must be of the same case; (§61;) as, 'Alexander is a student.'"—Bullions cor. "When the objective is a relative or [an] interrogative, it comes before the verb that governs it: (§40, Rule 9:) Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary."—Id. "It is generally improper, except in poetry, to omit the antecedent to a relative; and always, to omit a relative, when of the nominative case."—Id. "In every sentence, there must be a verb and a nominative or subject, expressed or understood."—Id. "Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, are often governed by prepositions understood; or are used to restrict verbs or adjectives, without a governing word: (§50, Rem. 6 and Rule:) as, 'He gave [to] me a full account of the affair.'"—Id. "When should is used in stead of ought, to express present duty, (§20, 4,) it may be followed by the present; as, 'You should study that you may become learned.'"—Id. "The indicative present is frequently used after the words when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action: (§24, I, 4;) as, 'When he comes, he will be welcome.'"—Id. "The relative is parsed, [according to Bullions,] by stating its gender, number, case, and antecedent; (the gender and number being always the same as those of the antecedent;) thus, 'The boy who'—'Who is a relative pronoun, masculine, singular, the nominative; and refers to 'boy' as its antecedent."—Id.

   "'Now, now, I seize, I clasp thy charms;
    And now you burst, ah cruel! from my arms.'—Pope.

"Here is an unnecessary change from the second person singular to the second person plural. The text would have been better, thus:—

    'Now, now, I seize, I clasp your charms;
    And now you burst, ah cruel! from my arms.'"—John Burn cor.
        See Lowth's Gram., p. 35; Churchill's, 293.

SECTION IX.—ALL POINTS.

MIXED EXAMPLES CORRECTED.

"The principal stops are the following: the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period, or Full Stop [.], the Note of Interrogation [?], the Note of Exclamation [!], the Parenthesis [()], and the Dash [—]."—Bullions cor. "The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The chief marks employed are the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], the Note of Interrogation [?], the Note of Exclamation (!), the Parenthesis [()], and the Dash [—]."—Id.

"Plato reproving a young man for playing at some childish game, 'You chide me,' says the youth, 'for a trifling fault.' 'Custom,' replied the philosopher, 'is no trifle.' 'And,' adds Montaigne, 'he was in the right; for our vices begin in infancy.'"—Home cor.

"A merchant at sea asked the skipper what death his father died. 'My father,' says the skipper, 'my grandfather, and my great-grandfather, were all drowned.' 'Well,' replies the merchant, 'and are not you afraid of being drowned too?'"—Id.

"The use of inverted commas derives from France, where one Guillemet was the author of them; [and,] as an acknowledgement for the improvement, his countrymen call them after his name, GUILLEMETS."—Hist. cor.

"This, however, is seldom if ever done, unless the word following the possessive begins with s; thus, we do not say, 'the prince' feather;' but, 'the prince's feather.'"—Bullions cor. "And this phrase must mean, 'the feather of the prince;' but 'prince's-feather,' written as one word, [and with both apostrophe and hyphen,] is the name of a plant, a species of amaranth."—G. Brown. "Boëthius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honours his country could bestow."—Ingersoll cor.; also L. Murray.

"When an example, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced, it is separated from the rest of the sentence either by a comma or by a colon; as, 'The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: God is love.'"—Hiley cor. "Either the colon or the comma may be used, [according to the nature of the case,] when an example, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced; as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim: Know thyself.'—'The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words: God is love.'"—Bullions cor.

"The first word of a quotation introduced after a colon, or of any sentence quoted in a direct form, must begin with a capital: as, 'Always remember this ancient maxim: Know thyself.'—'Our great lawgiver says, Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.'"—Bullions and Lennie cor.; also L. Murray; also Weld. See Luke, ix, 23.

"Tell me, in whose house do you live?"—N. Butler cor. "He that acts wisely, deserves praise."—Id. "He who steals my purse, steals trash."—Id. "The antecedent is sometimes omitted; as, 'Who steals my purse, steals trash.'—[Shak.] That is, 'He who,' or, 'The person who.'"—Id. "Thus, 'Whoever steals my purse, steals trash;'—'Whoever does no good, does harm.'"—Id. "Thus, 'Whoever sins, will suffer.' This means, that any one, without exception, who sins, will suffer."—Id.

"Letters form syllables; syllables, words; words, sentences; and sentences, combined and connected, form discourse."—Cooper cor. "A letter which forms a perfect sound when uttered by itself, is called a vowel; as, a, e, i."—Id. "A proper noun is the name of an individual, [or of a particular people or place]; as, John, Boston, Hudson, America."—Id.

"Many men have been capable of doing a wise thing; more, a cunning thing; but very few, a generous thing."—Davis cor. "In the place of an ellipsis of the verb, a comma must be inserted."—Id. "A common noun unlimited by an article, is sometimes understood in its broadest acceptation: thus, 'Fishes swim,' is understood to mean all fishes; 'Man is mortal,' all men."—Id.

"Thus, those sounds formed principally by the throat, are called gutturals; those formed principally by the palate, palatals; those formed by the teeth, dentals; those by the lips, labials; and those by the nose, nasals."—Davis cor.

"Some adjectives are compared irregularly: as, Good, letter, best; Bad, worse, worst; Little, less, least."—Felton cor.

"Under the fourth head of grammar, therefore, four topics will be considered; viz., PUNCTUATION, ORTHOEPY [sic—KTH], FIGURES, and VERSIFICATION."—Hart cor.

   "Direct her onward to that peaceful shore,
    Where peril, pain, and death, are felt no more!"—Falconer cor.

GOOD ENGLISH RIGHTLY POINTED.

LESSON I.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"Discoveries of such a character are sometimes made in grammar also; and such, too, are often their origin and their end."—Bullions cor.

"TRAVERSE, [literally to cross,] To deny what the opposite party has alleged. To traverse an indictment, or the like, is to deny it."—Id.

"The Ordinal numerals denote the order, or succession, in which any number of persons or things are mentioned; as, first, second, third, fourth, &c."—Hiley cor.

"Nouns have three persons; the First, the Second, and the Third. The First person is that which denotes the speaker: the Second is that which denotes the person or thing spoken to; the Third is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of."—Hart cor.

"Nouns have three cases; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective. The relations indicated by the cases of a noun, include three distinct ideas; viz., those of subject, object, and ownership."—Id.

"In speaking of animals that are of inferior size, or whose sex is not known or not regarded, we often treat them as without sex: thus, we say of a cat, 'It is treacherous;' of an infant, 'It is beautiful;' of a deer, 'It was killed.'"—Id.

"When THIS and THAT, or THESE and THOSE, refer to a preceding sentence; THIS or THESE represents the latter member or term, and THAT or THOSE, the former."—Churchill cor.; and Lowth.

"The rearing of them became his first care; their fruit, his first food; and the marking of their kinds, his first knowledge."—N. Butler cor.

"After the period used with abbreviations, we should employ other points, if the construction demands them; thus, after 'Esq.,' in the last example, there should be, besides the period, a comma."—Id.

"In the plural, the verb has the same form in all the persons; but still the principle in Rem. 5, under Rule iii, that the first or second person takes precedence, is applicable to verbs, in parsing."—Id.

"Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his people by laws to which they consent; the other, by his absolute will and power: that government is called freedom; this, tyranny."—L. Murray cor.

"A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, George, London, America, goodness, charity."—See Brown's Institutes, p. 31.

"Etymology treats of the classification of words, their various modifications, and their derivation"—P. E. Day cor.

"To punctuate correctly, implies a thorough acquaintance with the meaning of words and phrases, as well as with all their corresponding connexions."—W. Day cor.

"All objects that belong to neither the male nor the female kind, are said to be of the neuter gender, except certain things personified."—Weld cor twice.

"The Analysis of the Sounds in the English language, presented in the preceding statements, is sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand. Those who wish to pursue the subject further, can consult Dr. Rush's admirable work, 'The Philosophy of the Human Voice.'"—Fowler cor. "Nobody confounds the name of w or y with the sound of the letter, or with its phonetic import."—Id. [[Fist] This assertion is hardly true. Strange as such a blunder is, it has actually occurred. See, in Orthography, Obs. 5, on the Classes of the Letters, at p. 156.—G. B.]

   "Order is Heav'n's first law; and, this confess'd,
    Some are, and must be, greater than the rest."—Pope.

LESSON II—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"From adjectives of one syllable, and some of two, the comparative is formed by adding r or er to the positive; and the superlative, by adding st or est: as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest; able, abler, ablest."—Bullions cor.

"From monosyllables, or from dissyllables ending with a vowel or the accent, the comparative is formed by adding er or r to the positive; and the superlative, by adding est or st: as, tall, taller, tallest; wise, wiser, wisest; holy, holier, holiest; complete, completer, completest."—Id.

"By this method, the confusion and unnecessary labour occasioned by studying grammars, in these languages, constructed on different principles, are avoided; the study of one is rendered a profitable introduction to the study of an other; and an opportunity is furnished to the inquiring student, of comparing the languages in their grammatical structure, and of seeing at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ."—Id.

"No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation, than the class can easily master; and, till the previous lessons are well learned, a new portion should not be given out."—Id. "The acquisitions made in every new lesson, should be riveted and secured by repeated revisals."—Id.

"The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly, thus: 'I is a personal pronoun, of the first person, singular number, masculine gender, (feminine, if the speaker is a female,) and nominative case.' 'His is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive case.'"—Id.

"When the male and the female are expressed by distinct terms, as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has also a general meaning, expressing both male and female; and is always to be used when the office, occupation, or profession, and not the sex, of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed; the feminine term being used only when the discrimination of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said, 'The poets of this country are distinguished for correctness of taste,' the term 'poets' clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry."—Id.

"Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions, must be in the same case"—Ingersoll cor.

"Verbs connected by and, or, or nor, must generally be in the same mood and tense; and, when the tense has different forms, they must be in the same form."—Id.

"This will habituate him to reflection; exercise his judgement on the meaning of the author; and, without any great effort on his part, impress indelibly on his memory the rules which he is required to give. After the exercises under any rule have been gone through, agreeably to the direction in the note at the bottom of page 88th, they may be read over again in a corrected state, the pupil making an emphasis on the correction made; or they may be presented in writing, at the next recitation."—Bullions cor.

   "Man, but for that, no action could attend;
    And, but for this, were active to no end."—Pope.

LESSON III.—UNDER VARIOUS RULES.

"'Johnson, the bookseller and stationer' indicates that bookseller and stationer are terms belonging to the same person; 'the bookseller and the stationer,' would indicate that they belong to different persons."—Bullions cor.

"Past is [commonly] an adjective; passed, the past tense or perfect participle of the verb: and they ought not (as they frequently are) to be confounded with each other."—Id.

"Not only the nature of the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection or arrangement of the words, gives English poetry a character which separates it widely from common prose."—Id.

"Men of sound, discriminating, and philosophical minds—men prepared for the work by long study, patient investigation, and extensive acquirements—have laboured for ages to improve and perfect it; and nothing is hazarded in asserting, that, should it be unwisely abandoned, it will be long before an other, equal in beauty, stability, and usefulness, will be produced in its stead."—Id., on the common "system of English Grammar."

"The article the, on the other hand, is used to restrict; and is therefore termed Definite. Its proper office is, to call the attention to a particular individual or class, or to any number of such; and accordingly it is used with nouns of either number, singular or plural."—Id.

"Hence, also, the infinitive mood, a participle with its adjuncts, a member of a sentence, or a whole proposition, forming the subject of discourse, or the object of a verb or preposition, and being the name of an act or circumstance, is, in construction, regarded as a noun; and is usually called, 'a substantive phrase:' as, 'To play, is pleasant.'—'That he is an expert dancer, is no recommendation.'—'Let your motto be, Honesty is the best policy.'"—Id.

"In accordance with his definition, Murray has divided verbs into three classes: Active, Passive, and Neuter;—and included in the first class transitive verbs only; and, in the last, all verbs used intransitively"—Id.

"Moreover, as the name of the speaker or that of the person spoken to is seldom expressed, (the pronoun I being used for the former, and THOU or YOU for the latter,) a noun is very rarely in the first person; not often in the second; and hardly ever in either, unless it is a proper noun, or a common noun denoting an object personified."—Id.

"In using the parsing exercises, it will save much time, (and this saving is all-important,) if the pupil be taught to say all things belonging to the noun, in the fewest words possible; and to say them always in the same order, after the example above."—Id.

"In any phrase or sentence, the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be found by prefixing the phrase, 'What kind of,' to the noun, in the form of a question; as, 'What kind of horse?' 'What kind of stone?' 'What kind of way?' The word containing the answer to the question, is an adjective."—Id.

"In the following exercise, let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the adjectives; and tell how he knows them to be such."—Id.

"In the following sentences, point out the improper ellipses; show why they are improper; and correct them."—Id.

"SINGULAR. PLURAL. 1. I am smitten, 1. We are smitten, 2. Thou art smitten, 2. You are smitten, 3. He is smitten; 3. They are smitten."—Wright cor.

CHAPTER II.—UTTERANCE.

The second chapter of Prosody, treating of articulation, pronunciation, elocution and the minor topics that come under Utterance, contains no exercises demanding correction in this Key.

CHAPTER III.—FIGURES.

In the third chapter of Prosody, the several Figures of speech are explained; and, as the illustrations embrace no errors for correction, nothing here corresponds to the chapter, but the title.

CHAPTER IV.—VERSIFICATION.

FALSE PROSODY, OR ERRORS OF METRE, CORRECTED.

LESSON I.—RHYTHM RESTORED.

   "Where thy true treasure? Gold says, 'Not in me.'"
        —Young.

   "Canst thou grow sad, thou say'st, as earth grows bright."
        —Dana.

   "It must be so;—Plato, thou reason'st well"
        —CATO: Enfield, p. 321.

   "Slow rises worth by poverty depressed."
        —Wells's Gram., Late Ed., p. 211.

   "Rapt into future times, the bard begun."
        —POPE.—Ib., p. 165.

   "Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens
    To wash it white as snow? Whereto serves mercy
    But to confront the visage of offence?"
        —Shak., Hamlet.

   "Look! in this place ran Cassius' dagger through."
        —Id., J. Cæsar.

   "And when they list, their lean and flashy songs
    Grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw."
        —Milton, Lycidas.

   "Did not great Julius bleed for justice' sake?"
        —Dodd and Shak. cor.

   "May I express thee' unblam'd? since God is light"
        —Milton, B. iii, l. 3.

   "Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream?"
        —Id., B. iii, l. 7.

   "Republics, kingdoms, empires, may decay;
     Great princes, heroes, sages, sink to nought."
        —Peirce or La-Rue cor.

   "Thou bringst, gay creature as thou art,
    A solemn image to my heart."
        —Hallock cor.

   "Know then thyself, presume not God to scan;
    The proper study of mankind is Man."
        —Pope, on Man, Ep. ii, l. 1.

   "Raised on pilasters high of burnished gold."
        —Dr. S. Butler cor.

   "Love in Adalgise' breast has fixed his sting."
        —Id.

"Thirty days each have September, April, June, and old November; Each of the rest has thirty-one, Bating February alone, Which has twenty-eight in fine, Till leap-year gives it twenty-nine." —Dean Colet cor.

LESSON II.—RHYTHM RESTORED.

   "'Twas not the fame of what he once had been,
    Or tales in records old and annals seen."
        —Rowe cor.

    "And Asia now and Afric are explored
    For high-priced dainties and the citron board."
        —Rowe cor.

    "Who knows not how the trembling judge beheld
    The peaceful court with arm~ed legions fill'd?"
        —Rowe cor.

    "With thee the Scythian wilds we'll wander o'er,
    With thee the burning Libyan sands explore."
        —Rowe cor.

    "Hasty and headlong, different paths they tread,
    As impulse blind and wild distraction lead."
        —Rowe cor.

    "But Fate reserv'd him to perform its doom,
    And be the minister of wrath to Rome."
        —Rowe cor.

    "Thus spoke the youth. When Cato thus express'd
    The sacred counsels of his inmost breast."
        —Rowe cor.

    "These were the rigid manners of the man,
    This was the stubborn course in which they ran;
    The golden mean unchanging to pursue,
    Constant to keep the purpos'd end in view."
        —Rowe cor.

    "What greater grief can on a Roman seize,
    Than to be forced to live on terms like these!"
        —Rowe cor.

    "He views the naked town with joyful eyes,
    While from his rage an arm~ed people flies."
        —Rowe cor.

    "For planks and beams, he ravages the wood,
    And the tough oak extends across the flood."
        —Rowe cor.

    "A narrow pass the horn~ed mole divides.
    Narrow as that where strong Euripus' tides
    Beat on Euboean Chalcis' rocky sides."
        —Rowe cor.

    "No force, no fears their hands unarm~ed bear,"—or,
    "No force, no fears their hands unarm'd now bear,
    But looks of peace and gentleness they wear."
        —Rowe cor.

    "The ready warriors all aboard them ride,
    And wait return of the retiring tide."
        —Rowe cor.

    "He saw those troops that long had faithful stood,
    Friends to his cause, and enemies to good,
    Grown weary of their chief, and satiate with blood."
        —Rowe cor.

END OF THE KEY.

APPENDIX I. TO PART FIRST, OR ORTHOGRAPHY. OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

In the first chapter of Part I, the powers of the letters, or the elementary sounds of the English language, were duly enumerated and explained; for these, as well as the letters themselves, are few, and may be fully stated in few words: but, since we often express the same sound in many different ways, and also, in some instances, give to the same letter several different sounds,—or, it may be, no sound at all,—any adequate account of the powers of the letters considered severally according to usage,—that is, of the sound or sounds of each letter, with its mute positions, as these occur in practice,—must, it was thought, descend to a minuteness of detail not desirable in the first chapter of Orthography. For this reason, the following particulars have been reserved to be given here as an Appendix, pertaining to the First Part of this English Grammar.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—A proper discrimination of the different vowel sounds by the epithets most commonly used for this purpose,—such as long and short, broad and slender, open and close, or open and shut,—is made difficult, if not impossible, by reason of the different, and sometimes directly contradictory senses in which certain orthoepists [sic—KTH] have employed such terms. Wells says, "Vowel sounds are called open or close, according to the relative size of the opening through which the voice passes in forming them. Thus, a in father, and o in nor, are called open sounds, because they are formed by a wide opening of the organs of speech; while e in me, and u in rule, are called close sounds, because the organs are nearly closed in uttering them."—School Grammar, 1850, p. 32. Good use should fix the import of words. How does the passage here cited comport with this hint of Pope?

   "These equal syllables alone require,
    Though oft the ear the open vowels tire."
        —Essay on Criticism, l. 344.

OBS. 2.—Walker, too, in his Principles, 64 and 65, on page 19th of his Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, mentions a similar distinction of vowels, "which arises from the different apertures of the mouth in forming them;" and says, "We accordingly find vowels denominated by the French, ouvert and fermé; by the Italians, aperto and chiuso; and by the English [,] open and shut. But whatever propriety there may be in the use of these terms in other languages, it is certain they must be used with caution in English for fear of confounding them with long and short. Dr. Johnson and other grammarians call the a in father the open a: which may, indeed, distinguish it from the slender a in paper; but not from the broad a in water, which is still more open. Each of these letters [the seven vowels] has a short sound, which may be called a shut sound; but the long sounds cannot be so properly denominated open as more or less broad; that is, the a in paper, the slender sound; the a in father, the broadish or middle sound; and the a in water, the broad sound. The same may be observed of the o. This letter has three long sounds, heard in move, note, nor; which graduate from slender to broadish, and broad [,] like [those three sounds of] the a. The i also in mine may be called the broad i, and that in machine, the slender i; though each of them is equally long; and though these vowels that are long [,] may be said to be more or less open according to the different apertures of the mouth in forming them, yet the short vowels cannot be said to be more or less shut; for as short always implies shut (except in verse,) though long does not always imply open, we must be careful not to confound long and open, and close and shut, when we speak of the quantity and quality of the vowels. The truth of it is," continues he, "all vowels either terminate a syllable, or are united with a consonant. In the first case, if the accent be on the syllable, the vowel is long, though it may not be open: in the second case, where a syllable is terminated by a consonant, except that consonant be r, whether the accent be on the syllable or not, the vowel has its short sound, which, compared with its long one, may be called shut: but [,] as no vowel can be said to be shut that is not joined to a consonant, all vowels that end syllables may be said to be open, whether the accent be on them or not."—Crit. Pron. Dict., New York, 1827, p. 19.

OBS. 3.—These suggestions of Walker's, though each in itself may seem clear and plausible, are undoubtedly, in several respects, confused and self-contradictory. Open and shut are here inconsistently referred first to one principle of distinction, and then to another;—first, (as are "open and close" by Wells,) to "the relative size of the opening," or to "the different apertures of the mouth;" and then, in the conclusion, to the relative position of the vowels with respect to other letters. These principles improperly give to each of the contrasted epithets two very different senses: as, with respect to aperture, wide and narrow; with respect to position, closed and unclosed. Now, that open may mean unclosed, or close be put for closed, is not to be questioned; but that open is a good word for wide, or that shut (not to say close) can well mean narrow, is an assumption hardly scholarlike. According to Walker, "we must be careful not to confound" open with long, or shut with short, or close with shut; and yet, if he himself does not, in the very paragraph above quoted, confound them all,—does not identify in sense, or fail to distinguish, the two words in each of these pairs,—I know not who can need his "caution." If there are vowel sounds which graduate through several degrees of openness or broadness, it would seem most natural to express these by regularly comparing the epithet preferred; as, open, opener, openest; or broad, broader, broadest. And again, if "all vowels that end syllables may be said to be open," then it is not true, that "the long sounds" of a in paper, father, water, cannot be so "denominated;" or that to "call the a in father the open a, may, indeed, distinguish it from the slender a in paper." Nor, on this principle, can it be said that "the broad a in water is still more open;" for this a no more "ends a syllable" than the others. If any vowel sound is to be called the open sound because the letter ends a syllable, or is not shut by a consonant, it is, undoubtedly, the primal and most usual sound, as found in the letter when accented, and not some other of rare occurrence.

OBS. 4.—Dr. Perley says, "It is greatly to be regretted that the different sounds of a vowel should be called by the names long, short, slender, and broad, which convey no idea of the nature of the sound, for mat and not are as long in poetry as mate and note. The first sound of a vowel[,] as [that of a in] fate[,] may be called open, because it is the sound which the vowel generally has when it ends a syllable; the second sound as [that of a in] fat, may be called close, because it is the sound which the vowel generally has when it is joined with a consonant following in the same syllable, as fat-ten; when there are more than two sounds of any vowel[,] they may be numbered onward; as 3 far, 4 fall."—Perley's Gram., p. 73.

OBS. 5.—Walker thought a long or short vowel sound essential to a long or short quantity in any syllable. By this, if he was wrong in it, (as, in the chapter on Versification, I have argued that he was,) he probably disturbed more the proper distinction of quantities, than that of vowel sounds. As regards long and short, therefore, Perley's regret seems to have cause; but, in making the same objection to "slender and broad," he reasons illogically. So far as his view is right, however, it coincides with the following earlier suggestion: "The terms long and short, which are often used to denote certain vowel sounds; being also used, with a different import, to distinguish the quantity of syllables, are frequently misunderstood; for which reason, we have substituted for them the terms open and close;—the former, to denote the sound usually given to a vowel when it forms or ends an accented syllable; as, ba, be, bi, bo, bu, by;—the latter, to denote the sound which the vowel commonly takes when closed by a consonant; as, ab, eb, ib, ob, ub"—Brown's Institutes, p. 285.

I. OF THE LETTER A.

The vowel A has four sounds properly its own; they are named by various epithets: as,

1. The English, open, full, long, or slender a; as in aid, fame, favour, efficacious.

2. The French, close, curt, short, or stopped a; as in bat, banner, balance, carrying.

3. The Italian, broadish, grave, or middle a; as in far, father, aha, comma, scoria, sofa.

4. The Dutch, German, Old-Saxon, or broad a; as in wall, haul, walk, warm, water.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Concerning the number of sounds pertaining to the vowel a, or to certain other particular letters, and consequently in regard to the whole number of the sounds which constitute the oral elements of the English language, our educational literati,—the grammarians, orthoepists [sic—KTH], orthographers, elocutionists, phonographers, and lexicographers,—are found to have entertained and inculcated a great variety of opinions. In their different countings, the number of our phonical elements varies from twenty-six to more than forty. Wells says there are "about forty elementary sounds."—School Gram., §64. His first edition was more positive, and stated them at "forty-one." See the last and very erroneous passage which I have cited at the foot of page 162. In Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary, there appear to be noted several more than forty-one, but I know not whether this author, or Walker either, has anywhere told us how many of his marked sounds he considered to be severally different from all others. Sheridan and Jones admitted twenty-eight. Churchill acknowledges, as undisputed and indisputable, only twenty-six; though he enumerates, "Of simple vowel sounds, twelve, or perhaps thirteen" (New Grammar, p. 5,) and says, "The consonant sounds in the English language, are nineteen, or rather twenty."—P. 13.

OBS. 2.—Thus, while Pitman, Comstock, and others, are amusing themselves with the folly of inventing new "Phonetic Alphabets," or of overturning all orthography to furnish "a character for each of the 38 elementary sounds," more or fewer, one of the acutest observers among our grammarians can fix on no number more definite or more considerable than thirty-one, thirty-two, or thirty-three; and the finding of these he announces with a "perhaps," and the admission that other writers object to as many as five of the questionable number. Churchill's vowel sounds, he says, "may be found in the following words: 1. B_a_te, 2. B_a_t, 3. B_a_ll; 4. B_e_t, 5. B_e_; 6. B_i_t; 7. B_o_t, 8. B_o_ne, 9. B_oo_n; 10. B_u_t, 11. B_u_ll; 12. Lovel_y_; 13. _W_ool."—New Grammar, p. 5. To this he adds: "Many of the writers on orthoepy [sic—KTH], however, consider the first and fourth of the sounds above distinguished as actually the same, the former differing from the latter only by being lengthened in the pronunciation. They also reckon the seventh sound, to be the third shortened; the twelfth, the fifth shortened; and the eleventh, the ninth shortened. Some consider the fifth and sixth as differing only in length; and most esteem the eleventh and thirteenth as identical."—Ib.

OBS. 3.—Now, it is plain, that these six identifications, or so many of them as are admitted, must diminish by six, or by the less number allowed, the thirteen vowel sounds enumerated by this author. By the best authorities, W initial, as in "_W_ool." is reckoned a consonant; and, of course, its sound is supposed to differ in some degree from that of oo in "B_oo_n," or that of u in "B_u_ll,"—the ninth sound or the eleventh in the foregoing series. By Walker, Murray, and other popular writers, the sound of y in "Lovel_y_" is accounted to be essentially the same as that of e in "B_e_." The twelfth and the thirteenth, then, of this list, being removed, and three others added,—namely, the a heard in far, the i in fine, and the u in fuse,—we shall have the fourteen vowel sounds which are enumerated by L. Murray and others, and adopted by the author of the present work.

OBS. 4.—Wells says, "A has six sounds:—1. Long; as in late. 2. Grave; as in father. 3. Broad; as in fall. 4. Short; as in man. 5. The sound heard in care, hare. 6. Intermediate between a in man and a in father; as in grass, pass, branch."—School Grammar, 1850, p. 33. Besides these six, Worcester recognizes a seventh sound,—the "A obscure; as in liar, rival"—Univ. and Crit. Dict., p. ix. Such a multiplication of the oral elements of our first vowel.—or, indeed, any extension of them beyond four,—appears to me to be unadvisable; because it not only makes our alphabet the more defective, but is unnecessary, and not sustained by our best and most popular orthoepical [sic—KTH] authorities. The sound of a in liar, (and in rival too, if made "obscure") is a borrowed one, pertaining more properly to the letter u. In grass, pass, and branch, properly uttered, the a is essentially the same as in man. In care and hare, we have the first sound of a, made as slender as the r will admit.

OBS. 5.—Concerning his fifth sound of a, Wells cites authorities thus: "Walker, Webster, Sheridan, Fulton and Knight, Kenrick, Jones, and Nares, give a in care the long sound of a, as in late. Page and Day give it the short sound of a, as in mat. See Page's Normal Chart, and Day's Art of Elocution. Worcester and Perry make the sound of a in care a separate element; and this distinction is also recognized by Russell, Mandeville, and Wright. See Russell's Lessons in Enunciation, Mandeville's Elements of Reading and Oratory, and Wright's Orthography."—Wells's School Grammar, p. 34. Now the opinion that a in care has its long, primal sound, and is not properly "a separate element," is maintained also by Murray, Hiley, Bullions, Scott, and Cobb; and is, undoubtedly, much more prevalent than any other. It accords, too, with the scheme of Johnson. To count this a by itself, seems too much like a distinction without a difference.

OBS. 6.—On his sixth sound of a, Wells remarks as follows: "Many persons pronounce this a incorrectly, giving it either the grave or the short sound. Perry, Jones, Nares, Webster, and Day, give to a in grass the grave sound, as in father; while Walker, Jamieson, and Russell, give it the short sound, as in man. But good speakers generally pronounce a in grass, plant, etc., as a distinct element, intermediate between the grave and the short sound."—School Gram., p. 34. He also cites Worcester and Smart to the same effect; and thinks, with the latter, "There can be no harm in avoiding the censure of both parties by shunning the extreme that offends the taste of each."—Ib., p. 35. But I say, that a needless multiplication of questionable vowel powers difficult to be discriminated, is "harm," or a fault in teaching; and, where intelligent orthoepists [sic—KTH] dispute whether words have "the grave or the short sound" of a, how can others, who condemn both parties, acceptably split the difference, and form "a distinct element" in the interval? Words are often mispronounced, and the French or close a may be mistaken for the Italian or broadish a, and vice versa; but, between the two, there does not appear to be room for an other distinguishable from both. Dr. Johnson says, (inaccurately indeed,) "A has three sounds, the slender, [the] open, and [the] broad. A slender is found in most words, as face, mane. A open is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it; as father, rather, congratulate, fancy, glass. A broad resembles the a of the German; as all, wall, call. [fist] The short a approaches to the a open, as grass."—Johnson's Grammar, in his Quarto Dictionary, p. 1. Thus the same word, grass, that serves Johnson for an example of "the short a" is used by Wells and Worcester to exemplify the "a intermediate;" while of the Doctor's five instances of what he calls the "a open," three, if not four, are evidently such as nearly all readers nowadays would call close or short!

OBS. 7.—There are several grammarians who agree in ascribing to our first vowel five sounds, but who nevertheless oppose one an other in making up the five. Thus, according to Hart, "A has five sounds of its own, as in fate, fare, far, fall, fat,"—Hart's E. Gram., p. 26. According to W. Allen, "A has five sounds;—the long or slender, as in cane; the short or open, as in can; the middle, as in arm; the broad, as in all; and the broad contracted, as in want."—Allen's E. Gram., p. 6. P. Davis has the same sounds in a different order, thus: "a [as in] mane, mar, fall, mat, what."—Davis's E. Gram., p. xvi. Mennye says, "A has five sounds; as, 1 fame, 2 fat, 3 false, 4 farm, 5 beggar."—Mennye's E. Gram., p. 55. Here the fifth sound is the seventh of Worcester,—the "A obscure."

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A.

The only proper diphthong in which a is put first, is the word ay, meaning yes: in which a has its middle sound, as in ah, and y is like open e, or ee, uttered feebly—ah-ee. Aa, when pronounced as an improper diphthong, and not as pertaining to two syllables, usually takes the sound of close a; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac. In many words, as in Baäl, Gaäl, Gaäsh, the diæresis occurs. In baa, the cry of a sheep, we hear the Italian sound of a; and, since we hear it but once, one a or the other must be silent.

Æ, a Latin improper diphthong, common also in the Anglo-Saxon, generally has, according to modern orthoëpists, the sound of open e or ee; as in Cæsar, ænigma, pæan;—sometimes that of close or short e; as in aphæresis, diæresis, et cætera. Some authors, judging the a of this diphthong to be needless, reject it, and write Cesar, enigma, &c.

Ai, an improper diphthong, generally has the sound of open or long a; as in sail, avail, vainly. In a final unaccented syllable, it sometimes preserves the first sound of a; as in chilblain, mortmain: but oftener takes the sound of close or short i; as in certain, curtain, mountain, villain. In said, saith, again, and against, it takes the sound of close or short e; and in the name Britain, that of close or short u.

Ao, an improper diphthong, occurs in the word gaol, now frequently written as it is pronounced, jail; also in gaoler, which may be written jailer; and in the compounds of gaol: and, again, it is found in the adjective extraordinary, and its derivatives, in which, according to nearly all orthoëpists, the a is silent. The name Pharaoh, is pronounced F=a'r=o.

Au, an improper diphthong, is generally sounded like broad a; as in cause, caught, applause. Before n and an other consonant, it usually has the sound of grave or middle a; as in aunt, flaunt, gaunt, launch, laundry. So in laugh, laughter, and their derivatives. Gauge and gauger are pronounced gage and gager, and sometimes written so.

Aw, an improper diphthong, is always sounded like broad a; as in draw, drawn, drawl.

Ay, an improper diphthong, like ai, has usually the sound of open or long a; as in day, pay, delay: in sayst and says, it has the sound of close or short e.

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A.

Awe is sounded au, like broad a. Aye, an adverb signifying always, has the sound of open or long a only; being different, both in sound and in spelling, from the adverb ay, yes, with which it is often carelessly confounded. The distinction is maintained by Johnson, Walker, Todd, Chalmers, Jones, Cobb, Maunder, Bolles, and others; but Webster and Worcester give it up, and write "ay, or aye," each sounded ah-ee, for the affirmation, and "aye," sounded =a, for the adverb of time: Ainsworth on the contrary has ay only, for either sense, and does not note the pronunciation.

II. OF THE LETTER B.

The consonant B has but one sound; as in boy, robber, cub. B is silent before t or after m in the same syllable; as in debt, debtor, doubt, dumb, lamb, climb, tomb. It is heard in subtile, fine; but not in subtle, cunning.

III. OF THE LETTER C.

The consonant C has two sounds, neither of them peculiar to this letter; the one hard, like that of k, and the other soft, or rather hissing, like that of s. C before a, o, u, l, r, t, or when it ends a syllable, is generally hard, like k; as in can, come curb, clay, crab, act, action, accent, flaccid. C before e, i, or y, is always soft, like s; as in cent, civil, decency, acid.

In a few words, c takes the flat sound of s, like that of z; as in discern, suffice, sacrifice, sice. C before ea, ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, sounds like sh; as in ocean, special, species, gracious, cetaceous. C is silent in czar, czarina, victuals, indict, muscle, corpuscle, and the second syllable of Connecticut.

Ch is generally sounded like tch, or tsh, which is the same to the ear; as in church, chance, child. But in words derived from the learned languages, it has the sound of k; as in character, scheme, catechise, chorus, choir, chyle, patriarch, drachma, magna charta: except in chart, charter, charity. Ch, in words derived from the French, takes the sound of sh; as in chaise, machine. In Hebrew words or names, in general, ch sounds like k; as in Chebar, Sirach, Enoch: but in Rachel, cherub, and cherubim, we have Anglicized the sound by uttering it as tch. Loch, a Scottish word, sometimes also a medical term, is heard as lok.

"Arch, before a vowel, is pronounced ark; as in archives, archangel, archipelago: except in arched, archer, archery, archenemy. Before a consonant it is pronounced artch; as in archbishop, archduke, archfiend."—See W. Allen's Gram., p. 10. Ch is silent in schism, yacht, and drachm. In schedule, some utter it as k; others, as sh; and many make it mute: I like the first practice.

IV. OF THE LETTER D.

The general sound of the consonant D, is that which is heard in dog, eddy, did. D, in the termination ed, preceded by a sharp consonant, takes the sound of t, when the e is suppressed or unheard: as in faced, stuffed, cracked, tripped, passed; pronounced faste, stuft, cract, tript, past. D before ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, generally sounds like j; as in Indian, soldier, tedious, hideous. So in verdure, arduous, education.

V. OF THE LETTER E.

The vowel E has two sounds properly its own,—and I incline to think, three:—

1. The open, long, full, or primal e; as in me, mere, menial, melodious.

2. The close, curt, short, or stopped e; as in men, merry, ebony, strength.

3. The obscure or faint e; as in open, garden, shovel, able. This third sound is scarcely perceptible, and barely sufficient to articulate the consonant and form a syllable.

E final is mute and belongs to the syllable formed by the preceding vowel or diphthong; as in age, eve, ice, ore. Except—1. In the words, be, he, me, we, she, in which it has the open sound; and the article the, wherein it is open before a vowel, and obscure before a consonant. 2. In Greek and Latin words, in which it has its open sound, and forms a distinct syllable, or the basis of one; as in Penelope, Pasiphaë, Cyaneë, Gargaphië, Arsinoë, apostrophe, catastrophe, simile, extempore, epitome. 3. In the terminations ere, gre, tre, in which it has the sound of close or curt u, heard before the r; as in acre, meagre, centre.

Mute e, after a single consonant, or after st or th, generally preserves the open or long sound of the preceding vowel; as in cane, here, pine, cone, tune, thyme, baste, waste, lathe, clothe: except in syllables unaccented; as in the last of genuine;—and in a few monosyllables; as bade, are, were, gone, shone, one, done, give, live, shove, love.

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E.

E before an other vowel, in general, either forms with it an improper diphthong, or else belongs to a separate syllable. We do not hear both vowels in one syllable, except perhaps in eu or ew.

Ea, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open or long e; as in ear, fear, tea; frequently like close or curt e; as in head, health, leather: sometimes, like open or long a; as in steak, bear, forswear: rarely, like middle a; as in heart, hearth, hearken. Ea in an unaccented syllable, sounds like close or curt u; as in vengeance, pageant.

Ee, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like one open or long e; as in eel, sheep, tree, trustee, referee. The contractions e'er and ne'er, are pronounced air and nair, and not like ear and near. E'en, however, preserves the sound of open e. Been is most commonly heard with the curt sound of i, bin.

Ei, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like the primal or long a; as in reign, veil: frequently, like open or long e; as in deceit, either, neither, seize: sometimes, like open or long i; as in height, sleight, heigh-ho: often, in unaccented syllables, like close or curt i; as in foreign, forfeit, surfeit, sovereign: rarely, like close e; as in heifer, nonpareil.

Eo, an improper diphthong, in people, sounds like open or long e; in leopard and jeopard, like close or curt e; in yeoman, according to the best usage, like open or long o; in George, Georgia, georgic, like close o; in dungeon, puncheon, sturgeon, &c., like close u. In feoff, and its derivatives, the close or short sound of e is most fashionable; but some prefer the long sound of e; and some write the word "fief." Feod, feodal, feodary, feodatory, are now commonly written as they are pronounced, feud, feudal, feudary, feudatory.

Eu and ew are sounded alike, and almost always with the diphthongal sound of open or long u; as in feud, deuce, jewel, dew, few, new. These diphthongs, when initial, sound like yu. Nouns beginning with this sound, require the article a, and not an, before them; as, A European, a ewer. After r or rh, eu and ew are commonly sounded like oo; as in drew, grew, screw, rheumatism. In sew and Shrewsbury, ew sounds like open o: Worcester, however, prefers the sound of oo in the latter word. Shew and strew, having the same meaning as show and strow, are sometimes, by sameness of pronunciation, made to be the same words; and sometimes distinguished as different words, by taking the sounds shu and stroo.

Ey, accented, has the sound of open or long a; as in bey, prey, survey: unaccented, it has the sound of open e; as in alley, valley, money. Key and ley are pronounced kee, lee.

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E.

Eau, a French triphthong, sounds like open o; as in beau, flambeau, portmanteau, bureau: except in beauty, and its compounds, in which it is pronounced like open u, as if the word were written buty.

Eou is a combination of vowels sometimes heard in one syllable, especially after c or g; as in crus-ta-ceous, gor-geous. Walker, in his Rhyming Dictionary, gives one hundred and twenty words ending in eous, in all of which he separates these vowels; as in ex-tra-ne-ous. And why, in his Pronouncing Dictionary, he gave us several such anomalies as fa-ba-ce-ous in four syllables and her-ba-ceous in three, it is not easy to tell. The best rule is this: after c or g, unite these vowels; after the other consonants, separate them.

Ewe is a triphthong having the sound of yu, and forming a word. The vulgar pronunciation yoe should be carefully avoided.

Eye is an improper triphthong which also forms a word, and is pronounced like open i, or the pronoun I.

VI. OF THE LETTER F.

The consonant F has one unvaried sound, which is heard in fan, effort, staff: except of, which, when simple, is pronounced ov.

VII. OF THE LETTER G.

The consonant G has two sounds;—the one hard, guttural, and peculiar to this letter; the other soft, like that of j. G before a, o, u, l, r, or at the end of a word, is hard; as in game, gone, gull, glory, grace, log, bog; except in gaol. G before e, i, or y, is soft; as in gem, ginger, elegy. Except—1. In get, give, gewgaw, finger, and a few other words. 2. When a syllable is added to a word ending in g: as, long, longer; fog, foggy.

G is silent before m or n in the same syllable; as in phlegm, apothegm, gnaw, design. G, when silent, usually lengthens the preceding vowel; as in resign, impregn, impugn.

Gh at the beginning of a word has the sound of g hard; as in ghastly, gherkin, Ghibelline, ghost, ghoul, ghyll: in other situations, it is generally silent; as in high, mighty, plough, bough, though, through, fight, night, bought. Gh final sometimes sounds like f; as in laugh, rough, tough; and sometimes, like g hard; as in burgh. In hough, lough, shough, it sounds like k, or ck; thus, hock, lock, shock.

VIII. OF THE LETTER H.

The sound of the consonant H, (though articulate and audible when properly uttered,) is little more than an aspirate breathing. It is heard in hat, hit, hot, hut, adhere.

H at the beginning of a word, is always sounded; except in heir, herb, honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, with their compounds and derivatives. H after r, is always silent; as in rhapsody, rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. H final, immediately following a vowel, is always silent; as in ah, Sarah, Nineveh, Shiloh.

IX. OF THE LETTER I.

The vowel I has three sounds, each very common to it, and perhaps properly its own:—

1. The open, long, full, or primal i; as in life, fine, final, time, bind, child, sigh, pint, resign. This is a diphthongal sound, equivalent to the sounds of middle a and open e quickly united.

2. The close, curt, short, or stopped i; as in ink, limit, disfigure, mimicking.

3. The feeble, faint, or slender i, accentless; as in divest, doctrinal, diversity.

This third sound is equivalent to that of open e, or ee uttered feebly. I generally has this sound when it occurs at the end of an unaccented syllable: except at the end of Latin words, or of ancient names, where it is open or long; as in literati, Nervii, Eli, Levi.

In some words, (principally from other modern languages,) i has the full sound of open e, under the accent; as in Porto Rico, machine, magazine, antique, shire.

Accented i followed by a vowel, has its open or primal sound; and the vowels belong to separate syllables; as in pliant, diet, satiety, violet, pious. Unaccented i followed by a vowel, has its feeble sound; as in expatiate, obedient, various, abstemious.

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I.

I, in the situation last described, readily coalesces with the vowel which follows, and is often sunk into the same syllable, forming a proper diphthong: as in fustian, quotient, question. The terminations cion, sion, and tion, are generally pronounced shun; and cious and tious are pronounced shus.

Ie is commonly an improper diphthong. Ie in die, hie, lie, pie, tie, vie, and their derivatives, has the sound of open i. Ie in words from the French, (as cap-a-pie, ecurie, grenadier, siege, bier,) has the sound of open e. So, generally, in the middle of English roots; as in chief, grief, thief; but, in sieve, it has the sound of close or short i. In friend, and its derivatives or compounds, it takes the sound of close e.

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I.

The triphthongs ieu and iew both sound like open or long u; as in lieu, adieu, view.

The three vowels iou, in the termination ious, often fall into one syllable, and form a triphthong. There are two hundred and forty-five words of this ending; and more than two hundred deriva- tives from them. Walker has several puzzling inconsistencies in their pronunciation; such as fas-tid-i-ous and per-fid-ious, con-ta-gi-ous and sac-ri-le-gious. After c, g, t, or x, these vowels should coalesce: as in gra-cious, re-li-gious, vex-a-tious, ob-nox-ious, and about two hundred other words. After the other consonants, let them form two syllables; (except when there is a syn- seresis in poetry;) as in dw-bi-ou-s, o-di-ous, va-ri-ous, en-vi-ous.

X. OF THE LETTER J.

The consonant J, the tenth letter of the English alphabet, has invariably the sound of soft g, like the g in giant, which some say is equivalent to the complex sound dzh; as, jade, jet, jilt, joy, justice, jewel, prejudice.

XI. OF THE LETTER K.

The consonant K, not silent, has uniformly the sound of c hard; and occurs where c would have its soft sound: as in keep, looking, kind, smoky.

K before n is silent; as in knave, know, knuckle. In stead of doubling c final, we write ck; as in lack, lock, luck, attack. In English words, k is never doubled, though two Kays may come together in certain compounds; as in brickkiln, jackknife. Two Kays, belonging to different syllables, also stand together in a few Scripture names; as in Akkub, Bakbakkar, Bukki, Bukkiah, Habakkuk. Hakkoz, Ikkesh, Sukkiims. C before k, though it does not always double the sound which c or k in such a situation must represent, always shuts or shortens the preceding vowel; as in rack, speck, freckle, cockle, wicked.

XII. OF THE LETTER L.

The consonant L, the plainest of the semivowels, has a soft, liquid sound; as in line, lily, roll, follow. L is sometimes silent; as in Holmes, alms, almond, calm, chalk, walk, calf, half, could, would, should. L, too, is frequently doubled where it is heard but once; as in hill, full, travelled. So any letter that is written twice, and not twice sounded, must there be once mute; as the last in baa, ebb, add, see, staff, egg, all, inn, coo, err, less, buzz.

XIII. OF THE LETTER M.

The consonant M is a semivowel and a liquid, capable of an audible, humming sound through the nose, when the mouth is closed. It is heard in map, murmur, mammon. In the old words, compt, accompt, comptroller, (for count, account, controller,) the m is sounded as n. M before n, at the beginning of a word, is silent; as in Mnason, Mnemosyne, mnemonics.

XIV. OF THE LETTER N.

The consonant N, which is also a semivowel and a liquid, has two sounds;—the first, the pure and natural sound of n; as in nun, banner, cannon;—the second, the ringing sound of ng, heard before certain gutturals; as in think, mangle, conquer, congress, singing, twinkling, Cen'chreä. The latter sound should be carefully preserved in all words ending in ing, and in such others as require it. The sounding of the syllable ing as if it were in, is a vulgarism in utterance; and the writing of it so, is, as it would seem by the usage of Burns, a Scotticism.

N final preceded by m, is silent; as in hymn, solemn, column, damn, condemn, autumn. But this n becomes audible in an additional syllable; as in autumnal, condemnable, damning.

XV. OF THE LETTER O.

The vowel O has three different sounds, which are properly its own:—

1. The open, full, primal, or long o; as in no, note, opiate, opacity, Roman.

2. The close, curt, short, or stopped o; as in not, nor, torrid, dollar, fondle.

3. The slender or narrow o, like oo; as in prove, move, who, to, do, tomb.

O, in many words, sounds like close or curt u; as in love, shove, son, come, nothing, dost, attorney, gallon, dragon, comfit, comfort, coloration. One is pronounced wun; and once, wunce. In the termination on immediately after the accent, o is often sunk into a sound scarcely perceptible, like that of obscure e; as in mason, person, lesson.

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O.

Oa, an improper diphthong, has the sound of open or long o; as in boat, coal, roach, coast, coastwise: except in broad and groat, which have the sound of broad a.

Oe, an improper diphthong, when final, has the sound of open or long o: as in doe, foe, throe: except in canoe, shoe, pronounced canoo, shoo. OE, a Latin diphthong, generally sounds like open e; as in Antoeci, foetus: sometimes, like close or curt e; as in foetid, foeticide. But the English word f~etid is often, and perhaps generally, written without the o.

Oi is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o or broad a, and that of open e; as in boil, coil, soil, rejoice. But the vowels, when they appear together, sometimes belong to separate syllables; as in Stoic, Stoicism. Oi unaccented, sometimes has the sound of close or curt i; as in avoirdupois, connoisseur, tortoise.

Oo, an improper diphthong, generally has the slender sound of o; as in coo, too, woo, fool, room. It has, in some words, a shorter or closer sound, (like that of u in bull,) as in foot, good, wood, stood, wool;—that of close u in blood and flood;—and that of open o in door and floor. Derivatives from any of these, sound as their primitives.

Ou is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close or curt o, and that of u as heard in bull,—or u sounded as oo; as in bound, found, sound, ounce, thou. Ou is also, in certain instances, an improper diphthong; and, as such, it has six different sounds:—(l.) That of close or curt u; as in rough, tough, young, flourish. (2.) That of broad a; as in ought, bought, thought. (3.) That of open or long o; as in court, dough, four, though. (4.) That of close or curt o; as in cough, trough, lough, shough: which are, I believe, the only examples. (5.) That of slender o, or oo; as in soup, you, through. (6.) That of u in bull, or of oo shortened; only in would, could, should.

Ow generally sounds like the proper diphthong ou,—or like a union of short o with oo; as in brown, dowry, now, shower: but it is often an improper diphthong, having only the sound of open or long o; as in know, show, stow.

Oy is a proper diphthong, equivalent in sound to oi; as in joy, toy, oyster.

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O.

OEu is a French triphthong, pronounced in English as oo, and occurring in the word manoeuvre, with its several derivatives. Owe is an improper triphthong, and an English word, in which the o only is heard, and heard always with its long or open sound.

XVI. OF THE LETTER P.

The consonant P, when not written before h, has commonly one peculiar sound; which is heard in pen, pine, sup, supper. The word cupboard is usually pronounced kubburd. P, written with an audible consonant, is sometimes itself silent; as in psalm, psalter, pseudography, psychology, ptarmigan, ptyalism, receipt, corps.

Ph generally sounds like f; as in philosophy. In Stephen and nephew, ph has the sound of v. The h after p, is silent in diphthong, triphthong, naphtha, ophthalmic; and both the p and the h are silent in apophthegm, phthisis, phthisical. From the last three words, ph is sometimes dropped.

XVII. OF THE LETTER Q.

The consonant Q, being never silent, never final, never doubled, and not having a sound peculiar to itself, is invariably heard, in English, with the power of k; and is always followed by the vowel u, which, in words purely English, is sounded like the narrow o, or oo,—or, perhaps, is squeezed into the consonantal sound of w;—as in queen, quaver, quiver, quarter, request. In some words of French origin, the u after q is silent; as in coquet, liquor, burlesque, etiquette.

XVIII. OF THE LETTER R.

The consonant R, called also a semivowel and a liquid, has usually, at the beginning of a word, or before a vowel, a rough or pretty strong sound; as in roll, rose, roam, proudly, prorogue. "In other positions," it is said by many to be "smooth" or "soft;" "as in hard, ford, word."—W. Allen.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The letter R turns the tip of the tongue up against or towards the roof of the mouth, where the sound may be lengthened, roughened, trilled, or quavered. Consequently, this element may, at the will of the speaker, have more or less—little or nothing, or even very much—of that peculiar roughness, jar, or whur, which is commonly said to constitute the sound. The extremes should here be avoided. Some readers very improperly omit the sound of r from many words to which it pertains; pronouncing or as awe, nor as knaw, for as faugh, and war as the first syllable of water. On the other hand, "The excessive trilling of the r, as practised by some speakers, is a great fault."—D. P. Page.

OBS. 2.—Dr. Johnson, in his "Grammar of the English Tongue," says, "R has the same rough snarling sound as in other tongues."—P. 3. Again, in his Quarto Dictionary, under this letter, he says, "R is called the canine letter, because it is uttered with some resemblance to the growl or snarl of a cur: it has one constant sound in English, such as it has in other languages; as, red, rose, more, muriatick." Walker, however, who has a greater reputation as an orthoepist [sic—KTH], teaches that, "There is a distinction in the sound of this letter, which is," says he, "in my opinion, of no small importance; and that is, the [distinction of] the rough and [the] smooth r. Ben Jonson," continues he, "in his Grammar, says, 'It is sounded firm in the beginning of words, and more liquid in the middle and ends, as in rarer, riper; and so in the Latin.' The rough r is formed by jarring the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth near the fore teeth: the smooth r is a vibration of the lower part of the tongue, near the root, against the inward region of the palate, near the entrance of the throat."—Walker's Principles, No. 419; Octavo Dict., p. 48.

OBS. 3.—Wells, with his characteristic indecision, forbears all recognition of this difference, and all intimation of the quality of the sound, whether smooth or rough; saying, in his own text, only this: "R has the sound heard in rare."—School Grammar, p. 40. Then, referring the student to sundry authorities, he adds in a footnote certain "quotations," that are said to "present a general view of the different opinions which exist among orthoepists respecting this letter." And so admirably are these authorities or opinions balanced and offset, one class against an other, that it is hard to tell which has the odds. First, though it is not at all probable that Wells's utterance of "rare" exhibits twice over the rough snarl of Johnson's r, the "general view" seems intended to confirm the indefinite teaching above, thus: "'R has one constant sound in English.'—Johnson. The same view is adopted by Webster, Perry, Kendrick, Sheridan, Jones, Jameson, Knowles, and others."—School Grammar, p. 40. In counterpoise of these, Wells next cites about as many more—namely, Frazee, Page, Russell, Walker, Rush, Barber, Comstock, and Smart,—as maintaining or admitting that r has sometimes a rough sound, and sometimes a smoother one.

XIX. OF THE LETTER S.

The consonant S has a sharp, hissing, or hard sound; as in sad, sister, thus: and a flat, buzzing, or soft sound, like that of z; as in rose, dismal, bosom, husband. S, at the beginning of words, or after any of the sharp consonants, is always sharp; as in see, steps, cliffs, sits, stocks, smiths. S, after any of the flat mutes, or at the end of words when not preceded by a sharp consonant, is generally flat; as in eyes, trees, beds, bags, calves. But in the English termination ous, or in the Latin us, it is sharp; as joyous, vigorous, hiatus.

Ss is generally sharp; as in pass, kiss, harass, assuage, basset, cassock, remissness. But the first two Esses in possess, or any of its regular derivatives, as well as the two in dissolve, or its proximate kin, sound like two Zees; and the soft or flat sound is commonly given to each s in hyssop, hussy, and hussar. In scissel, scissible, and scissile, all the Esses hiss;—in scissors, the last three of the four are flat, like z;—but in the middle of scissure and scission we hear the sound of zh.

S, in the termination sion, takes the sound of sh, after a consonant; as in aspersion, session, passion, mission, compulsion: and that of zh, after a vowel; as in evasion, elision, confusion.

In the verb assure, and each of its derivatives, also in the nouns pressure and fissure, with their derivatives, we hear, according to Walker, the sound of sh for each s, or twice in each word; but, according to the orthoëpy of Worcester, that sound is heard only in the accented syllable of each word, and the vowel in each unaccented syllable is obscure.

S is silent or mute in the words, isle, island, aisle, demesne, corps, and viscount.

XX. OF THE LETTER T.

The general sound of the consonant T, is heard in time, letter, set. T, immediately after the accent, takes the sound of tch, before u, and generally also before eou; as in nature, feature, virtue, righteous, courteous: when s or x precedes, it takes this sound before ia or io; as in fustian, bastion, mixtion. But the general or most usual sound of t after the accent, when followed by i and an other vowel, is that of sh; as in creation, patient, cautious.

In English, t is seldom, if ever, silent or powerless. In depot, however, a word borrowed from the French, we do not sound it; and in chestnut, which is a compound of our own, it is much oftener written than heard. In often and soften, some think it silent; but it seems rather to take here the sound of f. In chasten, hasten, fasten, castle, nestle, whistle, apostle, epistle, bustle, and similar words, with their sundry derivatives, the t is said by some to be mute; but here it seems to take the sound of s; for, according to the best authorities, this sound is beard twice in such words. Th, written in Greek by the character called Theta, ([Greek: th] or O capital, [Greek: th] or [Greek: th] small,) represents an elementary sound; or, rather, two distinct elementary sounds, for which the Anglo-Saxons had different characters, supposed by Dr. Bosworth to have been applied with accurate discrimination of "the hard or sharp sound of th," from "the soft or flat sound."—(See Bosworth's Compendious Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, p. 268.) The English th is either sharp, as in thing, ethical, thinketh; or flat, as in this, whither, thither.

"Th initial is sharp; as in thought: except in than, that, the, thee, their, them, then, thence, there, these, they, thine, this, thither, those, thou, thus, thy, and their compounds."—W. Allen's Grammar, p. 22.

Th final is also sharp; as in south: except in beneath, booth, with, and several verbs formerly with th last, but now frequently (and more properly) written with final e; as loathe, mouthe, seethe, soothe, smoothe, clothe, wreathe, bequeathe, unclothe.

Th medial is sharp, too, when preceded or followed by a consonant; as in Arthur, ethnic, swarthy, athwart: except in brethren, burthen, farther, farthing, murther, northern, worthy. But "th between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely English; as in gather, neither, whither: and sharp in words from the learned languages; as in atheist, ether, method"—See W. Allen's Gram., p. 22.

"Th, in Thames, Thomas, thyme, asthma, phthisis, and their compounds, is pronounced like t."—Ib.

XXI. OF THE LETTER U.

The vowel U has three sounds which may be considered to be properly its own:—

1. The open, long, full, primal, or diphthongal u; as in tube, cubic, juvenile.

2. The close, curt, short, or stopped u; as in tub, butter, justice, unhung.

3. The middle u, resembling a short or quick oo; as in pull, pulpit, artful.

U forming a syllable by itself or U as naming itself is nearly equivalent in sound to you, and requires the article a, and not an, before it; as, a U, a union.

U sometimes borrows the sound of some other vowel; for bury is pronounced berry, and busy is pronounced bizzy. So in the derivatives, burial, buried, busied, busily, and the like.

The long or diphthongal u, commonly sounded as yu, or as ew in ewer,—or any equivalent diphthong or digraph, as ue, ui, eu, or ew.—when it follows r or rh, assumes the sound of slender o or oo; as in rude, rhubarb, rue, rueful, rheum, fruit, truth, brewer.

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U.

U, in the proper diphthongs, ua, ue, ui, uo, uy, has the sound of w or of oo feeble; as in persuade, query, quell, quiet, languid, quote, obloquy.

Ua, an improper diphthong, has the sound—1. Of middle a; as in guard, guardian. 2. Of close a; as in guarantee, piquant. 3. Of obscure e; as in victuals and its compounds or kindred. 4. Of open u; as in mantuamaker.

Ue, an improper diphthong, has the sound—1. Of open u; as in blue, ensue, ague. 2. Of close e; as in guest, guesser. 3. Of close u; as in leaguer. Ue final is sometimes silent; as in league, antique. Ui, an improper diphthong, has the sound—1. Of open i; as in guide, guile. 2. Of close i; as in conduit, circuit. 3. Of open u; as in juice, sluice, suit.

Uo can scarcely be called an improper diphthong, except, perhaps, after q in liquor, liquorice, liquorish, where uor is heard as ur.

Uy, an improper diphthong, has the sound—1. Of open y; as in buy, buyer. 2. Of feeble y, or of ee feeble; as in plaguy, roguy.

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH U.

Uai is pronounced nearly, if not exactly, like way; as in guai-a-cum, quail, quaint. Uaw is sounded like wa in water; as in squaw, a female Indian. Uay has the sound of way; as in Par-a-guay: except in quay, which nearly all our orthoepists pronounce kee. Uea and uee are each sounded wee; as in queasy, queer, squeal, squeeze. Uoi and woy are each sounded woi; as in quoit, buoy. Some say, that, as u, in these combinations, sounds like w, it is a consonant; others allege, that w itself has only the sound of oo, and is therefore in all cases a vowel. U has, certainly, in these connexions, as much of the sound of oo, as has w; and perhaps a little more.

XXII. OF THE LETTER V.

The consonant V always has a sound like that of f flattened; as in love, vulture, vivacious. In pure English, it is never silent, never final, never doubled: but it is often doubled in the dialect of Craven; and there, too, it is sometimes final.

XXIII. OF THE LETTER W.

W, when reckoned a consonant, (as it usually is when uttered with a vowel that follows it,) has the sound heard at the beginning of wine, win, woman, woody; being a sound less vocal than that of oo, and depending more upon the lips.

W before h, is usually pronounced as if it followed the h; as in what, when, where, while: but, in who, whose, whom, whole, whoop, and words formed from these, it is silent. Before r, in the same syllable, it is also silent; as in wrath, wrench, wrong. So in a few other cases; as in sword, answer, two.

W is never used alone as a vowel; except in some Welsh or foreign names, in which it is equivalent to oo; as in "Cwm Cothy," the name of a mountain in Wales; "Wkra" the name of a small river in Poland.—See Lockhart's Napoleon, Vol. ii, p. 15. In a diphthong, when heard, it has the power of u in bull, or nearly that of oo; as in new, now, brow, frown. Aw and ow are frequently improper diphthongs, the w being silent, the a broad, and the o long; as in law, flaw,—tow, snow. W, when sounded before vowels, being reckoned a consonant, we have no diphthongs or triphthongs beginning with this letter.

XXIV. OF THE LETTER X.

The consonant "X has a sharp sound, like ks; as in ox: and a flat one, like gz; as in example. X is sharp, when it ends an accented syllable; as in exercise, exit, excellence: or when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant; as in expand, extreme, expunge. X unaccented is generally flat, when the next syllable begins with a vowel; as in exist, exemption, exotic. X initial, in Greek proper names, has the sound of z; as in Xanthus, Xantippe, Xenophon, Xerxes"—See W. Allen's Gram., p. 25.

XXV. OF THE LETTER Y.

Y, as a consonant, has the sound heard at the beginning of yarn, young, youth; being rather less vocal than the feeble sound of i, or of the vowel y, and serving merely to modify that of a succeeding vowel, with which it is quickly united. Y, as a vowel, has the same sounds as i:—

1. The open, long, full, or primal y; as in cry, crying, thyme, cycle.

2. The close, curt, short, or stopped y; as in system, symptom, cynic.

3. The feeble or faint y, accentless; (like open e feeble;) as in cymar, cycloidal, mercy.

The vowels i and y have, in general, exactly the same sound under similar circumstances, and, in forming derivatives, we often change one for the other: as in city, cities; tie, tying; easy, easily.

Y, before a vowel heard in the same syllable, is reckoned a consonant; we have, therefore, no diphthongs or triphthongs commencing with this letter.

XXVI. OF THE LETTER Z.

The consonant Z, the last letter of our alphabet, has usually a soft or buzzing sound, the same as that of s flat; as in Zeno, zenith, breeze, dizzy. Before u primal or i feeble, z, as well as s flat, sometimes takes the sound of zh, which, in the enumeration of consonantal sounds, is reckoned a distinct element; as in azure, seizure, glazier; osier, measure, pleasure.

END OF THE FIRST APPENDIX.

APPENDIX II.

TO PART SECOND, OR ETYMOLOGY.

OF THE DERIVATION OF WORDS.

Derivation, as a topic to be treated by the grammarian, is a species of Etymology, which explains the various methods by which those derivative words which are not formed by mere grammatical inflections, are deduced from their primitives. Most of those words which are regarded as primitives in English, may be traced to ulterior sources, and many of them are found to be compounds or derivatives in the other languages from which they have come to us. To show the composition, origin, and literal sense of these, is also a part, and a highly useful part, of this general inquiry, or theme of instruction.

This species of information, though insignificant in those whose studies reach to nothing better,—to nothing valuable and available in life,—is nevertheless essential to education and to science; because it is essential to a right understanding of the import and just application of such words. All reliable etymology, all authentic derivation of words, has ever been highly valued by the wise. The learned James Harris has a remark as follows: "How useful to ETHIC SCIENCE, and indeed to KNOWLEDGE in general, a GRAMMATICAL DISQUISITION into the Etymology and Meaning of WORDS was esteemed by the chief and ablest Philosophers, may be seen by consulting Plato in his Cratylus; Xenophon's Memorabilia, IV, 5, 6; Arrian. Epict. I, 17; II, 10; Marc. Anton. III, 11;" &c.—See Harris's Hermes, p. 407.

A knowledge of the Saxon, Latin, Greek, and French languages, will throw much light on this subject, the derivation of our modern English; nor is it a weak argument in favour of studying these, that our acquaintance with them, whether deep or slight, tends to a better understanding of what is borrowed, and what is vernacular, in our own tongue. But etymological analysis may extensively teach the origin of English words, their composition, and the import of their parts, without demanding of the student the power of reading foreign or ancient languages, or of discoursing at all on General Grammar. And, since many of the users of this work may be but readers of our current English, to whom an unknown letter or a foreign word is a particularly uncouth and repulsive thing, we shall here forbear the use of Saxon characters, and, in our explanations, not go beyond the precincts of our own language, except to show the origin and primitive import of some of our definitive and connecting particles, and to explain the prefixes and terminations which are frequently employed to form English derivatives.

The rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, to whom literature is unknown, are among those transitory things which, by the hand of time, are irrecoverably buried in oblivion. The fabric of the English language is undoubtedly of Saxon origin; but what was the particular form of the language spoken by the Saxons, when about the year 450 they entered Britain, cannot now be accurately known. It was probably a dialect of the Gothic or Teutonic. This Anglo-Saxon dialect, being the nucleus, received large accessions from other tongues of the north, from the Norman French, and from the more polished languages of Rome and Greece, to form the modern English. The speech of our rude and warlike ancestors thus gradually improved, as Christianity, civilization, and knowledge, advanced the arts of life in Britain; and, as early as the tenth century, it became a language capable of expressing all the sentiments of a civilized people. From the time of Alfred, its progress may be traced by means of writings which remain; but it can scarcely be called English, as I have shown in the Introduction to this work, till about the thirteenth century. And for two or three centuries later, it was so different from the modern English, as to be scarcely intelligible at all to the mere English reader; but, gradually improving by means upon which we need not here dilate, it at length became what we now find it,—a language copious, strong, refined, impressive, and capable, if properly used, of a great degree of beauty and harmony.

SECTION I.—DERIVATION OF THE ARTICLES.

1. For the derivation of our article THE, which he calls "an adjective," Dr. Webster was satisfied with giving this hint: "Sax. the; Dutch, de."—Amer. Dict. According to Horne Tooke, this definite article of ours, is the Saxon verb "THE," imperative, from THEAN, to take; and is nearly equivalent in meaning to that or those, because our that is "the past participle of THEAN," and "means taken."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 49. But this is not very satisfactory. Examining ancient works, we find the word, or something resembling it, or akin to it, written in various forms, as se, see, ye, te, de, the, thá, and others that cannot be shown by our modern letters; and, tracing it as one article, or one and the same word, through what we suppose to be the oldest of these forms, in stead of accounting the forms as signs of different roots, we should sooner regard it as originating in the imperative of SEON, to see.

2. AN, our indefinite article, is the Saxon oen, ane, an, ONE; and, by dropping n before a consonant, becomes a. Gawin Douglas, an ancient English writer, wrote ane, even before a consonant; as, "Ane book,"—"Ane lang spere,"—"Ane volume."

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—The words of Tooke, concerning the derivation of That and The, as nearly as they can be given in our letters, are these: "THAT (in the Anglo-Saxon Thæt, i.e. Thead, Theat) means taken, assumed; being merely the past participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb Thean, Thegan, Thion, Thihan, Thicgan, Thigian; sumere, assumere, accipere; to THE, to get, to take, to assume.

    'Ill mote he THE That caused me
    To make myselfe a frere.'—Sir T. More's Workes, pag. 4.

THE (our article, as it is called) is the imperative of the same verb Thean: which may very well supply the place of the correspondent Anglo-Saxon article Se, which is the imperative of Seon, videre: for it answers the same purpose in discourse, to say…. see man, or take man."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 49.

OBS. 2.—Now, between Thæt and Theat, there is a considerable difference of form, for æ and ea are not the same diphthong; and, in the identifying of so many infinitives, as forming but one verb, there is room for error. Nor is it half so probable that these are truly one root, as that our article The is the same, in its origin, as the old Anglo-Saxon Se. Dr. Bosworth, in his Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, gives no such word as Thean or Thegan, no such participle as Thead or Theat, which derivative is perhaps imaginary; but he has inserted together "Thicgan, thicgean, thigan, to receive, or take;" and separately, "Theon, to thrive, or flourish,"—"Thihan, to thrive,"—and "Thion, to flourish;" as well as the preterit "Theat, howled," from "Theotan, to howl." And is it not plain, that the old verb "THE," as used by More, is from Theon, to thrive, rather than from Thicgan, to take? "Ill mote he THE"—"Ill might he thrive," not, "Ill might he take."

OBS. 3.—Professor Hart says, "The word the was originally thæt, or that. In course of time [,] it became abbreviated, and the short form acquired, in usage, a shade of meaning different from the original long one. That is demonstrative with emphasis; the is demonstrative without emphasis."—Hart's E. Grammar, p. 32. This derivation of The is quite improbable; because the shortening of a monosyllable of five letters by striking out the third and the fifth, is no usual mode of abbreviation. Bosworth's Dictionary explains THE as "An indeclinable article, often used for all the cases of Se, seo, thæt, especially in adverbial expressions and in corrupt Anglo-Saxon, as in the Chronicle after the year 1138."

OBS. 4—Dr. Latham, in a section which is evidently neither accurate nor self-consistent, teaches us—"that there exist in the present English two powers of the word spelled t-h-e, or of the so-called definite article;" then, out of sixteen Anglo-Saxon equivalents, he selects two for the roots of this double-powered the; saying, "Hence the the that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon thy is one word; whilst the the that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon the, [is] another. The latter is the common article: the former the the in expressions like all the more, all the better—more by all that, better by all that, and the Latin phrases eo majus, eo melius."—Latham's Hand-Book, p. 158. This double derivation is liable to many objections. The Hand-Book afterwards says, "That the, in expressions like all the more, all the better, &c., is no article, has already been shown."—P. 196. But in fact, though the before comparatives or superlatives be no article, Dr. Latham's etymologies prove no such thing; neither does he anywhere tell us what it is. His examples, too, with their interpretations, are all of them fictitious, ambiguous, and otherwise bad. It is uncertain whether he meant his phrases for counterparts to each other or not. If the means "by that," or thereby, it is an adverb; and so is its equivalent "eo" denominated by the Latin grammarians. See OBS. 10, under Rule I.

SECTION II.—DERIVATION OF NOUNS.

In English, Nouns are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from verbs, or from participles.

I. Nouns are derived from Nouns in several different ways:—

1. By the adding of ship, dom, ric, wick, or, ate, hood, or head: as, fellow, fellowship; king, kingdom; bishop, bishopric; bailiff, or baily, bailiwick; senate, senator; tetrarch, tetrarchate; child, childhood; God, Godhead. These generally denote dominion, office, or character.

2. By the adding of ian: as, music, musician; physic, physician; theology, theologian; grammar, grammarian; college, collegian. These generally denote profession.

3. By the adding of r, ry, or ery: as, grocer, grocery; cutler, cutlery; slave, slavery; scene, scenery; fool, foolery. These sometimes denote state or habit; sometimes, an artificer's wares or shop.

4. By the adding of age or ade: as, patron, patronage; porter, porterage; band, bandage; lemon, lemonade; baluster, balustrade; wharf, wharfage; vassal, vassalage.

5. By the adding of kin, let, ling, ock, el, erel, or et: as, lamb, lambkin; ring, ringlet; cross, crosslet; duck, duckling; hill, hillock; run, runnel; cock, cockerel; pistol, pistolet; eagle, eaglet; circle, circlet. All these denote little things, and are called diminutives.

6. By the addition of ist: as, psalm, psalmist; botany, botanist; dial, dialist; journal, journalist. These denote persons devoted to, or skilled in, the subject expressed by the primitive.

7. By the prefixing of an adjective, or an other noun, so as to form a compound word: as, foreman, broadsword, statesman, tradesman; bedside, hillside, seaside; bear-berry, bear-fly, bear-garden; bear's-ear, bear's-foot, goat's-beard.

8. By the adoption of a negative prefix to reverse the meaning: as, order, disorder; pleasure, displeasure; consistency, inconsistency; capacity, incapacity; observance, nonobservance; resistance, nonresistance; truth, untruth; constraint, unconstraint.

9. By the use of the prefix counter, signifying against or opposite: as, attraction, counter-attraction; bond, counter-bond; current, counter-current; movement, counter-movement.

10. By the addition of ess, ix, or ine, or the changing of masculines to feminines so terminating: as, heir, heiress; prophet, prophetess; abbot, abbess; governor, governess; testator, testatrix; hero, heroine.

II. Nouns are derived from Adjectives in several different ways:—

1. By the adding of ness, ity, ship, dom, or hood: as, good, goodness; real, reality; hard, hardship; wise, wisdom; free, freedom; false, falsehood.

2. By the changing of t into ce or cy: as, radiant, radiance; consequent, consequence; flagrant, flagrancy; current, currency; discrepant, discrepance, or discrepancy.

3. By the changing of some of the letters, and the adding of t or th: as, long, length; broad, breadth; wide, width; high, height. The nouns included under these three heads, generally denote abstract qualities, and are called abstract nouns.

4. By the adding of ard: as, drunk, drunkard; dull, dullard. These denote ill character.

5. By the adding of ist: as, sensual, sensualist; separate, separatist; royal, royalist; fatal, fatalist. These denote persons devoted, addicted, or attached, to something.

6. By the adding of a, the Latin ending of neuter plurals, to certain proper adjectives in an: as, Miltonian, Miltoniana; Johnsonian, Johnsoniana. These literally mean, Miltonian things, sayings, or anecdotes, &c.; and are words somewhat fashionable with the journalists, and are sometimes used for titles of books that refer to table-talk.

III. Nouns are derived from Verbs in several different ways:—

1. By the adding of ment, ance, ence, ure, or age: as, punish, punishment; abate, abatement; repent, repentance; condole, condolence; forfeit, forfeiture; stow, stowage; equip, equipage; truck, truckage.

2. By a change of the termination of the verb, into se, ce, sion, tion, ation, or ition: as, expand, expanse, expansion; pretend, pretence, pretension; invent, invention; create, creation; omit, omission; provide, provision; reform, reformation; oppose, opposition. These denote either the act of doing, or the thing done.

3. By the adding of er or or: as, hunt, hunter; write, writer; collect, collector; assert, assertor; instruct, instructer, or instructor. These generally denote the doer. To denote the person to whom something is done, we sometimes form a derivative ending in ee: as, promisee, mortgagee, appellee, consignee.

4. Nouns and Verbs are sometimes alike in orthography, but different in pronunciation: as, a house, to house; a use, to use; a reb'el, to rebel'; a rec'ord, to record'; a cem'ent, to cement'. Of such pairs, it may often be difficult to say which word is the primitive.

5. In many instances, nouns and verbs are wholly alike as to form and sound, and are distinguished by their sense and construction only: as, love, to love; fear, to fear; sleep, to sleep;—to revise, a revise; to rebuke, a rebuke. In these, we have but the same word used differently.

IV. Nouns are often derived from Participles in ing; as, a meeting, the understanding, murmurings, disputings, sayings, and doings: and, occasionally, one is formed from such a word and an adverb or a perfect participle joined with it; as, "The turning-away,"—"His goings-forth,"—"Your having-boasted of it."

SECTION III.—DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES.

In English, Adjectives are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from verbs, or from participles.

I. Adjectives are derived from Nouns in several different ways:—

1. By the adding of ous, ious, eous, y, ey, ic, al, ical or ine: (sometimes with an omission or change of some of the final letters:) as, danger, dangerous; glory, glorious; right, righteous; rock, rocky; clay, clayey; poet, poetic, or poetical; nation, national; method, methodical; vertex, vertical; clergy, clerical; adamant, adamantine. Adjectives thus formed, generally apply the properties of their primitives, to the nouns to which they relate.

2. By the adding of ful: as, fear, fearful; cheer, cheerful; grace, graceful; shame, shameful; power, powerful. These come almost entirely from personal qualities or feelings, and denote abundance.

3. By the adding of some: as, burden, burdensome; game, gamesome; toil, toilsome. These denote plenty, but do not exaggerate.

4. By the adding of en: as, oak, oaken; silk, silken; wheat, wheaten; oat, oaten; hemp, hempen. Here the derivative denotes the matter of which something is made.

5. By the adding of ly or ish: as, friend, friendly; gentleman, gentlemanly; child, childish; prude, prudish. These denote resemblance. The termination ly signifies like.

6. By the adding of able or ible: as, fashion, fashionable; access, accessible. But these terminations are generally, and more properly, added to verbs. See Obs. 17th, 18th, &c., on the Rules for Spelling.

7. By the adding of less: as, house, houseless; death, deathless; sleep, sleepless; bottom, bottomless. These denote privation or exemption—the absence of what is named by the primitive.

8. By the adding of ed: as, saint, sainted; bigot, bigoted; mast, masted; wit, witted. These have a resemblance to participles, and some of them are rarely used, except when joined with some other word to form a compound adjective: as, three-sided, bare-footed, long-eared, hundred-handed, flat-nosed, hard-hearted, marble-hearted, chicken-hearted.

9. Adjectives coming from proper names, take various terminations: as, America, American; England, English; Dane, Danish; Portugal, Portuguese; Plato, Platonic.

10. Nouns are often converted into adjectives, without change of termination: as, paper currency; a gold chain; silver knee-buckles.

II. Adjectives are derived from Adjectives in several different ways:—

1. By the adding of ish or some: as, white, whitish; green, greenish; lone, lonesome; glad, gladsome. These denote quality with some diminution.

2. By the prefixing of dis, in, or un: as, honest, dishonest; consistent, inconsistent; wise, unwise. These express a negation of the quality denoted by their primitives.

3. By the adding of y or ly: as, swarth, swarthy; good, goodly. Of these there are but few; for almost all the derivatives of the latter form are adverbs.

III. Adjectives are derived from Verbs in several different ways:—

1. By the adding of able or ible: (sometimes with a change of some of the final letters:) as, perish, perishable; vary, variable; convert, convertible; divide, divisible, or dividable. These, according to their analogy, have usually a passive import, and denote susceptibility of receiving action. 2. By the adding of ive or ory: (sometimes with a change of some of the final letters:) as, elect, elective; interrogate, interrogative, interrogatory; defend, defensive; defame, defamatory; explain, explanatory.

3. Words ending in ate, are mostly verbs; but some of them may be employed as adjectives, in the same form, especially in poetry; as, reprobate, complicate.

IV. Adjectives are derived from Participles, not by suffixes, but in these ways:—

1. By the prefixing of un, meaning not; as, unyielding, unregarded, unreserved, unendowed, unendeared, unendorsed, unencountered, unencumbered, undisheartened, undishonoured. Of this sort there are very many.

2. By a combining of the participle with some word which does not belong to the verb; as, way-faring, hollow-sounding, long-drawn, deep-laid, dear-purchased, down-trodden. These, too, are numerous.

3. Participles often become adjectives without change of form. Such adjectives are distinguished from participles by their construction alone: as, "A lasting ornament;"—"The starving chymist;"—"Words of learned length;"—"With counterfeited glee."

SECTION IV.—DERIVATION OF THE PRONOUNS.

I. The English Pronouns are all of Saxon origin; but, in them, our language differs very strikingly from that of the Anglo-Saxons. The following table compares the simple personal forms:—

Eng. I, My or Me; We, Our or Us.
              Mine, Ours,
Sax. Ic, Min, Me or We, Ure or Us.
                        Mec; User,
Eng. Thou, Thy or Thee; Ye, Your You.
              Thine, or Yours,
Sax. Thu, Thin, The or Ge Eower, Eow or
                        Thec; Eowie.
Eng. He, His Him; They, Their or Them.
                                            Theirs,
Sax. He, His or Him or Hi or Hira or Heom or
              Hys, Hine; Hig, Heora, Hi.
Eng. She, Her or Her; They, Their or Them.
              Hers, Theirs,
Sax. Heo, Hire or Hi; Hi or Hira or Heom or
               Hyre, Hig, Heora, Hi.
Eng. It, Its, It; They, Their or Them.
                                            Theirs,
Sax. Hit, His or Hit; Hi or Hira or Heom or
              Hys, Hig, Heora, Hi.

Here, as in the personal pronouns of other languages, the plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives from the nominative singular. Many of these pronouns, perhaps all, as well as a vast number of other words of frequent use in our language, and in that from which it chiefly comes, were very variously written by the Middle English, Old English, Semi-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon authors. He who traces the history of our language, will meet with them under all the following forms, (or such as these would be with Saxon characters for the Saxon forms,) and perhaps in more:—

1. I, J, Y, y, i, ay, ic, che, ich, Ic;—MY, mi, min, MINE, myne, myn;—ME, mee, me, meh, mec, mech;—WE, wee, ve;—OUR or OURS, oure, ure, wer, urin, uren, urne, user, usse, usser, usses, ussum;—Us, ous, vs, uss, usic, usich, usig, usih, uz, huz.

2. THOU, thoue, thow, thowe, thu, tou, to, tu;—THY or THINE, thi, thyne, thyn, thin;—THEE, the, theh, thec;—YE, yee, yhe, ze, zee, ge, ghe;—YOUR or YOURS, youre, zour, hure, goure, yer, yower, yowyer, yorn, yourn, youre, eower;—You, youe, yow, gou, zou, ou, iu, iuh, eow, iow, geow, eowih, eowic, iowih.

3. HE, hee, hie, se;—His, hise, is, hys, ys, hyse, hus;—HIM, hine, hiene, hion, hen, hyne, hym, im;—THEY, thay, thei, the, tha, thai, thii, yai, hi, hie, heo, hig, hyg, hy;—THEIR or THEIRS, ther, theyr, theyrs, thair, thare, theora, hare, here, her, hir, hire, hira, hiora, hiera, heora, hyra;—THEM, thym, theym, thaym, thaim, thame, tham, em, hem, heom, hiom, eom, hom, him, hi, hig.

4. SHE, shee, sche, scho, sho, shoe, scæ, seo, heo, hio, hiu, hoo, hue;—HER, (possessive,) hur, hir, hire, hyr, hyre, hyra, hera;—HER, (objective,) hire, hyre, hur, hir, hi. The plural forms of this feminine pronoun are like those of the masculine He; but the "Well-Wishers to Knowledge," in their small Grammar, (erroneously, as I suppose,) make hira masculine only, and heora feminine only. See their Principles of Grammar, p. 38.

5. IT, yt, itt, hit, hyt, hytt. The possessive Its is a modern derivative; His or Hys was formerly used in lieu of it. The plural forms of this neuter pronoun, It, are like those of He and She. According to Horne Tooke, who declares hoet to have been one of its ancient forms, "this pronoun was merely the past participle of the verb HAITAN, hætan, nominare," to name, and literally signifies "the said;" (Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 46; W. Allen's Gram., p. 57;) but Dr. Alexander Murray, exhibiting it in an other form, not adapted to this opinion, makes it the neuter of a declinable adjective, or pronoun, inflected from the masculine, thus: "He, heo hita, this"—Hist. of Lang., Vol. i, p. 315.

II. The relatives and interrogatives are derived from the same source, the Anglo-Saxon tongue, and have passed through similar changes, or varieties in orthography; but, the common relative pronoun of the Anglo-Saxons being like their article the,—or, with the three genders, se, seo, thæt,—and not like our who, which, and what, it is probable that the interrogative use of these words was the primitive one. They have been found in all the following forms:—

1. WHO, ho, hue, wha, hwa, hua, wua, qua, quha;—WHOSE, who's, whos, whois, whoise, wheas, quhois, quhais, quhase, hwæs;—WHOM, whome, quham, quhum, quhome, hwom, hwam, hwæm, hwæne, hwone.

2. WHICH, whiche, whyche, whilch, wych, quilch, quilk, quhilk, hwilc, hwylc, hwelc, whilk, huilic, hvilc. For the Anglo-Saxon forms, Dr. Bosworth's Dictionary gives "hwilc, hwylc, and hwelc;" but Professor Fowler's E. Grammar makes them "huilic and hvilc."—See p. 240. Whilk, or quhilk, is a Scottish form.

3. WHAT, hwat, hwet, quhat, hwæt. This pronoun, whether relative or interrogative, is regarded by Bosworth and others as a neuter derivative from the masculine or femine [sic—KTH] hwa, who. It may have been thence derived, but, in modern English, it is not always of the neuter gender. See the last note on page 312.

4. THAT, Anglo-Saxon Thæt. Tooke's notion of the derivation of this word is noticed above in the section on Articles. There is no certainty of its truth; and our lexicographers make no allusion to it. W. Allen reaffirms it. See his Gram., p. 54.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—In the Well-Wishers' Grammar, (p. 39,) as also in L. Murray's and some others, the pronoun Which is very strangely and erroneously represented as being always "of the neuter gender." (See what is said of this word in the Introduction, Chap. ix, ¶ 32.) Whereas it is the relative most generally applied to brute animals, and, in our common version of the Bible, its application to persons is peculiarly frequent. Fowler says, "In its origin it is a Compound."—E. Gram., p. 240. Taking its first Anglo-Saxon form to be "Huilic," he thinks it traceable to "hwa, who," or its ablative "hwi," and "lie, like."—Ib. If this is right, the neuter sense is not its primitive import, or any part of it.

OBS. 2.—From its various uses, the word That is called sometimes a pronoun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction; but, in respect to derivation, it is, doubtless, one and the same. As a relative pronoun, it is of either number, and has no plural form different from the singular; as, "Blessed is the man that heareth me."—Prov., viii, 34. "Blessed are they that mourn."—Matt., v, 4. As an adjective, it is said by Tooke to have been formerly "applied indifferently to plural nouns and to singular; as, 'Into that holy orders.'—Dr. Martin. 'At that dayes.'—Id. 'That euyll aungels the denilles.'—Sir Tho. More. 'This pleasure undoubtedly farre excelleth all that pleasures that in this life maie be obteined.'—Id."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, pp. 47 and 48. The introduction of the plural form those, must have rendered this usage bad English.

SECTION V.—DERIVATION OF VERBS.

In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, from adjectives, or from verbs.

I. Verbs are derived from Nouns in the following different ways:—

1. By the adding of ize, ise, en, or ate: as, author, authorize; critic, criticise; length, lengthen; origin, originate. The termination ize is of Greek origin, and ise is most probably of French: the former is generally preferable in forming English derivatives; but both are sometimes to be used, and they should be applied according to Rule 13th for Spelling.

2. Some few verbs are derived from nouns by the changing of a sharp or hard consonant to a flat or soft one, or by the adding of a mute e, to soften a hard sound: as, advice, advise; price, prize; bath, bathe; cloth, clothe; breath, breathe; wreath, wreathe; sheath, sheathe; grass, graze.

II. Verbs are derived from Adjectives in the following different ways:—

1. By the adding of ize or en: as legal, legalize; immortal, immortalize; civil, civilize; human, humanize; familiar, familiarize; particular, particularize; deaf, deafen; stiff, stiffen; rough, roughen; deep, deepen; weak, weaken.

2. Many adjectives become verbs by being merely used and inflected as verbs: as, warm, to warm, he warms; dry, to dry, he dries; dull, to dull, he dulls; slack, to slack, he slacks; forward, to forward, he forwards.

III. Verbs are derived from Verbs in the following modes, or ways:—

1. By the prefixing of dis or un to reverse the meaning: as, please, displease; qualify, disqualify; organize, disorganize; fasten, unfasten; muzzle, unmuzzle; nerve, unnerve.

2. By the prefixing of a, be, for, fore, mis, over, out, under, up, or with: as, rise, arise; sprinkle, besprinkle; bid, forbid; see, foresee; take, mistake; look, overlook; run, outrun; go, undergo; hold, uphold; draw, withdraw.

SECTION VI.—DERIVATION OF PARTICIPLES.

All English Participles are derived from English verbs, in the manner explained in Chapter 7th, under the general head of Etymology; and when foreign participles are introduced into our language, they are not participles with us, but belong to some other class of words, or part of speech.

SECTION VII.—DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.

1. In English, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by the addition of ly: which is an abbreviation for like, and which, though the addition of it to a noun forms an adjective, is the most distinctive as well as the most common termination of our adverbs: as, candid, candidly; sordid, sordidly; presumptuous, presumptuously. Most adverbs of manner are thus formed.

2. Many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more English words; as, herein, thereby, to-day, always, already, elsewhere, sometimes, wherewithal. The formation and the meaning of these are, in general, sufficiently obvious.

3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix, or inseparable preposition, a; as, Abreast, abroach, abroad, across, afar, afield, ago, agog, aland, along, amiss, atilt.

4. Needs, as an adverb, is a contraction of need is; prithee, or pr'ythee, of I pray thee; alone, of all one; only, of one-like; anon, of the Saxon an on; i.e., in one [instant]; never, of ne ever; i.e., not ever. Prof. Gibbs, in Fowler's Grammar, makes needs "the Genitive case of the noun need."—P. 311.

5. Very is from the French veray, or vrai, true; and this, probably, from the Latin verus. Rather appears to be the regular comparative of the ancient rath, soon, quickly, willingly; which comes from the Anglo-Saxon "Rathe, or Hrathe, of one's own accord."—Bosworth. But the parent language had also "Hrathre, to a mind."—Id. That is, to one's mind, or, perhaps, more willingly.

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.—Many of our most common adverbs are of Anglo-Saxon derivation, being plainly traceable to certain very old forms, of the same import, which the etymologist regards but as the same words differently spelled: as, All, eall, eal, or æll; Almost, ealmæst, or ælmæst; Also, ealswa, or ælswa; Else, elles; Elsewhere, elleshwær; Enough, genog, or genoh; Even, euen, efen, or æfen; Ever, euer, æfer, or æfre; Downward, duneweard; Forward, forweard, or foreweard; Homeward, hamweard; Homewards, hamweardes; How, hu; Little, lytel; Less, læs; Least, læst; No, na; Not, noht, or nocht; Out, ut, or ute; So, swa; Still, stille, or stylle; Then, thenne; There, ther, thar, thær; Thither, thider, or thyder; Thus, thuss, or thus; Together, togædere, or togædre; Too, tó; When, hwenne, or hwænne; Where, hwær; Whither, hwider, hwyder, or hwyther; Yea, ia, gea, or gee; Yes, gese, gise, or gyse.

OBS. 2.—According to Horne Tooke, "Still and Else are the imperatives Stell and Ales of their respective verbs Stellan, to put, and Alesan, to dismiss."—Diversions, Vol. i, p. 111. He afterwards repeats the doctrine thus: "Still is only the imperative Stell or Steall, of Stellan or Steallian, ponere."—Ib., p. 146. "This word Else, formerly written alles, alys, alyse, elles, ellus, ellis, ells, els, and now else; is, as I have said, no other than Ales or Alys, the imperative of Alesan or Alysan, dimittere."—Ib., p. 148. These ulterior and remote etymologies are perhaps too conjectural.

SECTION VIII.—DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS.

The English Conjunctions are mostly of Anglo-Saxon origin. The best etymological vocabularies of our language give us, for the most part, the same words in Anglo-Saxon characters; but Horne Tooke, in his Diversions of Purley, (a learned and curious work which the advanced student may peruse with advantage,) traces, or professes to trace, these and many other English particles, to Saxon verbs or participles. The following derivations, so far as they partake of such speculations, are offered principally on his authority:—

1. ALTHOUGH, signifying admit, allow, is from all and though; the latter being supposed the imperative of Thafian or Thafigan, to allow, to concede, to yield.

2. AN, an obsolete or antiquated conjunction, signifying if, or grant, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb Anan or Unan, to grant, to give.

3. AND, [Saxon, And,] add, is said by Tooke to come from "An-ad, the imperative of Ananad, Dare congeriem."—D. of P., Vol. i, p. 111. That is, "To give the heap." The truth of this, if unapparent, I must leave so.

4. AS, according to Dr. Johnson, is from the Teutonic als; but Tooke says that als itself is a contraction for all and the original particle es or as, meaning it, that, or which.

5. BECAUSE, from be and cause, means by cause; the be being written for by.

6. BOTH, the two, is from the pronominal adjective both; which, according to Dr. Alexander Murray, is a contraction of the Visigothic Bagoth, signifying doubled. The Anglo-Saxons wrote for it butu, butwu, buta, and batwa; i. e., ba, both, twa, two.

7. BUT,—(in Saxon, bute, butan, buton, or butun—) meaning except, yet, now, only, else than, that not, or on the contrary,—is referred by Tooke and some others, to two roots,—each of them but a conjectural etymon for it. "BUT, implying addition," say they, "is from Bot, the imperative of Botan, to boot, to add; BUT, denoting exception, is from Be-utan, the imperative of Beon-utan, to be out."—See D. of P., Vol. i, pp. 111 and 155.

8. EITHER, one of the two, like the pronominal adjective EITHER, is from the Anglo-Saxon Æther, or Egther, a word of the same uses, and the same import.

9. EKE, also, (now nearly obsolete,) is from "Eac, the imperative of Eacan, to add."

10. EVEN, whether a noun, an adjective, an adverb, or a conjunction, appears to come from the same source, the Anglo-Saxon word Efen or Æfen.

11. EXCEPT, which, when used as a conjunction, means unless, is the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) an ancient perfect participle, of the verb to except.

12. FOR, because, is from the Saxon preposition For; which, to express this meaning, our ancestors combined with something else, reducing to one word some such phrase as, For that, For this, For this that; as, "Fortha, Fortham, Forthan, Forthamthe, Forthan the."—See Bosworth's Dict.

13. IF, give, grant, allow, is from "Gif, the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon Gifan, to give."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 111.

14. LEST, that not, dismissed, is from "Lesed, the perfect participle of Lesan, to dismiss."

15. NEITHER, not either, is a union and contraction of ne either: our old writers frequently used ne for not; the Anglo-Saxons likewise repeated it, using ne—ne, in lieu of our corresponsives neither—nor; and our modern lexicographers still note the word, in some of these senses.

16. NOR, not other, not else, is supposed to be a union and contraction of ne or.

17. NOTWITHSTANDING, not hindering, is an English compound of obvious formation.

18. OR, an alternative conjunction, seems to be a word of no great antiquity. It is supposed to be a contraction of other, which Johnson and his followers give, in Saxon characters, either as its source, or as its equivalent.

19. PROVIDED, the perfect participle of the verb provide, becomes occasionally a disjunctive conjunction, by being used alone or with the particle that, to introduce a condition, a saving clause, a proviso.

20. SAVE, anciently used with some frequency as a conjunction, in the sense of but, or except is from the imperative of the English verb save, and is still occasionally turned to such a use by the poets.

21. SEEING, sometimes made a copulative conjunction, is the imperfect participle of the verb see. Used at the head of a clause, and without reference to an agent, it assumes a conjunctive nature.

22. SINCE is conjectured by Tooke to be "the participle of Seon, to see," and to mean "seeing, seeing that, seen that, or seen as."—Diversions of P., Vol. i, pp. 111 and 220. But Johnson and others say, it has been formed "by contraction from sithence, or sith thence, from sithe, Sax."—Joh. Dict.

23. THAN, which introduces the latter term of a comparison, is from the Gothic than, or the Anglo-Saxon thanne, which was used for the same purpose. 24. THAT, when called a conjunction, is said by Tooke to be etymologically the same as the adjective or pronoun THAT, the derivation of which is twice spoken of above; but, in Todd's Johnson's Dictionary, as abridged by Chalmers, THAT, the conjunction, is referred to "thatei, Gothic;" THAT, the pronoun, to "that, thata, Gothic; thæt, Saxon; dat, Dutch."

25. THEN, used as a conjunction, is doubtless the same word as the Anglo-Saxon Thenne, taken as an illative, or word of inference.

26. "THOUGH, allow, is [from] the imperative Thaf, or Thafig, of the verb Thafian or Thafigan, to allow."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, pp. 111 and 150.

27. "UNLESS, except, dismiss, is [from] Onles, the imperative of Onlesan, to dismiss."—Ib.

28. WHETHER, a corresponsive conjunction, which introduces the first term of an alternative, is from the Anglo-Saxon hwæther, which was used for the same purpose.

29. YET, nevertheless, is from "Get, the imperative of Getan, to get."—Tooke.

SECTION IX.—DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS.

The following are the principal English Prepositions, explained in the order of the list:—

1. ABOARD, meaning on board of, is from the prefix or preposition a and the noun board, which here means "the deck of a ship" or vessel. Abord, in French, is approach, arrival, or a landing.

2. ABOUT, [Sax. Abútan, or Abúton,] meaning around, at circuit, or doing, is from the prefix a, meaning at, and the noun bout, meaning a turn, a circuit, or a trial. In French, bout means end; and about, end, or but-end.

3. ABOVE, [Sax. Abufan, Abufon, A-be-ufan.] meaning over, or, literally, at-by-over, or at-by-top, is from the Saxon or Old English a, be, and ufa, or ufan, said to mean "high, upwards, or the top."

4. ACROSS, at cross, athwart, traverse, is from the prefix a and the word cross.

5. AFTER, [Sax. Æfter, or Æftan,] meaning behind, subsequent to, is, in form, the comparative of aft, a word common to seamen, and it may have been thence derived.

6. AGAINST, opposite to, is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, Ongean, or Ongegen, each of which forms means again or against. As prefixes, on and a are often equivalent.

7. ALONG, [i.e., at-long,] meaning lengthwise of, near to, is formed from a and long.

8. AMID, [i. e., at mid or middle,] is from a and mid; and AMIDST [, i.e., at midst,] is from a and midst, contracted from middest, the superlative of mid.

9. AMONG, mixed with, is probably an abbreviation of amongst; and AMONGST, according to Tooke, is from a and mongst, or the older "Ge-meneged," Saxon for "mixed, mingled."

10. AROUND, about, encircling, is from a and round, a circle, or circuit.

11. AT, gone to, is supposed by some to come from the Latin ad; but Dr. Murray says, "We have in Teutonic AT for AGT, touching or touched, joined, at."—Hist. of Lang., i, 349.

12. ATHWART, across, is from a and thwart, cross; and this from the Saxon Thweor.

13. BATING, a preposition for except, is the imperfect participle of bate, to abate.

14. BEFORE, [i.e., by-fore,] in front of, is from the prefix be and the adjective fore.

15. BEHIND, [i.e., by-hind,] in rear of, is from the prefix be and the adjective hind.

16. BELOW, [i.e., by-low,] meaning under, or beneath, is from be and the adjective low.

17. BENEATH [, Sax. or Old Eng. Beneoth,] is from be and neath, or Sax. Neothe, low.

18. BESIDE [, i.e., by-side,] is probably from be and the noun or adjective side.

19. BESIDES [, i.e., by-sides,] is probably from be and the plural noun sides.

20. BETWEEN, [Sax. Betweonan, or Betwynan,] literally, by-twain, seems to have been formed from be, by, and twain, two—or the Saxon Twegen, which also means two, twain.

21. BETWIXT, meaning between, [Sax. Betweox, Betwux, Betwyx, Betwyxt, &c.,] is from be, by, and twyx, originally a "Gothic" word signifying "two, or twain."—See Tooke, Vol. i, p. 329.

22. BEYOND, past, [Sax. Begeond,] is from the prefix be, by, and yond, [Sax. Geond,] past, far.

23. BY [, Sax. Be, Bi, or Big,] is affirmed by Tooke to be "the imperative Byth, of the Anglo-Saxon verb Beon, to be."—Diversions of P., Vol. i, p. 326. This seems to be rather questionable.

24. CONCERNING, the preposition, is from the first participle of the verb concern.

25. DOWN, the preposition, is from the Anglo-Saxon Dune, down.

26. DURING, prep. of time, is from the first participle of an old verb dure, to last, formerly in use; as, "While the world may dure."—Chaucer's Knight's Tale.

27. ERE, before, prep. of time, is from the Anglo-Saxon Ær, a word of like sort.

28. EXCEPT, bating, is from the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) the ancient perfect participle of the verb to except; and EXCEPTING, when a preposition, is from the first participle of the same verb.

29. FOR, because of, is the Anglo-Saxon preposition For, a word of like import, and supposed by Tooke to have come from a Gothic noun signifying cause, or sake.

30. FROM, in Saxon, Fram, is probably derived from the old adjective Frum, original.

31. IN, or the Saxon In, is the same as the Latin in: the Greek is [Greek: en]; and the French, en.

32. INTO, like the Saxon Into, noting entrance, is a compound of in and to.

33. MID and MIDST, as English prepositions, are poetical forms used for Amid and Amidst.

34. NOTWITHSTANDING, not hindering, is from the adverb not, and the participle withstanding, which, by itself, means hindering, or preventing. 35. OF is from the Saxon Of, or Af; which is supposed by Tooke to come from a noun signifying offspring.

36. OFF, opposed to on, Dr. Johnson derives from the "Dutch af."

37. ON, a word very often used in Anglo-Saxon, is traced by some etymologists to the Gothic ana, the German an, the Dutch aan; but no such derivation fixes its meaning.

38. OUT, [Sax. Ut, Ute, or Utan,] when made a preposition, is probably from the adverb or adjective Out, or the earlier Ut; and OUT-OF, [Sax. Ut-of,] opposed to Into, is but the adverb Out and the preposition Of—usually written separately, but better joined, in some instances.

39. OVER, above, is from the Anglo-Saxon Ofer, over; and this, probably, from Ufa, above, high, or from the comparative, Ufera, higher.

40. OVERTHWART, meaning across, is a compound of over and thwart, cross.

41. PAST, beyond, gone by, is a contraction from the perfect participle passed.

42. PENDING, during or hanging, has a participial form, but is either an adjective or a preposition: we do not use pend alone as a verb, though we have it in depend.

43. RESPECTING, concerning, is from the first participle of the verb respect.

44. ROUND, a preposition for about or around, is from the noun or adjective round.

45. SINCE is most probably a contraction of the old word Sithence; but is conjectured by Tooke to have been formed from the phrase, "Seen as."

46. THROUGH [, Sax. Thurh, or Thurch,] seems related to Thorough, Sax. Thuruh; and this again to Thuru, or Duru, a Door.

47. THROUGHOUT, quite through, is an obvious compond of through and out.

48. TILL, [Sax. Til or Tille,] to, until, is from the Saxon Til or Till, an end, a station.

49. TO, whether a preposition or an adverb, is from the Anglo-Saxon particle To.

50. TOUCHING, with regard to, is from the first participle of the verb touch.

51. TOWARD or TOWARDS, written by the Anglo-Saxons Toweard or Toweardes, is a compound of To and Ward or Weard, a guard, a look-out; "Used in composition to express situation or direction."—Bosworth.

52. UNDER, [Gothic, Undar; Dutch, Onder,] beneath, below, is a common Anglo-Saxon word, and very frequent prefix, affirmed by Tooke to be "nothing but on-neder," a Dutch compound = on lower.—See Diversions of Purley, Vol. i, p. 331.

53. UNDERNEATH is a compound of under and neath, low; whence nether, lower.

54. UNTIL is a compound from on or un, and till, or til, the end.

55. UNTO, now somewhat antiquated, is formed, not very analogically, from un and to.

56. UP is from the Anglo-Saxon adjective, "Up or Upp, high, lofty."

57. UPON, which appears literally to mean high on, is from two words up and on.

58. WITH comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon With, a word of like sort and import; which Tooke says is an imperative verb, sometimes from "Withan, to join," and sometimes from "Wyrthan, to be."—See his Diversions, Vol. i, p. 262.

59. WITHIN [, i.e., by-in,] is from with and in: Sax. Withinnan, Binnan, or Binnon.

60. WITHOUT [, i.e., by-out,] is from with and out: Sax. Withútan, -úten, -úton; Bútan, Búton, Bútun.

OBSERVATION.

In regard to some of our minor or simpler prepositions, as of sundry other particles, to go beyond the forms and constructions which present or former usage has at some period given them as particles, and to ascertain their actual origin in something ulterior, if such they had, is no very easy matter; nor can there be either satisfaction or profit in studying what one suspects to be mere guesswork. "How do you account for IN, OUT, ON, OFF, and AT?" says the friend of Tooke, in an etymological dialogue at Purley. The substance of his answer is, "The explanation and etymology of these words require a degree of knowledge in all the antient northern languages, and a skill in the application of that knowledge, which I am very far from assuming; and though I am almost persuaded by some of my own conjectures concerning them, I am not willing, by an apparently forced and far-fetched derivation, to justify your imputation of etymological legerdemain."—Diversions, Vol. i, p. 370.

SECTION X.—DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS.

Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used as Interjections, (such as Good! Strange! Indeed!,) do not require an explanation here; and those mere sounds which are in no wise expressive of thought, scarcely admit of definition or derivation. The Interjection HEY is probably a corruption of the adjective High;—ALAS is from the French Hélas:—ALACK is probably a corruption of Alas;—WELAWAY or WELLAWAY, (which is now corrupted into WELLADAY,) is said by some to be from the Anglo-Saxon Wá-lá-wá, i.e., Wo-lo-wo;—"FIE," says Tooke, "is the imperative of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon verb Fian, to hate;"—Heyday is probably from high day;—AVAUNT, perhaps from the French avant, before;—LO, from look;—BEGONE, from be and gone;—WELCOME, from well and come;—FAREWELL, from fare and well.

SECTION XI—EXPLANATION OF THE PREFIXES.

In the formation of English words, certain particles are often employed as prefixes; which, as they generally have some peculiar import, may be separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon origin, or character; and the greater part of these are still employed as separate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek, or French prepositions. The roots to which they are prefixed, are not always proper English words. Those which are such, are called SEPARABLE RADICALS; those which are not such, INSEPARABLE RADICALS.

CLASS I—THE ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES.

1. A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at, or to: as in a-board, a-shore, a-foot, a-bed, a-soak, a-tilt, a-slant, a-far, a-field; which are equal to the phrases, on board, on shore, on foot, in bed, in soak, at tilt, at slant, to a distance, to the fields. The French à, to, is probably the same particle. This prefix is sometimes redundant, adding little or nothing to the meaning; as in awake, arise, amend.

2. BE, as a prefix, signifies upon, over, by, to, at, or for: as in be-spatter, be-cloud, be-times, be-tide, be-howl, be-speak. It is sometimes redundant, or merely intensive; as in be-gird, be-deck, be-loved, be-dazzle, be-moisten, be-praise, be-quote.

3. COUNTER, an English prefix, allied to the French Contre, and the Latin Contra, means against, or opposite; as in counter-poise, counter-evidence, counter-natural.

4. FOR, as a prefix, unlike the common preposition For, seems generally to signify from: it is found in the irregular verbs for-bear, for-bid, for-get, for-give, for-sake, for-swear; and in for-bathe, for-do, for-pass, for-pine, for-say, for-think, for-waste, which last are now disused, the for in several being merely intensive.

5. FORE, prefixed to a verb, signifies before; as in fore-know, fore-tell: prefixed to a noun, it is usually an adjective, and signifies anterior; as in fore-side, fore-part.

6. HALF, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in composition; and, often, merely to denote imperfection: as, half-sighted, seeing imperfectly.

7. MIS signifies wrong or ill; as in mis-cite, mis-print, mis-spell, mis-chance, mis-hap.

8. OVER denotes superiority or excess; as in over-power, over-strain, over-large.

9. OUT, prefixed to a verb, generally denotes excess; as in out-do, out-leap, out-poise: prefixed to a noun, it is an adjective, and signifies exterior; as in out-side, out-parish.

10. SELF generally signifies one's own person, or belonging to one's own person; but, in self-same, it means very. We have many words beginning with Self, but most of them seem to be compounds rather than derivatives; as, self-love, self-abasement, self-abuse, self-affairs, self-willed, self-accusing.

11. UN denotes negation or contrariety; as in un-kind, un-load, un-truth, un-coif.

12. UNDER denotes inferiority; as in under-value, under-clerk, under-growth.

13. UP denotes motion upwards; as in up-lift: sometimes subversion; as in up-set.

14. WITH, as a prefix, unlike the common preposition With, signifies against, from, or back; as in with-stand, with-hold, with-draw, with-stander, with-holdment, with-drawal.

CLASS II.—THE LATIN PREFIXES.

The primitives or radicals to which these are prefixed, are not many of them employed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix Ad, Con, Ex, In, Ob, or Sub, is often changed before certain consonants; not capriciously, but with uniformity, to adapt or assimilate it to the sound which follows.

1. A, AB, or ABS, means From, or Away: as, a-vert, to turn from, or away; ab-duce, to lead from; ab-duction, a carrying-away; ab-stract, to draw from, or away.

2. AD,—forming ac, af, al, an, ap, as, at,—means To, or At: as, ad-vert, to turn to; ac-cord, to yield to; af-flux, a flowing-to; al-ly, to bind to; an-nex, to link to; ap-ply, to put to; as-sume, to take to; at-test, to witness to; ad-mire, to wonder at.

3. ANTE means Fore, or Before: as, ante-past, a fore-taste; ante-cedent, foregoing, or going before; ante-mundane, before the world; ante-date, to date before.

4. CIRCUM means Round, Around, or About: as circum-volve, to roll round; circum-scribe, to write round; circum-vent, to come round; circum-spect, looking about one's self.

5. CON,—which forms com, co, col, cor,—means Together: as, con-tract, to draw together; compel, to drive together; co-erce, to force together; col-lect, to gather together; cor-rade, to rub or scrape together; con-junction, a joining-together.

6. CONTRA, or CONTRO, means Against, or Counter: as, contra-dict, to speak against; contra-vene, to come against; contra-mure, countermure; contro-vert, to turn against.

7. DE means Of, From, or Down: as, de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract, to draw from; de-pend, to hang down; de-press, to press down; de-crease, to grow down, to grow less.

8. DIS, or DI, means Away, or Apart: as, dis-pel, to drive away; dis-sect, to cut apart; di-vert, to turn away.

9. E, or Ex,—making also ec, ef,—means Out: as, e-ject, to cast out; e-lect, to choose out; ex-clude, to shut out; ex-cite, to summon out; ec-stacy, a raising out; ef-face, to blot out.

10. EXTRA means Beyond, or Out of: as, extra-vagant, syllabled ex-trav'a-gant, roving be-yond; extra-vasate, ex-trav'a-sate, to flow out of the vessels; extra-territorial, being out of the territory.

11. IN,—which makes also il, im, ir,—means In, Into, or Upon: as, in-spire, to breathe in; il-lude, to draw in by deceit; im-mure, to wall in; ir-ruption, a rushing in; in-spect, to look into; in-scribe, to write upon; in-sult, to jump upon. These syllables, prefixed, to English nouns or adjectives, generally reverse their meaning; as in in-justice, il-legality, im-partiality, ir-religion, ir-rational, in-secure, in-sane.

12. INTER means Between, or In between: as, inter-sperse, to scatter in between; inter-jection, something thrown in between; inter-jacent, lying between; inter-communication, communication between.

13. INTRO means In, Inwards, or Within: as, intro-duce, to lead in; intro-vert, to turn inwards; intro-spect, to look within; intro-mission, a sending-in.

14. OB,—which makes also oc, of, op,—means Against: as, ob-trude, to thrust against; oc-cur, to run against; of-fer, to bring against; op-pose, to place against; ob-ject, to cast against.

15. PER means Through or By: as, per-vade, to go through; per-chance, by chance; per-cent, by the hundred; per-plex, to tangle through, or to entangle thoroughly.

16. POST means After: as, post-pone, to place after; post-date, to date after.

17. PRÆ, or PRE, means Before: as, pre-sume, to take before; pre-position, a placing-before, or thing placed before; præ-cognita, things known before.

18. PRO means For, Forth, or Forwards: as, pro-vide, to take care for; pro-duce, to bring forth; pro-trude, to thrust forwards; pro-ceed, to go forward; pro-noun, for a noun.

19. PRETER means By, Past, or Beyond: as, preter-it, bygone, or gone by; preter-imperfect, past imperfect; preter-natural, beyond what is natural; preter-mit, to put by, to omit.

20. RE means Again or Back: as, re-view, to view again; re-pel, to drive back.

21. RETRO means Backwards, Backward, or Back: as, retro-active, acting backwards; retro-grade, going backward; retro-cede, to cede back again.

22. SE means Aside or Apart: as, se-duce, to lead aside; se-cede, to go apart.

23. SEMI means Half: as, semi-colon, half a colon; semi-circle, half a circle.

24. SUB,—which makes suf, sug, sup, sur, and sus,—means Under, and sometimes Up: as, sub-scribe, to write under; suf-fossion, an undermining; sug-gest, to convey under; sup-ply, to put under; sur-reption, a creeping-under; sus-tain, to hold up; sub-ject, cast under.

25. SUBTER means Beneath: as, subter-fluous, flowing beneath.

26. SUPER means Over or Above: as, super-fluous, flowing over; super-natant, swimming above; super-lative, carried over, or carrying over; super-vise, to overlook, to oversee.

27. TRANS,—whence TRAN and TRA,—means Beyond, Over, To another state or place: as, trans-gress, to pass beyond or over; trans-cend, to climb over; trans-mit to send to an other place; trans-form, to change to an other shape; tra-montane, from beyond the mountains; i.e., Trans-Alpine, as opposed to Cis-Alpine.

CLASS III.—THE GREEK PREFIXES.

1. A and AN, in Greek derivatives, denote privation: as, a-nomalous, wanting rules; an-ony-mous, wanting name; an-archy, want of government; a-cephalous, headless.

2. AMPHI means Two, Both, or Double: as, amphi-bious, living in two elements; amphi-brach, both [sides] short; amphi-theatre, a double theatre.

3. ANTI means Against: as, anti-slavery, against slavery; anti-acid, against acidity; anti-febrile, against fever; anti-thesis, a placing-against.

4. APO, APH,—From: as, apo-strophe, a turning-from; aph-aeresis, a taking from.

5. DIA,—Through: as, dia-gonal, through the corners; dia-meter, measure through.

6. EPI, EPH,—Upon: as, epi-demic, upon the people; eph-emera, upon a day.

7. HEMI means Half: as, hemi-sphere, half a sphere; hemi-stich, half a verse.

8. HYPER means Over: as, hyper-critical, over-critical; hyper-meter, over measure. 9. HYPO means Under: as, hypo-stasis, substance, or that which stands under; hypo-thesis, supposition, or a placing-under; hypo-phyllous, under the leaf.

10. META means Beyond, Over, To an other state or place: as, meta-morphose, to change to an other shape; meta-physics, mental science, as beyond or over physics.

11. PARA means Against: as, para-dox, something contrary to common opinion.

12. PERI means Around: as, peri-phery, the circumference, or measure round.

13. SYN,—whence Sym, Syl,—means Together: as, syn-tax, a putting-together; sym-pathy, a suffering-together; syl-lable, what we take together; syn-thesis a placing-together.

CLASS IV.—THE FRENCH PREFIXES.

1. A is a preposition of very frequent use in French, and generally means To. I have suggested above that it is probably the same as the Anglo-Saxon prefix a. It is found in a few English compounds or derivatives that are of French, and not of Saxon origin: as, a-dieu, to God; i.e., I commend you to God; a-larm, from alarme, i e., à l'arme, to arms.

2. DE means Of or From: as in de-mure, of manners; de-liver, to ease from or of.

3. DEMI means Half: as, demi-man, half a man; demi-god, half a god; demi-devil, half a devil; demi-deify, to half deify; demi-sized, half sized; demi-quaver, half a quaver. 4. EN,—which sometimes becomes em,—means In, Into, or Upon: as, en-chain, to hold in chains; em-brace, to clasp in the arms; en-tomb, to put into a tomb; em-boss, to stud upon. Many words are yet wavering between the French and the Latin orthography of this prefix: as, embody, or imbody; ensurance, or insurance; ensnare, or insnare; enquire, or inquire.

5. SUR, as a French prefix, means Upon, Over, or After: as, sur-name, a name upon a name; sur-vey, to look over; sur-mount, to mount over or upon; sur-render, to deliver over to others; sur-feit, to overdo in eating; sur-vive, to live after, to over-live, to outlive.

END OF THE SECOND APPENDIX

APPENDIX III TO PART THIRD, OR SYNTAX.

OF THE QUALITIES OF STYLE.

Style, as a topic connected with syntax, is the particular manner in which a person expresses his conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere words, different from mere grammar, in any limited sense, and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has some relation to the author's peculiar manner of thinking; involves, to some extent, and shows his literary, if not his moral, character; is, in general, that sort of expression which his thoughts most readily assume; and, sometimes, partakes not only of what is characteristic of the man, of his profession, sect, clan, or province, but even of national peculiarity, or some marked feature of the age. The words which an author employs, may be proper in themselves, and so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax, and yet his style may have great faults.

In reviews and critical essays, the general characters of style are usually designated by such epithets as these;—concise, diffuse,—neat, negligent,—terse, bungling,—nervous, weak,—forcible, feeble,—vehement, languid,—simple, affected,—easy, stiff,—pure, barbarous,—perspicuous, obscure,—elegant, uncouth,—florid, plain,—flowery, artless,—fluent, dry,—piquant, dull,—stately, flippant,—majestic, mean,—pompous, modest,—ancient, modern. A considerable diversity of style, may be found in compositions all equally excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the different endowments by which genius is distinguished, require this diversity. But, in forming his style, the learner should remember, that a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff, uncouth, barbarous, or obscure style is always faulty; and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength, neatness, and purity, are qualities always to be aimed at.

In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing and writing something, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object, will be of no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowledge of grammar, as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, he should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requisition, in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. And if he has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the best authors, acquire both language and taste as well as sentiment;—and these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer.

In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here offer nothing more than a few brief hints. With respect to words and phrases, particular attention should be paid to three things—purity, propriety, and precision; and, with respect to sentences, to three others,—perspicuity, unity, and strength. Under each of these six heads, we shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a few of the most important directions for the forming of a good style.

SECTION I.—OF PURITY.

Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only, as belong to the language which we write or speak. Its opposites are the faults aimed at in the following precepts.

PRECEPT I.—Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms: such as the French words fraicheur, hauteur, delicatesse, politesse, noblesse;—the expression, "He repented himself;"—or, "It serves to an excellent purpose."

PRECEPT II.—Avoid obsolete or antiquated words, except there be some special reason for their use: that is, such words as acception, addressful, administrate, affamish, affrontiveness, belikely, blusterous, clergical, cruciate, rutilate, timidous.

PRECEPT III.—Avoid strange or unauthorized words: such as, flutteration, inspectator, judgematical, incumberment, connexity, electerized, martyrized, reunition, marvelize, limpitude, affectated, adorement, absquatulate. Of this sort is O. B. Peirce's "assimilarity," used on page 19th of his English Grammar; and still worse is Jocelyn's "irradicable," for uneradicable, used on page 5th of his Prize Essay on Education.

PRECEPT IV.—Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is ridiculous, however serious the subject. The following is an example: "Personifications, however rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude; analogies, however imposing the objects of parallel, and the media of comparison; can never expose the consequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration."—Anonymous.

SECTION II.—OF PROPRIETY.

Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express by them. Impropriety embraces all those forms of error, which, for the purpose of illustration, exercise, and special criticism, have been so methodically and so copiously posted up under the various heads, rules, and notes, of this extensive Grammar. A few suggestions, however, are here to be set down in the form of precepts.

PRECEPT I.—Avoid low and provincial expressions: such as, "Now, says I, boys;"—"Thinks I to myself;"—"To get into a scrape;"—"Stay here while I come back;"—"By jinkers;"—"By the living jingoes."

PRECEPT II.—In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely poetical: such as, morn, eve, plaint, corse, weal, drear, amid, oft, steepy;—"what time the winds arise."

PRECEPT III.—Avoid technical terms: except where they are necessary in treating of a particular art or science. In technology, they are proper.

PRECEPT IV.—Avoid the recurrence of a word in different senses, or such a repetition of words as denotes paucity of language: as, "His own reason might have suggested better reasons."—"Gregory favoured the undertaking, for no other reason than this; that the manager, in countenance, favoured his friend."—"I want to go and see what he wants."

PRECEPT V.—Supply words that are wanting: thus, instead of saying, "This action increased his former services," say, "This action increased the merit of his former services."—"How many [kinds of] substantives are there? Two; proper and common."—See E. Devis's Gram., p. 14. "These changes should not be left to be settled by chance or by caprice, but [should be determined] by the judicious application of the principles of Orthography."—See Fowlers E. Gram., 1850, p. 170.

PRECEPT VI.—Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions: as, "His memory shall be lost on the earth."—"I long since learned to like nothing but what you do."

PRECEPT VII.—Avoid unintelligible, inconsistent, or inappropriate expressions: such as, "I have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion."—"These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning."

PRECEPT VIII.—Observe the natural order of things or events, and do not put the cart before the horse: as, "The scribes taught and studied the Law of Moses."—"They can neither return to nor leave their houses."—"He tumbled, head over heels, into the water."—"'Pat, how did you carry that quarter of beef?' 'Why, I thrust it through a stick, and threw my shoulder over it.'"

SECTION III.—OF PRECISION.

Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the expression exactly to the thought, so as to say, with no deficiency or surplus of terms, whatever is intended by the author. Its opposites are noticed in the following precepts.

PRECEPT I.—Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or of sentiment; as, "When will you return again?"—"We returned back home again."—"On entering into the room, I saw and discovered he had fallen down on the floor and could not rise up."—"They have a mutual dislike to each other."—"Whenever I go, he always meets me there."—"Where is he at? In there."—"His faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded."

PRECEPT II.—Repeat words as often as an exact exhibition of your meaning requires them; for repetition may be elegant, if it be not useless. The following example does not appear faulty: "Moral precepts are precepts the reasons of which we see; positive precepts are precepts the reasons of which we do not see."—Butler's Analogy, p. 165.

PRECEPT III.—Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous, and employ those which are the most suitable; as, "A diligent scholar may acquire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain rewards, win prizes, and get high honour, though he earn no money." These six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and yet no two of them can here be correctly interchanged.

PRECEPT IV.—Observe the proper form of each word, and do not confound such as resemble each other. "Professor J. W. Gibbs, of Yale College," in treating of the "Peculiarities of the Cockney Dialect," says, "The Londoner sometimes confounds two different forms; as contagious for contiguous; eminent for imminent; humorous for humorsome; ingeniously for ingenuously; luxurious for luxuriant; scrupulosity for scruple; successfully for successively."—See Fowler's E. Gram., p. 87; and Pref., p. vi.

PRECEPT V.—Think clearly, and avoid absurd or incompatible expressions. Example of error: "To pursue those remarks, would, probably, be of no further service to the learner than that of burdening his memory with a catalogue of dry and uninteresting peculiarities; which may gratify curiosity, without affording information adequate to the trouble of the perusal."—Wright's Gram., p. 122.

PRECEPT VI.—Avoid words that are useless; and, especially, a multiplication of them into sentences, members, or clauses, that may well be spared. Example: "If one could really be a spectator of what is passing in the world around us without taking part in the events, or sharing in the passions and actual performance on the stage; if we could set ourselves down, as it were, in a private box of the world's great theatre, and quietly look on at the piece that is playing, no more moved than is absolutely implied by sympathy with our fellow-creatures, what a curious, what an amusing, what an interesting spectacle would life present."—G. P. R. JAMES: "The Forger," commencement of Chap. xxxi. This sentence contains eighty-seven words, "of which sixty-one are entirely unnecessary to the expression of the author's idea, if idea it can be called."—Holden's Review.

OBSERVATION.

Verbosity, as well as tautology, is not so directly opposite to precision, as to conciseness, or brevity. From the manner in which lawyers usually multiply terms in order to express their facts precisely, it would seem that, with them, precision consists rather in the use of many words than of few. But the ordinary style of legal instruments no popular writer can imitate without becoming ridiculous. A terse or concise style is very apt to be elliptical: and, in some particular instances, must be so; but, at the same time, the full expression, perhaps, may have more precision, though it be less agreeable. For example: "A word of one syllable, is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, is called a dissyllable: a word of three syllables, is called a trisyllable: a word of four or more syllables, is called a polysyllable."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 19. Better, perhaps, thus: "A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable; and a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable."—Brown's Institutes, p. 17.

SECTION IV.—OF PERSPICUITY.

Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a quality so essential to every kind of writing, that for the want of it no merit of other name can compensate. "Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only glimmer through the dark, and puzzle in stead of pleasing the reader."—Dr. Blair. Perspicuity, being the most important property of language, and an exemption from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree of positive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning; that carries us through the subject without embarrassment or confusion; and that always flows like a limpid stream, through which we can "see to the very bottom." Many of the errors which have heretofore been pointed out to the reader, are offences against perspicuity. Only three or four hints will here be added.

PRECEPT I.—Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, and explanatory phrases near enough to the words to which they relate, and in a position which will make their reference clear. The following sentences are deficient in perspicuity: "Reverence is the veneration paid to superior sanctity, intermixed with a certain degree of awe."—Unknown. "The Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as we."—See Murray's Gram., p. 307. "Taste was never made to cater for vanity."—J. Q. Adams's Rhet., Vol. i, p. 119.

PRECEPT II.—In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. For example: "Guard your weak side from being known. If it be attacked, the best way is, to join in the attack."—KAMES: Art of Thinking, p. 75. This maxim of prudence might be expressed more poetically, but with some loss of perspicuity, thus: "Your weak side guard from being known. Attacked in this, the assailants join."

PRECEPT III.—Avoid faulty ellipses, and repeat all words necessary to preserve the sense. The following sentences require the words which are inserted in crotchets: "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoyment of peace, and [for] the performance of our duty."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 166. "Double Comparatives and [Double] Superlatives should be avoided."—Fowler's E. Gram., 1850, p. 489.

PRECEPT IV.—Avoid the pedantic and sense-dimming style of charlatans and new theorists, which often demands either a translation or a tedious study, to make it at all intelligible to the ordinary reader. For example: "RULE XL Part 3. An intransitive or receptive asserter in the unlimited mode, depending on a word in the possessive case, may have, after it, a word in the subjective case, denoting the same thing: And, when it acts the part of an assertive name, depending on a relative, it may have after it a word in the subjective case. EXAMPLES:—John's being my friend, saved me from inconvenience. Seth Hamilton was unhappy in being a slave to party prejudice."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., 1839, p. 201. The meaning of this third part of a Rule of syntax, is, in proper English, as follows: "A participle not transitive, with the possessive case before it, may have after it a nominative denoting the same thing; and also, when a preposition governs the participle, a nominative may follow, in agreement with one which precedes." In doctrine, the former clause of the sentence is erroneous: it serves only to propagate false syntax by rule. See the former example, and a note of mine, referring to it, on page 531 of this work.

SECTION V.—OF UNITY.

Unity consists in avoiding needless pauses, and keeping one object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. Every sentence, whether its parts be few or many, requires strict unity. The chief faults, opposite to this quality of style, are suggested in the following precepts. PRECEPT I.—Avoid brokenness, hitching, or the unnecessary separation of parts that naturally come together. Examples: "I was, soon after my arrival, taken out of my Indian habit."—Addison, Tattler, No. 249. Better: "Soon after my arrival, I was taken out of my Indian habit."—Churchill's Gram., p. 326. "Who can, either in opposition, or in the ministry, act alone?"—Ib. Better: "Who can act alone, either in opposition, or in the ministry?"—Ib. "I, like others, have, in my youth, trifled with my health, and old age now prematurely assails me."—Ib., p. 327. Better: "Like others, I have trifled with my health, and old age now prematurely assails me."

PRECEPT II.—Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error: "The two volumes are, indeed, intimately connected, and constitute one uniform system of English Grammar."—Murray's Preface, p. iv. Better thus: "The two volumes are, indeed, intimately connected. They constitute one uniform system of English grammar."

PRECEPT III.—In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the principal subjects in favour of adjuncts, or change the scene unnecessarily. Example: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness, which was not then expected." Better: "The vessel having come to anchor, I was put on shore; where I was unexpectedly welcomed by all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness."—See Blair's Rhet., p. 107.

PRECEPT IV.—Do not introduce parentheses, except when a lively remark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long from the principal subject. Example: "But (saith he) since I take upon me to teach the whole world, (it is strange, it should be so natural for this man to write untruths, since I direct my Theses only to the Christian world; but if it may render me odious, such Peccadillo's pass with him, it seems, but for Piæ Fraudes:) I intended never to write of those things, concerning which we do not differ from others."—R. Barclay's Works, Vol. iii. p. 279. The parts of this sentence are so put together, that, as a whole, it is scarcely intelligible.

SECTION VI.—OF STRENGTH.

Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. Perhaps it is essential to this quality of style, that there be animation, spirit, and vigour of thought, in all that is uttered. A few hints concerning the Strength of sentences, will here be given in the form of precepts.

PRECEPT I.—Avoid verbosity; a concise style is the most favourable to strength. Examples: "No human happiness is so pure as not to contain any alloy."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 270. Better: "No human happiness is unalloyed." "He was so much skilled in the exercise of the oar, that few could equal him."—Ib., p. 271. Better: "He was so skillful at the oar, that few could match him." Or thus: "At the oar, he was rarely equalled." "The reason why they [the pronouns] are considered separately is, because there is something particular in their inflections."— Priestley's Gram., p. 81. Better: "The pronouns are considered separately, because there is something peculiar in their inflections."

PRECEPT II.—Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression. Inversion of terms sometimes increases the strength and vivacity of an expression: as, "All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and worship me."—Matt., iv, 9. "Righteous art thou, O Lord, and upright are thy judgements."—Psalms, cxix, 137. "Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints."—Ps., cxvi, 15.

PRECEPT III.—Have regard also to the relative position of clauses, or members; for a weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and, when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one. Example: "We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." Better: "When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them."—See Blair's Rhet., p. 117; Murray's Gram., p. 323.

PRECEPT IV.—When things are to be compared or contrasted, their resemblance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if a pretty near resemblance in the language and construction of the two members, be preserved. Example: "The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him." Better: "The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of others."—See Murray's Gram., p. 324.

PRECEPT V.—Remember that it is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either be omitted or be introduced earlier. "For instance, it is a great deal better to say, 'Avarice is a crime of which wise men are often guilty,' than to say, 'Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of.'"—Blair's Rhet., p. 117; Murray's Gram., p. 323.

END OF THE THIRD APPENDIX.

APPENDIX IV.

TO PART FOURTH, OR PROSODY.

OF POETIC DICTION.

Poetry, as defined by Dr. Blair, "is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regular numbers."—Rhet., p. 377. The style of poetry differs, in many respects, from that which is commonly adopted in prose. Poetic diction abounds in bold figures of speech, and unusual collocations of words. A great part of the figures, which have been treated of in one of the chapters of Prosody, are purely poetical. The primary aim of a poet, is, to please and to move; and, therefore, it is to the imagination, and the passions, that he speaks. He may also, and he should, have it in his view, to instruct and to reform; but it is indirectly, and by pleasing and moving, that such a writer accomplishes this end. The exterior and most obvious distinction of poetry, is versification: yet there are some forms of verse so loose and familiar, as to be hardly distinguishable from prose; and there is also a species of prose, so measured in its cadences, and so much raised in its tone, as to approach very nearly to poetic numbers.

This double approximation of some poetry to prose, and of some prose to poetry, not only makes it a matter of acknowledged difficulty to distinguish, by satisfactory definitions, the two species of composition, but, in many instances, embarrasses with like difficulty the attempt to show, by statements and examples, what usages or licenses, found in English works, are proper to be regarded as peculiarities of poetic diction. It is purposed here, to enumerate sundry deviations from the common style of prose; and perhaps all of them, or nearly all, may be justly considered as pertaining only to poetry.

POETICAL PECULIARITIES.

The following are among the chief peculiarities in which the poets indulge, and are indulged:—

I. They not unfrequently omit the ARTICLES, for the sake of brevity or metre; as,

   "What dreadful pleasure! there to stand sublime,
    Like shipwreck'd mariner on desert coast!"
        —Beattie's Minstrel, p. 12.

    "Sky lour'd, and, muttering thunder, some sad drops
    Wept at completing of the mortal sin."
        —Milton, P. L., B. ix, l. 1002.

II. They sometimes abbreviate common NOUNS, after a manner of their own: as, amaze, for amazement; acclaim, for acclamation; consult, for consultation; corse, for corpse; eve or even, for evening; fount, for fountain; helm, for helmet; lament, for lamentation; morn, for morning; plaint, for complaint; targe, for target; weal, for wealth.

III. By enallage, they use verbal forms substantively, or put verbs for nouns; perhaps for brevity, as above: thus,

1. "Instant, without disturb, they took alarm."
        —P. Lost: Joh. Dict., w. Aware.

2. "The gracious Judge, without revile reply'd."
        —P. Lost, B. x, l. 118.

3. "If they were known, as the suspect is great."
        —Shakspeare.

4. "Mark, and perform it: seest thou? for the fail
       Of any point in't shall be death."
        —Shakspeare.

IV. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose, or are used but rarely; as, benison, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, ken, lore, meed, sire, steed, welkin, yore.

V. They introduce the noun self after an other noun of the possessive case; as,

    1. "Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb,
       Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom."—Byron.

2. "Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self."—Thomson.

VI. They place before the verb nouns, or other words, that usually come after it; and, after it, those that usually come before it: as,

1. "No jealousy their dawn of love o'ercast,
    Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife."
        —Beattie.

2. "No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets."
        —W. Allen's Gram.

3. "Thy chain a wretched weight shall prove."
        —Langhorne.

4. "Follows the loosen'd aggravated roar."
        —Thomson.

5. "That purple grows the primrose pale."
        —Langhorne.

VII. They more frequently place ADJECTIVES after their nouns, than do prose writers; as,

1. "Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand,
    Show'rs on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold."
        —Milton, P. L., B. ii, l. 2.

2. "Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue."
        —W. Allen's Gram., p. 189.

3. "This truth sublime his simple sire had taught."
        —Beattie's Minstrel, p. 14.

VIII. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally belong; as,

1. "The ploughman homeward plods his weary way."
        —Gray's Elegy, l. 3.

2. "Or drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds."
        —Ibidem, l. 8.

3. "Imbitter'd more and more from peevish day to day."
        —Thomson.

4. "All thin and naked, to the numb cold night."
        —Shakspeare.

IX. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities; (i. e., adjectives for nouns;) as,

1. "Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls,
    And on the boundless of thy goodness calls."
        —Young.

2. "Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new,
    Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky,
    By chance or search, was offer'd to his view,
    He scann'd with curious and romantic eye."
        —Beattie.

3. "Won from the void and formless infinite."
        —Milton.

4. "To thy large heart give utterance due; thy heart
    Contains of good, wise, just, the perfect shape."
        —Id., P. R., B. iii, l. 10.

X. They often substitute quality for manner; (i. e., adjectives for adverbs;) as,

1. ——"The stately-sailing swan
   Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale,
   And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet,
   Bears forward fierce, and guards his osier isle."
        —Thomson.

2. "Thither continual pilgrims crowded still."
        —Id., Cos. of Ind., i, 8.

3. "Level at beauty, and at wit;
    The fairest mark is easiest hit."
        —Butler's Hudibras.

XI. They form new compound epithets, oftener than do prose writers; as,

1. "In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime."
        —Thomson.

2. "The dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun."
        —Idem.

3. "By brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales."
        —Idem.

4. "The violet of sky-woven vest."
        —Langhorne.

5. "A league from Epidamnum had we sail'd,
    Before the always-wind-obeying deep
    Gave any tragic instance of our harm."
        —Shakspeare.

6. "'Blue-eyed, strange-voiced, sharp-beaked, ill-omened fowl,
    What art thou?' 'What I ought to be, an owl.'"
        —Day's Punctuation, p. 139.

XII. They connect the comparative degree to the positive, before a verb; as,

1. "Near and more near the billows rise."
        —Merrick.

2. "Wide and wider spreads the vale."
        —Dyer's Grongar Hill.

3. "Wide and more wide, the overflowings of the mind
    Take every creature in, of every kind."
        —Pope.

4. "Thick and more thick the black blockade extends,
    A hundred head of Aristotle's friends."
        —Id., Dunciad.

XIII. They form many adjectives in y, which are not common in prose; as, The dimply flood,—dusky veil,—a gleamy ray,—heapy harvests,—moony shield,—paly circlet,—sheety lake,—stilly lake,—spiry temples,—steely casque,—steepy hill,—towery height,—vasty deep,—writhy snake.

XIV. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form: as, dread, for dreadful; drear, for dreary; ebon, for ebony; hoar, for hoary; lone, for lonely; scant, for scanty; slope, for sloping: submiss, for submissive; vermil, for vermilion; yon, for yonder.

XV. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom; as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, doughty, dun, fell, rife, rapt, rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wan.

XVI. They employ the personal PRONOUNS, and introduce their nouns afterwards; as,

1. "It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze."
        —Sir W. Scott.

2. "What may it be, the heavy sound
    That moans old Branksome's turrets round?"
        —Idem, Lay, p. 21.

3. "Is it the lightning's quivering glance,
      That on the thicket streams;
    Or do they flash on spear and lance,
      The sun's retiring beams"
        —Idem, L. of L., vi, 15.

XVII. They use the forms of the second person singular oftener than do others; as,

1. "Yet I had rather, if I were to chuse,
    Thy service in some graver subject use,
    Such as may make thee search thy coffers round,
    Before thou clothe my fancy in fit sound."
        —Milton's Works, p. 133.

2. "But thou, of temples old, or altars new,
    Standest alone—with nothing like to thee."
        —Byron, Pilg., iv, 154.

3. "Thou seest not all; but piecemeal thou must break,
    To separate contemplation, the great whole."
        —Id., ib., iv, 157.

4. "Thou rightly deemst, fair youth, began the bard;
    The form then sawst was Virtue ever fair."
        —Pollok, C. of T., p. 16.

XVIII. They sometimes omit relatives that are nominatives; (see Obs. 22, at p. 555;) as,

   "For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise?"
        —Thomson.

XIX. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the relative; as,

1. "Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys,
    Who never toils or watches, never sleeps."
        —Armstrong.

2. "Who dares think one thing and an other tell,
    My soul detests him as the gates of hell."
        —Pope's Homer.

XX. They remove relatives, or other connectives, into the body of their clauses; as,

1. "Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck."
        —Darwin.

2. "Not half so dreadful rises to the sight
    Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs."
        —Pope, Iliad, B. xxii, l. 37.

XXI. They make intransitive VERBS transitive, changing their class; as,

1. ——"A while he stands,
   Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid
   To meditate the blue profound below."
        —Thomson.

2. "Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv'd
    The rural day, and talk'd the flowing heart."
        —Idem.

3. ——"I saw and heard, for we sometimes
   Who dwell this wild, constrain'd by want, come forth."
        —Milton, P. R., B. i, l. 330.

XXII. They make transitive verbs intransitive, giving them no regimen; as,

1. "The soldiers should have toss'd me on their pikes,
    Before I would have granted to that act."
        —Shakspeare.

2. "This minstrel-god, well-pleased, amid the quire
    Stood proud to hymn, and tune his youthful lyre."
        —Pope.

XXIII. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person; as,

1. "Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight."
        —Thomson.

2. "Be man's peculiar work his sole delight."
        —Beattie.

3. "And what is reason? Be she thus defin'd:
    Reason is upright stature in the soul."
        —Young.

XXIV. They employ can, could, and would, as principal verbs transitive; as,

1. "What for ourselves we can, is always ours."
        —Anon.

2. "Who does the best his circumstance allows,
    Does well, acts nobly; angels could no more."
        —Young.

3. "What would this man? Now upward will he soar,
    And, little less than angel, would be more."
        —Pope.

XXV. They place the infinitive before the word on which it depends; as,

1. "When first thy sire to send on earth
    Virtue, his darling child, design'd"
        —Gray.

2. "As oft as I, to kiss the flood, decline;
    So oft his lips ascend, to close with mine."
        —Sandys.

3. "Besides, Minerva, to secure her care,
    Diffus'd around a veil of thicken'd air."
        —Pope.

XXVI. They place the auxiliary verb after its principal, by hyperbaton; as,

1. "No longer heed the sunbeam bright
    That plays on Carron's breast he can"
        —Langhorne.

2. "Follow I must, I cannot go before."
        —Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 147.

3. "The man who suffers, loudly may complain;
    And rage he may, but he shall rage in vain."
        —Pope.

XXVII. Before verbs, they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes: as, bide, or abide; dim, or bedim; gird, or begird; lure, or allure; move, or emove; reave, or bereave; vails, or avails; vanish, or evanish; wail, or bewail; weep, or beweep; wilder, or bewilder:—

1. "All knees to thee shall bow, of them that bide
    In heav'n, or earth, or under earth in hell."
        —Milton, P. L., B. iii, l. 321.

2. "Of a horse, ware the heels; of a bull-dog, the jaws;
    Of a bear, the embrace; of a lion, the paws."
        —Churchills Cram., p. 215.

XXVIII. Some few verbs they abbreviate: as list, for listen; ope, for open; hark, for hearken; dark, for darken; threat, for threaten; sharp, for sharpen.

XXIX. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose, or are used but rarely; as, appal, astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, trow.

XXX. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infinitive; as,

1. "Who would not sing for Lycidas? he knew
    Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme."
        —Milton.

2. "For not, to have been dipp'd in Lethè lake,
    Could save the son of Thetis from to die."
        —Spenser.

XXXI. They employ the PARTICIPLES more frequently than prose writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar; often intensive by accumulation: as,

1. "He came, and, standing in the midst, explain'd
    The peace rejected, but the truce obtain'd."
        —Pope.

2. "As a poor miserable captive thrall
    Comes to the place where he before had sat
    Among the prime in splendor, now depos'd,
    Ejected, emptied, gaz'd, unpitied, shunn'd,
    A spectacle of ruin or of scorn."
        —Milton, P. R., B. i, l. 411.

3. "Though from our birth the faculty divine
    Is chain'd and tortured—cabin'd, cribb'd, confined."
        —Byron, Pilg., C. iv, St. 127.

XXXII. In turning participles to adjectives, they sometimes ascribe actions, or active properties, to things to which they do not literally belong; as,

   "The green leaf quivering in the gale,
    The warbling hill, the lowing vale."
        —MALLET: Union Poems, p. 26.

XXXIII. They employ several ADVERBS that are not used in prose, or are used but seldom; as, oft, haply, inly, blithely, cheerily, deftly, felly, rifely, starkly.

XXXIV. They give to adverbs a peculiar location in respect to other words; as,

1. "Peeping from forth their alleys green."
        —Collins.

2. "Erect the standard there of ancient Night"
        —Milton.

3. "The silence often of pure innocence
    Persuades, when speaking fails."
        —Shakspeare.

4. "Where Universal Love not smiles around."
        —Thomson.

5. "Robs me of that which not enriches him."
        —Shakspeare.

XXXV. They sometimes omit the introductory adverb there: as,

"Was nought around but images of rest." —Thomson.

XXXVI. They briefly compare actions by a kind of compound adverbs, ending in like; as,

   "Who bid the stork, Columbus-like, explore
    Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before?"
        —Pope.

XXXVII. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, or—or, and nor—nor, as correspondents; as,

1. "Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po."
        —Goldsmith.

2. "Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth, nor safety buys."
        —Johnson.

3. "Who by repentance is not satisfied,
    Is nor of heaven, nor earth; for these are pleas'd."
        —Shakspeare.

4. "Toss it, or to the fowls, or to the flames."
        —Young, N. T., p. 157.

5. "Nor shall the pow'rs of hell, nor wastes of time,
    Or vanquish, or destroy."
        —Gibbon's Elegy on Davies.

XXXVIII. They oftener place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, before the words on which they depend, than do prose writers; as,

   "Against your fame with fondness hate combines;
    The rival batters, and the lover mines."
        —Dr. Johnson.

XXXIX. They sometimes place a long or dissyllabic preposition after its object; as,

1. "When beauty, Eden's bowers within,
    First stretched the arm to deeds of sin,
    When passion burn'd and prudence slept,
    The pitying angels bent and wept."
        —James Hogg.

2. "The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among,
    With skillful fingers sweep the trembling strings."
        —Lloyd.

3. "Where Echo walks steep hills among,
    List'ning to the shepherd's song."
        —J. Warton, U. Poems, p. 33.

XL. They have occasionally employed certain prepositions for which, perhaps, it would not be easy to cite prosaic authority; as, adown, aloft, aloof, anear, aneath, askant, aslant, aslope, atween, atwixt, besouth, traverse, thorough, sans. (See Obs. 10th, and others, at p. 441.)

XLI. They oftener employ INTERJECTIONS than do prose writers; as,

   "O let me gaze!—Of gazing there's no end.
    O let me think!—Thought too is wilder'd here."
        —Young.

XLII. They oftener employ ANTIQUATED WORDS and modes of expression; as,

1. "Withouten that, would come an heavier bale." —Thomson.

2. "He was, to weet, a little roguish page,
    Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all."
        —Id.

3. "Not one eftsoons in view was to be found."
        —Id.

4. "To number up the thousands dwelling here,
    An useless were, and eke an endless task."
        —Id.

5. "Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy."
        —Id.

6. "But these I passen by with nameless numbers moe."
        —Id.

THE END OF APPENDIX FOURTH

INDEX TO THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.

[Asterism] In the following Index, the page of the Grammar is directly referred to: Obs. or N. before a numeral, stands for Observation or Observations, or for Note or Notes of the text: R. after a reference, stands for RULE. The small letter n., with an asterisk or other mark affixed to it, relates to a footnote with such mark in the Grammar. Occasionally, t., m., or b., or u., or l., accompanies a reference, to indicate the top, middle, or bottom, or the upper or the lower half, of the page referred to. Few abbreviations are employed beyond those of the ordinary grammatical terms. The Index is not intended to supersede the use of the Table of Contents, which stands after the Preface. It is occupied wholly with the matter of the Grammar proper; hence there are in it no references to the Introduction Historical and Critical, which precedes the didactic portion of the work. In the Table before-mentioned must be sought the general division of English grammar, and matters pertaining to praxis, to examination, and to the writing of exercises.

A.

A, lett., names itself
    —its plur.
    —sounds properly its own
    —numb. of sounds pertaining to, orthoëpists differ concerning
    —diphthongs beginning with,
    —triphth. do.
    —its true sound to be carefully preserved at end of words,
  A, as prep, or prefix
    —before part, in ing.
  A and an, in Gr. derivatives.
  A or an, art., see An, A

Abbreviations, frequent in writt. lang.
    —rule of punct. for.
  C, M, D, &c., as numerals, see Letters.
  Needless abbreviations, to be avoided

Able, ible, class of adjectives in, numerous in Eng.; difficulty with
  resp. to the prop. form and signif. of; to what able most properly
  belongs
    —application of able to nouns, its propriety doubtf.
    —Able or ible, prop. application of, how far determined from Lat.
      etymol.
    —Able and ible, words of the same meaning in, how formed from
      different roots,

About, with infin., as substitute for Lat. fut. part, in rus —About, with of preced., ("OF ABOUT one hundred feet") —About, derivat. of, from Sax.

Abrupt transitions in the Bible

Absolute, when, and in what case, a noun or a pron. is put —Absol., case, defect of the common rule for —in how many ways the nom. case is put —nom. case put, with part., to what often equivalent; what part. frequently understood after nouns put —case, its existence denied by what authors —words put, punct. of,

Abstract numbers, synt. of the phraseology used in speaking of, ("Twice two IS four," or "Twice two ARE four")

Absurd or incompatible expressions, to be avoided

Absurdities of expression, Crit. N. concerning

Acatalectic, when a line is said to be

Accent and quantity, critical observations on

Accent, difficulty with respect to the import of the word —various definitions of, cited —Accent, confounded by some with emphasis —defined, as commonly understood —chief or primary and secondary —Accent, by what regulated —compared with emphasis —as affected by do. —is distinct from quantity —as understood by DR. JOH. —SHERID. teachings concerning; mostly adopted by MURR. —what lett. of a word receives the mark of —stress on a monosyl. more properly emphasis than —Accents, more than one on a word —DR. ADAM'S view of

Accentuation, modern, of Gr. and Lat. words, by what regulated; SANCTIUS'S rule for, new vers. of

According to, as to, resolved. Accordingly, whether may be said for the questionable according

Accusative before infin., in Lat. and Gr., of what reckoned the subject —whether the construc. can in general be imitated in Eng. —who adopt the Lat. doctrine of —what our nearest approach to the Lat. construc. of

Active, in reference to verbs, in what sense may be used

Active-transitive verb, defined
    —Act.-trans. verbs gov. obj. case
    —place of agent and object in respect to
    —Act.-trans. verb, or part., has some noun or pron. for its object
    —with two words in appos. ("Proclaim THEE KING,")
    —with do., neither in appos. nor connected by conjunc., ("I paid HIM
      the MONEY,")
    —with redund. me, thee, you
    —should not be used without an object
    —should not assume a governm. incompatible with its signif.

Active-intransitive verb, defined
    —Act.-intrans. verb, with prep. and its object, put in the pass.
      form
    —in pass. form with neut. signif. ("I AM COME,")
    —should not be used transitively

Addison, undeservedly criticised by BLAIR, for his frequent use of that, as a relative

Addition, enumeration, of numbers, by what number of the verb to be expressed

Address, ordinary fashion of, in Eng., the plur. numb. —has introduced the anomal. compound yourself —Address, direct, nom. absol. by —terms of, your Majesty, your Highness, &c., in what construc. used —general usage of, in Fr.; in Span., Portug., or Germ.

ADJECTIVES, Etymol. of —Classes of, named and defined —Modifications of —Comparison of, reg.; by adverbs; irreg. —Adjectives in able and ible, (see Able, Ible.) —Adjectives, number of, in Eng. —how have been otherwise called —how distinguished from nouns —other parts of speech may become —MURR., on nouns assuming the nature of —whether nouns plur. can assume the character of —Adjectives that cannot be compared —that are compared by means of adverbs —(See Comparison, Comparative Deg., and Superlative Deg.) —Adjectives requiring the article the —denoting place or situation, comparison of —become adverbs —use of, for adv., improper —with prep., ellipt., equivalent to adv. —poet., for nouns —do., for adverbs —Adjectives, Synt. of —do., in what consists —to what relate —substituted ellipt. for their abstr. nouns —relate to nouns or pronouns understood —used with def. art., ellipt., as nouns —two or more before a noun, order of —two, joined by hyphens —denoting unity or plurality, how agree with their nouns —connected, position of —differing in numb., connected without repetition of noun ("ONE or more letters,") —much, little, &c., preceded by too, how, &c., taken substantively —Adjectives, punct. of —derivation of, from nouns, from adjectives, &c. —poet. peculiarities in respect to —Adjective, taken abstractly with infin. or part. —following a finite verb, without a noun —do. an infin. or a part. —position of, in Eng. —when may either precede or follow its noun —Whether adj. or adv. is required, how determined —Adjective, one superadded to an other, without conjunc., position of —when the figure of, affects the sense, what to be done —should not be represented by a pronoun —ellipsis of, shown

Adjectives, common, probable numb. of, in Eng.
    —enumeration of, according to their endings

Adjectives, compound, analogies of their formation, traced
    —nouns derived from, generally disapproved

Adjectives, numeral, kinds of, named
    —Cardinal numb. and its corresponding numeral, what denote
    —Construction and figure of the numerals

Adjectives, participial, what words to be referred to the class of —cannot be construed to govern obj. case

Adjectives, pronominal, list of —which, sometimes used adverbially —which, sometimes used partitively, appar. as nouns —without nouns expressed, how parsed —distribution of, by CHURCH See Other, &c.

Adjectives, proper, peculiarities of, considered —rule for initial capital in

Adjuncts of nominative in the agreement of a verb

Admitting, allowing, &c., appar. independent, to what may relate

ADVERBS, Etymol. of —Adverb, defined —Adverbs, serve to abbreviate expression —other classes of words sometimes take the nature of —appar. take the nat. of other parts of speech —how distinguished from adjectives —Classes of, named and defined —proper classification of, by what indicated —of time, place, and manner, with what connected; of degree, do. —conjunctive (see Conjunctive Adverb:) —Modifications of —number of, in Eng. —Whether adverb or adjective required, how determined —Adverbs, Synt. of —in what do. consists —to what relate —Adverb before a prep. ("CONSIDERABLY beyond,") —Adverbs, whether sometimes qualify nouns —of participles which become nouns, how managed —above, then, &c., as relating directly to a noun, how parsed —Adverbs, of degree, to what adjectives not applicable —direct use of, for pronouns, inelegant —position of —needless use of, for adjectives —hither, &c., for here, &c., with verb of motion —hence, &c., with from prefixed —when, &c., not to follow is in a definition ("Concord is WHEN," &c.,) —ever and never, to be carefully distinguished —in ly, when preferable to other forms —Adverb, appar. made object of a prep. ("At ONCE,") —emphatic, with verb of self-motion suppressed ("I'll HENCE,") —Adverb HOW, misuse of ("He said HOW," &c.,) —NO, not to be used in reference to a verb or a part. —Adverbial form or character, words of, how parsed —Adverbs, punct. of —Adverb, ellips. of, shown —Adverbs, derivation of, —many common Eng., of Anglo-Sax. origin —poet. peculiarities in the use of —peculiar use of those of two syllables in ly, by MILT. and his contemporaries —Adverbial phrase, a needless and improper designation in analysis

Affectation of fine writing, PREC. against

Ago and since, difference between

AGREEMENT, of words, defined —with what synonymous —Agreement, how many of the parts of speech in Eng., incapable of; none necessary between words unrelated —as differing from relation —of words in the same construc., not easy to determine —rules of, as applied to articles, impertinent —Agreements, syntactical, in Eng., specified —Agreement, general principles of —figurative, of pronouns with antecedents

Ah, sometimes departs from usage

Alexandrine verse, description of

Alias, for the equivocal or, use of, in judicial proceedings

All, when may be reckoned a noun

Allegory, defined —Allegory includes most parables of Script., and some fables

Alphabet, Eng., names and plur. numb. of the letters
    —Hebrew, names and characters of, given,
    —Greek, do.
    —Latin, names of the letters of, scarcely known even to the learned;
      account of its letters
    —A perfect alphabet in Eng., what it would effect
    —Letters of the alphabet, when and how used in the sciences

Alphabetic writing, its advantage over the syllabic

Ambiguous, construc., with respect to the class of a word —do., with resp. to the case of a word —expressions, PREC. against

Amen, use and import of

Among and amongst, amid and amidst, different in sense and construc.
from between and betwixt
    —incompatible with the distributive one an other
    —derivation of, from Sax.

Amphibrach, defined

Amphimac, amphimacer, or Cretic, defined.

An, conjunc., obsolete for if ("Nay, AN thou 'lt mouthe," &c., SHAK.,) —derivation of, from Sax.

An, a, art., one and the same
    —preferable form before a particular sound
    —A or an before genus
    —how commonly limits the sense
    —belongs to sing. numb. only
    —with adjective of numb.
    —its effect upon proper and common nouns
    —is without agreem.
    —Whether an is from a or a from an
    —An, a, origin of
    —of proportion
    —with numerals
    —by what definitives superseded
    —implies unity; sometimes precedes collective noun conveying the idea
      of plurality
    —present usage of, how differs from that of ancient writers
    —use of, before humble, and its compounds and derivatives
    —erroneous use of, as relating to a plural
    —not to be used for the, to denote emphat. a whole kind

Analysis, "to analyze a sentence," what
    —Analysis of sentences shown in five different methods; which method
      BROWN calls "the best and most thorough"
    —Analysis, notices of the different methods of
    —importance of, in teaching grammar; the truest method of, parsing

Anapest, defined

Anapestic verse, treated —what syll. of, has stress; first foot of, how may be varied —what variation of, produces composite verse —whether a surplus syll. in, may compensate for a deficient one —what number of syllables in the longest measure of —Anapestic verse shown in its four measures —Anapestic, measures, why few —poetry, pieces in general short —(instance of a long piece, L. HUNT'S "Feast of the Poets,")

And, discriminated from or
    —when preferable to with, or, or nor
    —whether emphatic of word or phrase following it ("Part pays, AND
      justly;" &c., POPE,)
    —derivation of, from Sax.

Anglo-Saxon dialect, and accessions thereto, as forming the modern Eng. lang.

An other, see Other

Antecedent, proper sense of the term
    —sometimes placed after its pronoun
    —sometimes doubly restricted
    —of pron., applied figuratively
    —sing., with the adj. many, and a plur. pron.
    —suppressed
    —Antecedents of different persons, numbers, and genders,
      disjunctively connected, how represented
    —joint, agreem. of pron. in ellipt. construct. of

Antibacchy, or hypobacchy, defined

Antiquated words and modes of expression, more frequent in poetry than in prose

Antithesis, defined

Aorist, or indefinite, may be applied to imperf. tense pot. and subjunc.

Aphæresis, defined

Apocope, defined

Apophasis, or paralipsis, explained

Apostrophe, mark, what denotes; for what sometimes used
    —at what period introduced into the poss. case Apostrophe, figure,
      defined

Apposition, Synt.
    —agreement between words in
    —Apposition, what, and from whom received this name
    —different from same cases put after verbs and participles not
      trans.; false teachings of MURR. et al. hereon
    —the rule for, to which apposed term applied; whether words in,
      should be parsed separately
    —common rule and definition of, wherein faulty
    —which word of, the explanatory term; when explan. word placed
      first
    —in what case of, either word may be taken as the explan. term,
    —why two possessive words cannot be in
    —two or more nouns in, where sign of possession put
    —whether compat. with, to supply relative and verb between the apposed
      words
    —Apposition, appar., of noun without poss. sign, with pron.
      possess. ("YOUR success as an INSTRUCTER,")
    —noun or pron. emphat. repeated ("Cisterns, broken CISTERNS," &c.,)
    —appar., of a noun to a sentence
    —of words differing in numb. ("Go YE every MAN,")
    —of proper nouns with appellatives ("The river THAMES,")
    —act. verb followed by two words in
    —whether requires any other agreem. than that of cases
    —words in, punct. of
    —of a common with a prop. name, use of capital lett.

Archaism, what

Aristotle, division of the Greek letters
    —what neoterics wiser than; how considers the compounding or
      non-compounding of terms

Arithmetical numbers, relation of the terms in

ARRANGEMENT of words, term defined
    —Arrang. of words, of what importance in synt.; whether it affects
      the method of parsing words

ARTICLES, Etymol. of
    —Article, defined
    —Article, common noun without; Eng. nouns without, taken
      indefinitely partitive
    —words of mere being, used without
    —Articles, how often inserted
    —needless, to be omitted
    —Classes of, named and defined
    —Modificat. (an short, to a, the only,)
    —Articles, the frequent use of; freq. misapplication of
    —to be distinguished from adjectives, and from each other
    —appar. used for adverbs
    —Article, Eng., its demonstrative character
    —do., compared with the Gr. def. art.; no rule for agreement of,
      appropriate in Eng.
    —use of, before names of rivers
    —Articles, Synt. of
    —to what RELATE
    —Article, with the poss. and its governing noun, only one, used
    —one noun admits of one, only; before an adj., relates to a noun
      understood
    —why not repeated, as in Fr., before every noun of a series; why the
      omission of, cannot constitute a proper ellips.
    —position of, with respect to its noun; ditto, with respect to an adj.
      and noun
    —relative position of, and adj., not a matter of indifference
    —excluded by certain pronom. adjectives; what ones precede it; its
      position in respect to an adj. of quality, limited by too, so, as,
      or how
    —position of, when an adj. is preceded by another adv. than too, so,
      as, or how
    —do., when an adj. follows its noun
    —whether the insertion or the omission of, can greatly affect the
      import of a sentence
    —Article, repetition of, with nouns connected
    —do. with adjectives connected, and, oppos.
    —added to each of two or more nouns sing., or a plural put ("THE
      nominative and THE objective CASE," or "THE nominative and
      objective CASES,")
    —use of, in special correspondence of phrases
    —do., in correspondence peculiar
    —do., in a series of terms
    —erroneous use of, before the species, for THE; do., when the
      species is said to be of the genus ("A JAY is a sort of A
      BIRD,")
    —not used before names of the virtues, vices, &c., before limited
      terms, and before nouns of definite signif.
    —do. before titles or names mentioned merely as such
    —do. before a part. not taken as a noun
    —insertion or omission of, with respect to a comparison or an
      alternation made with two nouns
    —required in the construc. which converts a part. into a verbal noun
    —Articles, what the false synt. of, includes
    —Ellips. of article, shown
    —Articles, derivation of
    —frequently omitted by the poets See also Definite Article, and An,
      A

Articulate or elementary sound, nature of

Articulation, as defined by COMST.; do. by BOLLES
    —Articulation, how differs from pronunciation
    —the principles of, what they constitute
    —a good one, what, in the view of COMST.; do., in what consists,
      according to SHERID.; do. importance of; do., how delivers words

As, as subject or object of a verb, its CLASS
    —with a clause or sentence as anteced., do. As, as relative,
      WEBST. absurd explanation of; CHAND. do.; BULL. denial
    —to what construc. limited
    —peculiarities with respect to position
    —declined
    —derivation of, from Teuton., DR. JOH.
    —As follow, as follows, &c., construction of; MURR., himself
      perplexed by TOOKE and CAMPB., delivers dubious instructions
      concerning
    —Opinion of NIX. and CROMB. concerning. As, as a conjunc., uniting
      words in appos.
    —between adj. or part. and its noun ("Actions AS such")
    —with ellips. of latter term of comparison ("For such AS HE")
    —As and than, character and import of
    —words connected by, generally put in the same case
    —As
    —as; as
    —so; so (preceded by a negative,)
    —as; so
    —as (with an infin. following;) correspondents

Asking and exclaiming, simple and appropriate names for the marks of, desirable

Aspirates, see Semivowels

Asterisk, use of. Asterism, do.

Ate, particular words ending in, peculiarities of

Auxiliary, defined —Auxiliary, form of a verb, when preferable to the simp. —verbs, are mostly defective —do., are needful in the conjug. of English verbs —do., inflection of, shown —Auxiliaries used as expletives —Auxiliary, poet. placed after verb

Averse, aversion, whether to be construed with from or to

Avoiding, verbs of, with part. in stead of infin.

Awkwardness, literary, Crit. N. censuring

Ay, I, assentive adv. —Ay, sometimes improp. written for ah

B.

B, its name and plur. number —its sound —in what situations silent

Bacchy, described

BE, how varied
    —CONJUGATED, affirmat.
    —Use of the form be for the pres. indic.
    —Be, ellips. of the infin. often needlessly supposed by ALLEN et
      al.
    —whether it should be inserted after the verb make
    —Is, contracted, giving its nom. the same form as that of the poss.
      case ("A WIT'S a feather," &c., POPE)

Become, &c., whether they demand the auxiliary am or have

Besides, prep., in what cases proper to be used after else or other, in lieu of than

Between, cannot refer to more than two things —Between or betwixt, how differs in use from among or amongst —Between, betwixt, derivation of, from Sax.

Bible, the Holy, application of the name —what is shown by Italics in the text of —quotations in, how indicated —abrupt transitions in —its general accuracy of lang. —in the lang. of, ye and you, in what constructions not found

Bid, as commanding, or as promising, its construction with the infin.

Blair, Dr., unjustly censures Addison's frequent use of that, as a relative

Blank verse, as distinguished from rhyme

Blunders, as readily copied, as originated, by makers of school-books —literary, Crit. N. concerning

Bombast, as opposed to purity, PREC. against Books, mentioned by name, rule for capitals

Both, as conjunc., corresponding to and
    —as adj.
    —derivation of, acc. to DR. MURR.

Brace, its purpose

Breve, or stenotone, for what used

Brevity of expression, sought in the ordinary business of life

Brokenness, or hitching, as a fault of style, PREC. censuring

But, save, as well as, construc. of two nouns connected by
    —But, how has acquired the signif. of only
    —in ambiguous construc. ("There cannot be BUT one," &c., KAMES)
    —as used for that, contrary to its import
    —derivation of, from Sax.
    —But and save, whether they ever govern the obj. case as
      prepositions
    —Cannot but, construc. and signif. of
    —Not but, to what equivalent, and the class of but

C.

C, name and plur. numb. of —sounds of —where silent —with cedilla placed under (ç) —written for a number —Ch, sounds of —Arch, sound of, before a vowel, and before a conson. —Ck, final, for double c

Cadence, explained —faulty, precept against, by RIPP. —MURR. direction concerning

Cadmus, carried the Phoenician alphabet into Greece

Cæsura, signif. and application of
    —Cæsural or divisional pause; demi-cæsuras, or minor rests;
      (see Pauses)

Can, verb, varied
    —derivation and signif. of
    —Can not and cannot, with what distinction used
    —Cannot, with a verb of avoiding, or with BUT
    —Can, could, would, as principal verbs, by poet. use

Capital letters, capitals, for what used; how marked for the printer, in
manuscript
    —what things are exhibited wholly in,
    —Rules for the use of,
    —use of, in comp. prop, names,
    —needless,
    —lavish use of, its effect,
    —discrepancies with respect to, abound in books.

Cardinal numeral, distinguished from its corresponding ordinal,
    —should follow the ordinal, in a specification of a part of a
      series, ("The first TWO,").

Caret, in what used, and for what purpose.

Cases, in grammar, what,
    —named and defined,
    —nom. and obj., alike in form, how distinguished,
    —on what founded, and to what parts of speech belong.
    —(See Nominative Case, &c.)
    —Cases, whether infinitives, participles, &c., can take the nature
      of,
    —what is the proper number of, to be assigned to Eng. nouns,
    —what authorities for the true doctrine of three,
    —discordant doctrine of sundry grammarians concerning the numb, of,
    —WEBST. and MURR. opposite instructions concerning do.
    —Cases, whether personal pronouns have two, only,
    —rules for the construc. of,
    —whether a noun may be in two, at once,
    —whether Eng. verbs govern two,
    —whether in Eng., as in Lat., when a verb governs two, the pass.
      retains the latter case.
    —Cases, same, (see Same Cases.)
    —Cases, what kinds of words take different, after them.
    —Case of noun or pron. after part. governed by prep., whether
      undetermined; err. of SANB. and BULL. hereon expos.; GREE. false
      teaching, do.,
    —doubtful, after participles, in what kind of examples found; canon
      concerning do.

Case, technical term with printers, ("Letters of the lower case.")

Catachresis, how commonly explained, and what sort of fig.

Catalectic, when a measure is said to be.

Cedilla, from whom borrowed, and how applied.

Change, of numb. in the second pers., ineleg.,
    —of the connective of two nominatives appar. requiring a plur. verb,
      canon concerning.
    —Changing the scene, or deserting the principal subj., in a sent.,
      PREC. against.

Chaucer's imperfect measures, DRYDEN'S remarks on.

Cherokee alphabet, some account of.

Cherubim and seraphim, Heb. plurals, sometimes mistaken for singulars.

Chief terms, or principal parts, of a verb, necessary to be first ascertained. —Chief words may be distinguished by capitals.

Circumflex, inflection, (see Inflection,) —mark, use of.

Classes under the parts of speech, what meant by.

Classification of words, explanations to assist beginners in making, —DR. WILSON'S observations on.

Clause, see Member.

Climax, defined.

Cognomination, relation of the article, in instances of, ("Alexander the Great").

Collective noun, defined.
    —Collective nouns, forms of, sing. and plur.; how understood,
    —gend. of, how determined,
    —by what relative represented.
    —Collec. noun, represented by plur. pron.,
    —in what two ways may be taken, and with what accord of pron.; the
      plur. construc. of, under what fig. of synt. ranked by the old
      grammarians,
    —whether with a sing. definitive, admits a plur. verb or pronoun.
    —Collec. nouns generally admit of plur. form.
    —Collect. noun, represented by sing. pron. neut.,
    —uniformity of numb. to be preserved in words constructed with,
    —agreem. of verb with,
    —how determined whether it conveys the idea of plurality or not,
    —strictures on the rules of ADAM, LOWTH, et. al., concerning,
    —NIX. notion of the construc. of verb and.
    —Coll. nouns, partitive of plur., construc. of,
    —as expressing collections of persons, or coll. of things, which most
      often taken plurally,
    —when not plur. in form, whether it admits of plur. adj. before it.

Colon, from what takes its name,
    —for what used,
    —in what year adopted in England,
    —its utility maintained against some objectors,
    —Rules for the use of,
    —used by some between numb. of chap. and that of verse, in quotations
      from the Bible.

Comma, from what takes its name, —what denotes, —less common in Germ. than in Eng., —its ancient form, —Rules for the use of, —use of, in a series of words.

Commanding, desiring, expecting, &c., verbs of, to what actions or events, refer.

Commandments, the ten, how expressed as to forms of verb, —by what points divided in books, —example of, versified in iamb. hexameter, by DR. WATTS.

Common gender, unnecessary and improper term in Eng. gram.

Common noun, defined,
    —when admits of no art.,
    —with def. art. sometimes becomes proper,
    —by personif. often do.
    —Common nouns include the classes, collective, abstract, and
      verbal.
    —Common nouns, their nature and numerical distribution, as
      distinguished from proper.

Comparative degree, defined.
    —Compar. degree, why BROWN presents a new definit. of, in place of
      his former one,
    —true nature of
    —whether always required in a comparison of two objects
    —with what construc. proper in exclusive comparisons, canon of BROWN
    —Comparatives, certain, not construed with the conjunc. than
    —double, how to be considered and treated
    —Comparative terminations, to what adjectives not to be applied
    —Compar. degree in Gr. and in Lat., construc. of
    —poet. connected to the positive

Comparison, defined
    —Comparison, degrees of, named and defined
    —what adjectives admit not of
    —CHURCH. on the different, (and BROWN on CHURCH.)
    —character of BROWN'S definitions of; do. of those of MURR. et al.,
      exhibited
    —MURR. definitions of, criticised
    —relative nature of
    —Comparison, regular
    —to what adjectives applicable
    —when preferable to the comparison by adverbs
    —Comparison, HARR. on the degrees of; the positive a degree
    —(in oppos. to HARR. et al.)
    —Comparison of equality, what; sometimes involves solec.,
      ("Nothing SO uncertain AS,")
    —Comparison of equality and of ineq., canon on
    —Comparison, adaptation of the terms of, to the deg. to be expressed
    —belongs chiefly to comm. adjectives
    —Comparis., irregular
    —Comparis., whether to be mentioned in parsing adverbs
    —inclusive, and exclusive
    —Comparisons, extra, their impropriety
    —Crit. N. on, See also Comparative Degree, and Superlative Degree.

Comparison or contrast of things, the resemblance or opposition how rendered more striking

Complex prepositions, how may be formed

Composite orders of verse, what uniformity of construc. they require —Composite verse —description of; why requires rhythm —kinds of, unlimited; which preferable —liable to doubtful scansion

Composition, the frequent practice of, necessary, in order to acquire a good style, Composition of language, two kinds of

Compound or progressive form of verb, how made
    —exemplified in the verb READ, conjugated, what verbs do not admit of;
      what it implies
    —verbs of, having a pass. signif.

Compound word, defined, Compounds, permanent, consolidated; temporary,
formed by hyphen
    —Comp. words, not to be needlessly broken
    —two or more, not to be split
    —when to be written with hyphen; when without it
    —Compounding of words, unsettled usage respecting; manner of, in
      Lat. and Gr.; arbitrary practice of, in Eng., its effect
    —does not necessarily preclude their separate use
    —propriety of, sometimes difficult to decide
    —Compounds, orthog. of
    —Compounding the words of a reg. phrase, its impropriety
    —Compound adjectives, see Adjectives, Compound.

Concord, (see Agreement.)
    —Concords and governments, examples of false ones from the
      grammarians
    —in Lat., diversely enumerated by the Lat. grammarians

_Concrete _terms for abstract qualities, poet. use of

Confusion of senses, in use of pron., to be avoided

Conjugation of a verb, defined —what some teachers choose to understand by —Conjugating a verb, four ways of, named —Conjugation of an Eng. verb, what the simplest form of —Conjug. of verbs, shown in five Examples —(See also Compound or Progressive, &c.) —Conjugat. negative, how made, interrogative, do. —interrog. and negative, do.

CONJUNCTIONS, Etymol. of
    —Conjunction, defined
    —Conjunctions, how differ from other connectives
    —nature and office of; R. F. MOTT quot.
    —nature of the connexions made by
    —how many in common use
    —how parsed
    —as "connecting the same moods, &c.," strictures on the doctrine of
      MURR. et al., concerning
    —Conjunctions, classes of, named and defined
    —(See Copulative Conjunction, Disjunc. Conj., and Corresp.
      Conjunc.)
    —Conjunctions, List of
    —appar. used as adverbs
    —peculiar phrases having the force of
    —importance of, as copulative or as disjunctive, to be carefully
      observed
    —Conjunctions, Synt. of
    —do., in what consists, (MURR. et al. teaching erron.)
    —what connect
    —declinable words connected by, why in the same case
    —power and position of those that connect sentences or clauses
    —absurd and contradictory notions concerning the office of, by LENN.,
      BULL., et al.
    —two or three coming together, how parsed
    —Conjunction, followed by a phrase, and not a whole member
    —connecting two terms to one
    —do. two terms the same in kind or quality
    —Conjunctions, to be used with due regard to import and idiom
    —punct. of
    —ellips. of, shown
    —derivation of
    —are mostly of Anglo-Sax. origin
    —H. TOOKE'S derivations of, given
    —poet. usage of or
    —or, and nor
    —nor

Conjunctive adverbs, what office perform; what classes of words embrace
    —often relate equally to two verbs in different clauses
    —list of
    —whence, whither, &c., sometimes partake of the nature of pronouns
      Connected terms, two, limited by a third, what both must be
    —should be the same in kind or quality. Connected adjectives, how
      should be placed. Connective words, or connectives, kinds of, named
    —do., how may be distinguished

Consonants, divisions and subdivisions of —properties of, as sharp, flat, labial, &c.

Construing, whether differs from parsing

Continuance of action, see Compound or Progressive

Contractions, in the orthog. and the pronunciation of words —ocular, in printing poetry, not important

Correlatives, combinations of, ("Father's son,") how to be regarded

Corresponding, or corresponsive conjunctions, in what manner used
    —named and exemplified in their several pairs
    —nature of the terms standing in the relat. of
    —the former of two, how parsed
    —CHURCH. canon on the use of
    —Or
    —or, and nor
    —nor, by poet. usage Crotchets, or brackets, how used
    —confused and inaccurate teaching of WEBST. et al., concerning

Cum with an ablative, Lat., ("Dux CUM aliquibus," &c.,) the construc. imitated in Eng. —canon on do.

Curves, or marks of parenthesis —have been in use for centuries —the use of, not to be discarded —confused teaching of WEBST. et al., respecting do. —what used to distinguish —clause enclosed by, how to be uttered; pause of do. —Rules for the application of

Customary actions require to be expressed by indic. pres.

D.

D, name and plur. numb. —sounds of —written for a number

Dactyl, defined

Dactylic verse
    —stress, on what syll. laid; what rhyme it generally forms
    —is not very common; seldom pure and regular
    —shown in its eight measures
    —has been but little noticed by prosodists and grammarians
    —misconceived and misrepresented Rev. D. BLAIR

Dare, construc. with infin. foll.
    —Use of the form DARE for the third pers. sing.

Dash, the mark, explanation of —LOWTH et al. make no mention of —Rules for the application of —Dash, needless, how to be treated —between quotation and name of the author —applied to side-title —used to signify omission

Dates, ordinarily abbreviated; how best written —objectives in, without their prepositions

Dative case, faulty relic, in Eng., of old Sax., ("It ascends ME into," &c., SHAK.)

Days of the week, names of, to be reckoned prop. names, and written with capital

Deaf and dumb
    —The deaf and dumb, to whom the letters represent no sounds, learn
      to read and write; what inferred herefrom

Defective verb, what verb so called —which tenses of, wanting —Defective verbs, whether they should be reckoned a distinct class —may, can, must, and shall, not to be referred to the class of —will, beware, &c., construc. and import of explained —Defec. verbs, List of

Definite article, defined
    —Definite art., its demonstrative character
    —used before names of rivers
    —do. by way of eminence
    —no rule of agreem. for, in Eng.
    —prefixed as an adv., to comparatives and superlatives
    —repeated before every term in a series of adjectives used ellipt. as
      nouns
    —used for a poss. pron., ("Full in THE face")
    —position with respect to its noun
    —required before antecedent to a restricted relative. See also The

Definition, defined —A perfect definition, what —Definitions, needful qualities of certain, in gram. —bad, peculiar vice of —Crit. N. on

Definitives, what, in Eng., and how to be classed —example to show what is meant by —Definitive word required before antecedent to restricted relative

Degrees of comparison, see Comparison

Deity, names of, use of capitals in
    —in all languages, masc.; direct names of, do.. The sing. numb,
      universally employed in reference to the Supreme Being

Demonstratives, from the class, pronominal adjectives

Derivation, as a topic of gram., what explains —importance of —a knowledge of what languages will throw light on the subject of Eng.

Desiring, verbs of; see Commanding

Desisting, verbs of; with part., in stead of infin.

Despauter, (Despauterius Joannes,) grammarian, when died
    —his Lat. Gram.
    —his remark on the origin of using plur. pron. of second pers. for
      sing.
    —gives the rule that the verb governs the nominative before it

Diæresis, or dialysis, mark, place and use of
    —explained

Diesis, or double dagger, for what purpose used. Dimeter, line,
iambic, examples of
    —trochaic, do.
    —anapæstic, do.
    —dactylic, do.

Diphthong, defined —Diphthongs, distinction of —enumeration and specification of the Eng.

Discourse, or narration, its nature and requirements

Disjunctive conjunction, defined —Disjunctives, List of —Disjunctive OR, see Or

Distance, see Time, &c.

Distribution, of words into classes, a matter of some difficulty; explanations concerning, for learners —of verbs in Lat., grammarians have disputed respecting

Distributives, of the class pronominal adjectives —Distributive term sing. in apposit. with a plur.

Division, literary, see Literary Division

Do, verb, how varied: —particular uses of —in what manner may be substituted for an other term

Double comparatives and double superlatives, how may be regarded; canon; (LATH. and CHILD)

Double negatives, see Negation, and Negatives

Doubling of the final consonant before additional syll.; not doubling,
before do.
    —Double letter retained
    —Doubling, certain letters incline to; others, do not

Doubtful case after a part., in what kind of examples found; the construc. to be avoided

Drink, verb, grammarians greatly at variance respecting the pret. and the perf. part. of

Dual number, found in Gr. and in Arab., what denotes

Duplication, see Doubling

Du Vivier, G., his Grammaire des Grammaires, and his Traité des Participes, a copious treatment of the Fr. participle

E.

 E, (as A, O, I, and U,) self-naming:
    —how spoken and written
    —its plur.
    —sounds properly its own
    —final, mute, and to what belongs; exceptions
    —effect on preced. vowel, of e mute after a sing. conson., or after
      st, or th
    —diphthongs beginning with
    —triphthongs do.

Each, pronom. adj., always of the third pers. sing.; its agreements. Each other, see Other

Ecphoneme, or note of exclamation —occasional introduction into the classics —diversely called by MURR. et al. —for what used, and of what a sign —Rules for the application of

Ecphonesis, defined

Either and neither, pronom. adjectives, relate to two only
    —M. HARR. on the illegit. use of
    —their numb. and pers.; what agreements they require, when they are
      the leading words in their clauses
    —derivation of, from the Sax.

Either
    —or, neither
    —nor, corresponsives:
    —transposed, with repeated disjunction or negat.

Elegiac stanza, description of

Elementary sound, or elements of speech, defined. See Sounds

Ellipsis, figure defined
    —either not defined by grammarians in general, or absurdly defined
    —frequent in comp. sentences
    —to be supplied in parsing
    —supposed, may change the construc. without affecting the sense
    —the principle of, as explaining several questionable but customary
      expressions, ("Fair and softly GOES far")
    —MURR. on "THE ellipsis"
    —Ellipsis supplied, EXAMPLES of
    —Needless ellipses, the supposition of, to be avoided
    —Ellipses, faulty, as opposed to perspicuity, PREC. against.
      Ellipsis, or suppression, mark of, how figured, and what used to
      denote

Elliptical construction of nouns, ("A horse, a horse," &c., SHAK.)

Elocution, defined

Else, other, &c., with than, in exclusive comparisons —Else or other, sometimes construed with besides —Else, derivation of

Emphasis, defined: —comparative view of accent and —as connected with quantity, MURR. —as affecting accent —what the guide to a right. —Emphatic words, not to be multiplied

Enallage, defined —signif. of the Gr. word —special application of the term —with what other terms synonymous —the most common forms of, in Eng. —examples of, how differ from solecisms —too much latitude was given to the fig. by Despauter, and by others

Enallixis, see Enallage

Ending of a sentence with an adv., a prep., or any inconsid. word or phrase, PREC. concerning

English Grammar, see Grammar

English language, some account of its origin
    —its character
    —its simplicity and facility asserted by LOWTH
    —its chief defect, according to DR. JOH.

Enumeration of numbers, see Addition

Epicene nouns, see Generic Names Epithets, new compound, poets frequently form

Equivalence, the argument of, has often led into errors

Equivocal, or ambiguous construc. of cases, to be avoided —of rel. pron., by misplacement —of prep. with converted part., how amended —of the word but, ("There cannot be BUT one," &c.) —of words, leaving the classification doubtful, Crit. N. concerning —Equiv., or ambig. expressions, as opposed to propriety, PREC. against

Eroteme, its form in Greek
    —derivation; fitness of the name
    —diversely called by MURR. et al.
    —its use
    —Rules for do.
    —its value as a sign of pause
    —retained by a quoted question

Erotesis, explained

Errors, incorrigible, Crit. N. concerning

ETYMOLOGY
    —Etymol., of what treats
    —when and how should be taught
    —figures of, term defined; the principal do., named and defined
    —Etymology and meaning of words, HARRIS on the usefulness of
      disquisitions into

Ever, contrac., e'er; so in comp. rel. pronouns
    —Ever a one, contrac. by the comm. people into e'er a one
    —Ever and never, opposite to each other in sense, yet freq.
      confounded and misapplied; canon on the employment of
    —Ever so, (prop., everso,) signif. of
    —Ever so wisely, its propriety determined, against the false
      phraseology never so wisely
    —Ever, derivation of, from Sax.

Example, as used in teaching, meaning of
    —Examples, use of capitals in

Exception, noun, and except, verb, whether more properly followed by from or by to

Exclamation, note of, (see Ecphoneme) —Exclamation, nom. absolute by —the case of nouns used in

Exclusive and inclusive terms of a comparison

Exercise, in grammar, what

Expecting, &c., verbs of, see Commanding

Extended compositions, gradation of the parts in

F.

F, its name and plur. numb. —final in monosyllables, to be doubled —formation of the plur. of nouns in, and in ff —its sound

Fable, how may be defined
    —What the term denotes in the Scriptures

Fall short of, make bold with, &c., how the adjective in such phrases is to be explained in parsing

False identification, (under synt. of SAME CASES,) Note exposing the error of

Falsities in sentences, Crit. N. directed against

Feel, its construc. with the infin.

Few and many, form and construc. of. Fewer, see Little

FIGURES, treated
    —Figure, in gram., what
    —Figures, distinctive names of some; frequent occurrence of those of
      rhetoric
    —Figure of words, signif. of the term
    —Figure of words, Rules for
    —suggestions additional to do.
    —unsettled and variable usage in that which relates to
    —Figure of orthog., what; what the principal figures of do.
    —Figure of etymol., what
    —Figures of etymol., the principal, named and defined
    —Figure of synt., what
    —Figures of synt., the principal, named and defined
    —Figure of rhet., what
    —Figures of rhet., why certain are called tropes
    —on what mostly founded
    —the principal, named and defined
    —affect the agreem. of pronouns with their antecedents
    —Figures, how many BROWN deems it needful to define and illustrate
    —Figures, definitions of sundry, in the lang. of authors,
      corrected, KEY. Figures, Arabic, in what cases pointed by some

Final f, l, or s, in spelling; other finals than, in do. —ck or c, use of —ll, to what confined —e of a primitive, when omitted; when retained —y of a prim. word before a terminat., how managed —ise or ize, which termination to be taken —Finals, what letters may assume the position of; what may not, and why

Finite verbs, agreem. of, with subjects, a principle of Univ. Gram.
    —Rules concerning
    —Fin. verb understood, punct. of First words, initial capital to
    —faulty practice of grammarians with respect to

Foot, poetic, see Poetic Feet

Foreign words or idioms, unnecessary use of, in opposition to purity

For, with all, as equivalent to although
    —For as much as, &c., having the nature of conjunctions
    —For that
    —For, with perf. part., ("FOR lost")
    —with ever
    —before TO and infin.
    —as introducing its object before an infin.. For, conj., because,
      from Sax.; anc. expressed for that

Forever, or for ever, its class

Former and latter, nature and applic. of Forms of letters, in type or
character
    —Forms OF VERBS, a knowledge of THE TRUE, nothing more important in
      gram. than Forsooth, signif. and use of

Friends, the Society of; their employment, in familiar discourse, of the
sing. pron. of the second pers.
    —generally neglect to compound their numeral names of the months and
      days
    —their misemployment of thee for thou
    —their manner of speaking, different from the solemn style
    —examples of their manner of forming the verb with the pron. thou;
      their simplificat. of the verb

From, derivation of, from Sax. —From forth, from out, construc. of, explained —Off from, examp. of the use of

Full, in permanent compounds, how written; in temporary do., do. —compounds in, (spoonful, handful, &c.,) how pluralized

Future, contingency, how best expressed

Future tense, FIRST, how formed, and what expresses —SECOND, do., do., and how varied

Futurity, often denoted by the infin., ("The world TO COME")

G.

G, its name and plur. —its sounds —when silent —Gh, sounds of, and silence

Gardiner, W., his new analysis of the Eng. alphab., noticed

Genders, term defined
    —Genders, the diff., named and defined
    —on what founded, and to what belong
    —Gender, inconsistent views of, as given by many of the grammarians;
      WELLS and MURR. criticised
    —confounded with sex by some writers; others otherwise confuse the
      matter
    —Common gender, of the old grammarians, the term objectionable with
      respect to Eng.
    —Gender, how in many instances determined
    —figuratively ascribed, how indicated
    —denoted by he and she prefixed to nouns
    —denied by MURR. et al. to pronouns of the first and second persons
    —of pron., the preference of, when joint antecedents are of
      different genders

General truths and customary actions, to be expressed by the indic. pres.

Generic names, sense and construc. of

"Genitives, double," discovered by our grammarians, the true explanation of all such

Gentile names, nature and construc. of

German language, form of its type —use of the comma less freq. in, than in Eng.

Gerund, Lat., explanation of
    —what form of an Eng. participle corresponds to
    —"Gerund in English," how becomes "a substantive," according to DR.
      ADAM et al., Gerundives, what

Giving, paying, procuring, &c., verbs of, with ellips. of to or for before the objective of the person

GOVERNMENT, of words, defined
    —to what parts of speech has respect
    —the rules of, whether to be applied to the governing or the governed
      words
    —do., how many in the best Lat. grammars; usual faults in the
      distribution of these
    —Governments in Eng. synt. how many
    —false, examples of, cited from grammarians

Grecism, literal, in Eng., ("Before Abraham was, I AM") comp.

GRAMMAR, defined
    —An English Grammar, what professes to be
    —ENGLISH GRAMMAR, what in itself; what knowledge implies
    —when worthy to be named a science
    —Grammar, how to be taught, and its principles how made known
    —the true principles of, in whose possession
    —a rule of, what
    —Grammar, how divided; its parts, of what severally treat
    —what it requires
    —rightly learned, what ability it confers
    —what many vain pretenders to, have shown by their works
    —on questions of, the practice of authors should have more weight than
      the dogmatism of grammarians. Grammars of different languages, how
      far must needs differ; strictures on those of PROF. BULL., A grammar
      designed for English, the chief end of. Grammatical doctrine, the
      truth of, in what consists

Granting, supposing, &c., see Admitting

Grave accent, as opposed to acute —as preserving the vocality of e

Greek alphabet, characters of, shown and named

Guillemets, or quotation points, what words they distinguish —how applied to a quotation within a quotation —not used in our common Bibles; the defect in what measure relieved

H.

H, its name and plur. numb. —its sound —in what words silent —in what positions do. —an used formerly before all words beginning with

Hand, or index, use of

Handwriting, script letters in

Harmonical pauses, see Pauses

Have, verb, how varied
    —derivation of; with perf. part., import of the tense
    —Had, with better, rather, &c., before the infin.

He and she, sometimes used as nouns
    —as prefixed to nouns to denote gend.
    —whether to be connected by a hyphen to the nouns to which prefixed

Hear, with objective, and an infin. without to
    —with infin. alone, perhaps ellipt, ("I HAVE HEARD TELL")
    —Heard, verb, why irregular
    —its pronunc.

Hebrew letters, some account of; names, characters, and significations of
    —whether they are, or are not, all consonants, long a subject of
      dispute
    —The

Hebrew names for the months, were prop. nouns
    —Hebrew, what pointing adopted in

Hence, thence, whence, with from prefixed. "I'll HENCE," see Adverbs

Heptameter line, iambic, examples of —trochaic, do —dactylic, do.

Here, there, where, force of, when compounded with prepositions
    —with verb of motion, perh. allowable for hither, thither, whither.
      Hereof, thereof, whereof, placed after nouns, what to be called.
      Herein, therein, &c., their class and nature

Heroic verse, see Pentameter

Heterogeneous terms, in general, two such not to be connected by a conjunc.

Hexameter line, iambic, examples of —trochaic, do —dactylic, do.

Hissing sounds, concurrence of, in forming the poss. case, how avoided

Hold, noun, after lay, take, &c., whether preferably construed with of, on, or upon

Hoping, &c., verbs of, see Commanding

How, after nouns of manner, its nature
    —not to be used before that, or in stead of it
    —derivation of, from Anglo-Sax.

Hyperbaton, explained
    —its frequency in poetry; how should be used
    —is diff. from synchysis

Hyperbole, defined —Hyperboles, by what commonly expressed

Hypermeter, meaning of, in scansion

Hyphen, its uses
    —present use in compound names
    —Rules for the insertion of, in compounds
    —signif. of the name
    —Hyphen, abuse of
    —CHURCH, on the use of, in comp. words
    —in the figure of an adj., with a change of the synt. and sense
    —necessary with a verbal noun and an adjunct
    —do. with comp. participles, converted

Hypobacchy, or antibacchy, defined

I.

I, lett., self-naming; its plur.
    —its usual sounds
    —diphthongs beginning with; triphth. do., I, pron. with cap. lett.,
      I, as written for a number. I, adv., see Ay

Iambic verse, treated
    —Iamb. verse, stress where laid in; effect of a short syll. added to
      a line of
    —shown in its eight measures
    —is seldom pure through a long succession of lines
    —some of its diversifications shown. See also Dimeter, Trimeter, &c.

Iambus, or iamb, defined

Idea of unity, and of plurality, how formed

Identity of words, the principle of, considered
    —Identity, proper, RULE for, ("Same Cases.") Identification,
      false, N. concerning

Idioms or peculiarities of expression, when to be approved or valued

If, the Biblical use of, to express an emphat. negation —its derivation from Sax.

Ignorance, literary, Crit. N. concerning

Imagery, or Vision, explained

Imperative mood, defined —Imperat. mood, why so called; in what manner applied —its one tense, and the import of do —its inflection shown in the verb LOVE, conjugated —what nominatives only it takes —use of, in the Gr. lang.; do., in Lat., Ital., Fr., and Span —may have all the persons and numbers —poet.

Imperfect tense, defined
    —Imperf. tense, the form, how far applicable to the Eng. tense so
      called
    —in its simple form is the preterit
    —in the pot. and subj. moods, an aorist
    —of the indic. and the subj., how distinguished
    —of the sub., to express a mere supposition, with indef. time

Imperfect participle, or first part., defined
    —its form
    —The first part., has been variously called
    —why rightly termed imperfect participle
    —for what forms of the Lat. gram., stands
    —is applicable to time pres., past, or fut.; is not always active,
      even when derived from an act. verb
    —may be turned to a multiplicity of uses
    —appar. put absolute, (Admitting,
    —Allowing, &c.)
    —distinguished, with respect to governm., from a particip. noun
    —as equivalent to infin. mood; heads of regular equivalence
    —how compares with the Lat. gerund
    —its nature and construc.

Impersonal verbs, so called, their peculiarity of use —called monopersonal by some

Impropriety of language, what embraces

In and into, difference between; nature of the relation expressed by each; derivation of, from Sax.

Inclusive and exclusive terms of a comparison

Incorrigible errors, Crit. N. concerning

Indefinite article, see An, A Indefinite pronouns, of the class pronom. adjectives

Independent, see Absolute

Index, or hand, use of

Indicative mood, defined
    —Indic. mood, why so called; its nature and use
    —use of its pres. tense
    —do. of its form of the pluperf. in lieu of the pot. pluperf.
    —wherein differs characteristically from the subj.; the two moods
      continually confounded by writers
    —Indic. mood, format, and inflec. of its tenses shown in the verb
      LOVE, conjug.
    —employed to express a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact

Inelegance of language, see Awkwardness.

Infinitive mood, defined
    —Infin. mood, so called in oppos. to the other moods
    —usually distinguished by the prep. to before it
    —its pres., the ROOT, or radical verb; what time it expresses
    —archaic form in en
    —its two tenses shown in the verb LOVE, conjug.
    —Synt. of
    —Infin. mood, by what governed; (see To:)
    —true construc. of, explained by the 18th Rule of the Synt.
    —why simple of solution in Eng.; whether ever governed by a prep, in
      Fr., Span., or Ital.
    —whimsical account of, given by NIX.
    —how expressed in the Anglo-Sax. of the 11th century
    —why may not, as some grammarians teach, be | considered a noun
    —DR. WILS. on the charac. and import of
    —to what other terms may be connected
    —what in its nature, and for what things chiefly may stand
    —taken abstractly, as subject of finite verb
    —Loose infinitives, improp. in precise language
    —Infin. mood, position of
    —misplacement of, to be avoided
    —distinction of voice in, often disregarded, ("You are to BLAME;")
      hypercrit. teachings of SANB. and BLAIR hereon
    —Infin., after bid, dare, &c., without TO
    —whether used with TO after have, help, and find
    —Infin., BY WHAT governed, often imposs. to say, according to the
      instructions of MURR.
    —Infinitives connected, governed by one preposition
    —Infinitive, ellipsis of, after to, whether to be approved
    —sometimes doubtful whether transitive or intransitive
    —in pause, or in remote dependence, punct. of
    —poet. placing of
    —Greek construc. of, in poetic use

Inflections, defined
    —rising and falling, explained; do., as applied to questions
    —notation of, in writing and printing
    —the rising more numerous than the falling; predominance of the rising
      in oral lang.; the falling, for what used, COMST.
    —what kind of rules for, have been given by writers
    —the rising and the falling, to be used with prop. discrimination;
      what should determine the direction of
    —Inflection, what constitutes the circumflex

Innovation extravagant, into the system of synt. or gram., a particular instance of, noticed

Inscriptions appear best in full capitals

Instead, what reckoned, and how best written

Intending, &c., verbs of, see Commanding.

Intensive nature of comparatives and superlatives, A. MURR.

Interrogative pronouns, defined
    —what they severally demand
    —their use and construc.
    —in what differ from relatives
    —are always of the third pers.
    —declined
    —their place in a sentence
    —their construc. of cases, to what similar

Interrogative sentences, agreem. of verbs in

INTERJECTIONS, Etymol. of
    —Interjection, defined
    —derivation and signif. of the term; LOWTH'S error in describing the
      interjections
    —Interjections, numb. of, in common use
    —List of
    —Interjections, the frequent use of, an indication of
      thoughtlessness; expressiveness of some interjections in earnest
      utterance, &c.
    —should be discriminatively used
    —chief characteristics of; referred to the class of adverbs by the
      Gr. grammarians
    —significant words uttered as, ("Out! out!")
    —appar. taken substantively
    —Synt. of
    —absolute construc. of
    —have no construc. with cases, as in Lat. and Gr.
    —appar., sometimes connected to other words by a prep., or by that
    —place of
    —punct. of
    —ellips. of, shown
    —derivation of
    —frequency of, in poet. lang.

Inversion of terms, sometimes of advantage, in respect to strength and vivacity of expression.

Irony, figure explained

Is being, with a perf. part., or the subject of the UNCO-PASSIVE form of verbs, canvassed

Ise or ize, which of these terminations to be taken in forming derivatives under Deriv. of Verbs

Ish, termination, whether it may be accounted a degree of comparison

It. its chief use
    —declined
    —to what creatures may be applied
    —put for the distance, ("How far do you call IT?" &c., PRIESTL.,)
    —without definite reference to an anteced.
    —as explet., and referring to something expressed afterwards; faulty
      omission of, before verb, in such construc.
    —had formerly no variation of cases
    —its poss. form ITS, for of it, of recent origin, and not found in
      the text of the common Bible
    —wrongly excluded by some from the list of pers. pronouns:
    —its derivation from Sax., traced

Italic letters, Italics, some account of —for what purpose used —how denoted in preparing manuscripts

J.

J, its name and plur. numb. —why never doubled —why never ends a word in Eng. —impropriety of dividing on the letter, in syllabication —sounds of,

Johnson, Dr. S., his authority in Eng. orthography

Joint nominatives, agreem. of verb with
    —whether words connected by with can be used as. Joint
      antecedents, agreem. of pron. with
    —of different persons, agreem. of verb or pron. with, in ellipt.
      construc.

Jumbling together of the active voice and the passive, the manner of some —Jumbling, senseless, Crit. N. censuring

K.

K, its name and plur. —in general, not needed in words derived from the learned languages —its sounds —when silent —Two Kays standing together

Kind, sort, with these or those improp. preceding

L.

L, its name and plur. numb. —of the class liquids —final, monosyllables ending in —final double, to what words peculiar —its sound; in what words silent —where doubled —written for a number

Labial letters, how articulated

Language, the primitive sense of the term, what embraced; signif. of do.,
as now used
    —in opposition to some grammarians, BROWN confines the term to speech
      and writing
    —loose explanations of the word by certain slack thinkers; WEBST.
      notion of
    —SHERID. idea of; KIRKH. wild and contradictory teachings concerning
    —Language, PROPRIETY of, in what consists; IMPROPRIETY of, what
      embraces
    —PRECISION of, in what consists; Precepts concerning its opposites
    —Language, Eng., (see English Language)
    —Languages, uniform SERIES OF GRAMMARS for teaching the Eng., Lat.,
      and Gr., that of DR. BULL., noticed

Lay, pay, and say, how written in the pret. and the perf. part.

Leading principles in the construc. of sentences, in what embraced in the Grammar

Least parts of language, as written, as spoken, &c., what constituents so called

Legal phraseology, in contrast with that of common life

Less, improper use of, for fewer, ("No LESS than three dictionaries," DR. WEBST.)

Lest, use of, for THAT, without due regard to its import, ("I feared LEST," &c.) —derivation of, from Sax.

Let, verb, its construc, with an infin. following

LETTERS, in the Eng. alphabet, numb. of, and numb. of sounds which they
represent
    —a knowledge of, in what consists
    —infinite variety in, yet the letters always THE SAME
    —different sorts of types, or styles of, used in Eng.
    —names of, in Eng.; do., sing, and plur.
    —Classes of, named and defined
    —powers of
    —the JUST POWERS of, (see Power)
    —Forms of, and their distinctions, in the Eng. lang.
    —different sorts of, to be kept distinct
    —slanting strokes of the Roman, described
    —Italic, chief use of
    —capital, employment of
    —small, do.
    —Letters, history of
    —the names of, are words of a peculiar kind
    —the names and powers of, not always identical
    —general neglect of learning to write the names of, in Eng.
    —importance of learning to write do.
    —erron. teaching with respect to certain names of
    —Letters of the Heb. alphabet given, with their names, and the
      significations of do.
    —of the Gr. alphabet, with their names
    —of the Lat. alphab., their names nearly lost
    —of do., as now printed
    —Letters, the twenty-six, possible combinations and mutations of
    —of the alphab., read by their names, how taken
    —do., written for numbers, what their nature; omission of period
      after such letters
    —DAY'S account of do.
    —Letters, the SOUNDS of, treated
    —Letters, the small, period of their adoption
    —used for references
    —Letter, definition of
    —Letter, the sound of, called its POWER; yet its power not
      necessarily identified with its sound
    —A letter, in what consists Like, near, nigh, appar.,
      prepositions; why not placed by BROWN with the prep. Lily, W.,
      grammarian, his arrangement of Lat. syntax

Lines, poetic, technical denominations of

Liquids, what letters so called

Literary division of a work, common order of, downwards, and throughout;
but all literary works not thus divided. Literary blunders, Crit. N.
concerning
    —awkwardness, do.
    —ignorance, do.
    —silliness, do.

Little, lesser, less, different uses and import of
    —Little, much, &c., preceded by not, too, or other such adv., how
      taken
    —Less, improp. used as an adj. of number; does not signify fewer;
      not to be used in the sense of do.
    —Less, least, adv., to be parsed separately, in the comparison of
      adjectives and adverbs

LOVE, verb active-trans., CONJUGATED affirmatively —BE LOVED, pass., do. —LOVE, conjug. negatively —do., interrogatively —do., interrogatively and negatively

Low and provincial expressions, use of, as opp. to purity, PREC. against

Ly, most common terminal of Eng. adverbs; added to nouns to form adjectives

(I,) u; 1055, b; 1053, L:
    —when adverbs ending in, are preferable to those of other forms.

M.

M, its name and plur. numb., —of the class liquids, —its sounds, —when silent, —as written for a number.

Macron, or macrotone, mark, its use.

Make, verb, whether to should be suppressed, and be, inserted, after, ("MAKE yourself BE heard," BLAIR,) —its construc. with infin. following.

Man and woman, comp. nouns in, (man-servant, woman-servant, &c.,) how pluralized.

Many a, with noun sing. represented by a plur. pronoun.

Marks, or points, used in literary composition, the principal; occasional. See Punctuation.

May, verb, how varied, —derivation and uses of.

Mean, means, use and construc. of.

Measure, &c., see Time. Measure, poetical, see Verse.

Melody or beauty of a sentence, words necessary to, rarely to be omitted.

Member, or clause, defined.
    —Memb. and clause, generally used as synonymous, are discriminated
      by some,
    —Clause and phrase, confounded by some,
    —Members, simple, of a sent., punct. of,
    —complex, do., do.,
    —Members of a sentence, arrangem. of, as affecting STRENGTH.

Metaphor, defined, —what commonly understood to be, —agreem. of pron. with antecedent in cases of.

Methinks, explanation of; the lexicographers on the word.

Metonymy, defined, —Meton., on what founded, —agreem. of pron. with its antecedent, in cases of.

Metres, more found in actual use, than those acknowledged in the ordinary schemes of prosody. Metre, see Verse.

Milton, MURR. proposed amendment of the "unintelligible" language of a
certain passage of, criticised,
    —double solec. in a pass, of, noticed,
    —his poem, L'Allegro, what its versificat.; what the management of
      the orders of its verse,
    —do., Il Penseroso, what its extent and construction.

Miss or Misses, Mr. or Messrs., what the proper applicat. of, when name and title are to be used together, in a plur. sense.

Mistaken, to be, irregularity of the verb; its import as applied to persons, and as applied to things.

Mimesis, explained; droll examples of.

Minus, plus, versus, viâ, Lat., use of, in Eng., in partic. constructions.

Mixing of synt. with etymol., the manner of INGERS., KIRKH., et al., censured. Mixture of the forms of style, inelegance of.

Modifications, defined, —sense of the term as employed by BROWN.

Moloss, defined.

Monometer, scarcely constitutes a line, yet is sometimes so placed. —Monometer line, iambic, examples of, —trochaic, do., —anapestic, do., —dactylic, an examp. of.

Monopersonal verbs, see Impersonal Verbs.

Monotone, what, and how produced in elocution.

Months and days, names of, appar. proper names, and require capitals, —how best expressed in literary compositions.

Moods of a verb, term defined, —the five, named and defined, —Mood, or MODE, the name. See Infinitive Mood, Indic. Mood, &c.

More and most, in ambiguous construction, ("Some people MORE than them," MURR.,) —how parsed in comparisons of adjectives and adverbs.

Moses, in what characters, is supposed to have written.

Most, for almost, by vulgarism.

Motion, verbs of, with hither, &c., in stead of here.

Much, little, all, &c., as nouns, —preceded by not, too, or other such adv., —This much, in stead of thus much, DR. BLAIR.

Mulkey, W., strictures on his system of orthoëpy.

Multiplication, subject of the verb in, see Abstract Numbers.

Multiplicative numerals, as running on in a series; how written above decuple or tenfold.

Multitude, noun of, see Collective Noun.

Mute or silent, epithet applied to what letters. —Mutes, what so reckoned; of these, which imperfect. —Where a letter must be once mute.

My and mine, thy and thine, as duplicate forms of the poss. case, use of.

N.

N, its name and plur. numb., —of the class liquids, —its sounds, —in what position silent.

Name and title, see Proper Names.

Naming the letters of the alphab., importance of.

Narration, see Discourse.

Nasals, what consonants so called.

Near and nigh, see Like.

Need, as an uninflected third pers. sing. of the verb,
    —has perh. become an auxiliary of the pot. mood,
    —to what tenses must be understood to belong, if to be recognized as
      an auxil. of the pot. mood,
    —that good writers sometimes inflect the verb, and sometimes do not,
      and that they sometimes use to after it, and sometimes do not, how
      may be accounted for
    —three authorized forms of expression, with respect to the verb.
      Needs, as an adv., its composition

Needless, mixing of characters in printing, bad effect of
    —capitals; effect of
    —articles, to be omitted
    —ellipses, the supposition of, a common error among grammarians
    —use of participles for nouns, or nouns for participles
    —words, ineleg.
    —possessive or art. before a part., how corrected
    —periods, or other points, after certain numeral expressions
    —abbreviations, offend against taste
    —dashes inserted, how to be treated

Negation, expressed in the early Eng. by multiplied negatives; such manner of expression now obsolete and improper —Effect on a negation, of two negatives in the same clause

Negatives, the comm. rule of the grammars, that "two negatives, in Eng., destroy each other, or &c.," whether a correct one

Neither, see Either

Neuter verb, defined
    —Neuter verbs, the active-trans. verbs are so called in most
      grammars and dictionaries; the absurdity of this
    —extent of this class of verbs; their existence in any lang. denied by
      some grammarians
    —Neut. verb BE, conjugated
    —Neuter verbs, made from active-transitives, (am come, is gone,
      &c.;) these called by some, "neuter passives"
    —of passive form, (am grown, are flown, &c.,) as errors of
      conjugat., or of synt.
    —do., how may be distinguished from pass. verbs
    —do., DR. PRIESTL. mistaken notions concerning their nature and
      propriety
    —Neut. verbs, and their participles, take the same case after as
      before them
    —Neuter verb between two nominatives, its agreem.

Nevertheless, its composition and class

No or none, pronom. adj. No, as negative adj., "remarkable ambiguity
in the use of," noticed by PRIESTL., ("No laws are better than the
English;") how the ambiguity may be avoided
    —as a simple negation, its construc.
    —as an adv. of deg., relating only to comparatives, ("NO more,"
    —"NO better")
    —set before a noun, is an adj., corresponding to Lat. nullus
    —In the phrases, no longer, no more, no where, DR. JOH. appar.
      suggests wrongly the class; its true class according to its several
      relations
    —No, or an other independent negative, repeated, its effect
    —No, adv., not to be used with reference to a verb or part.
    —derivation of, from Anglo-Sax.

Nominative case, defined
    —Nom. case, how distinguished from the objective in nouns
    —as subj. of a finite verb
    —different ways of using
    —Nominative and verb, usual position of, and when varied
    —Nom. case and object., at the same time, noun placed in the
      relation of
    —Nom. following a verb or part, with what must accord in signif. See
      also Subject, &c.

Nominative sentences, examples of what MURR. erron. so terms; the prop. construc. shown

Nor, see Or.

Not, its place in negative questions
    —how spoken in grave discourse, and how ordinarily
    —vulg. contractions of, with certain verbs
    —used with other negatives
    —do. with nor (in stead of or) following, whether correctly, or
      not
    —derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. Not but, how resolved. Not only,
      not merely, to what are correspondents

Notwithstanding, import and construc. of; misunderstood by DR. WEBST.
    —formation and signif. of

NOUNS, Etymol. of
    —Noun, defined
    —Nouns, Classes of, named and defined
    —Modifications of, named
    —Persons of, named and defined; (see Persons)
    —Numbers of, do.; (see Plural Number)
    —Genders of, do.; (see Genders)
    —Cases of, do.; (see Cases)
    —Declension of
    —Nouns, number of, in Eng.
    —the sense of, how made indefinitely partitive
    —examples of words commonly belonging to other classes, used as
    —collective, abstract, and verbal or participial, included among
      common nouns; (see Collective Noun, and Particip. Noun)
    —proper, (see Proper Names)
    —Nouns, Synt. of
    —Noun, why may not be put in the relation of two cases at once
    —taken figuratively sing. for literally plur.
    —required to be repeated, or inserted, in stead of a pronoun
    —ellips. of, shown
    —Nouns of time, measure, distance, &c., (see Time)
    —Nouns, derivation of, from nouns, adjectives, verbs, or participles
    —poet. peculiarities of

Numbers, the distinction of, to what belongs, and how applied. (See
Plural Number.) Numbers, cardinal, ordinal, &c., (see Cardinal
Numbers, &c.)
    —Numbers, abstract, expressions of multiplication in, ("Twice one
      IS two,"
    —"Twice two ARE four," &c.,) seven different opinions of
      grammarians respecting, examined by BROWN; who determines the prop.
      forms of expression
    —Numbers, expressed by letters, how to be considered; whether to be
      marked by the period
    —combined arithmetical, one adjective relating to an other

Numerals, numeral adjectives, see Adjectives, Numeral. Numerical figures used for references

O.

O, lett., as A, E, I, and U, self-naming
    —its plural
    —formation of the plur. of nouns in
    —sounds properly its own
    —where sounded as short u
    —do. as obscure e
    —diphthongs beginning with
    —triphth. do. O, interj., with cap. lett.
    —what emotion indicates
    —differs from oh
    —as denoting earnestness, before nouns or pronouns put absol. by
      direct address; is no positive index of the vocative
    —O, &c., MURR., erron. doctrine concerning, to what teaching it has
      given rise
    —O, &c., with a case following, Lat. construc. of, examined
    —O, not unfreq. confounded with oh, even by grammarians.

Obelisk, or dagger, as mark of reference.

Objective case, defined
    —Obj. case, how distinguished from the nom. in nouns
    —before the infin. mood, how taken in Eng.
    —as governed by active-trans. verb or part.
    —"Active verbs govern the obj. case," MURR., defect of this brief
      assertion; its uselessness as a RULE for "the syntax of verbs."
    —Obj. case, of how many constructions susceptible
    —whether infinitives, participles, &c., can be in
    —two nouns in, after a verb, how parsed,
    —Whether any verb in Eng. governs two objectives not coupled
    —Obj. case as governed by passive verbs, erron. allowed by some
    —what verbs not to be employed without
    —Obj. case as governed by prep.
    —"Prepositions gov. the obj. case," why the brief assertion is
      exceptionable, as the sole RULE, in parsing prep.

Obsolete or antiquated words, use of, as opposed to purity, PREC. against
    —Things obsolete in Eng., DR. LATHAM'S attempts to revive.

Ocean, figurative representation of, as uttering his voice in tones of varied quantity.

Octometer line, may be reduced to tetrameter —iambic, examples of —trochaic, do —dactylic, example of —Octometer, trochaic, rhyme and termination of; its pauses, and how may be divided; the most common form of.

Of and on or upon, difference between.

Old English, characters of its alphabet, shown —occasional use of do.

Omissions of words that are needful to the sense, Crit. N. against.

Omitting, verbs of, with part. in stead of infin.

One, employment of, as a noun or as a substitute for a noun; how classed
by some grammarians
    —may be preceded by the articles, or by adjectives
    —like Fr. on or l'on, used indef. for any person; in this sense
      preferable to a pers. pron. applied indefinitely
    —CHURCH., citation ridiculing the too frequent use of, for pers. pron.
    —as pronom. adj., requires verb and pron. in the third pers. sing. to
      agree with it. One an other, see Other. One, or a unit, whether
      it is a number.

Only, derivation of; class and meaning of, in its several different
relations
    —strictures on the instructions of grammarians respecting the
      classification and placing of
    —ambiguous use of, (as also of but,)
    —use of, for but, or except that, not approved of by BROWN
    —Not only, not merely
    —but, &c., correspondents.

Onomatopoeia described and exemplified (extr. from SWIFT.)

Or, as expressing an alternation of terms, (Lat., sive.)
    —in Eng., is frequently equivocal; the ambiguity how avoided
    —Or, perh. contracted from other
    —Or and nor discriminated
    —Or, nor, grammarians dispute which of these words should be adopted
      after an other negative than neither or nor; MURR., following
      PRIESTL., teaches that either word may be used with equal propriety;
      BURN'S doctrine; BROWN, after revising CHURCH., attempts to settle
      the question,
    —Or ever, ("OR EVER the earth was,") the term explained.

Or or our, terminat., number of Eng. words in; how many of these may be written with our; BROWN'S practice and views in respect to this matter.

Oral spelling, the advantage of, to learners.

Order of things or events, the natural, PREC. directing the observance of, in the use of lang.

Orders of verse, see Verse.

Ordinal numeral, (see Numerals.)
    —Ordinal adjectives may qualify card. numbers; cannot properly be
      qualified by do.

Orthoëpy, see Pronunciation.

ORTHOGRAPHY
    —Orthography, of what treats
    —difficulties attending it in Eng.
    —DR. JOHNSON'S improvements in
    —DR. WEBSTER'S do., in a different direction
    —ignorance of, with respect to any word used, what betokens in the
      user (See also Spelling.) Orthography, figures of, MIMESIS and
      ARCHAISM
    —its substantive or pronominal character; (with one.) how classed by
      some; may be preceded by the articles
    —requires than before the latter term of an exclusive comparison;
      yet sometimes perhaps better takes the prep. besides. Each other one
      an other, import and just application of,
    —misapplication of, frequent in books,
    —DR. WEBST. erron. explanation of other, as "a correlative to
      each,"
    —One and other, frequently used as terms relative and partitive,
      appar. demanding a plur. form,
    —An other, in stead of another. Somehow or other, somewhere or
      other, how other is to be disposed of.

Ought, principal verb, and not auxiliary, as called by MURR. et al., —originally part of the verb to OWE; now used as defec. verb, —its tense, as limited by the infin. which follows.

Ourself, anomalous form peculiar to the regal style,
    —peculiar construc. of.

Own, its origin and import; its class and construc.,
    —strangely called a noun by DR. JOH.

P.

P, its name and plur. numb., —its sound, —when silent, —Ph, its sounds.

Pairs, words in, punct. of.

Palatals, what consonants so called.

Parables, in the Scriptures, see Allegory.

Paragoge, explained.

Paragraph mark, for what used.

Paralipsis, or apophasis, explained.

Parallels, as marks of reference.

Parenthesis, signif. and twofold application of the term,
    —Parenthesis, marks of, (see Curves.)
    —What clause to be inclosed within the curves as a PARENTHESIS, and
      what should be its punct.,
    —Parentheses, the introduction of, as affecting unity.

Parsing, defined.
    —Parsing, its relation to grammar,
    —what must be considered in,
    —the distinction between etymological and syntactical, to be
      maintained, against KIRKH. et al.,
    —character of the forms of etymological adopted by BROWN,
    —what implied in the right performance of,
    —whether different from analysis,
    —what to be supplied in.
    —Parsing, of a prep., how performed,
    —of a phrase, implies its separation,
    —the RULES OF GOVERNM., how to be applied in,
    —of words, is not varied by mere transposition.
    —Parsing, etymological and syntactical, in what order to be taken,
    —the SENSE, why necessary to be observed in; what required of the
      pupil in syntactical,
    —syntactical, EXAMPLE of.
    —Parsing or CORRECTING, which exercise perh. the more useful.

Participial adjectives, see Adjectives, Participial.

Participial or verbal noun, defined,
    —how distinguished from the participle.
    —Participial noun and participle, the distinction between, ill
      preserved by MURR. and his amenders.
    —Participial noun, distinc. of VOICE in, sometimes disregarded,
      ("The day of my BURYING,")
    —with INFIN. following, strictures on MURR., LENN., and BULL.,
      with respect to examples of.

PARTICIPLES, Etymol. of. —Participle, defined. —Participles, whether they ought to be called verbs, —appropriate naming of the kinds of, —often become adjectives, —become adjectives by composition with something not belonging to the verb, —number of, simp. and comp., —imply time, but do not divide it, —retain the essential meaning of their verbs, but differ from them in the formal, —in Eng., from what derived, —H. TOOKE'S view of the time of; with whom BROWN differs. —Participles, Classes of, named and defined, —(See Imperfect Participle and Perfect Part.) —Participles, grammarians differ in their opinion with respect to the time and voice of, —how have been called and treated by some, —explanation of the different, —how distinguished from particip. nouns, —elegantly taken as plur. nouns, ("All his REDEEMED,") —appar. used for adverbs, —some become prepositions. —Participle and ADJUNCTS, as forming "one name," and as such, governing the poss., whence the doctrine; PRIESTL. criticised; MURR. et al. adopt PRIESTL. doctrine, which they badly sustain; teachers of do. disagree among themselves, —governm. of possessives by, how BROWN generally disposes of; how determines with respect to such governm. —Participles, Synt. of, —regular synt. of, twofold; nature of the two constructions; OTHER less regular constructions; which two constructions of all, are legitimate uses of the participle; which constructions are of doubtf. propriety. —Participles, to what RELATE, or in what state GOVERNED. —Participle, as relating to a phrase or sentence, —taken abstractly, —irregularly used in Eng. as substitute for infin. mood, —in irreg. and mixed construc. —Participle, transitive, what case governs, —nom. absol. with, to what equivalent, —each requires its appropriate FORM, —questionable uses of, admitted by MURR. et al.; why BROWN is disposed to condemn these irregularities. —Participle and particip. noun, distinction between, with respect to governm. —Participle in ing, multiplied uses of, lawful and forced, illustrated, —equivalence of do. to infin. mood, instances of, —every mixed construc. of, how regarded by BROWN, —the "double nature" of, CROMB. on; his views, how accord with those of MURR. et al., HILEY'S treatment of; BROWN'S strictures on do. —Participles, place of: —active, governm. of. —Participle, trans., converted to a noun: —converted, when the expression should be changed: —followed by an adj., its conversion into a noun appar. improper: —comp. converted, how managed: —not to be used for infin., or other more appropriate term: —use of, for a nominative after be, is, was, &c., faulty: —following a verb of preventing, how to be managed. —Participles, converted, disposal of their adverbs: —must be construed with a regard to the leading word in sense: —should have a clear reference to their subjects: —needless use of, for nouns, to be avoided: —punct. of: —derivation of: —poet. peculiarities in the use of.

Parts of speech, meaning of the term:
    —Parts of speech, named and defined:
    —what explanations may aid learners to distinguish the different:
    —why needful that learners be early taught to make for themselves the
      prop. distribution of:
    —WILS. on the distribution of:
    —the preferable number with respect to; the office of, specifically
      stated.
    —The parts of speech, passage exemplifying all.
    —Examples of a partic. part of speech accumulated in a sentence.
    —Etymol. and Synt. of the different parts of speech, see Article,
      Noun, Adjective, &c.

Passions of the mind, by what tones to be expressed.

Passive verb, defined.
    —Pass. verbs contrasted with active-trans, verbs, in respect to the
      object or the agent of the action; their compos, and construc.:
    —their FORM in Eng.
    —Pass. verb BE LOVED, conjug. affirmatively.
    —Pass. verbs, how distinguished from neuters of the same form:
    —having active forms nearly equivalent to them, (is rejoiced,
      rejoices; am resolved, know, &c.,):
    —erroneously allowed by some to govern the obj. case in Eng.; CROMB.
      in this category, cited, canon, pseudo-canons.
    —Pass. verb, what should always take for its subj. or nom.:
    —takes the same case after as before it, when both words refer to the
      same thing:
    —between two nominatives, with which should be made to agree,
      ("Words ARE wind,"). See Unco-Passive, &c.

Passive form of an active-intrans. verb followed by a prep. and its objective, ("He WAS LAUGHED AT,"). Passive sense of the act. form of the verb, ("The books continue SELLING,").

Past for future, see Prophecy.

Pauses, term defined. —Pauses, kinds of, named and explained: —the distinctive, duration of: —after what manner should be formed: —forced, unintentional, their effect: —emphatic or rhetorical, applicat. and office of: —harmonic, kinds of; these, essential to verse. —Pauses, abrupt, punct.: —emphatic, do.

Pedantic and sense-dimming style of charlatans &c., as offending against purity.

Pentameter line, iambic, examples of:
    —is the regular Eng. HEROIC; its quality and adaptation:
    —embraces the elegiac stanza:
    —trochaic, example of, said by MURR. et al. to be very uncommon;
      was unknown to DR. JOH. and other old prosodists:
    —the two examples of. in sundry grammars, whence came; a couplet of
      these scanned absurdly by HIL.; HART mistakes the metre of do.:
    —dactylic, example of, ("Salutation to America,").

Perfect, adj., whether admits of comparison; why its comparis. by adverbs not wholly inadmissible.

Perfect definition, what.

Perfect participle, or second part., defined:
    —its form:
    —how has been variously called:
    —its character and name as distinguished from the imperf. part:
    —why sometimes called the passive part.; why this name liable to
      objection:
    —how may be distinguished from the preterit of the same form:
    —should not be made to govern an objective term. ("The characters
      MADE USE OF," MURR.,):
    —not to be used for the pret., nor confounded with the pres.:
    —what care necessary in the employment of; when to be distinguished
      from the preterits of their verbs.

Perfect tense, defined. —Perf. tense of indic., as referring to time relatively fut.

Period, or full stop, its pause. —Period, or circuit, nature of. —Period, probably the oldest of the points; how first used: —how used in Hebrew: —what used to mark: —Rules for the use of: —not required when short sentences are rehearsed as examples: —whether to be applied to letters written for numbers: —with other points set after it: —whether proper after Arabic figures used as ordinals. —Period of abbreviation, whether always supersedes other points.

Permanent propositions, to be expressed in the pres. tense.

Permitting, &c., verbs of, see Commanding.

Personal pronoun, defined.
    —Personal pronouns, simple, numb, and specificat. of:
    —declension of:
    —often used in a reciprocal sense, ("Wash YOU," &c.,).
    —(See also It.)
    —Personal pronouns, compound, numb. and specificat. of. 298:
    —explanat. and declension of:
    —CHURCH. account of:
    —of the first and second persons, placed before nouns to distinguish
      their persons.

Personification, defined,
    —MURR. definition of, blamed,
    —what constitutes the purest kind of,
    —change of the gend. of inanimate objects by,
    —whether it always changes the gender of anteced. term,
    —agreem. of pronouns with their antecedents in cases of,
    —Rule for capitals in do.,
    —comp.,
    —Personifications, CHURCH, on the determination of gender in,
    —Personified objects, names of, put in the second pers., and why,
    —how pronouns agree with,

Persons, term defined,
    —Persons, named and defined,
    —the distinction of, on what founded,
    —Persons, numbers, &c., character of BROWN'S definitions of,
    —Persons, in gram., nature of; absurd teachings of some
      grammar-makers concerning,
    —distinctions of, in written lang.,
    —Person and number of a verb, what,
    —Persons, second and third, of a verb, distinctive formations of,
    —do., in Lat., shown,
    —Person, nouns of the second, in Eng., in how many ways can be
      employed,
    —the third, put with the pron. I, by vulgarism, ("THINKS I to
      myself,")
    —the first, place of,
    —Persons, whether the imperat. mood may have three,
    —connected antecedents of different, agreem. of pron. with,
    —connected nominatives of different, agreem. of verb with,

Perspicuity, as a quality of style, in what consists, —is essential in composition; BLAIR quoted, —the excellence of, —Precepts aiming at offences against,

Perversions of Eng. grammar, the design, in part, of BROWN'S code of synt, is to make intelligent judges of, —Perversions, literary, Crit. N. concerning,

Phonetics, phonography, phonotopy, BROWN'S estimate of; DR. JOH. cited,
    —account of,
    —TRENCH'S views of,
    —Phonographic system of stenography, its practical value;
      phonotopy, to what may be advantageously applied,

Phrase, defined,
    —Phrase made the subject of a verb, how to be taken,
    —Phrases, distinct, conjunctively connected, agreem. of verb with,
    —distinct, disjunctively connected, do.,
    —unconnected, do.,
    —BAD phrases, examples of, from authors,
    —do., corrected,
    —Phrases or clauses, ellips. of, shown,
    —Adverbial phrase, (so termed by some,) see Adverb.

Place or position of the different parts of speech, see Article, Noun, Adjective, &c.

Pleonasm, defined,
    —Pleonasm, when allowable with respect to a pron.,
    —in what instances impressive and elegant; when, the vice of ill
      writing,
    —occurs sundry times in the Bible,

Pluperfect tense, defined,
    —Pluperf. tense, what implies when used conditionally; what, in the
      negative form of supposition,
    —how formed in the indic. mood; do. in the potential,
    —indic. form of, put by enall. for pluperf. of the pot.,
    —PLUPERFECT, signif. of the term; several innovators (as BULL., BUTL.,
      et al.) have been fain to discard it,

Plural number, of nouns, how formed,
    —of most nouns in Eng., is simple and regular,
    —of nouns ending in a vowel preceded by a vowel,
    —of do. in y preceded by a consonant,
    —of do. in o preceded by a consonant,
    —construc. of, when several persons of the same name are spoken of
      ("The Stuarts,")
    —of prop. names, its formation,
    —of nouns in i, o, u, or y, preceded by a consonant,
    —when name and title are to be used together, ("The Miss
      Bells,")
    —of nouns in f,
    —of nouns not formed in s or es,
    —of compounds,
    —of certain compound terms, ("Ave-Maries," &c.,)
    —wanting to some nouns,
    —of nouns of multitude,
    —Plural, nouns made so by nature or art,
    —of foreign nouns, 253,
    —improperly formed by adding apostrophic s,
    —of mere characters, how denoted,

Plurality, the idea of; see Unity, &c.

Poetic feet, treated, —(See Iambus, Trochee, &c.) —Poetic foot, of what consists, —Poet. feet, number to be recognized in Eng., —principal Eng., named and defined, —kinds of, which form ORDERS OF VERSE, —what combinations of, severally form dimeter, trimeter, &c., —(See Dimeter, Trimeter, &c.) —Poetic collocation of words, in prose, as offending against perspicuity, PREC. respecting, —Poetic diction, treated, —in what abounds, —Poetical Peculiarities,

Poetry, as defined by BLAIR, —character of its style, —aim and end of, —exterior distinction of, —why difficult, by a definition, to be distinguished from prose, —inept directions of some grammatists respecting the parsing of, —Poetry, every line in, should begin with a capital,

Points, or stops, the principal, named, and their forms shown,
    —the purpose of,
    —length of pauses denoted by,
    —often variously used in different editions of the same work,
    —origin of, See Punctuation.

Points of the compass, adjectives for; modes of varying them,

Possession, relation of, see Property.

Possessive case, defined, —Poss. case, how formed —disputes of the earlier grammarians respecting, —CARD. et al. attempt to revive exploded error concerning, —form of, —origin of, in Eng., —odd notions of some grammarians concerning the regular formation of —exceptions or irregularities in the formation of —Poss. case, PEI. on, criticised —ASH and PRIESTL. on the plur. —use of the two forms of, in pers. pronouns —of the simp. pers. pronouns, grammarians differ with respect to; should not be considered mere adjectives —are pronom. adjectives, according to DR. LOWTH and his followers, —whose doctrine BROWN canvasses, also, WEBSTER'S, WILSON'S, MURRAY'S —Poss. case, its equivalence to of and the objective, not a sameness of case, (in oppos. to Nix.) —of pronouns, not to be written with apostrophe —of nouns in appos., application of the possessive sign to —by what governed —whether the rule for, has true exceptions —appos. of one with an other, ("For DAVID my SERVANT'S sake,") the construc. examined —appar. in abstract construc., ("All MINE are THINE,") —as governed by a part, the construc. examined; COROL. —why the governm. of, should be limited to nouns only —whether before a real part., denotes the possession of something —Possessive sign, omission oL not a true ellips. —always implies a governing word, —how taken by compounds —liable to be added to adjunct of the former noun —whether it can be rightly added to separate adjectives, ("The GUILTY'S prayer,") —which noun of connected possessives takes —Poss. case, place and order of —generally equivalent to prep. of and the objective, —governed by something not expressed, ("St. Paul's,") —Possessives, connected, how to be taken, —Poss. singular, with s omitted, ("For CONSCIENCE' sake") —Poss. case of nouns sing, in ss, false teaching of KIRKH. et al., respecting the formation of —MURR. rule for the construc. of, why objectionable, —compounds embracing, lack uniformity in writing, —peculiarity of, with respect to correlatives, ("Father's son,") —Possessive relation between a portion of time and its correlative action, ("THREE YEARS' hard work" or, "Three years OF HARD WORK,") —Poss. case, appropriate form of, to be observed, —plural, with a noun in forced agreem., ("For OUR PARTS,") ib., N. iv: —needless use of, before a participle, ("In THEIR pronouncing the Greek,") —Possessive pronouns, my, thy, his, &c., how often should be inserted, or repeated

Potential mood, defined
    —Potential mood, why so called; by what signs distinguished,
    —may, like the indic., be used in asking questions; why by some
      included in the subj.
    —in what tenses used; nature of the imperf. tense
    —formation and inflection of its tenses, shown in the verb LOVE,
      conjugated,

Power of a letter, the powers of the letters, what meant by, when
spoken of,
    —The power of a letter is not its sound, as MURR. et al incorrectly
      teach
    —The simple powers of the letters, many irreconcileable doctrines
      have been advanced thereon; GARDINER'S notions concerning, stated in
      brief,
    —RUSH'S explanations of, his pretentious scheme of the alphab. how
      estimated by BROWN
    —The just powers of the letters, what, and how are to be learned,
    —Powers of the letters, variable; how become so; WALK, cited

Praxis, defined; lit. signif. of the word, as from the Gr.

Precision, as a quality of style, in what consists, —Precepts aiming at offences against —conciseness, or brevity, as opposed to

Prefixes, their management in syllabication, R.:
    —Explanation of
    —import and character of the particles used as, in Eng.; the roots
      to which prefixed, not always proper Eng. words
    —Prefixes, ENG. or ANGLO-SAX.,
    —Prefixes, poet, usage with respect to,

Preperfect participle, defined
    —Preperf. part., its form
    —its nature and name,

PREPOSITIONS, Etymol. of
    —Preposition defined
    —importance of a right use, and a right explan. of
    —HARR. explanation of, as cited by LOWTH, stricture on HARR.
    —its simplicity among the parts of speech; how should be explained in
      parsing,
    —no sufficient RULE for the synt. of, in most of the Eng. grammars,
      Prepositions and their objects, as preceding the words on which
      they depend, ("Of man's first disobedience, &c., Sing" MILC.,)
    —Prepositions, what it is, to find the terms of relations of;
      disput. text cited in illustration
    —the special adaptation of; example of misuse by MURR., remarked on
    —HARR., on the purpose for which almost all prepositions were orig.
      formed, and on the nature of their relations; his views controverted
      by BROWN,
    —Prepositions and their governed objects, the true determination of;
      examples of joint objects, and of joint antecedents, wrong views of
      MURR. and his followers concerning this matter.
    —Prepositions, two connected, for what different purposes used
    —two coming together, ("FROM AMONG the just,")
    —Prepositions complex, what their character, and how may be
      resolved; are occasionally compounded by the hyphen
    —Prepositions, how might be divided into classes; the inutility in
      parsing of the division into "separable and inseparable;"

HALL'S absurd idea of a divis., noticed
    —whether "two in immediate succession require a noun to be understood
      between them," (NUTT.)
    —words commonly reckoned, (in, on, of, &c.,) used after infinitives
      or participles, in adverbial construc., ("Houses to eat and drink
      IN")
    —Prepositions, List of
    —grammarians differ considerably in their tables of; do. concerning
      the characteristics of; what BROWN supposes, in oppos. to the
      assertion that "Every prep. requires an obj. case after it"
    —LENN. and BULL. on "prepositions becoming adverbs," criticised
    —MURR. on "prepositions appearing to be adverbs," criticised
    —Preposition, whether it can be justly said to take a sent. for its
      object
    —Prepositions, words in the list of, sometimes used as other parts
      of speech
    —extension of the list of
    —examples of the less usual, a, and others beginning with a
    —do. of unusual ones beginning with b, c, or d
    —unusual, quotations illustrating further the list of
    —Preposition, RULE of synt. for the word governed by
    —Prepositions, in Eng., govern no other case than the obj.; most,
      may take the imperf. part. for their obj.
    —The brief assertion, that "Prepositions govern the obj. case,"
      wherein is exceptionable as the sole rule for both terms
    —Prepositions, ellipt. construc. of, with adjectives, (in vain, in
      secret, &c.)
    —sometimes appar. govern adverbs
    —Preposition, appar. governing a perf. part., ("To give it up FOR
      LOST")
    —Prepositions, Synt. of
    —do., in what consists
    —what RELATIONS, show; (see To and For)
    —the parsing of; why tolerable writers are liable to err most in their
      use of
    —Preposition, the true terms of the relat. of, how may be discovered
    —when beginning or ending a sent. or clause, what the construc.
    —the terms of relation of, what may be; both usually expressed
    —position of, with respect to the governed word
    —Prepositions, several, dependent on one anteced. term, ("A
      declaration FOR virtue and AGAINST vice," BUTL.)
    —two coming together between the same terms of relat.; do. in the same
      construc.; erron. remark of PRIESTL., MURR., et al., concerning the
      latter
    —Preposition, the separating of, from its noun, false doctrine of
      LOWTH, MURR., et al., concerning
    —Prepositions, prop, choice of
    —do., with respect to the allowable uses of
    —as adapted in meaning to two objects, or to more
    —Preposition, ellips. or omiss. of, where ineleg.
    —insertion of, when do.
    —Prep. and its object, position of, in respect to other words
    —do., punc. of
    —Prep., ellips. of, shown
    —Prepositions, derivation of
    —poet. usage with respect to

Present tense, defined
    —Pres. tense, described
    —of the indic., used to express general truths
    —deceased authors spoken of in, and why
    —for the past, by Grecism; in animated narrative, for do., by enall.
    —of the indic. and the subj., when preceded by as soon as, &c., to
      what time, refers
    —of the infin., what time is expressed by; expedients used to express
      fut. time by
    —of the INFINITIVE, the ROOT, or RADICAL VERB
    —of the subj., its use, and how considered by some
    —Pres. tense, sometimes improp. with the conjunc. that, ("Others
      said, THAT it is Elias")

Preter, preterimperfect, &c., disused terms for past, imperfect, &c.
    —Preter, prefix, its meaning

Preterit, defined
    —Preterit, described
    —its form and variations
    —present tendency to a reg. orthog. of, to be encouraged
    —groundless rule of some, for forming second pers. of, when the pres.
      and the pret. are alike
    —not to be used in forming the comp. tenses of a verb

Preventing, verbs of, with part., in stead of infin.
    —what construc. is proper for

Primitive word, defined
    —Primitive words regarded as such in Eng., may generally be traced
      to ulterior sources

Principal parts, of a verb, (see Chief Terms)
    —of a sent., how many, and what

Priscian, ancient grammarian, delivers the names of most of the Lat. letters

Progressive form of a verb, see Compound &c.

Pronominal adjectives, see Adjectives, Pronominal

PRONOUNS, Etymol. of
    —Pronoun, definition of
    —Pronouns in Eng., number of, and their variations
    —nature of the representation by; are put substantively, relatively,
      or adjectively; difference in these three modes of substitution
    —Classes of, named, and defined; (see Personal Pronoun, Relative
      Pron., and Interrogative Pron.)
    —Pronouns, compound, constructional peculiarities of
    —Pronouns, faultiness and discordance of most Eng. grammars, with
      respect to the classification and treatment of; specification of
      different modes of distribution by diff. authors
    —Modifications of, named; these properties how distinguished in the
      personal pronouns; do. how ascertained in the relat. and interrog.
      pronouns
    —Declension of; simp. personals declined; comp. personals do.; comp.
      relatives do.
    —appar. used for adverbs
    —Pronouns, Synt. of
    —Pronoun, agreem. of, with its anteced.
    —do., with anteced. indefinite
    —plur., put by enall. for the sing., agreem. of
    —sometimes disagreeing with the anteced. in one sense, because taking
      it in an other
    —what the main point with respect to; what application of the rule of
      agreem., in parsing
    —Pronouns, agreem. of, with their antecedents, as affected by the
      figures of rhetoric
    —place of
    —Pronoun, as representing a phrase or sentence
    —under what circumstances can agree with either of two antecedents
    —the parsing of, commonly requiring the application of two rules
    —with suppressed anteced.
    —needless introduction of, ("PALLAS, HER glass," BACON)
    —with change of numb. in the second pers., or promisc. use of ye and
      you
    —must present the same idea as the anteced., and never confound the
      name with the thing signified
    —employment of the same, with respect to connected relative clauses
    —in what instances the noun must be repeated, or inserted in stead
      of
    —should never be used to represent an adj., ("Be ATTENTIVE;
      without WHICH," &c.)
    —change of anteced. to accord with
    —agreem. with collective nouns
    —do. with joint antecedents
    —do. with connected antecedents in apposition
    —do. with connected antecedents emphat. distinguished
    —do. with connected antecedents preceded by each, every, or no
    —do. with connected antecedents of different persons
    —agreeing with implied nominatives
    —agreem. with disjunct antecedents
    —what agreem. with disjunct. antecedents of different persons,
      numbers, and genders
    —do. with antecedents taken affirmatively and negatively
    —do. with two antecedents connected by as well as, &c.
    —ellips. of, shown
    —punct. of, without pause
    —Pronouns, derivation of, from Sax.
    —poet. peculiarities of

Pronunciation, importance of an early habit of distinct
    —how best taught to children
    —Pronunc., as distinguished from elocution, what; how differs from
      articulation
    —Pronunc. of the Eng. lang., what knowledge requires; its
      difficulties; whether we have any system of, worthy to be accounted a
      STANDARD

Proof-texts, not to be perverted in the quotation, Crit. N.
    —not quoted, but invented, by some, in their false illustrations
      of gram.

Proper names begin with capitals —Comm. and proper name associated, how written —Prop. names, derivatives from, do. —(Names of Deity, see Deity.) —Prop. names, application of rule concerning; distinc. between do. and common appellatives —of places, comparative difficulty of writing them —modern compound, sparing use of hyphen in —Prop. names, what their relative importance in lang. —structure and signif. of; how should be written —of plur. form, preceded by def. art. —Prop. name, with def. art., acquires the import of a comm. —Proper, from a comm. noun personified —Prop. names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plur.; prop. name, how made plur., and how then considered —when they form a plur., how form it —of persons, generally designate their sex —Prop. name, in appos. with an appellative —represented by which, ("Herod —WHICH is," &c.) —Prop. name and title, when taken together in a plur. sense, in what form to be written

Property, the relation of, how may be otherwise expressed than by the poss. case

Prophecy, the past tenses substituted for the fut., in the lang. of

Propositions, permanent, in what tense should be expressed

Propriety, as a quality of style, in what consists —its oppos., impropriety, what embraces —Precepts aiming at offences against

Prose and verse, in the composition of lang., how differ

PROSODY
    —Prosody, of what subjects treats
    —etymol. and signif. of the word
    —Prosody, meagrely and immethodically treated in the works of many
      grammarians
    —undetermined usage as to what things belong to; how treated by some
      of the old prosodists; account of SMETIUS'S treatise of; do.
      GENUENSIS'S

Prosthesis, explained

Proverbs, their elliptical character

Provincial expressions, use of, as opposed to purity

PUNCTUATION, arranged under the head of Prosody
    —Punct., what
    —principal marks of, named and shown; what they severally denote
    —RULES of: for Comma; for Semicolon; for Colon; for Period; for
      Dash; for Eroteme; for Ecphoneme; for Curves
    —description of the other marks of
    —(See Comma, Semicolon, &c.)
    —Punct., the present system of, in Eng., common to many languages
    —why often found diverse, in diff. editions and diff. versions of the
      same work
    —duty of writers in respect to, and of publishers in reproducing
      ancient books
    —some account of the orig. and prog. of
    —"improvement" in, which is no improvement
    —confused and discordant explanations, by some, of certain of the
      marks of

Purity, as a quality of style, in what consists
    —Precepts aiming at offences against

Pyrrhic, defined

Q.

Q, its name and plur. numb. —has no sound peculiar to itself; its power —is always followed by u

Quakers, or Friends, their style of address, see Friends

Qualities of style, treated —See Style Quantity, or time in pronunciation, explained —as defined by the lexicographers —its effect in the prolation of sounds —WALKER'S views of, unsatisfac. to BROWN —as regulated by emphasis, MURR. —Quant. of a syll., how commonly explained —by what marks may be indicated —Quantities poetic, how denominated, and how proportioned —What quantity coincides with accent or emphasis —Quantity, on what depends —where variable, and where fixed, in Eng. —Crit. observations on accent and quantity —Quantity, its distinction from accent —Accent and quantity, differing views of authors relative to —Quantity, impropriety of affirming it to be the same as accent —DR. JOH. identification of accent with; such, also, that of others; (not so HARRIS;) NOEHD. rightly defines; so FISK, (in Eschenb. Man. Class. Lit.,) et al. —our grammarians seem not to have understood the distinc. of long and short, e. g., FISHER; so SHERID., WALK., MURR., et al. —CHAND. absurd and confused scheme of, noticed —suggestion of WEBST. on, approved

Questions, can be asked only in the indic. or the pot. mood
    —direct, to be marked by the eroteme
    —united, how to be marked
    —indirect, do.
    —a series of, how may be united and marked
    —exclamatory, how to be marked
    —Question, mentioned in due form, how marked
    —declaratively put, how uttered and marked
    —in Spanish, doubly marked, ("¿Quien llama?";) in Greek, how

Quite, with art. and adj., construc. how differs according to position of art.

Quotation, direct, first word of, written with capital —Quotations of proof-texts, &c., should be literally given —dependent, separated from say, &c., by comma —indep., preceded by colon —Quotat. within a quotat., how usually marked

Quoth and quod, signif. and use of, in ludicrous lang. or in the old writers

R.

R, name and plur. numb. —of the class liquids —sound of; do., how can be varied in utterance —what faults to be avoided in do. —DR. JOH. account of; WALK. do.

Radicals, separable and inseparable, what are so called in Eng. derivation

Rath, adv., used only in the compar. deg. —Rather, with the exclusive term of comparis. introduced by than —derivation of

Reading, to read, in gram., what the signif. of
    —READ, verb, CONJUGATED affirmatively in Comp. Form

Reciprocal terms, reciprocals, what pronom. adjectives may be so termed
    —Reciprocals, EACH OTHER, ONE AN OTHER, their nature and import
    —misapplicat. of, frequent in books; WEBST. errs in the signif. and
      applicat. of other. See also Other

Reciprocal or reflected verbs, constructions in imitation of the French

Recurrence of a word in different senses, a fault opposed to propriety

Redundant verb, defined
    —Redund. verbs, why made a separate class
    —treated
    —List of

Reference, marks of, ASTERISK, OBELISK, &c., shown; in what order are
introduced
    —what other signs of, may be used. Reference, doubtful, Crit. N.
      concerning

Reformers of the Eng. alphabet and orthog., some account of

Rejoice, resolve, incline, &c., import of, in the pass. form

Relations of things, their infinitude and diversity; the nature of
RELATION
    —Relation of words, what
    —is diff. from agreem., but may coincide with it
    —Relation according to the sense, an important principle in Eng.
      synt.; what rules of relation commonly found in the grammars
    —Simple relation, what parts of speech have no other syntact.
      property than; what simp. relations there are in Eng.
    —Relation, with respect to a prep., anteced. term, what may be;
      subseq., do.
    —Relation, do., terms of, to be named in parsing a prep.; how the
      terms may be ascertained by a learner
    —terms of, to a prep., may be transposed; are very various; both
      usually expressed

Relative pronouns, defined
    —Relative pronouns, and their compounds, named; declined
    —chief constructional peculiarities of
    —two faulty special rules given by the grammarians, for construc. of,
      noticed
    —construc. of, with respect to CASE
    —ellips. of, in famil. lang., ("The man I trust;") do., poet.
    —Relative and prep. governing it, when should not be omitted
    —Relative pron., place of
    —clauses, connected, employment of, with same pron. in each
    —Rel. pronouns, exclude conjunctions
    —derivat. of, from Sax.
    —poet, peculiarities with respect to. See also Who, Which, &c.

Repetition, of a noun or pronoun, what construc. it produces —of words, emphatic, punct. —of words, through paucity of lang.; against propriety —of do., as demanded by precision —Repetitions, see Pleonasm

Restrictive and resumptive senses of the rel. pronouns, distinc.
between, expl.
    —Restrictive, relation, most approp. expressed by the pron. THAT
    —admits not a comma before the relative
    —adj., admits not a comma before it
    —part., do.

Rhetoric, figure of, defined
    —Figures of rhetoric, see Figures

Rhetorical pauses, see Pauses

Rhode Island, the name how acquired; peculiarity of its application

Rhyme, defined —Rhyming syllables, their nature and quality

Rhythm, of verse, defined
    —Fancifully explained by E. A. POE, (who without intelligence derives
      the term from [Greek: hurithmos])
    —sense and signif. of the word

Roman letters, some account of

Rules, of RELATION, what, commonly found in grammars
    —of SYNT., those common in grammars ill adapted to their purpose;
      examples of such
    —of do., exposition of the faulty charac. of those in Eng. grammars
    —Rules of grammar, advantage of, in the written language

Rush, Dr. J., his new doctrine of the vowels and consonants, in oppos. to
the old, how estimated by BROWN
    —his doctrine of a duplicity of the vocal elements, perstringed
    —his strange division of the vowels "into two parts," and conversion
      of most of them into diphthongs; his enumeration and specification of
      the alphabetic elements

S.

S, its name and plur. numb.
    —final, in monosyllables, spell.
    —of the poss. case, occas. dropping of; the elis. how to be regarded,
      and when to be allowed
    —its sounds
    —in what words silent
    —Ss, sound of

S or es, verbal termin., DR. LOWTH'S account of

Sans, from Fr., signif., and where read

Sabaoth, see Deity

Same cases, construc. of —do., on what founded —what position of the words, admitted by the construc. —Same case, after what verbs, except those which are pass., taken —Same cases, notice of the faulty rules given by LOWTH, MURR., et al., for the construc. of

Sameness of signif., what should be that of the nom. following a verb or part. —Sameness of words, see Identity

Sapphic, verse, described
    —stanza, composition of; examp. from HOR.
    —Sapphic verse, difficulty of; Eng. Sapphics few; scansion of; "The
      Widow," of SOUTHEY, scanned
    —Eng. Sapphic, DR. WATTS'S ode, (in part.) "The Day of Judgement,"
      "attempted in"
    —HUMPH. on, cited
    —Sapphics, burlesque, examples of

Save, saving, as denoting exception, class and construc. of
    —Save, derivation of

Saxon, alphabet, some account of
    —lang., its form about the year 450; do. subsequently

Scanning, or scansion, explained
    —Why, in scanning, the principal feet are to be preferred to the
      secondary
    —The poetry of the earliest Eng. poets, not easy of scansion

Script letters, the alphabet exhibited in
    —the forms of, their adaptation to the pen

Scripture names, many discrepancies in, found in different editions of the Bible. Scriptures, see Bible

Section, mark, uses of

SEE, verb, irreg., act., CONJUGATED affirmatively —takes infin. without prep. TO —its construc. with infin. without to

Seeing and provided, as connectives, their class

Seldom, adv., its comparison; use of, as an adj.

Self, in the format, of the comp. pers. pronouns —CHURCH. explan. of —signif. and use of —as an Eng. prefix —after a noun poss., in poet. diction

Self-contradiction, Crit. N. respecting

Self-naming letters

Semicolon, point —for what purpose used —from what takes its name —when adopted in England —is useful and necessary, though discarded by some late grammarians —Rules for the use of

Semivowel, defined
    —Semivowels named; nature of w and y; sound of certain, as
      aspirates

Sense and construc. to be considered, in joining together or writing separately words otherw. liable to be misunderstood —Sense or meaning, necessary to be observed in parsing

Senseless jumbling, Crit. N. concerning

Sentence, defined
    —Sentence, its parts, principal and subordinate
    —Sentences, the two kinds of, named and defined
    —whether a tripartite distribut. of is expedient
    —Simple sent., false notions amongst grammarians of what constitutes
      one; the parsing of words not affected thereby
    —Sentences, simp. and comp., DR. WILS. explanation of
    —component parts of, what these are
    —whether all, can be divided into clauses
    —in what FIVE WAYS, can be analyzed
    —Sentences, simp., punct.

of,
    —distinct, do.,
    —allied, do.,
    —short, rehearsed in close succession, how pointed.

Series, of terms, proper use of the articles in, —of words, how to be commaed.

Set and sit, signif. and employment of.

Sex, to what persons ascribed; why a young child may be spoken of without
distinc. of,
    —whether animals may be represented as of no,
    —inanimate objects fig. represented as having.
    —Sexes, distinction of, by words, in diff. ways,
    —denoted by terminat. of words,
    —designated by proper names.

Shall, verb, how varied, —original signif. of, —explet. use of. —Shall and will, discriminative application of, in the fut. indic.

Sheridan, T., actor and orthoëpist, his literary reputation; the worth of his writings.

Side, noun, peculiarities of usage in regard to.

Silent, or mute, when a letter is said to be.

Silliness, literary, Crit. N. concerning.

Simile, explained.

Since, improp. use of, for ago, —derivation of, from Anglo-Sax.

Sit and set, use and signif. of.

So, as expressing the sense of a preced. word or phrase,
    —derivation of, from Sax.
    —So
    —as, as
    —so, correspondents.

Soever or soe'er, whether a word or only a part of an other word; how explained by WEBST.

Solemn style, as distinguished from the familiar, —should not be displaced from the paradigms in a grammar, —is not adapted to familiar discourse, —pres. and pret. terminations of, what, and how uttered, —examp. of, second pers. sing., negat., throughout the verb LOVE, conjugated.

Some, classed,
    —vulg. used for somewhat, or in some degree, ("SOME longer,"
      SANB.). Somehow or other, somewhere or other, what the
      construc. Somewhere, nowhere, anywhere, &c., their class, and how
      should be written.

Sort, see Kind.

Sound, of a letter, commonly called its power,
    —elementary, of the voice, defined.
    —Sounds, simp. or primary, numb. in Eng.,
    —elementary, what meant by; are few in numb.; their combinations may
      be innumerable.
    —Vowel sounds, or vocal elements, how produced, and where heard;
      what those in Eng., and how may be modified in the format. of
      syllables; do., how may be written, and how uttered.
    —Consonant sounds, simp., in Eng., how many, and what; by what
      letters marked; in what words heard.
    —Sounds, long and short, SIGNS used to denote them.
    —Sounds, a knowledge of, how acquired,
    —importance of being early taught to pronounce those of one's native
      lang.
    —Passage exemplifying all the letters, and all the SOUNDS, in Eng.
    —Sounds of the Letters, treated.

Speak, to speak, what is meant by.

Speaker, why often speaks of himself in the third pers.,
    —represents himself and others by we,
    —in Eng., should mention himself last.
    —The elegant speaker, by what distinguished.

Species and figure of words, what so called,
    —unsettled usage of the lang. with regard to what relates to the
      latter. Species and genus of things, how admits limitation by the
      article.

SPELLING, defined.
    —Spelling, how to be acquired,
    —cause of the difficulty of its acquisition,
    —Rules for,
    —usage, as a law of,
    —uniformity and consistency in, how only can be attained.
    —The right spelling of a word, what, PHILOLOG. Mus.
    —Oral spelling, how should be conducted.
    —Charac. of BROWN'S rules for spelling.

Spondee, defined.

St, unsyllab. suffix, whether, wherever found, is a modem contrac. of the syllable est.

Standards of English orthog., the books proposed as such, abound in
errors and inconsistencies.
    —Whether we have a system of Eng. ORTHOEPY worthy to be accounted a
      STANDARD.

Stanza, defined. —Stanzas, uniformity of, in the same poem, —varieties of, —Elegiac stanza, described. —Stanzas, lyric, examples of, —"A GOOD NAME," ("two beautiful little stanzas," BROWN).

Star, or asterisk, use of. —Three stars, or asterism,

Stenotone, or breve, for what used.

Stops, in printing or writing, see Points.

Strength, as a quality of style, in what consists, —essentials of, —Precepts aiming at offences against.

Strew, whether, or not, an other mode of spelling strow; whether to be distinguished in utterance from do.; whether reg. or irreg.

STYLE, qualities of, treated.
    —Style, as connected with synt., what,
    —differs from mere words and mere grammar; not regulated entirely by
      rules of construc.,
    —what relation has to the author himself, and what shows,
    —general characters of, by what epithets designated.
    —What must be remembered by the learner, in forming his style; a
      good style how acquired.
    —Style, solemn, familiar, &c., as used in gram., what meant by.
    —(See Solemn Style.)

Subaudition, meaning of the term. Subdisjunctive particle, of the Latins, expressed in Eng. by or of alternat.

Subject of a finite verb, what, and how may be known, —must be the NOM. CASE, —what besides a noun or pronoun may be. —Subject phrases, joint, what agreements require. —Subject and predicate, in analysis. See also Nominative Case.

Subjunctive mood, defined.
    —Subj. mood, why so called; what denotes,
    —differing views of grammarians in regard to the numb. and form of its
      tenses.
    —The true subj. mood rejected by some late grammarians; strictures
      on WELLS.
    —WELD'S erroneous teaching respecting the subj., noticed,
    —CHAND. do., do.
    —Chief characteristical diff. between the indic. and the subj. mood.
    —Subj. mood described,
    —its two tenses do., and their forms shown, in the verb LOVE,
      conjugated,
    —whether ever put after a rel. pronoun,
    —proper limits of,
    —how properly employed.
    —False subj.
    —Subj. mood, not necessarily governed by if, lest, &c.

Such, corresponding to that, with infin. foll., —with rel. as following, in stead of who or which.

Sui generis, what thing is thus designated.

Superlative degree, defined,
    —BROWN'S definit. of, and of the other degrees, new; the faulty
      charac. of those of MURR., shown,
    —the true nature of; how may be used; to what is applicable; the
      explanations of, by the copyists of MURR., criticised,
    —whether not applicable to two objects,
    —when employed, what construc. of the latter term should follow.
    —Double superlatives, to be avoided.
    —Superl. termination, contractions of.

Supplied, in parsing, what must be. See also Ellipsis.

Suppression, mark of, see Ellipsis.

Syllabic writing, far inferior to the alphabetic, BLAIR.

Syllabication, Rules of,
    —the doctrine of, why attended with difficulty,
    —object of; WALK. on; strictures on MULK. rules of,
    —which of the four purposes of, is preferable in spelling-books and
      dictionaries,
    —DR. LOWTH on,
    —nature of BROWN'S six Rules of; advantage of a system of, founded on
      the pronunciat.,
    —LATH. and FOWL. fictitious dilemmas in.
    —Syllabication, erroneous, samples of, from MURR., WEBST., et al.

SYLLABLES, treated. —Syllable defined. —Syllable, cannot be formed without a vowel, —cannot be broken. —Syllables, numb. of, in a word, —words denominated from their numb. of, —the ear chiefly directs in the division of words into. —(See Syllabication.) —Syllable, its quantity in poetry, —do., on what depends.

Syllepsis, explained,
    —literal signif. of the term; extended applicat. of do. by the
      grammarians and rhetoricians; BROWN, by his definition, gives it a
      more restricted applicat.; disapproves of WEBST. explanat. of the
      term,
    —what definition or what applicat. of the term is the most approp.,
      has become doubtful.

Synæresis, explained.

Synchysis, what was so termed by some of the ancients; is different from hyperbaton; its import in gram.; its literal signif.

Syncope, explained.

Synecdoche, (comprehension,) explained. —Synecd., agreem. of pron. with anteced., in cases of.

Synonymous, words so accounted, PREC. concerning the use of.

Syntactical parsing, see Parsing.

SYNTAX.
    —Synt., of what treats,
    —the relation of words, the most important principle of; defects of
      the grammars in treating of do.,
    —false exhibitions of grammarians with respect to the scope and parts
      of,
    —character of the rules of, found in most grammars,
    —divided by some grammarians into concord and governm., and yet
      treated by them without regard to such division,
    —common fault of grammarians, noticed, of joining together diff. parts
      of speech in the same rule of,
    —do., of making the rules of, double or triple in their form,
    —whether the principles of etymol. affect those of.
    —All synt., on what founded.
    —Why BROWN deemed it needful to add to his code of synt. a GENERAL
      RULE and CRITICAL NOTES. Figures of syntax.

T.

T, name and plur. numb. of,
    —substitution of, for ed, how far allowable,
    —sounds of,
    —is seldom silent; in what words not sounded. Th, ([Greek: Th],
      [Greek: alt-th], or [Greek: alt2-th], Gr.,) what represents; how was
      represented in Anglo-Sax., and to what sounds applied; the two sounds
      of. To a Tee, the colloq. phrase, explained.

Tautology of expression or of sentiment, a fault opposed to precision.

Teacher, what should be his aim with respect to gram.

Technical terms, unnec. use of, as opposed to propriety. Technically, words and signs taken, how to be construed.

Tenses, term defined.
    —Tenses, the difierent, named and defined,
    —whether the names of, are approp., or whether they should be changed,
    —whether all express time with equal precision,
    —who reckon only three, and who two; who still differently and
      variously name their tenses,
    —Tenses, past and present, occurring together. See Present Tense,
      Imperf. Tense, &c.

Terminating a sentence with a prep. or other small particle

Terminations, of words, separated in syllabicat. —of verbs, numb. of different, in each tense —of the Eng. verb; DR. A. MURR. account of —tendency of the lang. to lay aside the least agreeable —usage of famil. discourse in respect to those of second pers. sing. —verbal or particip., how are found written in old books —the only reg. ones added to Eng. verbs; utterance of ed and edst —ed, participial, and n, verbal, WALK. on the contrac. of —Termination t, for ed, forced and irreg.

Terms of relation, see Relation. Tetrameter line, iambic, examples
of
    —a favorite with many Eng. writers; BUTL. Hudib., GAY'S Fab., and most
      of SCOTT'S poems, writt. in couplets of this meas.
    —admits the doub. rhyme adapted to familiar and burlesque style
    —trochaic, examples of
    —character of do.
    —EVERETT'S fanciful notions about do.
    —anapestic, examples of
    —L. HUNT'S "Feast of the Poets," an extended examp. of do.
    —dactylic, examples of

Than, as, with ellips. in latter term of comparison —character and import of —declinable words connected by, put in same case —Than WHOM, as Gr. genitive governed by comparat., MILT. —what grammarians have inferred from the phrase —MURR. expedient to dispose of do. —CHURCH. makes the rel. in do. "the obj. case absol.," —BROWN determines with respect to the construc. —Than, as demanded after else, other, &c., and Eng. comparatives —derivation of, from Goth. or Anglo-Sax.

That, its class determined
    —its various uses
    —as REL. PRONOUN, to what applied
    —as used in anomalous construc.,
    —its peculiarity of construc. as a relative
    —its especial use as the restrictive relative
    —the frequent employment of, by Addison, wrongly criticised by BLAIR
    —as a relative, in what cases more appropriate than who or which
    —That, ellipt., repeating the import of the preceding words, ("And
      THAT,"
    —[Greek: kai tauta],)
    —That, in the phrases in that, &c., how to be reckoned
    —That, as introducing a dependent clause, how to be ranked
    —as introducing a sent. made the subj. or obj. of a finite verb
    —its power at the head of a sent. or clause
    —its derivation

The, before the species, what may denote —how commonly limits the sense —applied to nouns of either numb. —before what adjectives, required —distinctive use of ("The Psalmist") —as relating to comparatives and superlatives —used for poss. pron. —repetition of, how avoided —derivation of, from Sax. —pronunc. of e in. See also Definite Article.

Them, in vulg. use as an adj., for those

Thence, &c., with from prefixed, whether allowable

There, introductory and idiomatic, notions of grammarians concerning; its posit. and use; is a regular adv. of place, and not "without signification," —derivation of, from Anglo-Sax. —poet. omission of

They, put indefinitely for men or people

This and that, as explained by CHURCH. —placed before conjoint singulars, ("THIS POWER AND WILL do," &c.,) —in contrasted terms

Three stars, or asterism, use of

Time, the order and fitness of, to be observed in constructions
expressing it
    —nouns of, with adv. WHEN, as a special relative, following Time,
      measure, or weight, part made possessive of the whole, ("An
      HOUR'S time")
    —noun of, not poss., immediately before an other, ("A POUND
      WEIGHT,") Time, place, &c., the obj. case in expressions of, taken
      after the fashion of an adv. Time, measure, distance, or value,
      nouns of, their peculiarity of construc.; the parsing of Time, obj.
      noun of, qualifying a subsequent adj., ("A child OF ten years
      OLD,") Four times, five times, &c., how to be reckoned. TIMES,
      before an other noun, by way of MULTIPLICATION, the nature and
      construc. of, discussed; decision. Times, in what construc. may be
      called the objective of repetition, or of time repeated. Time
      in pronunciation, or quantity

Titles, of books, are printed in capitals
    —of office, &c., begin with do.
    —merely mentioned as such, are without art.
    —Name and TITLE, (see Proper Names.) Side-titles, use of dash
      in application to

Tmesis, explained

To, as governing infin. mood
    —do., variously explained by grammarians
    —is a sign of inf., but not a part of it
    —what BROWN claims for his RULE respecting the infin. as gov. by the
      prep. TO, &c.; he shows that the doctrine originated not with
      himself
    —TO and the verb, what FISHER (anno 1800) taught respecting; what,
      LOWTH, and what, absurdly, MURR., his copyist
    —To, as governing infin., traced from the Sax. to the Eng. of
      WICKL.,
    —To, before infin., evasive teachings of the later grammarians
      concerning its class and construc.
    —do., how considered by most Eng. grammarians
    —do., how proved to be a prep.
    —do., preceded by for, anc.
    —after what verbs, omitted,
    —whether to be repeated before infinitives in the same construe.
    —sometimes required, and sometimes excluded, after than or as
    —whether it may be separated from its verb by an adv.; is placed
      more elegantly AFTER an adv., ("PROPERLY TO respect,")
    —in what cases has no prop, antec. term of relat.
    —To suppressed and be inserted after MAKE, whether correctly
    —To, prep, or adv., from Anglo-Sax.
    —To, as prefix to noun, (to-day, to-night, to-morrow,).

Tones of the voice, what; why deserving of j particular attention —what denominated by SHERID.; what should be their character —BLAIR'S remark on; HIL. do. —Tones of the passions, WALK, observation on.

Topics, different, to be treated in separate paragraphs, PREC. of Unity.

Transposition, of the terms of relat., when a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause —rhetorical, of words, or hyperbaton.

Tribrach, defined.

Trimeter line, iambic, the measure seldom used alone; examples of,
    —and do., with diversifications
    —trochaic, examples of
    —anapestic, examples of
    —alternated with the tetram., examp., "The Rose," of COWP.; the same
      scanned
    —dactylic, examples of. Triphthong, defined
    —proper, do., the only, in Eng.
    —improp., do.; and the improp. triphthongs named.

Trochaic verse, treated
    —Troch. verse, the stress in
    —nature of the single-rhymed; error of MURR. et al. concerning the
      last syll. in
    —how may be changed to coincide with other measures; how is affected
      by retrenchment
    —confounded with iambic by several gramm. and prosodists
    —Strictures on CHURCH., who doubts the existence of the troch. ord.
      of verse
    —Troch. verse shown in its eight measures
    —Trochaics, Eng., the TETRAMETER the most common meas. of
    —DR. CAMPB. on
    —"Trochaic of One foot," account of.

Trochee, or choree, defined.

Tropes, what figures of rhetoric are so called; signif. of the term.

Trow, its signif., and where occurs; in what person and tenses read.

Truisms and senseless remarks, how to be dealt with in gram.

Tutoyant, to what extent prevalent among the French. See Youyouing, &c.

Type or character, two forms of the letters in every kind of.

U.

U, lett., which (as A, E, I, or O) names itself
    —its plur. numb.
    —sounds properly its own
    —as self-naming, to what equivalent; requires art. a, and not an,
      before it
    —pronounced with borrowed sound
    —long or diphthongal sound, as yu; sound of slender o or oo,
      after r or rh.

Unamendable imperfections sometimes found in ancient writings, remarks in relation to.

Unauthorized words, use of, as opposed to purity, PREC. concerning.

Unbecoming, adj., from participle compounded, error of using transitively words of this form; such error how corrected.

Uncertain, the part of speech left, see Equivocal, &c.

Unco-passive voice, or form, of the verb, ("Is being built,") the use
of. conflicts with the older and better usage of the lang.
    —the subject of, discussed by BROWN
    —the true principle with respect to, stated.

Underlining words, in preparing manuscripts, to denote Italics &c.

Understood, words said, in technical phrase, to be, what such, (Lat., subaudita)

Ungrammatical language by which grammar itself is professedly taught, sample from MURR.; from PINNEO; et al. e diversis, Gram. of E. Gram., passim.

Unity, as a quality of style, in what consists
    —required by every sentence
    —Precepts aiming at offences against. Unity, THE IDEA OF, how
      generally determined, in respect to a collect. noun, whether it
      conveys such idea or not.

Usage, as a law of orthography for particular words
    —Usage, as it has been, and as it is, the advantage of an exhibition
      of, by the grammarian.

Useless words, employment of, as opposed to precision.

UTTERANCE, treated —Utterance, what, and what includes.

V.

V, name and plur. of: —written for a number: —sound of,

Value, &c., nouns of, see Time.

Verbal or participial noun, (see Participial, &c.)
    —Verbal forms used substantively, by poet pecul.

VERBS, Etymol. of; —Verb, defined: —why so called: —a perf. definition of, why difficult to form; —CHIEF TERMS, or PRINCIP. PARTS, of an Eng. verb, named and defined. —Verbs. Classes of, with respect to their FORM, named and defined: —do., with respect to their signif., do. —(See Active-Transitive Verb, &c.) Verbs, whole numb, of, in Eng.; the regular, far the most numerous; account of the others —how divided with respect to signif. in most grammars and dictionaries; BROWN'S division —divided by certain grammarians into act., pass., and neut. —MURR, on the distribution of —NIX. on do. —Verbs, in Lat., grammarians of old differed respecting the distribut. of —different methods of distribut. of, by several other authors, noticed —Verbs, most act., may be used either as trans. or as intrans. —some may be used either in an act. or a neut. sense —act. form of, used in a pass. sense; so also PART. in ing, ("The books continue SELLING") —Verbs, Modifications of, named —Moods of, named and defined; (see Infinitive Mood, Indic. Mood, &c.) —Tenses of, named and defined; (see Present Tense, Imperf. Tense, &c.) —Persons and numbers of, what —Conjugations of —how principally conjugated —(See Conjugation) —Verbs, Irreg., List of —simp. irreg., numb. of; whence derived —Redundant, List of —Defective, do. —Verbs irreg. and redund., of what character all former lists of, have been —Verbs, of asking and teaching, construc. of —whether any, in Eng., can govern two cases —suppressed in exclamat. &c. —Verbs, Synt. of —Verbs requiring a regimen, should not be used without an object —Verb, AGREEM. of, with its subject —do., inferred —do., by sylleps., in plur., title of a book —do., in imperat. mood —Verb of the third pers. sing. with a plur. noun of the neut. gend., the use of, a strange custom of the Greeks; such use not existent in Eng. —Verb, AGREEM. of, with infin. phrase or sentence as subject —do., with infin. subject limited, ("FOR MEN TO SEARCH their own glory, IS," &c.) —do., with a nom. in interrog. sentences —do., with a rel., according to the true anteced. of the pron.; (examp. of error from DR. BLAIR) —do., with a nom. limited by adjuncts —do., with composite or converted subjects —do., with each, every, one, &c., as leading words —do., by change of nominative —Verb, the form of, to be adapted to the style —when requires a separate nom. expressed —Verb, AGREEM. of, with a nom. noun collective —do., with joint nominatives —do., with two connected nominatives in appos. —do., with two conn. nominatives emphatically distinguished —do., with two conn. nominatives preceded by each, every, or no —do., with nearest of connected nominatives, and understood to the rest; whether the usage is proper in Eng. —do., with connected nominatives of different persons —do., with connected subjects, one taken affirmat. and the other negat. —do., with two subjects connected by as well as, but, or save —do., with connected subjects preceded by each, every, or no —do., in ellipt. construc. of joint nominatives —do., with distinct subject phrases connected by and —do., with disjunct. nominatives —do., with disagreeing nominatives connected disjunctively —do., when connected nominatives require different forms of the verb —do., with distinct phrases disjunct, connected —Verbs, connected by and, or, or nor, how must agree —discordant, how managed with respect to agreem. —Verb, mixture of the diff. styles of, ineleg. —diff. moods of, not to be used under the same circumstances —when two connected terms require diff. forms of, what insertion is necessary —Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, &c., to what actions or events refer —of desisting, omitting, &c., with a part. following, rather than an infin. —of preventing, what should be made to govern —Verb, finite, punc. of —ellips. of, shown —derivation of, from nouns, adjectives, and verbs —poet. peculiarities in the use of

Verbosity, as affecting strength

Verse, in oppos. to prose, what
    —Blank verse, as distinguished from rhyme
    —Verse, general sense of the term; its derivation and literal
      signif.; the visible form of verse
    —Verse, as defined by JOH., WALK., et al.; do. by WEBST.
    —Verse, Eng., the difficulty of treating the subject of, and from
      what this arises
    —A verse, or line of poetry, of what consists
    —Verse, or poetic measure, the kinds, or orders of, named; (see
      Iambic Verse, Trochaic Verse, &c.)
    —Verse, the proper reading of

VERSIFICATION, treated
    —Versification, defined
    —Versification, POE'S (E. A.) notions concerning; his censure of
      BROWN'S former definition of; his rejection of the idea of versif.
      from the principle of rhythm; his unfortunate derivat. of rhythm
      from [Greek: hurithmos,] and vain attempts to explain the term: the
      farrago summarily disposed of by BROWN
    —EVERETT'S "System of Eng. Versification," account of, and strictures
      on

Vision, or imagery, explained

Vocative case of Lat. and Gr. gram., not known in Eng.

Voice, ACTIVE, and PASSIVE, whether necessary terms in Eng. gram.

Vowel, defined
    —Vowels named
    —W and Y, when vowels; comp.
    —Vowel sounds, or vocal elements, the different, how produced
    —what are those in Eng.
    —how each may be variously expressed by letters; notation of
    —Vowels, two coming together, where may be parted in syllabication.

W.

W, its name and plur. numb.
    —simpler term than Double-u perhaps desirable; DR. WEBST. on the
      lett.
    —W, when a vowel
    —with vowel foll., sound of
    —before h, how pronounced
    —in Eng. never used alone as a vowel
    —no diphthongs or triphth. in Eng., beginning with.

Wages, noun, plur. by formation; its construe, with a verb.

Walker, J., estimate of his Critical Pronouncing Dictionary —in his lexicography how far followed DR. JOH.

Was, contrary to usage preferred by some to were, in the imperf. sing, of the subj.

We, plur., as representing the speaker and others; how sometimes used in stead of the sing.; sometimes preferred by monarchs to I.

Webster, Dr. N., describes language as comprehending the voice of brutes
    —never named the Eng. letters rightly
    —his orthography as a standard; do. compared with that of DR. JOH.
    —the result to himself of his various attempts to reform our orthog.;
      the value of his definitions.

Weight, measure, &c., see Time.

Wert, as used in lieu of wast —its mood not easy to determine; authorities for a various use of.

What, its class and nature
    —to what usually applied; its twofold relat. explained
    —its numb.; example of solec. in the use of
    —as a mere adj., or as a pron. indef.
    —its use both as an adj. and as a relative at the same time; do. for
      who or which, ludic. and vulg.
    —declined
    —how to be disposed of in etymolog. parsing; how to be parsed
      syntactically
    —how becomes an interj.
    —used appar. for an adv.; uttered exclamatorily before an adj., to be
      taken as an adj., ("WHAT PARTIAL judges are our," &c.,)
    —followed by that, by way of pleonasm, ("WHAT I tell you in
      darkness, THAT," &c.,)
    —with but preceding, ("To find a friend, BUT WHAT" &c.,)
    —vulg. use of, for that
    —derivation of, from Sax., shown.

Whatever or whatsoever, its peculiarities of construe., the same as
those of what; its use in simp, relation
    —its construc. as a double relative; whether it may be supposed
      ellipt.
    —its declension.

When, where, or while, in what instance not fit to follow the verb is
    —When, where, whither, as partaking of the nature of a pron.;
      construc, of do., with antecedent nouns of time, &c., how far
      allowable
    —derivation of, from Anglo-Sax.

Whether, as an interrog. pron.; as a disjunc. conjunc.
    —conjunc. corresponsive to or
    —as do., its derivation from Sax.

Which, relative
    —its former use; to what objects now confined
    —its use after a personal term taken by meton. for a thing; do., as
      still applicable to persons
    —is of all the genders, (in oppos. to MURR., WEBST., et. al.,)
    —is less approp. than who, in all personifications
    —its construc. when taken in its discrim. sense,
    —how differs from the rel. that
    —BLAIR'S incorrect remarks respecting
    —Which, as rel. or interrog., declined
    —Which, sometimes takes whose for its poss.,
    —represents a prop. name taken merely as a name, ("Herod
    —WHICH is but," &c.,)
    —do. nouns of mult, expressing persons, when such are strictly of the
      neut. gend., ("The COMMITTEES WHICH" &c.,)
    —in what cases is less approp. than that
    —does not fitly represent an indicative assertion, ('"Be ATTENTIVE,
      without WHICH," &c.,)
    —its Sax. derivation shown
    —The which, obsol.,
    —Which, interrog., what demands,
    —to what objects applied
    —now used for the obsol. whether.

Whichever, whichsoever, signif. and construc. of
    —declension of.

Who, relative
    —to what usually applied
    —has superseded which, formerly applied to persons, ("Our Father
      WHO art" &c.,)
    —to be preferred to which, in all personifications
    —how differs from the rel. that
    —Who, as rel. or interrog., declined,
    —Whose, use of, for the defec. poss., of which
    —Than whom, (see Than.)
    —Who, interrog., what demands
    —may be the anteced. of the rel. that
    —Who, derivation of, from Sax.

Whoever, and whoso or whosoever, signif. and construc. of
    —declens. of
    —Whoso and whatso, antiq., import and use of,

Whole, improp. use of, for all. ("Almost the WHOLE inhabitants," HUME.,).

Why, after nouns of cause, (see When, &c.)
    —Why, wherefore, therefore, their class.

Will, verb, how varied
    —use of, as a principal verb.

Wis, verb, pret. wist, signif. and use of
    —Had I wist,

With, for and, (see Cum:)
    —added to adv. of direc., with emphat. imperat. ("Up WITH it").
      Withal its class and construc. Without, obsol. use of, for
      unless or except. Withouten, paragog. and poet. form.
      Withinside of Won't, whence formed; its pronunc.

Worcester, Dr. J. E., his Universal and Critical Dictionary WORDS,
treated.
    —Word, defined.
    —Words distinguished, and the divisions of, defined.
    —(See Compound Word.)
    —Words, Rules for the figure of;
    —simp., when compounding is to be avoided
    —when to be joined, or to be written separately
    —Words, the nature of, explained
    —the consid. of, as comm., and as prop.,
    —brevity sought in the comm. use of
    —the identity of, in what consists
    —unsettled and variable usage with respect to the figure of
    —Words that may constitute diff. parts of speech, their construc.
      not to be left doubtf.
    —the reference of, to other words, do.
    —senselessly jumbled, charac. of
    —entirely needless, how to be disposed of
    —unintelligently misapplied, what indicates,
    —Words, PUNCT. of: in pairs; alternated; put absol.; in appos.;
      repeated
    —Words, derivation of, treated
    —most of those regarded as primitives in Eng., may be traced to
      ulterior sources
    —the study of, its importance
    —how the knowledge of, may be promoted with respect to Eng.
    —Words, the use of, as affecting Purity
    —do., as affect. Propriety
    —do., as affect. Precision
    —do., as affect. Perspicuity
    —do., as affect. Strength

Worshiper, whether properly written with a single or a double p

Worth, its class and construc.

Worthy, admits not ellips. of prep, of before obj. following

Writing, to write, what meant by

X.

X, its name and plur. num. —format. of the plur. of nouns in —why never doubled —written for a number —its sounds

Y.

Y, its name and plur. numb.;
    —borrowed first by the Romans from the Greeks, by whom called Ypsilon
    —in Eng. is either a vowel or a conson.
    —classed with the semivowels
    —final, changed or unchanged before terminations
    —do., when, by former practice, retained in verbs ending in y,
      before conson. terminations
    —sounds of
    —in poet. format. of adjectives

Ye, nom. plur., solemn style —its use as the obj. case —as a mere explet. in burlesque —its use in the lang. of tragedy —used for thee —in the Eng. Bible not found in the obj. case —Ye and you, promisc. use of, in the same case and the same style, ineleg.

Yes, yea, in a simp. affirmation, construc. and class of —derivation of, from Anglo-Sax.

You, use of, for thou
    —You, with was, ("YOU WAS BUILDING,") approved by DR. WEBST. et
      al., as the better form for the sing. numb.
    —You, and VERB PLUR., in reference to one person, how to be
      treated in parsing. Your, facet. in conversation, and how uttered
      ("Dwells, like YOUR miser, sir," &c., SHAK.,) Yourself, its
      pecul. of construc.

Your Majesty, your Highness, &c., see Address.

Youyouing and theethouing, history of

Z.

Z, its name and plur.
    —has been called by several names; WALK., on the name
    —peculiarity of its ordinary form
    —its sounds described

Zeugma, (i.e., JUGATIO, vel CONNEXIO, Sanct.,) the various forms of,
were named and noticed, but not censured, by the ancient grammarians
    —constructions of adjectives, referred to the figure, ("ONE or a
      FEW judges,"); do. of verbs, ("But HE NOR I FEEL more," YOUNG,)

THE END OF THE INDEX,

AND OF THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Ben Jonson's notion of grammar, and of its parts, was as follows: "Grammar is the art of true and well-speaking a language: the writing is but an accident.

The Parts of Grammar are

    Etymology \ which is / the true notation of words,
    Syntaxe / \ the right ordering of them.

A word is a part of speech or note, whereby a thing is known or called; and consisteth of one or more letters. A letter is an indivisible part of a syllable, whose prosody, or right sounding, is perceived by the power; the orthography, or right writing, by the form. Prosody, and Orthography, are not parts of grammar, but diffused, like blood and spirits, through the whole."—Jonson's Grammar, Book I.

[2] Horne Tooke eagerly seized upon a part of this absurdity, to prove that Dr. Lowth, from whom Murray derived the idea, was utterly unprepared for what he undertook in the character of a grammarian: "Dr. Lowth, when he undertook to write his Introduction, with the best intention in the world, most assuredly sinned against his better judgment. For he begins most judiciously, thus—'Universal grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages. The grammar of any particular language, applies those common principles to that particular language.' And yet, with this clear truth before his eyes, he boldly proceeds to give a particular grammar; without being himself possessed of one single principle of universal grammar."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. 1, p. 224. If Dr. Lowth discredited his better judgement in attempting to write an English grammar, perhaps Murray, and his weaker copyists, have little honoured theirs, in supposing they were adequate to such a work. But I do not admit, that either Lowth or Murray "begins most judiciously," in speaking of Universal and Particular grammar in the manner above cited. The authors who have started with this fundamental blunder, are strangely numerous. It is found in some of the most dissimilar systems that can be named. Even Oliver B. Peirce, who has a much lower opinion of Murray's ability in grammar than Tooke had of Lowth's, adopts this false notion with all implicitness, though he decks it in language more objectionable, and scorns to acknowledge whence he got it. See his Gram., p. 16. De Suey, in his Principles of General Grammar, says, "All rules of Syntax relate to two things, Agreement and Government."—Foxdick's Tr., p. 108. And again: "None of these rules properly belong to General Grammar, as each language follows, in regard to the rules of Agreement and Government, a course peculiar to itself."—Ibid., p. 109." "It is with Construction [i.e., Arrangement] as with Syntax. It follows no general rule common to all languages."—Ibid. According to these positions, which I do not admit to be strictly true, General or Universal Grammar has no principles of Syntax at all, whatever else it may have which Particular Grammar can assume and apply.

[3] This verb "do" is wrong, because "to be contemned" is passive.

[4] "A very good judge has left us his opinion and determination in this matter; that he 'would take for his rule in speaking, not what might happen to be the faulty caprice of the multitude, but the consent and agreement of learned men.'"—Creighton's Dict., p. 21. The "good judge" here spoken of, is Quintilian; whose words on the point are these: "Necessarium est judicium, constituendumque imprimis, id ipsum quid sit, quod consuetudinem vocemus. * * * In loquendo, non, si quid vitiose multis insederit, pro regula sermonis, amplendum est. * * * Ergo consuetudinem sermonis, vocabo consensum eruditorum sicut vivendi, consenum honorum."—De Inst. Orat., Lib. i. Cap. 6, p. 57.

[5] "The opinion of plenty is amongst the causes of want; and the great quantity of books maketh a show rather of superfluity than lack; which surcharge, nevertheless, is not to be removed by making no more books, but by making more good books, which, as the serpent of Moses, might devour the serpents of the enchanters."—Bacon. In point of style, his lordship is here deficient; and he has also mixed and marred the figure which he uses. But the idea is a good one.

[6] Not, "Oldham, in Hampshire," as the Universal Biographical Dictionary has it; for Oldham is in Lancashire, and the name of Lily's birthplace has sometimes been spelled "Odiam."

[7] There are other Latin grammars now in use in England; but what one is most popular, or whether any regard is still paid to the ancient edict or not, I cannot say. Dr. Adam, in his preface, dated 1793, speaking of Lily, says: "His Grammar was appointed, by an act which is still in force, to be taught in the established schools of England." I have somehow gained the impression, that the act is now totally disregarded.—G. Brown.

[8] For this there is an obvious reason, or apology, in what his biographer states, as "the humble origin of his Grammar;" and it is such a reason as will go to confirm what I allege. This famous compilation was produced at the request of two or three young teachers, who had charge of a small female school in the neighbourhood of the author's residence: and nothing could have been more unexpected to their friend and instructor, than that he, in consequence of this service, should become known the world over, as Murray the Grammarian. "In preparing the work, and consenting to the publicaton, he had no expectation that it would be read, except by the school for which it was designed, and two or three other schools conducted by persons who were also his friends."—Life of L Murray, p. 250.

[9] Grammatici namque auctoritas per se nulla est; quom ex sola doctissimorum oraturum, historicorum, poetarum, et aliorum ideonorum scriptorum observatione, constet ortam esse veram grammaticam. Multa dicenda forent, si grammatistarum ineptias refellere vellem: sed nulla est gloria præterire asellos."—DESPAUTERII Præf. Art. Versif., fol. iii, 1517.

[10] The Latin word for participle is participium, which makes participio in the dative or the ablative case; but the Latin word for partake is participo, and not "participio."—G. BROWN.

[11] This sentence is manifestly bad English: either the singular verb "appears" should be made plural, or the plural noun "investigations" should be made singular.—G. BROWN.

[12] "What! a book have no merit, and yet be called for at the rate of sixty thousand copies a year! What a slander is this upon the public taste! What an insult to the understanding and discrimination of the good people of these United States! According to this reasoning, all the inhabitants of our land must be fools, except one man, and that man is GOOLD BROWN!"—KIRKHAM, in the Knickerbocker, Oct. 1837, p. 361.

Well may the honest critic expect to be called a slanderer of "the public taste," and an insulter of the nation's "understanding," if both the merit of this vaunted book and the wisdom of its purchasers are to be measured and proved by the author's profits, or the publisher's account of sales! But, possibly, between the intrinsic merit and the market value of some books there may be a difference. Lord Byron, it is said, received from Murray his bookseller, nearly ten dollars a line for the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold, or about as much for every two lines as Milton obtained for the whole of Paradise Lost. Is this the true ratio of the merit of these authors, or of the wisdom of the different ages in which they lived?

[13] Kirkham's real opinion of Murray cannot be known from this passage only. How able is that writer who is chargeable with the greatest want of taste and discernment? "In regard to the application of the final pause in reading blank verse, nothing can betray a greater want of rhetorical taste and philosophical acumen, than the directions of Mr. Murray."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 145. Kirkham is indeed no judge either of the merits, or of the demerits, of Murray's writings; nor is it probable that this criticism originated with himself. But, since it appears in his name, let him have the credit of it, and of representing the compiler whom he calls "that able writer" and "that eminent philologist," as an untasteful dunce, and a teacher of nonsense: "To say that, unless we 'make every line sensible to the ear,' we mar the melody, and suppress the numbers of the poet, is all nonsense."—Ibid. See Murray's Grammar, on "Poetical Pauses;" 8vo, p. 260; 12mo, 210.

[14] "Now, in these instances, I should be fair game, were it not for the trifling difference, that I happen to present the doctrines and notions of other writers, and NOT my own, as stated by my learned censor."—KIRKHAM, in the Knickerbocker, Oct. 1837, p. 360. If the instructions above cited are not his own, there is not, within the lids of either book, a penny's worth that is. His fruitful copy-rights are void in law: the "learned censor's" pledge shall guaranty this issue.—G. B. 1838.

[15] I am sorry to observe that the gentleman, Phrenologist, as he professes to be, has so little reverence in his crown. He could not read the foregoing suggestion without scoffing at it. Biblical truth is not powerless, though the scornful may refuse its correction.—G. B. 1838.

[16] Every schoolboy is familiar with the following lines, and rightly understands the words "evil" and "good" to be nouns, and not adjectives.

   "The evil that men do, lives after them;
    The good is oft interred with their bones."—SHAKSPEARE.

Julius Cæsar, Act 3: Antony's Funeral Oration over Cæsar's Body.

Kirkham has vehemently censured me for omitting the brackets in which he encloses the words that be supposes to be understood in this couplet. But he forgets two important circumstances: First, that I was quoting, not the bard, but the grammatist; Second, that a writer uses brackets, to distinguish his own amendments of what he quotes, and not those of an other man. Hence the marks which he has used, would have been improper for me. Their insertion does not make his reading of the passage good English, and, consequently, does not avert the point of my criticism.

The foregoing Review of Kirkham's Grammar, was published as an extract from my manuscript, by the editors of the Knickerbocker, in their number for June, 1837. Four months afterwards, with friendships changed, they gave, him the "justice" of appearing in their pages, in a long and virulent article against me and my works, representing me, "with emphatic force," as "a knave, a liar, and a pedant." The enmity of that effusion I forgave; because I bore him no personal ill-will, and was not selfish enough to quarrel for my own sake. Its imbecility clearly proved, that in this critique there is nothing with which he could justly find fault. Perceiving that no point of this argument could be broken, he changed the ground, and satisfied himself with despising, upbraiding, and vilifying the writer. Of what use this was, others may judge.

This extraordinary grammarian survived the publication of my criticism about ten years, and, it is charitably hoped, died happily; while I have had, for a period somewhat longer, all the benefits which his earnest "castigation" was fit to confer. It is not perceived, that what was written before these events, should now be altered or suppressed by reason of them. With his pretended "defence," I shall now concern myself no further than simply to deny one remarkable assertion contained in it; which is this—that I, Goold Brown, "at the funeral of Aaron Ely," in 1830, "praised, and highly praised, this self-same Grammar, and declared it to be 'A GOOD WORK!'"—KIRKHAM, in the Knickerbocker, Oct., 1837, p. 362. I treated him always courteously, and, on this solemn occasion, walked with him without disputing on grammar; but, if this statement of his has any reasonable foundation, I know not what it is.—G. B. in 1850.

[17] See Notes to Pope's Dunciad, Book II, verse 140.

[18] A modern namesake of the Doctor's, the Rev. David Blair, has the following conception of the utility of these speculations: "To enable children to comprehend the abstract idea that all the words in a language consist but of nine kinds, it will be found useful to explain how savage tribes WHO having no language, would first invent one, beginning with interjections and nouns, and proceeding from one part of speech to another, as their introduction might successively be called for by necessity or luxury."—Blair's Pract. Gram., Pref., p. vii.

[19] "Interjections, I shewed, or passionate exclamations, were the first elements of speech. Men laboured to communicate their feelings to one another, by those expressive cries and gestures which nature taught them."—Dr. Hugh Blair's Lectures, p. 57.

[20] "It is certain that the verb was invented before the noun, in all the languages of which a tolerable account has been procured, either in ancient or modern times."—Dr. Alex. Murray's History of European Languages, Vol. I, p. 326.

[21] The Greek of this passage, together with a translation not very different from the foregoing, is given as a marginal note, in Harris's Hermes, Book III, Chap. 3d.

[22] The Bible does not say positively that there was no diversity of languages before the flood; but, since the life-time of Adam extended fifty-six years into that of Lamech, the father of Noah, and two hundred and forty-three into that of Methuselah, the father of Lamech, with both of whom Noah was contemporary nearly six hundred years, it is scarcely possible that there should have occurred any such diversity, either in Noah's day or before, except from some extraordinary cause. Lord Bacon regarded the multiplication of languages at Babel as a general evil, which had had no parallel but in the curse pronounced after Adam's transgression. When "the language of all the earth" was "confounded," Noah was yet alive, and he is computed to have lived 162 years afterwards; but whether in his day, or at how early a period, "grammar" was thought of, as a remedy for this evil, does not appear. Bacon says, "Concerning speech and words, the consideration of them hath produced the science of grammar. For man still striveth to redintegrate himself in those benedictions, of which, by his fault, he hath been deprived; and as he hath striven against the first general curse by the invention of all other arts, so hath he striven to come forth from the second general curse, which was the confusion of tongues, by the art of grammar; whereof the use in a mother tongue is small, in a foreign tongue more, but most in such foreign tongues as have ceased to be vulgar tongues, and are turned only to learned tongues."—See English Journal of Education, Vol. viii, p. 444.

[23] It should be, "to all living creatures;" for each creature had, probably, but one name.—G. Brown.

[24] Some recent German authors of note suppose language to have sprung up among men of itself, like spontaneous combustion in oiled cotton; and seem to think, that people of strong feelings and acute minds must necessarily or naturally utter their conceptions by words—and even by words both spoken and written. Frederick Von Schlegel, admitting "the spontaneous origin of language generally," and referring speech to its "original source—a deep feeling, and a clear discriminating intelligence," adds: "The oldest system of writing developed itself at the same time, and in the same manner, as the spoken language; not wearing at first the symbolic form, which it subsequently assumed in compliance with the necessities of a less civilized people, but composed of certain signs, which, in accordance with the simplest elements of language, actually conveyed the sentiments of the race of men then existing."—Millington's Translation of Schlegel's Æsthetic Works, p. 455.

[25] "Modern Europe owes a principal share of its enlightened and moral state to the restoration of learning: the advantages which have accrued to history, religion, the philosophy of the mind, and the progress of society; the benefits which have resulted from the models of Greek and Roman taste—in short, all that a knowledge of the progress and attainments of man in past ages can bestow on the present, has reached it through the medium of philology."—Dr. Murray's History of European Languages, Vol. II, p. 335.

[26] "The idea of God is a development from within, and a matter of faith, not an induction from without, and a matter of proof. When Christianity has developed its correlative principles within us, then we find evidences of its truth everywhere; nature is full of them: but we cannot find them before, simply because we have no eye to find them with."—H. N. HUDSON: Democratic Review, May, 1845.

[27] So far as mind, soul, or spirit, is a subject of natural science, (under whatever name,) it may of course be known naturally. To say to what extent theology may be considered a natural science, or how much knowledge of any kind may have been opened to men otherwise than by words, is not now in point. Dr. Campbell says, "Under the general term [physiology] I also comprehend natural theology and psychology, which, in my opinion, have been most unnaturally disjoined by philosophers. Spirit, which here comprises only the Supreme Being and the human soul, is surely as much included under the notion of natural object as a body is, and is knowable to the philosopher purely in the same way, by observation and experience."—Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 66. It is quite unnecessary for the teacher of languages to lead his pupils into any speculations on this subject. It is equally foreign to the history of grammar and to the philosophy of rhetoric.

[28] "Except ye utter by the tongue words easy to be understood, how shall it be known what is spoken? for ye shall speak into the air. There are, it may be, so many kinds of voices in the world, and none of them is without signification. Therefore, if I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall be unto him that speaketh, a barbarian; and he that speaketh, shall be a barbarian unto me."—1 Cor., xiv. 9, 10, 11. "It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things. It may, and often doth, come short of it. Words may be remembered as sounds, but [they] cannot be understood as signs, whilst we remain unacquainted with the things signified."—Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 160. "Words can excite only ideas already acquired, and if no previous ideas have been formed, they are mere unmeaning sounds."—Spurzheim on Education, p. 200.

[29] Sheridan the elecutionist makes this distinction: "All that passes in the mind of man, may be reduced to two classes, which I call ideas and emotions. By ideas, I mean all thoughts which rise, and pass in succession in the mind. By emotions, all exertions of the mind in arranging, combining, and separating its ideas; as well as the effects produced on all the mind itself by those ideas; from the more violent agitation of the passions, to the calmer feelings produced by the operation of the intellect and the fancy. In short, thought is the object of the one; internal feeling, of the other. That which serves to express the former, I call the language of ideas; and the latter, the language of emotions. Words are the signs of the one: tones, of the other. Without the use of these two sorts of language, it is impossible to communicate through the ear, all that passes in the mind of man."—Sheridan's Art of Reading; Blair's Lectures, p. 333.

[30] "Language is the great instrument, by which all the faculties of the mind are brought forward, moulded, polished, and exerted."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. xiv.

[31] It should be, "These are."—G. B.

[32] It should be, "They fitly represent."—G. B.

[33] This is badly expressed; for, according to his own deduction, each part has but one sign. It should be, "We express the several parts by as many several signs."—G. Brown.

[34] It would be better English to say, "the instruments and the signs."—G. Brown.

[35] "Good speakers do not pronounce above three syllables in a second of time; and generally only two and a half, taking in the necessary pauses."—Steele's Melody of Speech.

[36] The same idea is also conveyed in the following sentence from Dr. Campbell: "Whatever regards the analysis of the operations of the mind, which is quicker than lightning in all her energies, must in a great measure be abstruse and dark."—Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 289. Yet this philosopher has given it as his opinion, "that we really think by signs as well as speak by them."—Ib., p. 284. To reconcile these two positions with each other, we must suppose that thinking by signs, or words, is a process infinitely more rapid than speech.

[37] That generalization or abstraction which gives to similar things a common name, is certainly no laborious exercise of intellect; nor does any mind find difficulty in applying such a name to an individual by means of the article. The general sense and the particular are alike easy to the understanding, and I know not whether it is worth while to inquire which is first in order. Dr. Alexander Murray says, "It must be attentively remembered, that all terms run from a general to a particular sense. The work of abstraction, the ascent from individual feelings to classes of these, was finished before terms were invented. Man was silent till he had formed some ideas to communicate; and association of his perceptions soon led him to think and reason in ordinary matters."—Hist. of European Languages, Vol. I, p. 94. And, in a note upon this passage, he adds: "This is to be understood of primitive or radical terms. By the assertion that man was silent till he had formed ideas to communicate, is not meant, that any of our species were originally destitute of the natural expressions of feeling or thought. All that it implies, is, that man had been subjected, during an uncertain period of time, to the impressions made on his senses by the material world, before he began to express the natural varieties of these by articulated sounds. * * * * * * Though the abstraction which formed such classes, might be greatly aided or supported by the signs; yet it were absurd to suppose that the sign was invented, till the sense demanded it."—Ib., p. 399.

[38] Dr. Alexander Murray too, In accounting for the frequent abbreviation of words, seems to suggest the possibility of giving them the celerity of thought: "Contraction is a change which results from a propensity to make the signs as rapid as the thoughts which they express. Harsh combinations soon suffer contraction. Very long words preserve only the principal, that is, the accented part. If a nation accents its words on the last syllable, the preceding ones will often be short, and liable to contraction. If it follow a contrary practice, the terminations are apt to decay."—History of European Languages, Vol. I, p. 172.

[39] "We cannot form a distinct idea of any moral or intellectual quality, unless we find some trace of it in ourselves."—Beattie's Moral Science, Part Second, Natural Theology, Chap. II, No. 424.

[40] "Aristotle tells us that the world is a copy or transcript of those ideas which are in the mind of the first Being, and that those ideas which are in the mind of man, are a transcript of the world. To this we may add, that words are the transcripts of those ideas which are in the mind of man, and that writing or printing are [is] the transcript of words."—Addison, Spect., No. 166.

[41] Bolingbroke on Retirement and Study, Letters on History, p. 364.

[42] See this passage in "The Economy of Human Life," p. 105—a work feigned to be a compend of Chinese maxims, but now generally understood to have been written or compiled by Robert Dodsley, an eminent and ingenious bookseller in London.

[43] "Those philosophers whose ideas of being and knowledge are derived from body and sensation, have a short method to explain the nature of Truth.—It is a factitious thing, made by every man for himself; which comes and goes, just as it is remembered and forgot; which in the order of things makes its appearance the last of all, being not only subsequent to sensible objects, but even to our sensations of them! According to this hypothesis, there are many truths, which have been, and are no longer; others, that will be, and have not been yet; and multitudes, that possibly may never exist at all. But there are other reasoners, who must surely have had very different notions; those, I mean, who represent Truth not as the last, but as the first of beings; who call it immutable, eternal, omnipresent; attributes that all indicate something more than human."—Harris's Hermes, p. 403.

[44] Of the best method of teaching grammar, I shall discourse in an other chapter. That methods radically different must lend to different results, is no more than every intelligent person will suppose. The formation of just methods of instruction, or true systems of science, is work for those minds which are capable of the most accurate and comprehensive views of the things to be taught. He that is capable of "originating and producing" truth, or true "ideas," if any but the Divine Being is so, has surely no need to be trained into such truth by any factitious scheme of education. In all that he thus originates, he is himself a Novum Organon of knowledge, and capable of teaching others, especially those officious men who would help him with their second-hand authorship, and their paltry catechisms of common-places. I allude here to the fundamental principle of what in some books is called "The Productive System of Instruction," and to those schemes of grammar which are professedly founded on it. We are told that, "The leading principle of this system, is that which its name indicates—that the child should be regarded not as a mere recipient of the ideas of others, but as an agent capable of collecting, and originating, and producing most of the ideas which are necessary for its education, when presented with the objects or the facts from which they may be derived."—Smith's New Gram., Pref., p. 5: Amer. Journal of Education, New Series, Vol. I, No. 6, Art. 1. It ought to be enough for any teacher, or for any writer, if he finds his readers or his pupils ready recipients of the ideas which he aims to convey. What more they know, they can never owe to him, unless they learn it from him against his will; and what they happen to lack, of understanding or believing him, may very possibly be more his fault than theirs.

[45] Lindley Murray, anonymously copying somebody, I know not whom, says: "Words derive their meaning from the consent and practice of those who use them. There is no necessary connexion between words and ideas. The association between the sign and the thing signified, is purely arbitrary."—Octavo Gram., Vol. i, p. 139. The second assertion here made, is very far from being literally true. However arbitrary may be the use or application of words, their connexion with ideas is so necessary, that they cannot be words without it. Signification, as I shall hereafter prove, is a part of the very essence of a word, the most important element of its nature. And Murray himself says, "The understanding and language have a strict connexion."—Ib., Vol. i, p. 356. In this, he changes without amendment the words of Blair: "Logic and rhetoric have here, as in many other cases, a strict connexion."—Blair's Rhet., p. 120.

[46] "The language which is, at present, spoken throughout Great Britain, is neither the ancient primitive speech of the island, nor derived from it; but is altogether of foreign origin. The language of the first inhabitants of our island, beyond doubt, was the Celtic, or Gælic, common to them with Gaul; from which country, it appears, by many circumstances, that Great Britain was peopled. This Celtic tongue, which is said to be very expressive and copious, and is, probably, one of the most ancient languages in the world, obtained once in most of the western regions of Europe. It was the language of Gaul, of Great Britain, of Ireland, and very probably, of Spain also; till, in the course of those revolutions which by means of the conquests, first, of the Romans, and afterwards, of the northern nations, changed the government, speech, and, in a manner, the whole face of Europe, this tongue was gradually obliterated; and now subsists only in the mountains of Wales, in the Highlands of Scotland, and among the wild Irish. For the Irish, the Welsh, and the Erse, are no other than different dialects of the same tongue, the ancient Celtic."—Blair's Rhetoric, Lect. IX, p. 85.

[47] With some writers, the Celtic language is the Welsh; as may be seen by the following extract: "By this he requires an Impossibility, since much the greater Part of Mankind can by no means spare 10 or 11 Years of their Lives in learning those dead Languages, to arrive at a perfect Knowledge of their own. But by this Gentleman's way of Arguing, we ought not only to be Masters of Latin and Greek, but of Spanish, Italian, High- Dutch, Low-Dutch, French, the Old Saxon, Welsh, Runic, Gothic, and Islandic; since much the greater number of Words of common and general Use are derived from those Tongues. Nay, by the same way of Reasoning we may prove, that the Romans and Greeks did not understand their own Tongues, because they were not acquainted with the Welsh, or ancient Celtic, there being above 620 radical Greek Words derived from the Celtic, and of the Latin a much greater Number."—Preface to Brightland's Grammar, p. 5.

[48] The author of this specimen, through a solemn and sublime poem in ten books, generally simplified the preterit verb of the second person singular, by omitting the termination st or est, whenever his measure did not require the additional syllable. But his tuneless editors have, in many instances, taken the rude liberty both to spoil his versification, and to publish under his name what he did not write. They have given him bad prosody, or unutterable harshness of phraseology, for the sake of what they conceived to be grammar. So Kirkham, in copying the foregoing passage, alters it as he will; and alters it differently, when he happens to write some part of it twice: as,

   "That morning, thou, that slumberedst not before,
    Nor slept, great Ocean! laidst thy waves at rest,
    And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 203.

Again:

   "That morning, thou, that slumberedst not before,
    Nor sleptst, great Ocean, laidst thy waves at rest,
    And hush'dst thy mighty minstrelsy."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 44.

[49] Camenes, the Muses, whom Horace called Camænæ. The former is an English plural from the latter, or from the Latin word camena, a muse or song. These lines are copied from Dr. Johnson's History of the English Language; their orthography is, in some respects, too modern for the age to which they are assigned.

[50] The Saxon characters being known nowadays to but very few readers, I have thought proper to substitute for them, in the latter specimens of this chapter, the Roman; and, as the old use of colons and periods for the smallest pauses, is liable to mislead a common observer, the punctuation too has here been modernized.

[51] Essay on Language, by William S. Cardell, New York, 1825, p. 2. This writer was a great admirer of Horne Tooke, from whom he borrowed many of his notions of grammar, but not this extravagance. Speaking of the words right and just, the latter says, "They are applicable only to man; to whom alone language belongs, and of whose sensations only words are the representatives."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 9.

[52] CARDELL: Both Grammars, p. 4.

[53] "Quoties dicimus, toties de nobis judicatur."—Cicero. "As often as we speak, so often are we judged."

[54] "Nor had he far to seek for the source of our impropriety in the use of words, when he should reflect that the study of our own language, has never been made a part of the education of our youth. Consequently, the use of words is got wholly by chance, according to the company that we keep, or the books that we read." SHERIDAN'S ELOCUTION, Introd., p. viii, dated "July 10, 1762," 2d Amer. Ed.

[55] "To Write and Speak correctly, gives a Grace, and gains a favourable Attention to what one has to say: And since 'tis English, that an English Gentleman will have constant use of, that is the Language he should chiefly Cultivate, and wherein most care should be taken to polish and perfect his Stile. To speak or write better Latin than English, may make a Man be talk'd of, but he would find it more to his purpose to Express himself well in his own Tongue, that he uses every moment, than to have the vain Commendation of others for a very insignificant quality. This I find universally neglected, and no care taken any where to improve Young Men in their own Language, that they may thoroughly understand and be Masters of it. If any one among us have a facility or purity more than ordinary in his Mother Tongue, it is owing to Chance, or his Genius, or any thing, rather than to his Education or any care of his Teacher. To Mind what English his Pupil speaks or writes is below the Dignity of one bred up amongst Greek and Latin, though he have but little of them himself. These are the learned Languages fit only for learned Men to meddle with and teach: English is the Language of the illiterate Vulgar."—Locke, on Education, p. 339; Fourth Ed., London, 1699.

[56] A late author, in apologizing for his choice in publishing a grammar without forms of praxis, (that is, without any provision for a stated application of its principles by the learner,) describes the whole business of Parsing as a "dry and uninteresting recapitulation of the disposal of a few parts of speech, and their often times told positions and influence;" urges "the unimportance of parsing, generally;" and represents it to be only "a finical and ostentatious parade of practical pedantry."—Wright's Philosophical Gram., pp. 224 and 226. It would be no great mistake to imagine, that this gentleman's system of grammar, applied in any way to practice, could not fail to come under this unflattering description; but, to entertain this notion of parsing in general, is as great an error, as that which some writers have adopted on the other hand, of making this exercise their sole process of inculcation, and supposing it may profitably supersede both the usual arrangement of the principles of grammar and the practice of explaining them by definitions. It is asserted in Parkhurst's "English Grammar for Beginners, on the Inductive Method of Instruction," that, "to teach the child a definition at the outset, is beginning at the wrong end;" that, "with respect to all that goes under the name of etymology in grammar, it is learned chiefly by practice in parsing, and scarcely at all by the aid of definitions."— Preface, pp. 5 and 6.

[57] Hesitation in speech may arise from very different causes. If we do not consider this, our efforts to remove it may make it worse. In most instances, however, it may be overcome by proper treatment, "Stammering," says a late author, "is occasioned by an over-effort to articulate; for when the mind of the speaker is so occupied with his subject as not to allow him to reflect upon his defect, he will talk without difficulty. All stammerers can sing, owing to the continuous sound, and the slight manner in which the consonants are touched in singing; so a drunken man can run, though he cannot walk or stand still."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 30.

   "To think rightly, is of knowledge; to speak fluently, is of nature;
    To read with profit, is of care; but to write aptly, is of practice."
                                    Book of Thoughts, p. 140.

[58] "There is nothing more becoming [to] a Gentleman, or more useful in all the occurrences of life, than to be able, on any occasion, to speak well, and to the purpose."—Locke, on Education, §171. "But yet, I think I may ask my reader, whether he doth not know a great many, who live upon their estates, and so, with the name, should have the qualities of Gentlemen, who cannot so much as tell a story as they should; much less speak clearly and persuasively in any business. This I think not to be so much their fault, as the fault of their education.—They have been taught Rhetoric, but yet never taught how to express themselves handsomely with their tongues or pens in the language they are always to use; as if the names of the figures that embellish the discourses of those who understood the art of speaking, were the very art and skill of speaking well. This, as all other things of practice, is to be learned, not by a few, or a great many rules given; but by EXERCISE and APPLICATION according to GOOD RULES, or rather PATTERNS, till habits are got, and a facility of doing it well."—Ib., §189. The forms of parsing and correcting which the following work supplies, are "patterns," for the performance of these practical "exercises;" and such patterns as ought to be implicitly followed, by every one who means to be a ready and correct speaker on these subjects.

[59] The principal claimants of "the Inductive Method" of Grammar, are Richard W. Green, Roswell C. Smith, John L. Parkhurst, Dyor H. Sanborn, Bradford Frazee, and, Solomon Barrett, Jr.; a set of writers, differing indeed in their qualifications, but in general not a little deficient in what constitutes an accurate grammarian.

[60] William C. Woodbridge edited the Journal, and probably wrote the article, from which the author of "English Grammar on the Productive System" took his "Preface."

[61] Many other grammars, later than Murray's, have been published, some in England, some in America, and some in both countries; and among these there are, I think, a few in which a little improvement has been made, in the methods prescribed for the exercises of parsing and correcting. In most, however, nothing of the kind has been attempted. And, of the formularies which have been given, the best that I have seen, are still miserably defective, and worthy of all the censure that is expressed in the paragraph above; while others, that appear in works not entirely destitute of merit, are absolutely much worse than Murray's, and worthy to condemn to a speedy oblivion the books in which they are printed. In lieu of forms of expression, clear, orderly, accurate, and full; such as a young parser might profitably imitate; such as an experienced one would be sure to approve; what have we? A chaos of half-formed sentences, for the ignorant pupil to flounder in; an infinite abyss of blunders, which a world of criticism could not fully expose! See, for example, the seven pages of parsing, in the neat little book entitled, "A Practical Grammar of the English Language, by the Rev. David Blair: Seventh Edition: London, 1815:" pp. 49 to 57. I cannot consent to quote more than one short paragraph of the miserable jumble which these pages contain. Yet the author is evidently a man of learning, and capable of writing well on some subjects, if not on this. "Bless the Lord, O my soul!" Form: "Bless, a verb, (repeat 97); active (repeat 99); active voice (102); infinitive mood (107); third person, soul being the nominative (118); present tense (111); conjugate the verb after the pattern (129); its object is Lord (99)."—Blair's Gram., p. 50. Of the paragraphs referred to, I must take some notice: "107. The imperative mood commands or orders or intreats."—Ib., p. 19. "118. The second person is always the pronoun thou or you in the singular, and ye or you in the plural."—Ib., p. 21. "111. The imperative mood has no distinction of tense: and the infinitive has no distinction of persons."—Ib., p. 20. Now the author should have said: "Bless is a redundant active-transitive verb, from bless, blessed or blest, blessing, blessed or blest; found in the imperative mood, present tense, second person, and singular number:" and, if he meant to parse the word syntactically, he should have added: "and agrees with its nominative thou understood; according to the rule which says, 'Every finite verb must agree with its subject or nominative, in person and number.' Because the meaning is—Bless thou the Lord." This is the whole story. But, in the form above, several things are false; many, superfluous; some, deficient; several, misplaced; nothing, right. Not much better are the models furnished by Kirkham, Smith, Lennie, Bullions, and other late authors.

[62] Of Dr. Bullions's forms of parsing, as exhibited in his English Grammar, which is a modification of Lennie's Grammar, it is difficult to say, whether they are most remarkable for their deficiencies, their redundancies, or their contrariety to other teachings of the same author or authors. Both Lennie and Bullions adopt the rule, that, "An ellipsis is not allowable when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety."—L., p. 91; B., p. 130. And the latter strengthens this doctrine with several additional observations, the first of which reads thus: "In general, no word should be omitted that is necessary to the full and correct construction, or even harmony of a sentence."—Bullions, E. Gr., 130. Now the parsing above alluded to, has been thought particularly commendable for its brevity—a quality certainly desirable, so far as it consists with the end of parsing, or with the more needful properties of a good style, clearness, accuracy, ease, and elegance. But, if the foregoing rule and observation are true, the models furnished by these writers are not commendably brief, but miserably defective. Their brevity is, in fact, such as renders them all bad English; and not only so, it makes them obviously inadequate to their purpose, as bringing into use but a part of the principles which the learner had studied. It consists only in the omission of what ought to have been inserted. For example, this short line, "I lean upon the Lord," is parsed by both of these gentlemen thus: "I, the first personal pronoun, masculine, or feminine, singular, the nominative—lean, a verb, neuter, first person singular, present, indicative—upon, a preposition—the, an article, the definite—Lord, a noun, masculine, singular, the objective, (governed by upon.)"—Lennie's Principles of English Gram., p. 51; Bullions's, 74. This is a little sample of their etymological parsing, in which exercise they generally omit not only all the definitions or "reasons" of the various terms applied, but also all the following particulars: first, the verb is, and certain definitives and connectives, which are "necessary to the full and correct construction" of their sentences; secondly, the distinction of nouns as proper or common; thirdly, the person of nouns, first, second, or third; fourthly, the words, number, gender, and case, which are necessary to the sense and construction of certain words used; fifthly, the distinction of adjectives as belonging to different classes; sixthly, the division of verbs as being regular or irregular, redundant or defective; seventhly, sometimes, (Lennie excepted,) the division of verbs as active, passive, or neuter; eighthly, the words mood and tense, which Bullions, on page 131, pronounces "quite unnecessary," and inserts in his own formule on page 132; ninthly, the distinction of adverbs as expressing time, place, degree, or manner; tenthly, the distinction of conjunctions as copulative or disjunctive; lastly, the distinction of interjections as indicating different emotions. All these things does their completest specimen of etymological parsing lack, while it is grossly encumbered with parentheses of syntax, which "must be omitted till the pupil get the rules of syntax."—Lennie, p. 51. It is also vitiated with several absurdities, contradictions, and improper changes of expression: as, "His, the third personal pronoun;" (B., p. 23;)—"me, the first personal pronoun;" (Id., 74;)—"A, The indefinite article;" (Id., 73;)—"a, an article, the indefinite;" (Id., 74;)—"When the verb is passive, parse thus: 'A verb active, in the passive voice, regular, irregular,' &c."—Bullions, p. 131. In stead of teaching sufficiently, as elements of etymological parsing, the definitions which belong to this exercise, and then dismissing them for the principles of syntax, Dr. Bullions encumbers his method of syntactical parsing with such a series of etymological questions and answers as cannot but make it one of the slowest, longest, and most tiresome ever invented. He thinks that the pupil, after parsing any word syntactically, "should be requested to assign a reason for every thing contained in his statement!"—Principles of E. Grammar, p. 131. And the teacher is to ask questions as numerous as the reasons! Such is the parsing of a text-book which has been pronounced "superior to any other, for use in our common schools"—"a complete grammar of the language, and available for every purpose for which Mr. Brown's can possibly be used."—Ralph K. Finch's Report, p, 12.

[63] There are many other critics, besides Murray and Alger, who seem not to have observed the import of after and before in connexion with the tenses. Dr. Bullions, on page 139th of his English Grammar, copied the foregoing example from Lennie, who took it from Murray. Even Richard Hiley, and William Harvey Wells, grammarians of more than ordinary tact, have been obviously misled by the false criticism above cited. One of Hiley's Rules of Syntax, with its illustration, stands thus: "In the use of the different tenses, we must particularly observe to use that tense which clearly and properly conveys the sense intended; thus, instead of saying, 'After I visited Europe, I returned to America;' we should say, 'After I had visited Europe, I returned to America."—Hiley's Gram., p. 90. Upon this he thought it needful to comment thus: "'After I visited Europe, I returned to America;' this sentence is incorrect; visited ought to be had visited, because the action implied by the verb visited WAS COMPLETED before the other past action returned."—Ib., p. 91. See nearly the same thing in Wells's School Grammar, 1st Edition, p. 151; but his later editions are wisely altered. Since "visited and was completed" are of the same tense, the argument from the latter, if it proves any thing, proves the former to be right, and the proposed change needless, or perhaps worse than needless. "I visited Europe before I returned to America," or, "I visited Europe, and afterwards returned to America," is good English, and not to be improved by any change of tense; yet here too we see the visiting "was completed before" the return, or HAD BEEN COMPLETED at the time of the return. I say, "The Pluperfect Tense is that which expresses what had taken place at some past time mentioned: as, 'I had seen him, when I met you.'" Murray says, "The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence: as, I had finished my letter before he arrived." Hiley says, "The Past-Perfect expresses an action or event which was past before some other past action or event mentioned in the sentence, and to which it refers; as, I had finished my lessons before he came." With this, Wells appears to concur, his example being similar. It seems to me, that these last two definitions, and their example too, are bad; because by the help of before or after, "the past before the past" may be clearly expressed by the simple past tense: as, "I finished my letter before he arrived."—"I finished my lessons before he came." "He arrived soon after I finished the letter."—"Soon after it was completed, he came in."

[64] Samuel Kirkham, whose grammar is briefly described in the third chapter of this introduction, boldly lays the blame of all his philological faults, upon our noble language itself; and even conceives, that a well-written and faultless grammar cannot be a good one, because it will not accord with that reasonless jumble which he takes every existing language to be! How diligently he laboured to perfect his work, and with what zeal for truth and accuracy, may be guessed from the following citation: "The truth is, after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language as well as every thing else of human invention, will always be imperfect. Consequently, a perfect system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A perfect grammar will not be produced, until some perfect being writes it for a perfect language; and a perfect language will not be constructed, until some super-human agency is employed in its production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not perfect are exceptionable."—Kirkham's Grammar, p. 66. The unplausible sophistry of these strange remarks, and the palliation they afford to the multitudinous defects of the book which contains them, may be left, without further comment, to the judgement of the reader.

[65] The phrase complex ideas, or compound ideas, has been used for the notions which we have of things consisting of different parts, or having various properties, so as to embrace some sort of plurality: thus our ideas of all bodies and classes of things are said to be complex or compound. Simple ideas are those in which the mind discovers no parts or plurality: such are the ideas of heat, cold, blueness, redness, pleasure, pain, volition, &c. But some writers have contended, that the composition of ideas is a fiction; and that all the complexity, in any case, consists only in the use of a general term in lieu of many particular ones. Locke is on one side of this debate, Horne Tooke, on the other.

[66] Dilworth appears to have had a true idea of the thing, but he does not express it as a definition; "Q. Is an Unit of one, a Number? A. An Unit is a number, because it may properly answer the question how many!"—Schoolmaster's Assistant, p. 2. A number in arithmetic, and a number in grammar, are totally different things. The plural number, as men or horses, does not tell how many; nor does the word singular mean one, as the author of a recent grammar says it does. The plural number is one number, but it is not the singular. "The Productive System" teaches thus: "What does the word singular mean? It means one."—Smith's New Gram., p. 7.

[67] It is truly astonishing that so great a majority of our grammarians could have been so blindly misled, as they have been, in this matter; and the more so, because a very good definition of a Letter was both published and republished, about the time at which Lowth's first appeared: viz., "What is a letter? A Letter is the Sign, Mark, or Character of a simple or uncompounded Sound. Are Letters Sounds? No. Letters are only the Signs or Symbols of Sounds, not the Sounds themselves."—The British Grammar, p. 3. See the very same words on the second page of Buchanan's "English Syntax," a work which was published as early as 1767.

[68] In Murray's octavo Grammar, this word is the in the first chapter, and their in the second; in the duodecimo, it is their in both places.

[69] "The definitions and the rules throughout the Grammar, are expressed with neatness and perspicuity. They are as short and comprehensive as the nature of the subject would admit: and they are well adapted both to the understanding and the memory of young persons."—Life of L. Murray, p. 245. "It may truly be said that the language in every part of the work, is simple, correct, and perspicuous."—Ib., p. 246.

[70] For this definition, see Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 40; Duodecimo, 41; Smaller Gram., 18; Alger's, 18; Bacon's, 15; Frost's, 8, Ingersoll's, 17; A Teacher's, 8; Maltby's, 14; T. H. Miller's, 20; Pond's, 18; S. Putnam's, 15; Russell's, 11; Merchant's Murray, 25; and Worcester's Univ. and Crit. Dictionary. Many other grammarians have attempted to define number; with what success a few examples will show: (1.) "Number is the distinction of one from many."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 40; Merchant's School Gram., 28; Greenleaf's, 22; Nutting's, 17; Picket's, 19; D. Adams's, 31. (2.) "Number is the distinction of one from more."—Fisher's Gram., 51; Alden's, 7. (3.) "Number is the distinction of one from several or many."—Coar's Gram., p. 24. (4.) "Number is the distinction of one from more than one."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 24; J. Flint's, 27; Wells's, 52. (5.) "Number is the distinction of one from more than one, or many."—Grant's Latin Gram., p. 7. (6.) "What is number? Number is the Distinction of one, from two, or many."—British Gram., p. 89; Buchanan's, 16. (7.) "You inquire, 'What is number?' Merely this: the distinction of one from two, or many. Greek substantives have three numbers."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 38. All these authors say, that, in English, "there are two numbers, the singular and the plural." According to their explanations, then, we have two "distinctions of one from two, several, more, or many;" and the Greeks, by adding a dual number, have three! Which, then, of the two or three modifications or forms, do they mean, when they say, "Number is the distinction" &c.? Or, if none of them, what else is meant? All these definitions had their origin in an old Latin one, which, although it is somewhat better, makes doubtful logic in its application: "NUMERUS est, unius et multorum distinctio. Numeri igitur sunt duo; Singularis et Pluralis."— Ruddiman's Gram., p. 21. This means: (8.) "Number is a distinction of one and many. The numbers therefore are two; the Singular and the Plural." But we have yet other examples: as, (9.) "Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 39. "The distinction of objects as one," is very much like "the consideration of an object as more than one." (10.) "Number distinguishes objects as one or more."—Cooper's Murray, p. 21; Practical Gram., p. 18. That is, number makes the plural to be either plural or singular for distinction's sake! (11.) "Number is the distinction of nouns with regard to the objects signified, as one or more."—Fisk's Murray, p. 19. Here, too, number has "regard" to the same confusion: while, by a gross error, its "distinction" is confined to "nouns" only! (12.) "Number is that property of a noun by which it expresses one or more than one."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 12; Analyt. Gram., 25. Here again number is improperly limited to "a noun;" and is said to be one sign of two, or either of two, incompatible ideas! (13.) "Number shows how many are meant, whether one or more."—Smith's new Gram., p. 45. This is not a definition, but a false assertion, in which Smith again confounds arithmetic with grammar! Wheat and oats are of different numbers; but neither of these numbers "means a sum that may be counted," or really "shows how many are meant." So of "Man in general, Horses in general, &c."—Brightland's Gram., p. 77. (14.) "Number is the difference in a noun or pronoun, to denote either a single thing or more than one."—Davenport's Gram., p. 14. This excludes the numbers of a verb, and makes the singular and the plural to be essentially one thing. (15.) "Number is a modification of nouns and verbs, &c. according as the thing spoken of is represented, as, one or more, with regard to number."—Burn's Gram., p. 32. This also has many faults, which I leave to the discernment of the reader. (16.) "What is number? Number shows the distinction of one from many."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 6. This is no answer to the question asked; besides, it is obviously worse than the first form, which has "is," for "shows." (17.) "What is Number? It is the representation of objects with respect to singleness, or plurality." —O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 34. If there are two numbers, they are neither of them properly described in this definition, or in any of the preceding ones. There is a gross misconception, in taking each or either of them to be an alternate representation of two incompatible ideas. And this sort of error is far from being confined to the present subject; it runs through a vast number of the various definitions contained in our grammars. (18.) "Number is the inflection of a noun, to indicate one object or more than one. Or, Number is the expression of unity or of more than unity."—Hiley's Gram., p. 14. How hard this author laboured to think what number is, and could not! (19.) "Number is the distinction of unity and plurality."—Hart's E. Gram., p. 40, Why say, "distinction;" the numbers, or distinctions, being two? (20.) "Number is the capacity of nouns to represent either one or more than one object."—Barrett's Revised Gram., p. 40. (21.) "Number is a property of the noun which denotes one or more than one."—Weld's Gram., 2d Ed., p. 55. (22.) "Number is a property of the noun or pronoun [,] by which it denotes one, or more than one."—Weld's Gram., Abridged Ed., p. 49. (23.) "Number is the property that distinguishes one from more than one."—Weld's Gram., Improved Ed., p. 60. This, of course, excludes the plural. (24.) "Number is a modification of nouns to denote whether one object is meant, or more than one."—Butler's Gram., p. 19. (25.) "Number is that modification of the Noun which distinguishes one from more than one."—Spencer's Gram., p. 26. Now, it is plain, that not one of these twenty-five definitions comports with the idea that the singular is one number and the plural an other! Not one of them exhibits any tolerable approach to accuracy, either of thought or of expression! Many of the grammarians have not attempted any definition of number, or of the numbers, though they speak of both the singular and the plural, and perhaps sometimes apply the term number to the distinction which is in each: for it is the property of the singular number, to distinguish unity from plurality: and of the plural, to distinguish plurality from unity. Among the authors who are thus silent, are Lily, Colet, Brightland, Harris, Lowth, Ash, Priestly, Bicknell, Adam, Gould, Harrison, Comly, Jaudon, Webster, Webber, Churchill, Staniford, Lennie, Dalton, Blair, Cobbett, Cobb, A. Flint, Felch, Guy, Hall, and S. W. Clark. Adam and Gould, however, in explaining the properties of verbs, say: "Number marks how many we suppose to be, to act, or to suffer."—A., 80; G., 78.

[71] These are the parts of speech in some late grammars; as, Barrett's, of 1854, Butler's, Covell's, Day's, Frazee's, Fowle's New, Spear's, Weld's, Wells's, and the Well-wishers'. In Frost's Practical Grammar, the words of the language are said to be "divided into eight classes," and the names are given thus: "Noun, Article, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection."—P. 29. But the author afterwards treats of the Adjective, between the Article and the Pronoun, just as if he had forgotten to name it, and could not count nine with accuracy! In Perley's Grammar, the parts of speech are a different eight: namely, "Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections, and Particles!"—P. 8. S. W. Clark has Priestley's classes, but calls Interjections "Exclamations."

[72] Felton, who is confessedly a modifier of Murray, claims as a merit, "the rejection of several useless parts of speech" yet acknowledges "nine," and treats of ten; "viz., Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Prepositions, Adjectives, [Articles,] Adverbs, Conjunctions, Exclamations."—O. C. Felton's Gram. p. 5, and p. 9.

[73] Quintilian is at fault here; for, in some of his writings, if not generally, Aristotle recognized four parts of speech; namely, verbs, nouns, conjunctions, and articles. See Aristot. de Poetica, Cap. xx.

[74] "As there are ten different characters or figures in arithmetic to represent all possible quantities, there are also ten kinds of words or parts of speech to represent all possible sentences: viz.: article, noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection."—Chauvier's Punctuation, p. 104.

[75] The Friend, 1829, Vol. ii, p. 117.

[76] The Friend, Vol. ii, p. 105.

[77] See the Preface to my Compendious English Grammar in the American editions of the Treasury of Knowledge, Vol. i, p. 8.

[78] Some say that Brightland himself was the writer of this grammar; but to suppose him the sole author, hardly comports with its dedication to the Queen, by her "most Obedient and Dutiful Subjects, the Authors;" or with the manner in which these are spoken of, in the following lines, by the laureate:

   "Then say what Thanks, what Praises must attend
    The Gen'rous Wits, who thus could condescend!
    Skill, that to Art's sublimest Orb can reach,
    Employ'd its humble Elements to Teach!
    Yet worthily Esteem'd, because we know
    To raise Their Country's Fame they stoop'd so low."—TATE.

[79] Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, page 158th, makes a difficulty respecting the meaning of this passage: cites it as an instance of the misapplication of the term grammar; and supposes the writer's notion of the thing to have been, "of grammar in the abstract, an universal archetype by which the particular grammars of all different tongues ought to be regulated." And adds, "If this was his meaning, I cannot say whether he is in the right or in the wrong, in this accusation. I acknowledge myself to be entirely ignorant of this ideal grammar." It would be more fair to suppose that Dr. Swift meant by "grammar" the rules and principles according to which the English language ought to be spoken and written; and, (as I shall hereafter show,) it is no great hyperbole to affirm, that every part of the code—nay, well-nigh every one of these rules and principles—is, in many instances, violated, if not by what may be called the language itself, at least by those speakers and writers who are under the strongest obligations to know and observe its true use.

[80] The phrase "of any" is here erroneous. These words ought to have been omitted; or the author should have said—"the least valuable of all his productions."

[81] This word latter should have been last; for three works are here spoken of.

[82] With this opinion concurred the learned James White, author of a Grammatical Essay on the English Verb, an octavo volume of more than three hundred pages, published in London in 1761. This author says, "Our Essays towards forming an English Grammar, have not been very many: from the reign of Queen Elizabeth, to that of Queen Ann, there are but Two that the author of the Present knows of: one in English by the renown'd Ben Jonson, and one in Latin by the learn'd Dr. Wallis. In the reign of Queen Ann indeed, there seems to have arisen a noble Spirit of ingenious Emulation in this Literary way: and to this we owe the treatises compos'd at that period for the use of schools, by Brightland, Greenwood, and Maittaire. But, since that time, nothing hath appear'd, that hath come to this Essayist's knowledge, deserving to be taken any notice of as tending to illustrate our Language by ascertaining the Grammar of it; except Anselm Bayly's Introduction to Languages, Johnson's Grammar prefix'd to the Abridgement of his Dictionary, and the late Dr. Ward's Essays upon the English Language.—These are all the Treatises he hath met with, relative to this subject; all which he hath perus'd very attentively, and made the best use of them in his power. But notwithstanding all these aids, something still remains to be done, at least it so appears to him, preparatory to attempting with success the Grammar of our Language. All our efforts of this kind seem to have been render'd ineffectual hitherto, chiefly by the prevaliency of two false notions: one of which is, that our Verbs have no Moods; and the other, that our Language hath no Syntax."—White's English Verb, p. viii.

[83] A similar doctrine, however, is taught by no less an author than "the Rev. Alexander Crombie, LL. D.," who says, in the first paragraph of his introduction, "LANGUAGE consists of intelligible signs, and is the medium, by which the mind communicates its thoughts. It is either articulate, or inarticulate; artificial, or natural. The former is peculiar to man; the latter is common to all animals. By inarticulate language, we mean those instinctive cries, by which the several tribes of inferior creatures are enabled to express their sensations and desires. By articulate language is understood a system of expression, composed of simple sounds, differently modified by the organs of speech, and variously combined."—Treatise on the Etymology and Syntax of the English Language, p. 1. See the same doctrine also in Hiley's Gram., p. 141. The language which "is common to all animals," can be no other than that in which Æsop's wolves and weasels, goats and grasshoppers, talked—a language quite too unreal for grammar. On the other hand, that which is composed of sounds only, and not of letters, includes but a mere fraction of the science.

[84] The pronoun whom is not properly applicable to beasts, unless they are personified: the relative which would therefore, perhaps, have been preferable here, though whom has a better sound.—G. B.

[85] "The great difference between men and brutes, in the utterance of sound by the mouth, consists in the power of articulation in man, and the entire want of it in brutes."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 8.

[86] Strictly speaking, an articulate sound is not a simple element of speech, but rather a complex one, whether syllable or word; for articulate literally means jointed. But our grammarians in general, have applied the term to the sound of a letter, a syllable, or a word, indiscriminately: for which reason, it seems not very suitable to be used alone in describing any of the three. Sheridan says, "The essence of a syllable consists in articulation only, for every articulate sound of course forms a syllable."—Lectures on Elocution, p. 62. If he is right in this, not many of our letters—or, perhaps more properly, none of them—can singly represent articulate sounds. The looseness of this term induces me to add or prefer an other. "The Rev. W. Allen," who comes as near as any of our grammarians, to the true definition of a letter, says: 1. "The sounds used in language are called articulate sounds." 2. "A letter is a character used in printing or writing, to represent an articulate sound."—Allen's Elements of E. Gram., p. 2. Dr. Adam says: 1. "A letter is the mark of a sound, or of an articulation of sound." 2. "A vowel is properly called a simple sound; and the sounds formed by the concourse of vowels and consonants, articulate sounds."—Latin and English Gram., pp. 1 and 2.

[87] Of this sort of blunder, the following false definition is an instance: "A Vowel is a letter, the name of which makes a full open sound."—Lennie's Gram., p. 5; Brace's, 7; Hazen's, 10. All this is just as true of a consonant as of a vowel. The comma too, used in this sentence, defeats even the sense which the writers intended. It is surely no description either of a vowel or of a consonant, to say, that it is a letter, and that the name of a letter makes a full open sound. Again, a late grammarian teaches, that the names of all the letters are nothing but Roman capitals, and then seems to inquire which of these names are vowels, thus: "Q. How many letters are in the alphabet? A. Twenty-six. Q. What are their names? A. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. Q. Which of these are called Vowels?"—Fowle's Common School Gram., Part First, p. 7. If my worthy friend Fowle had known or considered what are the names of the letters in English, he might have made a better beginning to his grammar than this.

[88] By the colloquial phrase, "to a Tee" we mean, "to a nicety, to a tittle, a jot, an iota. Had the British poet Cawthorn, himself a noted schoolmaster, known how to write the name of "T," he would probably have preferred it in the following couplet:

   "And swore by Varro's shade that he
    Conceived the medal to a T."—British Poets, Vol. VII, p. 65.

Here the name would certainly be much fitter than the letter, because the text does not in reality speak of the letter. With the names of the Greek letters, the author was better acquainted; the same poem exhibits two of them, where the characters themselves are spoken of:

   "My eye can trace divinely true,
    In this dark curve a little Mu;
    And here, you see, there seems to lie
    The ruins of a Doric Xi."—Ibidem.

The critical reader will see that "seems" should be seem, to agree with its nominative "ruins."

[89] Lily, reckoning without the H, J, or V, speaks of the Latin letters as "twenty-two;" but says nothing concerning their names. Ruddiman, Adam, Grant, Gould, and others, who include the H, J, and V, rightly state the number to be "twenty-five;" but, concerning their names, are likewise entirely silent. Andrews and Stoddard, not admitting the K, teach thus: "The letters of the Latin language are twenty-four. They have the same names as the corresponding characters in English."—Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Gram., p. 1. A later author speaks thus: "The Latin Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, the same in name and form as the English, but without the w."—Bullions's Latin Gram., p. 1. It would probably be nearer to the truth, to say, "The Latin Alphabet, like the French, has no W; it consists of twenty-five letters, which are the same in name and form as the French." Will it be pretended that the French names and the English do not differ?

[90] The Scotch Iz and the Craven Izzet, if still in use anywhere, are names strictly local, not properly English, nor likely to spread. "IZZET, the letter Z. This is probably the corruption of izzard, the old and common name for the letter, though I know not, says Nares, on what authority."—Glossary of Craven, w. Izzet. "Z z, zed, more commonly called izzard or uzzard, that is, s hard."—Dr. Johnson's Gram., p. 1.

   "And how she sooth'd me when with study sad
    I labour'd on to reach the final Zad."—Crabbe's Borough, p. 228.

[91] William Bolles, in his new Dictionary, says of the letter Z: "Its sound is uniformly that of a hard S." The name, however, he pronounces as I do; though he writes it not Zee but zé; giving not the orthography of the name, as he should have done, but a mere index of its pronunciation. Walker proves by citations from Professor Ward and Dr. Wallis, that these authors considered the sharp or hissing sound of s the "hard" sound; and the flat sound, like that of z, its "soft" sound. See his Dictionary, 8vo, p. 53.

[92] Dr. Webster died in 1843. Most of this work was written while he was yet in vigour.

[93] This old definition John L. Parkhurst disputes:—says it "is ambiguous;"—questions whether it means, "that the name of such a letter, or the simple sound," requires a vowel! "If the latter," says he, "the assertion is false. The simple sounds, represented by the consonants, can be uttered separately, distinctly, and perfectly. It can be done with the utmost ease, even by a little child."—Parkhurst's Inductive Gram. for Beginners, p. 164. He must be one of these modern philosophers who delight to make mouths of these voiceless elements, to show how much may be done without sound from the larynx.

[94] This test of what is, or is not, a vowel sound or a consonant sound, is often appealed to, and is generally admitted to be a just one. Errors in the application of an or a are not unfrequent, but they do not affect the argument. It cannot be denied, that it is proper to use a, and not proper to use an, before the initial sound of w or y with a vowel following. And this rule holds good, whether the sound be expressed by these particular letters, or by others; as in the phrases, "a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer, a humour, a yielding temper." But I have heard it contended, that these are vowel sounds, notwithstanding they require a; and that the w and y are always vowels, because even a vowel sound (it was said) requires a and not an, whenever an other vowel sound immediately follows it. Of this notion, the following examples are a sufficient refutation: an aëronaut, an aërial tour, an oeiliad, an eyewink, an eyas, an iambus, an oäsis, an o'ersight, an oil, an oyster, an owl, an ounce. The initial sound of yielding requires a, and not an; but those who call the y a vowel, say, it is equivalent to the unaccented long e. This does not seem to me to be exactly true; because the latter sound requires an, and not a; as, "Athens, as well as Thebes, had an Eëtion."

[95] Dr. Rush, in his Philosophy of the Human Voice, has exhibited some acuteness of observation, and has written with commendable originality. But his accuracy is certainly not greater than his confidence. On page 57th, he says, "The m, n, and ng, are purely nasal;" on page 401st, "Some of the tonic elements, and one of the subtonics, are made by the assistance of the lips; they are o-we, oo-ze, ou-r, and m." Of the intrinsic value of his work, I am not prepared or inclined to offer any opinion; I criticise him only so far as he strikes at grammatical principles long established, and worthy still to be maintained.

[96] Dr. Comstock, by ¸enumerating as elementary the sound of the diphthong ou, as in our, and the complex power of wh, as in what, (which sounds ought not to be so reckoned,) makes the whole number of vocal elements in English to be "thirty-eight." See Comstock's Elocution, p. 19.

[97] This word is commonly heard in two syllables, yune'yun; but if Walker is right in making it three, yu'ne-un, the sound of y consonant is heard in it but once. Worcester's notation is "y=un'yun." The long sound of u is yu; hence Walker calls the letter, when thus sounded, a "semi-consonant diphthong."

[98] Children ought to be accustomed to speak loud, and to pronounce all possible sounds and articulations, even those of such foreign languages as they will be obliged to learn; for almost every language has its particular sounds which we pronounce with difficulty, if we have not been early accustomed to them. Accordingly, nations who have the greatest number of sounds in their speech, learn the most easily to pronounce foreign languages, since they know their articulations by having met with similar sounds in their own language."—Spurzheim, on Education, p. 159.

[99] If it be admitted that the two semivowels l and n have vocality enough of their own to form a very feeble syllable, it will prove only that there are these exceptions to an important general rule. If the name of Haydn rhymes with maiden, it makes one exception to the rule of writing; but it is no part of the English language. The obscure sound of which I speak, is sometimes improperly confounded with that of short u; thus a recent writer, who professes great skill in respect to such matters, says, "One of the most common sounds in our language is that of the vowel u, as in the word urn, or as the diphthong ea in the word earth, for which we have no character. Writers have made various efforts to express it, as in earth, berth, mirth, worth, turf, in which all the vowels are indiscriminately used in turn. [Fist] This defect has led to the absurd method of placing the vowel after the consonants, instead of between them, when a word terminates with this sound; as in the following, Bible, pure, centre, circle, instead of Bibel, puer, center, cirkel."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 498. "It would be a great step towards perfection to spell our words as they are pronounced!"—Ibid., p. 499. How often do the reformers of language multiply the irregularities of which they complain!

[100] "The number of simple sounds in our tongue is twenty-eight, 9 Vowels and 19 Consonants. H is no letter, but merely a mark of aspiration."—Jones's Prosodial Gram. before his Dict., p. 14.

"The number of simple vowel and consonant sounds in our tongue is twenty-eight, and one pure aspiration h, making in all twenty-nine."—Bolles's Octavo Dict., Introd., p. 9.

"The number of letters in the English language is twenty-six; but the number of elements is thirty-eight."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 18. "There are thirty-eight elements in the English alphabet, and to represent those elements by appropriate characters, we should have thirty-eight letters. There is, then, a deficiency in our alphabet of twelve letters—and he who shall supply this imperfection, will be one of the greatest benefactors of the human race."—Ib., p. 19. "Our alphabet is both redundant and defective. C, q, and z, are respectively represented by k or s, k, and ks, or gz; and the remaining twenty-three letters are employed to represent forty-one elementary sounds."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 36.

"The simple sounds were in no wise to be reckoned of any certain number: by the first men they were determined to no more than ten, as spine suppose; as others, fifteen or twenty; it is however certain that mankind in general never exceed twenty simple sounds; and of these only five are reckoned strictly such."—Bicknell's Grammar, Part ii, p. 4.

[101] "When these sounds are openly pronounced, they produce the familiar assent ay: which, by the old English dramatic writers, was often expressed by I."—Walker. We still hear it so among the vulgar; as, "I, I, sir, presently!" for "Ay, ay, sir, presently!" Shakspeare wrote,

"To sleepe, perchance to dreame; I, there's the rub." —Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 143.

[102] Walker pronounces yew and you precisely alike, "yoo;" but, certainly, ew is not commonly equivalent to oo, though some make it so: thus Gardiner, in his scheme of the vowels, says, "ew equals oo, as in new, noo."—Music of Nature, p. 483. Noo for new, is a vulgarism, to my ear.—G. BROWN.

[103] "As harmony is an inherent property of sound, the ear should he first called to the attention of simple sounds; though, in reality, all are composed of three, so nicely blended as to appear but as one."—Gardiner's Music of Nature, p. 8. "Every sound is a mixture of three tones; as much as a ray of light is composed of three prismatic colours."—Ib., p. 387.

[104] The titulary name of the sacred volume is "The Holy Bible." The word Scripture or Scriptures is a common name for the writings contained in this inestimable volume, and, in the book itself, is seldom distinguished by a capital; but, in other works, it seems proper in general to write it so, by way of eminence.

[105] "Benedictus es Domine Deus Israel patris nostri ab eterno in eternum."—Vulgate. "O Eternel! Dieu d'Israël, notre père, tu es béni de tout temps et à toujours."—Common French Bible. "[Greek: Eulogætos ei Kyrie ho theos Israel ho patær hæmon apo tou aionos kai heos tou aionos.]"—Septuagint.

[106] Where the word "See" accompanies the reference, the reader may generally understand that the citation, whether right or wrong in regard to grammar, is not in all respects exactly as it will be found in the place referred to. Cases of this kind, however, will occur but seldom; and it is hoped the reasons for admitting a few, will be sufficiently obvious. Brevity is indispensable; and some rules are so generally known and observed, that one might search long for half a dozen examples of their undesigned violation. Wherever an error is made intentionally in the Exercises, the true reading and reference are to be expected in the Key.

[107] "Et irritaverunt ascendentes in mare, Mare rubrum."—Latin Vulgate, folio, Psal. cv, 7. This, I think, should have been "Mare Rubrum," with two capitals.—G. BROWN.

[108] The printers, from the manner in which they place their types before them, call the small letters "lower-case letters," or "letters of the lower case."

[109] I imagine that "plagues" should here be plague, in the singular number, and not plural. "Ero more ius, o mors; morsus tuus ero, inferne."—Vulgate. "[Greek: Pou hæ dikæ sou, thanate; pou to kentron sou, aidæ;]"—Septuagint, ibid.

[110] It is hoped that not many persons will be so much puzzled as are Dr. Latham and Professor Fowler, about the application of this rule. In their recent works on The English Language, these gentlemen say, "In certain words of more than one syllable, it is difficult to say to which syllable the intervening Consonant belongs. For instance, does the v in river and the v in fever belong to the first or to the second syllable? Are the words to be divided thus, ri-ver, fe-ver? or thus, riv-er, fev-er?"—Fowler's E. Gram., 1850, §85; Latham's Hand-Book, p. 95. Now I suppose it plain, that, by the rule given above, fever is to be divided in the former way, and river in the latter; thus, fe-ver, riv-er. But this paragraph of Latham's or Fowler's is written, not to disembarrass the learner, but just as if it were a grammarian's business to confound his readers with fictitious dilemmas—and those expressed ungrammatically! Of the two Vees, so illogically associated in one question, and so solecistically spoken of by the singular verb "does," one belongs to the former syllable, and the other, to the latter; nor do I discover that "it is difficult to say" this, or to be well assured that it is right. What an admirable passage for one great linguist to steal from an other!

[111] "The usual rules for dividing [words into] syllables, are not only arbitrary but false and absurd. They contradict the very definition of a syllable given by the authors themselves. * * * * A syllable in pronunciation is an indivisible thing; and strange as it may appear, what is indivisible in utterance is divided in writing: when the very purpose of dividing words into syllables in writing, is to lead the learner to a just pronunciation."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 156; Philosophical Gram., 221.

[112] This word, like distich and monostich, is from the Greek stichos, a verse; and is improperly spelled by Walker with a final k. It should be hemistich, with the accent on the first syllable. See Webster, Scott, Perry, Worcester, and others.

[113] According to Aristotle, the compounding of terms, or the writing of them as separate words, must needs be a matter of great importance to the sense. For he will have the parts of a compound noun, or of a compound verb, to be, like other syllables, destitute of any distinct signification in themselves, whatever may be their meaning when written separately. See his definitions of the parts of speech, in his Poetics, Chapter 20th of the Greek; or Goulston's Version in Latin, Chapter 12th.

[114] Whether worshipper should follow this principle, or not, is questionable. If Dr. Webster is right in making worship a compound of worth and ship, he furnishes a reason against his own practice of using a single p in worshiper, worshiped, and worshiping. The Saxon word appears to have been weorthscype. But words ending in ship are derivatives, rather than compounds; and therefore they seem to belong to the rule, rather than to the exception: as, "So we fellowshiped him."—Herald of Freedom: Liberator, Vol. ix, p. 68.

[115] When ee comes before e, or may be supposed to do so, or when ll comes before l, one of the letters is dropped that three of the same kind may not meet: as, free, freer, freest, freeth, freed; skill, skilless; full, fully; droll, drolly. And, as burgess-ship, hostess-ship, and mistress-ship are derivatives, and not compounds, I think they ought to follow the same principle, and be written burgesship, hostesship, mistresship. The proper form of gall-less is perhaps more doubtful. It ought not to be gallless, as Dr. Webster has it; and galless, the analogical form, is yet, so far as I know without authority. But is it not preferable to the hyphened form, with three Ells, which has authority? "GALL-LESS, a. Without gall or bitterness. Cleaveland."—Chalmers, Bolles, Worcester.

     "Ah! mild and gall-less dove,
    Which dost the pure and candid dwellings love,
     Canst thou in Albion still delight?"—Cowley's Odes.

Worcester's Dictionary has also the questionable word bellless. Treen, for trees, or for an adjective meaning a tree's, or made of a tree, is exhibited in several of our dictionaries, and pronounced as a monosyllable: but Dr. Beattie, in his Poems, p. 84, has made it a dissyllable, with three like letters divided by a hyphen, thus:—

"Plucking from tree-en bough her simple food."

[116] Handiwork, handicraft, and handicraftsman, appear to have been corruptly written for handwork, handcraft, and handcraftsman. They were formerly in good use, and consequently obtained a place in our vocabulary, from which no lexicographer, so far as I know, has yet thought fit to discard them; but, being irregular, they are manifestly becoming obsolete, or at least showing a tendency to throw off these questionable forms. Handcraft and handcraftsman are now exhibited in some dictionaries, and handiwork seems likely to be resolved into handy and work, from which Johnson supposes it to have been formed. See Psalm xix, 1. The text is varied thus: "And the firmament sheweth his handiwork."—Johnson's Dict.. "And the firmament sheweth his handy-work."—Scott's Bible; Bruce's Bible; Harrison's Gram., p. 83. "And the firmament showeth his handy work."—Alger's Bible; Friends' Bible; Harrison's Gram., p. 103.

[117] Here a word, formed from its root by means of the termination ize, afterwards assumes a prefix, to make a secondary derivative: thus, organ, organize, disorganize. In such a case, the latter derivative must of course be like the former; and I assume that the essential or primary formation of both from the word organ is by the termination ize; but it is easy to see that disguise, demise, surmise, and the like, are essentially or primarily formed by means of the prefixes, dis, de, and sur. As to advertise, exercise, detonize, and recognize, which I have noted among the exceptions, it is not easy to discover by which method we ought to suppose them to have been formed; but with respect to nearly all others, the distinction is very plain; and though there may be no natural reason for founding upon it such a rule as the foregoing, the voice of general custom is as clear in this as in most other points or principles of orthography, and, surely, some rule in this case is greatly needed.

[118] Criticise, with s, is the orthography of Johnson, Walker, Webster, Jones, Scott, Bolles, Chalmers, Cobb, and others; and so did Worcester spell it in his Comprehensive Dictionary of 1831, but, in his Universal and Critical Dictionary of 1846, he wrote it with z, as did Bailey in his folio, about a hundred years ago. Here the z conforms to the foregoing rule, and the s does not.

[119] Like this, the compound brim-full ought to be written with a hyphen and accented on the last syllable; but all our lexicographers have corrupted it into brim'ful, and, contrary to the authorities they quote, accented it on the first. Their noun brim'fulness, with a like accent, is also a corruption; and the text of Shakspeare, which they quote for it, is nonsense, unless brim, be there made a separate adjective:—

"With ample and brimfulness of his force."—Johnson's Dict. et al.

"With ample and brim fullness of his force," would be better.

[120] According to Littleton, the coraliticus lapis was a kind of Phrygian marble, "called Coralius or by an other name Sangarius." But this substance seems to be different from all that are described by Webster, under the names of "coralline," "corallinite," and "corallite." See Webster's Octavo Dict.

[121] The Greek word for argil is [Greek: argilos], or [Greek: argillos], (from [Greek: argos], white,) meaning pure white earth; and is as often spelled with one Lamda as with two.

[122] Dr. Webster, with apparent propriety, writes caviling and cavilous with one l, like dialing and perilous; but he has in general no more uniformity than Johnson, in respect to the doubling of l final. He also, in some instances, accents similar words variously: as, cor'alliform, upon the first syllable, metal'liform, upon the second; cav'ilous and pap'illous, upon the first, argil'lous, upon the second; ax'illar, upon the first, medul'lar, upon the second. See Webster's Octavo Dict.

[123] Perry wrote crystaline, crystalize, crystalization, metaline, metalist, metalurgist, and metalurgy; and these forms, as well as crystalography, metalic, metalography, and metaliferous, are noticed and preferred by the authors of the Red Book, on pp. 288 and 302.

[124] "But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains single: as, to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering."—Murray's Octavo Gram., p. 24; Walker's Rhym. Dict., Introd., p. ix.

[125] Johnson, Walker, and Webster, all spell this word sep'ilible; which is obviously wrong; as is Johnson's derivation of it from sepio, to hedge in. Sepio would make, not this word, but sepibilis and sepible, hedgeable.

[126] If the variable word control, controul, or controll, is from con and troul or troll, it should be spelled with ll, by Rule 7th, and retain the ll by Rule 6th. Dr. Webster has it so, but he gives control also.

[127] Ache, and its plural, aches, appear to have been formerly pronounced like the name of the eighth letter, with its plural, Aitch, and Aitches; for the old poets made "aches" two syllables. But Johnson says of ache, a pain, it is "now generally written ake, and in the plural akes, of one syllable."—See his Quarto Dict. So Walker: "It is now almost universally written ake and akes."—See Walker's Principles, No. 355. So Webster: "Ake, less properly written ache."—See his Octavo Dict. But Worcester seems rather to prefer ache.—G. B.

[128] This book has, probably, more recommenders than any other of the sort. I have not patience to count them accurately, but it would seem that more than a thousand of the great and learned have certified to the world, that they never before had seen so good a spelling-book! With personal knowledge of more than fifty of the signers, G. B. refused to add his poor name, being ashamed of the mischievous facility with which very respectable men had loaned their signatures.

[129] Scrat, for scratch. The word is now obsolete, and may be altered by taking ch in the correction.

[130] "Hairbrained, adj. This should rather be written harebrained; unconstant, unsettled, wild as a hare."—Johnson's Dict. Webster writes it harebrained, as from hare and brain. Worcester, too, prefers this form.

[131] "The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about 4,300. See, in Dr. Ward's Essays on the English language, the catalogue of English verbs. The whole number of irregular verbs, the defective included, is about 176."—Lowth's Gram., Philad., 1799, p. 59. Lindley Murray copied the first and the last of these three sentences, but made the latter number "about 177."—Octavo Gram., p. 109; Duodecimo, p. 88. In the latter work, he has this note: "The whole number of words, in the English language, is about thirty-five thousand."—Ib. Churchill says, "The whole number of verbs in the English language, according to Dr. Ward, is about 4,300. The irregulars, including the auxilaries [sic—KTH], scarcely exceed 200."—New Gram., p. 113. An other late author has the following enumeration: "There are in the English language about twenty thousand five hundred nouns, forty pronouns, eight thousand verbs, nine thousand two hundred adnouns, two thousand six hundred adverbs, sixty-nine prepositions, nineteen conjunctions, and sixty-eight interjections; in all, above forty thousand words."—Rev. David Blair's Gram., p. 10. William Ward, M. A., in an old grammar undated, which speaks of Dr. Lowth's as one with which the public had "very lately been favoured," says: "There are four Thousand and about Five Hundred Verbs in the English [language]."—Ward's Practical Gram., p. 52.

[132] These definitions are numbered here, because each of them is the first of a series now begun. In class rehearsals, the pupils may be required to give the definitions in turn; and, to prevent any from losing the place, it is important that the numbers be mentioned. When all have become sufficiently familiar with the definitions, the exercise may be performed without them. They are to be read or repeated till faults disappear—or till the teacher is satisfied with the performance. He may then save time, by commanding his class to proceed more briefly; making such distinctions as are required in the praxis, but ceasing to explain the terms employed; that is, omitting all the definitions, for brevity's sake. This remark is applicable likewise to all the subsequent praxes of etymological parsing.]

[133] The modifications which belong to the different parts of speech consist chiefly of the inflections or changes to which certain words are subject. But I use the term sometimes in a rather broader sense, as including not only variations of words, but, in certain instances, their original forms, and also such of their relations as serve to indicate peculiar properties. This is no questionable license in the use of the term; for when the position of a word modifies its meaning, or changes its person or case, this effect is clearly a grammatical modification, though there be no absolute inflection. Lord Kames observes, "That quality, which distinguishes one genus, one species, or even one individual, from an other, is termed a modification: thus the same particular that is termed a property or quality, when considered as belonging to an individual, or a class of individuals, is termed a modification, when considered as distinguishing the individual or the class from an other."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 392.

[134] Wells, having put the articles into the class of adjectives, produces authority as follows: "'The words a or an, and the, are reckoned by some grammarians a separate part of speech; but, as they in all respects come under the definition of the adjective, it is unnecessary, as well as improper, to rank them as a class by themselves.'—Cannon." To this he adds, "The articles are also ranked with adjectives by Priestley, E. Oliver, Bell, Elphinston, M'Culloch, D'Orsey, Lindsay, Joel, Greenwood. Smetham, Dalton, King, Hort, Buchanan, Crane, J. Russell, Frazee, Cutler, Perley, Swett, Day. Goodenow, Willard, Robbins, Felton, Snyder, Butler, S. Barrett, Badgley, Howe, Whiting, Davenport, Fowle, Weld, and others."—Wells's School Gram., p. 69. In this way, he may have made it seem to many, that, after thorough investigation, he had decided the point discreetly, and with preponderance of authority. For it is claimed as a "peculiar merit" of this grammar, that, "Every point of practical importance is thoroughly investigated, and reference is carefully made to the researches of preceding writers, in all cases which admit of being determined by weight of authority."—WILLIAM RUSSELL, on the cover. But, in this instance, as in sundry others, wherein he opposes the more common doctrine, and cites concurrent authors, both he and all his authorities are demonstrably to the wrong. For how can they be right, while reason, usage, and the prevailing opinion, are still against them? If we have forty grammars which reject, the articles as a part of speech, we have more than twice as many which recognize them as such; among which are those of the following authors: viz., Adam, D. Adams, Ainsworth, Alden, Alger, W. Allen, Ash, Bacon, Barnard, Beattie, Beck, Bicknell, Bingham, Blair, J. H. Brown, Bucke, Bullions, Burn, Burr, Chandler, Churchill, Coar, Cobbett, Cobbin, Comly, Cooper, Davis, Dearborn, Ensell, Everett, Farnum, Fisk, A. Flint, Folker, Fowler, Frost, R. G. Greene, Greenleaf, Guy, Hall, Hallock, Hart, Harrison, Matt. Harrison, Hazen, Hendrick, Hiley, Hull, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Johnson, Kirkham, Latham, Lennie, A. Lewis, Lowth, Maltby, Maunder, Mennye, Merchant, T. H. Miller, Murray, Nixon, Nutting, Parker and Fox, John Peirce, Picket, Pond, S. Putnam, Russell, Sanborn, Sanders, R. C. Smith, Rev. T. Smith, Spencer, Tower, Tucker, Walker, Webber, Wilcox, Wilson, Woodworth, J. E. Worcester, S. Worcester, Wright. The articles characterize our language more than some of the other parts of speech, and are worthy of distinction for many reasons, one of which is the very great frequency of their use.

[135] In Murray's Abridgement, and in his "Second Edition," 12mo, the connective in this place is "or;" and so is it given by most of his amenders; as in Alger's Murray, p. 68; Alden's, 89; Bacon's, 48; Cooper's, 111; A. Flint's, 65; Maltby's, 60; Miller's, 67; S. Putnam's, 74; Russell's, 52; T. Smith's, 61. All these, and many more, repeat both of these ill-devised rules.

[136] When this was written, Dr. Webster was living.

[137] In French, the preposition à, (to,) is always carefully distinguished from the verb a, (has,) by means of the grave accent, which is placed over the former for that purpose. And in general also the Latin word à, (from,) is marked in the same way. But, with us, no appropriate sign has hitherto been adopted to distinguish the preposition a from the article a; though the Saxon a, (to,) is given by Johnson with an acute, even where no other a is found. Hence, in their ignorance, thousands of vulgar readers, and among them the authors of sundry grammars, have constantly mistaken this preposition for an article. Examples: "Some adverbs are composed of the article a prefixed to nouns; as a-side, a-thirst, a-sleep, a-shore, a-ground, &c."—Comly's Gram., p67. "Repeat some [adverbs] that are composed of the article a and nouns."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 89. "To go a fishing;" "To go a hunting;" i.e. "to go on a fishing voyage or business;" "to go on a hunting party."—Murray's Gram., p. 221; Fisk's, 147; Ingersoll's, 157; Smith's, 184; Bullions's, 129; Merchant's, 101; Weld's, 192, and others. That this interpretation is false and absurd, may be seen at once by any body who can read Latin; for, a hunting, a fishing, &c., are expressed by the supine in um: as, "Venatum ire."—Virg. Æn. I.e., "To go a hunting." "Abeo piscatum."—Beza. I.e. "I go a fishing."—John, xxi, 3. Every school-boy ought to know better than to call this a an article. A fishing is equivalent to the infinitive to fish. For the Greek of the foregoing text is [Greek: Hupágo hálieúein,] which is rendered by Montanus, "Vado piscari;" i.e., "I go to fish." One author ignorantly says, "The article a seems to have no particular meaning, and is hardly proper in such expressions as these. 'He went a-hunting,' She lies a-bed all day.'"—Wilcox's Gram., p. 59. No marvel that he could not find the meaning of an article in this a! With doltish and double inconsistency, Weld first calls this "The article a employed in the sense of a preposition," (E. Gram., p. 177,) and afterwards adopts Murray's interpretation as above cited! Some, too, have an absurd practice of joining this preposition to the participle; generally with the hyphen, but sometimes without: thus, "A-GOING, In motion; as, to set a mill agoing."—Webster's Dict. The doctor does not tell us what part of speech agoing is; but, certainly, "to set the mill to going," expresses just the same meaning, and is about as often heard. In the burial-service of the Common Prayer Book, we read, "They are even as asleep;" but, in the ninetieth Psalm, from which this is taken, we find the text thus: "They are as a sleep;" that is, as a dream that is fled. Now these are very different readings, and cannot both he right.

[138] Here the lexicographer forgets his false etymology of a before the participle, and writes the words separately, as the generality of authors always have done. A was used as a preposition long before the article a appeared in the language; and I doubt whether there is any truth at all in the common notions of its origin. Webster says, "In the words abed, ashore, &c., and before the participles acoming, agoing, ashooting, [he should have said, 'and before participles; as, a coming, a going, a shooting,'] a has been supposed a contraction of on or at. It may be so in some cases; but with the participles, it is sometimes a contraction of the Saxon prefix ge, and sometimes perhaps of the Celtic ag."—Improved Gram., p. 175. See Philos. Gram., p. 244. What admirable learning is this! A, forsooth, is a contraction of ge! And this is the doctor's reason for joining it to the participle!

[139] The following construction may he considered an archaism, or a form of expression that is now obsolete: "You have bestowed a many of kindnesses upon me."—Walker's English Particles, p. 278.

[140] "If I or we is set before a name, it [the name] is of the first person: as, I, N— N—, declare; we, N— and M— do promise."—Ward's Gram., p. 83. "Nouns which relate to the person or persons speaking, are said to be of the first person; as, I, William, speak to you."—Fowle's Common School Gram., Part ii, p. 22. The first person of nouns is admitted by Ainsworth, R. W. Bailey, Barnard, Brightland, J. H. Brown, Bullions, Butler, Cardell, Chandler, S. W. Clark, Cooper, Day, Emmons, Farnum, Felton, Fisk, John Flint, Fowle, Frazee, Gilbert, Goldsbury, R. G. Greene, S. S. Greene, Hall, Hallock, Hamlin, Hart, Hendrick, Hiley, Perley, Picket, Pinneo, Russell, Sanborn, Sanders, Smart, R. C. Smith, Spear, Weld, Wells, Wilcox, and others. It is denied, either expressly or virtually, by Alger, Bacon, Comly, Davis, Dilworth, Greenleaf, Guy, Hazen, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Kirkham, Latham, L. Murray, Maltby, Merchant, Miller, Nutting, Parkhurst, S. Putnam, Rev. T. Smith, and others. Among the grammarians who do not appear to have noticed the persons of nouns at all, are Alden, W. Allen, D. C. Allen, Ash, Bicknell, Bingham, Blair, Buchanan, Bucke, Burn, Burr, Churchill, Coar, Cobb, Dalton, Dearborn, Abel Flint, R. W. Green, Harrison, Johnson, Lennie, Lowth, Mennye, Mulligan, Priestley, Staniford, Ware, Webber, and Webster.

[141] Prof. S. S. Greene most absurdly and erroneously teaches, that, "When the speaker wishes to represent himself, he cannot use his name, but must use some other word, as, I; [and] when he wishes to represent the hearer, he must use thou or you."—Greene's Elements of E. Gram., 1853, p. xxxiv. The examples given above sufficiently show the falsity of all this.

[142] In shoe and shoes, canoe and canoes, the o is sounded slenderly, like oo; but in doe or does, foe or foes, and the rest of the fourteen nouns above, whether singular or plural, it retains the full sound of its own name, O. Whether the plural of two should be "twoes" as Churchill writes it, or "twos," which is more common, is questionable. According to Dr. Ash and the Spectator, the plural of who, taken substantively, is "whos."—Ash's Gram., p. 131.

[143] There are some singular compounds of the plural word pence, which form their own plurals regularly; as, sixpence, sixpences. "If you do not all show like gilt twopences to me."—SHAKSPEARE. "The sweepstakes of which are to be composed of the disputed difference in the value of two doubtful sixpences."—GOODELL'S LECT.: Liberator. Vol. ix, p. 145.

[144] In the third canto of Lord Byron's Prophecy of Dante, this noun is used in the singular number:—

   "And ocean written o'er would not afford
    Space for the annal, yet it shall go forth."

[145] "They never yet had separated for their daylight beds, without a climax to their orgy, something like the present scene."—The Crock of Gold, p. 13. "And straps never called upon to diminish that long whity-brown interval between shoe and trowser."—Ib., p. 24. "And he gave them victual in abundance."—2 Chron., xi, 23. "Store of victual."—Ib., verse 11.

[146] The noun physic properly signifies medicine, or the science of medicine: in which sense, it seems to have no plural. But Crombie and the others cite one or two instances in which physic and metaphysic are used, not very accurately, in the sense of the singular of physics and metaphysics. Several grammarians also quote some examples in which physics, metaphysics, politics, optics, and other similar names of sciences are used with verbs or pronouns of the singular number; but Dr. Crombie justly says the plural construction of such words, "is more common, and more agreeable to analogy."—On Etym. and Syntax, p. 27.

[147] "Benjamin Franklin, following the occupation of a compositor in a printing-office, at a limited weekly wage," &c.—Chambers' Edinburgh Journal, No. 232. "WAGE, Wages, hire. The singular number is still frequently used, though Dr. Johnson thought it obsolete."—Glossary of Craven. 1828.

[148] Our lexicographers generally treat the word firearms as a close compound that has no singular. But some write it with a hyphen, as fire-arms. In fact the singular is sometimes used, but the way of writing it is unsettled. Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, defines a carbine as, "a small sort of fire arm;" Webster has it, "a short gun, or fire arm;" Worcester, "a small fire-arm;" Cobb, "a sort of small firearms." Webster uses "fire-arm," in defining "stock."

[149] "But, soon afterwards, he made a glorious amend for his fault, at the battle of Platæa."—Hist. Reader, p. 48.

[150] "There not a dreg of guilt defiles."—Watts's Lyrics, p. 27.

[151] In Young's Night Thoughts, (N. vii, l. 475.) lee, the singular of lees, is found; Churchill says, (Gram., p. 211,) "Prior has used lee, as the singular of lees;" Webster and Bolles have also both forms in their dictionaries:—

   "Refine, exalt, throw down their poisonous lee,
    And make them sparkle in the bowl of bliss."—Young.

[152] "The 'Procrustean bed' has been a myth heretofore; it promises soon to be a shamble and a slaughterhouse in reality."—St. Louis Democrat, 1855.

[153] J. W. Wright remarks, "Some nouns admit of no plural distinctions: as, wine, wood, beer, sugar, tea, timber, fruit, meat, goodness, happiness, and perhaps all nouns ending in ness."—Philos. Gram., p. 139. If this learned author had been brought up in the woods, and had never read of Murray's "richer wines," or heard of Solomon's "dainty meats,"—never chaffered in the market about sugars and teas, or read in Isaiah that "all our righteousnesses are as filthy rags," or avowed, like Timothy, "a good profession before many witnesses,"—he might still have hewed the timbers of some rude cabin, and partaken of the wild fruits which nature affords. If these nine plurals are right, his assertion is nine times wrong, or misapplied by himself seven times in the ten.

[154] "I will not suppose it possible for my dear James to fall into either the company or the language of those persons who talk, and even write, about barleys, wheats, clovers, flours, grasses, and malts."— Cobbett's E. Gram., p. 29.

[155] "It is a general rule, that all names of things measured or weighed, have no plural; for in them not number, but quantity, is regarded: as, wool, wine, oil. When we speak, however, of different kinds, we use the plural: as, the coarser wools, the richer wines, the finer oils."—Murray's Gram., p. 41.

[156] So pains is the regular plural of pain, and, by Johnson, Webster, and other lexicographers, is recognized only as plural; but Worcester inserts it among his stock words, with a comment, thus: "Pains, n. Labor; work; toil; care; trouble. [Fist] According to the best usage, the word pains, though of plural form, is used in these senses as singular, and is joined with a singular verb; as, 'The pains they had taken was very great.' Clarendon. 'No pains is taken.' Pope. 'Great pains is taken.' Priestley. 'Much pains.' Bolingbroke."—Univ. and Crit. Dict. The multiplication of anomalies of this kind is so undesirable, that nothing short of a very clear decision of Custom, against the use of the regular concord, can well justify the exception. Many such examples may be cited, but are they not examples of false syntax? I incline to think "the best usage" would still make all these verbs plural. Dr. Johnson cites the first example thus: "The pains they had taken were very great. Clarendon."—Quarto Dict., w. Pain. And the following recent example is unquestionably right: "Pains have been taken to collect the information required."—President Fillmore's Message, 1852.

[157] "And the fish that is in the river shall die."—Exod., vii, 18. "And the fish that was in the river died."—Ib., 21. Here the construction is altogether in the singular, and yet the meaning seems to be plural. This construction appears to be more objectionable, than the use of the word fish with a plural verb. The French Bible here corresponds with ours: but the Latin Vulgate, and the Greek Septuagint, have both the noun and the verb in the plural: as, "The fishes that are in the river,"—"The fishes that were," &c. In our Bible, fowl, as well fish, is sometimes plural; and yet both words, in some passages, have the plural form: as, "And fowl that may fly," &c.—Gen., i, 20. "I will consume the fowls of the heaven, and the fishes of the sea."—Zeph., i, 3.

[158] Some authors, when they give to mere words the construction of plural nouns, are in the habit of writing them in the form of possessives singular; as, "They have of late, 'tis true, reformed, in some measure, the gouty joints and darning work of whereunto's, whereby's, thereof's, therewith's, and the rest of this kind."—Shaftesbury. "Here," says Dr. Crombie, "the genitive singular is improperly used for the objective case plural. It should be, whereuntos, wherebys, thereofs, therewiths."— Treatise on Etym. and Synt., p. 338. According to our rules, these words should rather be, whereuntoes, wherebies, thereofs, therewiths. "Any word, when used as the name of itself, becomes a noun."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 26. But some grammarians say, "The plural of words, considered as words merely, is formed by the apostrophe and s; as, 'Who, that has any taste, can endure the incessant, quick returns of the also's, and the likewise's, and the moreover's, and the however's, and the notwithstanding's?'—CAMPBELL."—Wells's School Gram., p. 54. Practice is not altogether in favour of this principle, and perhaps it would be better to decide with Crombie that such a use of the apostrophe is improper.

[159] "The Supreme Being (God, [Greek: Theos], Deus, Dieu, &c.) is, in all languages, masculine; in as much as the masculine sex is the superior and more excellent; and as He is the Creator of all, the Father of gods and men."—Harris's Hermes, p. 54. This remark applies to all the direct names of the Deity, but the abstract idea of Deity itself, [Greek: To Theion], Numen, Godhead, or Divinity, is not masculine, but neuter. On this point, some notions have been published for grammar, that are too heterodox to be cited or criticised here. See O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 208.

[160] That is, we give them sex, if we mean to represent them as persons. In the following example, a character commonly esteemed feminine is represented as neuter, because the author would seem to doubt both the sex and the personality: "I don't know what a witch is, or what it was then."—N. P. Rogers's Writings, p. 154.

[161] There is the same reason for doubling the t in cittess, as for doubling the d in goddess. See Rule 3d for Spelling. Yet Johnson, Todd, Webster, Bolles, Worcester, and others, spell it citess, with one t.

"Cits and citesses raise a joyful strain."—DRYDEN: Joh. Dict.

[162] "But in the English we have no Genders, as has been seen in the foregoing Notes. The same may be said of Cases."—Brightland's Gram., Seventh Edition, Lond., 1746, p. 85.

[163] The Rev. David Blair so palpably contradicts himself in respect to this matter, that I know not which he favours most, two cases or three. In his main text, he adopts no objective, but says: "According to the sense or relation in which nouns are used, they are in the NOMINATIVE or [the] POSSESSIVE CASE, thus, nom. man; poss. man's." To this he adds the following marginal note: "In the English language, the distinction of the objective case is observable only in the pronouns. Cases being nothing but inflections, where inflections do not exist, there can be no grammatical distinction of cases, for the terms inflection and case are perfectly synonymous and convertible. As the English noun has only one change of termination, so no other case is here adopted. The objective case is noticed in the pronouns; and in parsing nouns it is easy to distinguish subjects from objects. A noun which governs the verb may be described as in the nominative case, and one governed by the verb, or following a preposition, as in the objective case."—Blair's Practical Gram., Seventh Edition, London, 1815, p. 11. The terms inflection and case are not practically synonymous, and never were so in the grammars of the language from which they are derived. The man who rejects the objective case of English nouns, because it has not a form peculiar to itself alone, must reject the accusative and the vocative of all neuter nouns in Latin, for the same reason; and the ablative, too, must in general be discarded on the same principle. In some other parts of his book, Blair speaks of the objective case of nouns as familiarly as do other authors!

[164] This author says, "We choose to use the term subjective rather than nominative, because it is shorter, and because it conveys its meaning by its sound, whereas the latter word means, indeed, little or nothing in itself."—Text-Book, p. 88. This appears to me a foolish innovation, too much in the spirit of Oliver B. Peirce, who also adopts it. The person who knows not the meaning of the word nominative, will not be very likely to find out what is meant by subjective; especially as some learned grammarians, even such men as Dr. Crombie and Professor Bullions, often erroneously call the word which is governed by the verb its subject. Besides, if we say subjective and objective, in stead of nominative and objective, we shall inevitably change the accent of both, and give them a pronunciation hitherto unknown to the words.—G. BROWN.

[165] The authorities cited by Felch, for his doctrine of "possessive adnouns," amount to nothing. They are ostensibly two. The first is a remark of Dr. Adam's: "'John's book was formerly written Johnis book. Some have thought the 's a contraction of his, but improperly. Others have imagined, with more justness, that, by the addition of the 's, the substantive is changed into a possessive adjective.'—Adam's Latin and English Grammar, p. 7."—Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 26. Here Dr. Adam by no means concurs with what these "others have imagined;" for, in the very same place, he declares the possessive case of nouns to be their only case. The second is a dogmatical and inconsistent remark of some anonymous writer in some part of the "American Journal of Education," a work respectable indeed, but, on the subject of grammar, too often fantastical and heterodox. Felch thinks it not improper, to use the possessive case before participles; in which situation, it denotes, not the owner of something, but the agent, subject, or recipient, of the action, being, or change. And what a jumble does he make, where he attempts to resolve this ungrammatical construction!—telling us, in almost the same breath, that, "The agent of a nounal verb [i. e. participle] is never expressed," but that, "Sometimes it [the nounal or gerundial verb] is qualified, in its nounal capacity, by a possessive adnoun indicative of its agent as a verb; as, there is nothing like one's BEING useful he doubted their HAVING it:" and then concluding, "Hence it appears, that the present participle may be used as agent or object, and yet retain its character as a verb."—Felch's Comprehensive Gram., p. 81. Alas for the schools, if the wise men of the East receive for grammar such utter confusion, and palpable self-contradiction, as this!

[166] A critic's accuracy is sometimes liable to be brought into doubt, by subsequent alterations of the texts which, he quotes. Many an error cited in this volume of criticism, may possibly not be found in some future edition of the book referred to; as several of those which were pointed out by Lowth, have disappeared from the places named for them. Churchill also cites this line as above; (New Gram., p. 214;) but, in my edition of the Odyssey, by Pope, the reading is this: "By lov'd Telemachus's blooming years!"—Book xi, L 84.

[167] Corpse forms the plural regularly, corpses; as in 2 Kings, xix, 35: "In the morning, behold, they were all dead corpses."

[168] Murray says, "An adjective put without a substantive, with the definite article before it, becomes a substantive in sense and meaning, and is written as a substantive: as, 'Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad.'" If I understand this, it is very erroneous, and plainly contrary to the fact. I suppose the author to speak of good persons and bad persons; and, if he does, is there not an ellipsis in his language? How can it be said, that good and bad are here substantives, since they have a plural meaning and refuse the plural form? A word "written as a substantive," unquestionably is a substantive; but neither of these is here entitled to that name. Yet Smith, and other satellites of Murray, endorse his doctrine; and say, that good and bad in this example, and all adjectives similarly circumstanced, "may be considered nouns in parsing."—Smith's New Gram., p. 52. "An adjective with the definite article before it, becomes a noun, (of the third person, plural number,) and must be parsed as such."—R. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book, p. 55.

[169] Here the word English appears to be used substantively, not by reason of the article, but rather because it has no article; for, when the definite article is used before such a word taken in the singular number, it seems to show that the noun language is understood. And it is remarkable, that before the names or epithets by which we distinguish the languages, this article may, in many instances, be either used or not used, repeated or not repeated, without any apparent impropriety: as, "This is the case with the Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanish."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 38. Better, perhaps: "This is the case with the Hebrew, the French, the Italian, and the Spanish." But we may say: "This is the case with Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanish." In the first of these forms, there appears to be an ellipsis of the plural noun languages, at the end of the sentence; in the second, an ellipsis of the singular noun language, after each of the national epithets; in the last, no ellipsis, but rather a substantive use of the words in question.

[170] The Doctor may, for aught I know, have taken his notion of this "noun," from the language "of Dugald Dalgetty, boasting of his '5000 Irishes' in the prison of Argyle." See Letter of Wendell Phillips, in the Liberator, Vol. xi, p. 211.

[171] Lindley Murray, or some ignorant printer of his octavo Grammar, has omitted this s; and thereby spoiled the prosody, if not the sense, of the line:

"Of Sericana, where Chinese drive," &c. —Fourth American Ed., p. 345.

If there was a design to correct the error of Milton's word, something should have been inserted. The common phrase, "the Chinese," would give the sense, and the right number of syllables, but not the right accent. It would be sufficiently analogous with our mode of forming the words, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Scotchmen, Dutchmen, and Irishmen, and perhaps not unpoetical, to say:

   "Of Sericana, where Chinese-men drive,
    With sails and wind, their cany wagons light."

[172] The last six words are perhaps more frequently pronouns; and some writers will have well-nigh all the rest to be pronouns also. "In like manner, in the English, there have been rescued from the adjectives, and classed with the pronouns, any, aught, each, every, many, none, one, other, some, such, that, those, this, these; and by other writers, all, another, both, either, few, first, last, neither, and several."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 106. Had the author said wrested, in stead of "rescued," he would have taught a much better doctrine. These words are what Dr. Lowth correctly called "Pronominal Adjectives."—Lowth's Gram., p. 24. This class of adjectives includes most of the words which Murray, Lennie, Bullions, Kirkham, and others, so absurdly denominate "Adjective Pronouns." Their "Distributive Adjective Pronouns, each, every, either, neither;" their "Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns, this, that, these, those;" and their "Indefinite Adjective Pronouns, some, other, any, one, all, such, &c.," are every one of them here; for they all are Adjectives, and not Pronouns. And it is obvious, that the corresponding words in Latin, Greek, or French, are adjectives likewise, and are, for the most part, so called; so that, from General Grammar, or "the usages of other languages," arises an argument for ranking them as adjectives, rather than as pronouns. But the learned Dr. Bullions, after improperly assuming that every adjective must "express the quality of a noun," and thence arguing that no such definitives can rightly be called adjectives, most absurdly suggests, that "other languages," or "the usages of other languages," generally assign to these English words the place of substitutes! But so remarkable for self-contradiction, as well as other errors, is this gentleman's short note upon the classification of these words, that I shall present the whole of it for the reader's consideration.

"NOTE. The distributives, demonstratives, and indefinites, cannot strictly be called pronouns; since they never stand instead of nouns, but always agree with a noun expressed or understood: Neither can they be properly called adjectives, since they never express the quality of a noun. They are here classed with pronouns, in accordance with the usages of other languages, which generally assign them this place. All these, together with the possessives, in parsing, may with sufficient propriety be termed adjectives, being uniformly regarded as such in syntax."—Bullions's Principles of English Gram., p. 27. (See also his Appendix III, E. Gram., p. 199.)

What a sample of grammatical instruction is here! The pronominal adjectives "cannot properly be called adjectives," but "they may with sufficient propriety be termed adjectives!" And so may "the possessives," or the personal pronouns in the possessive case! "Here," i.e., in Etymology, they are all "classed with pronouns;" but, "in Syntax," they are "uniformly regarded as adjectives!" Precious MODEL for the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all on THE SAME PLAN!"

[173] Some, for somewhat, or in some degree, appears to me a vulgarism; as, "This pause is generally some longer than that of a period."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 271. The word what seems to have been used adverbially in several different senses; in none of which is it much to be commended: as, "Though I forbear, what am I eased?"—Job, xvi, 6. "What advantageth it me?"—1 Cor., xv, 32. Here what, means in what degree? how much? or wherein? "For what knowest thou, O wife, whether thou shalt save thy husband?"—1 Cor., vii, 16. Here how would have been better. "The enemy, having his country wasted, what by himself and what by the soldiers, findeth succour in no place."—Spenser. Here what means partly;—"wasted partly by himself and partly by the soldiers." This use of what was formerly very common, but is now, I think, obsolete. What before an adjective seems sometimes to denote with admiration the degree of the quality; and is called, by some, an adverb; as, "What partial judges are our love and hate!"—Dryden. But here I take what to be an adjective; as when we say, such partial judges, some partial judges, &c. "What need I be forward with Death, that calls not on me?"—Shakspeare. Here what seems to be improperly put in place of why.

[174] Dr. Blair, in his Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres, often uses the phrase "this much;" but it is, I think, more common to say "thus much," even when the term is used substantively.

[175] There seems to be no good reason for joining an and other: on the contrary, the phrase an other is always as properly two words, as the phrase the other, and more so. The latter, being long ago vulgarly contracted into t'other, probably gave rise to the apparent contraction another; which many people nowadays are ignorant enough to divide wrong, and mispronounce. See "a-no-ther" in Murray's Spelling-Book, p. 71; and "a-noth-er" in Emerson's, p. 76. An here excludes any other article; and both analogy and consistency require that the words be separated. Their union, like that of the words the and other, has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article: as, "Another such a man," for, "An other such man."—"Bind my hair up. An 'twas yesterday? No, nor the t'other day."—BEN JONSON: in Joh. Dict. "He can not tell when he should take the tone, and when the tother."—SIR T. MOORE: Tooke's D. P., Vol. 15, p. 448. That is—"when he should take the one and when the other." Besides, the word other is declined, like a noun, and has the plural others; but the compounding of another constrains our grammarians to say, that this word "has no plural." All these difficulties will be removed by writing an other as two words. The printers chiefly rule this matter. To them, therefore, I refer it; with directions, not to unite these words for me, except where it has been done in the manuscript, for the sake of exactness in quotation.—G. BROWN.

[176] This is a misapplication of the word between, which cannot have reference to more than two things or parties: the term should have been among.—G. BROWN.

[177] I suppose that, in a comparison of two, any of the degrees may be accurately employed. The common usage is, to construe the positive with as, the comparative with than, and the superlative with of. But here custom allows us also to use the comparative with of, after the manner of the superlative; as, "This is the better of the two." It was but an odd whim of some old pedant, to find in this a reason for declaring it ungrammatical to say "This is the best of the two." In one grammar, I find the former construction condemned, and the latter approved, thus: "This is the better book of the two. Not correct, because the comparative state of the adjective, (better,) can not correspond with the preposition, of. The definite article, the, is likewise improperly applied to the comparative state; the sentence should stand thus, This is the best book of the two."—Chandler's Gram., Ed. of 1821, p. 130; Ed. of 1847, p. 151.

[178] This example appears to have been borrowed from Campbell; who, however, teaches a different doctrine from Murray, and clearly sustains my position; "Both degrees are in such cases used indiscriminately. We say rightly, either 'This is the weaker of the two,' or—'the weakest of the two.'"—Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 202. How positively do some other men contradict this! "In comparing two persons or things, by means of an adjective, care must be taken, that the superlative state be not employed: We properly say, 'John is the taller of the two;' but we should not say, 'John is the tallest of the two.' The reason is plain: we compare but two persons, and must therefore use the comparative state."—Wright's Philosophical Gram., p. 143. Rev. Matt. Harrison, too, insists on it, that the superlative must "have reference to more than two," and censures Dr. Johnson for not observing the rule. See Harrison's English Language, p. 255.

[179] L. Murray copied this passage literally, (though anonymously,) as far as the colon; and of course his book teaches us to account "the termination ish, in some sort, a degree of comparison."—Octavo Gram., p. 47. But what is more absurd, than to think of accounting this, or any other suffix, "a degree of comparison?" The inaccuracy of the language is a sufficient proof of the haste with which Johnson adopted this notion, and of the blindness with which he has been followed. The passage is now found in most of our English grammars. Sanborn expresses the doctrine thus: "Adjectives terminating with ish, denote a degree of comparison less than the positive; as, saltish, whitish, blackish."—Analytical Gram., p. 87. But who does not know, that most adjectives of this ending are derived from nouns, and are compared only by adverbs, as childish, foolish, and so forth? Wilcox says, "Words ending in ish, generally express a slight degree; as, reddish, bookish."—Practical Gram., p. 17. But who will suppose that foolish denotes but a slight degree of folly, or bookish but a slight fondness for books? And, with such an interpretation, what must be the meaning of more bookish or most foolish?

[180] "'A rodde shall come furth of the stocke of Jesse.' Primer, Hen. VIII."—Craven Glossary.

[181] Midst is a contraction of the regular superlative middest, used by Spenser, but now obsolete. Midst, also, seems to be obsolete as an adjective, though still frequently used as a noun; as, "In the midst."—Webster. It is often a poetic contraction for the preposition amidst. In some cases it appears to be an adverb. In the following example it is equivalent to middlemost, and therefore an adjective: "Still greatest he the midst, Now dragon grown."—Paradise Lost, B. x, l. 528.

[182] What I here say, accords with the teaching of all our lexicographers and grammarians, except one dauntless critic, who has taken particular pains to put me, and some three or four others, on the defensive. This gentleman not only supposes less and fewer, least and fewest, to be sometimes equivalent in meaning, but actually exhibits them as being also etymologically of the same stock. Less and least, however, he refers to three different positives, and more and most, to four. And since, in once instance, he traces less and more, least and most, to the same primitive word, it follows of course, if he is right, that more is there equivalent to less and most is equivalent to least! The following is a copy of this remarkable "DECLENSION ON INDEFINITE SPECIFYING ADNAMES," and just one half of the table is wrong: "Some, more, most; Some, less, least; Little, less, least; Few, fewer or less, fewest or least; Several, more, most; Much, more, most; Many, more most."—Oliver B Peirce's Gram., p. 144.

[183] Murray himself had the same false notion concerning six of these adjectives, and perhaps all the rest; for his indefinite andsoforths may embrace just what the reader pleases to imagine. Let the following paragraph be compared with the observations and proofs which I shall offer: "Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative signification, do not properly admit of the superlative or [the] comparative form superadded: such as, 'Chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme,' &c.; which are sometimes improperly written, 'Chiefest, extremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most supreme,' &c. The following expressions are therefore improper. 'He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices;' 'The quarrel became so universal and national;' 'A method of attaining the rightest and greatest happiness.' The phrases, so perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &c., are incorrect; because they imply that one thing is less perfect, less extreme, &c. than another, which is not possible."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 167. For himself, a man may do as he pleases about comparing these adjectives; but whoever corrects others, on such principles as the foregoing, will have work enough on his hands. But the writer who seems to exceed all others, in error on this point, is Joseph W. Wright. In his "Philosophical Grammar," p. 51st, this author gives a list of seventy-two adjectives, which, he says, "admit of no variation of state;" i. e., are not compared. Among them are round, flat, wet, dry, clear, pure, odd, free, plain, fair, chaste, blind, and more than forty others, which are compared about as often as any words in the language. Dr. Blair is hypercritically censured by him, for saying "most excellent," "more false," "the chastest kind," "more perfect" "fuller, more full, fullest, most full, truest and most true;" Murray, for using "quite wrong;" and Cobbett, for the phrase, "perfect correctness." "Correctness," says the critic, "does not admit of degrees of perfection."—Ib., pp. 143 and 151. But what does such a thinker know about correctness? If this excellent quality cannot be perfect, surely nothing can. The words which Dr. Bullions thinks it "improper to compare," because he judges them to have "an absolute or superlative signification," are "true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, supreme, &c."—no body knows how many. See Principles of E. Gram., p. 19 and p. 115.

[184] The regular comparison of this word, (like, liker, likest,) seems to be obsolete, or nearly so. It is seldom met with, except in old books: yet we say, more like, or most like, less like, or least like. "To say the flock with whom he is, is likest to Christ."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 180. "Of Godlike pow'r? for likest Gods they seem'd."—Milton, P. L. B. vi, l. 301.

[185] This example, and several others that follow it, are no ordinary solecisms; they are downright Irish bulls, making actions or relations reciprocal, where reciprocity is utterly unimaginable. Two words can no more be "derived from each other," than two living creatures can have received their existence from each other. So, two things can never "succeed each other," except they alternate or move in a circle; and a greater number in train can "follow one an other" only in some imperfect sense, not at all reciprocal. In some instances, therefore, the best form of correction will be, to reject the reciprocal terms altogether—G. BROWN.

[186] This doctrine of punctuation, if not absolutely false in itself, is here very badly taught. When only two words, of any sort, occur in the same construction, they seldom require the comma; and never can they need more than one, whereas these grammarians, by their plural word "commas," suggest a constant demand for two or more.—G. BROWN.

[187] Some grammarians exclude the word it from the list of personal pronouns, because it does not convey the idea of that personality which consists in individual intelligence. On the other hand, they will have who to be a personal pronoun, because it is literally applied to persons only, or intelligent beings. But I judge them to be wrong in respect to both; and, had they given definitions of their several classes of pronouns, they might perhaps have found out that the word it is always personal, in a grammatical sense, and who, either relative or interrogative.

[188] "Whoso and whatso are found in old authors, but are now out of use."—Churchill's Gram., p. 76. These antiquated words are equivalent in import to whosoever and whatsoever. The former, whoso, being used many times in the Bible, and occasionally also by the poets, as by Cowper, Whittier, and others, can hardly be said to be obsolete; though Wells, like Churchill, pronounced it so, in his first edition.

[189] "'The man is prudent which speaks little.' This sentence is incorrect, because which is a pronoun of the neuter gender."—Murray's Exercises, p. 18. "Which is also a relative, but it is of [the] neuter gender. It is also interrogative."—Webster's Improved Gram., p. 26. For oversights like these, I cannot account. The relative which is of all the genders, as every body ought to know, who has ever heard of the horse which Alexander rode, of the ass which spoke to Balaam, or of any of the animals and things which Noah had with him in the ark.

[190] The word which also, when taken in its discriminative sense (i.e. to distinguish some persons or things from others) may have a construction of this sort; and, by ellipsis of the noun after it, it may likewise bear a resemblance to the double relative what: as, "I shall now give you two passages; and request you to point out which words are mono-syllables, which dis-syllables, which tris-syllables, and which poly-syllables."—Bucke's Gram., p. 16. Here, indeed, the word what might be substituted for which; because that also has a discriminative sense. Either would be right; but the author might have presented the same words and thoughts rather more accurately, thus: "I shall now give you two passages; and request you to point out which words are monosyllables; which, dissyllables; which, trissyllables; and which, polysyllables."

[191] The relative what, being equivalent to that which, sometimes has the demonstrative word that set after it, by way of pleonasm; as, "What I tell you in darkness, that speak ye in light, and what ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house-tops."—Matt., x, 27. In Covell's Digest, this text is presented as "false syntax," under the new and needless rule, "Double relatives always supply two cases."—Digest of E. Gram., p. 143. In my opinion, to strike out the word that, would greatly weaken the expression: and so thought our translators; for no equivalent term is used in the original.

[192] As for Butler's method of parsing these words by always recognizing a noun as being "UNDERSTOOD" before them,—a method by which, according to his publishers notice, "The ordinary unphilosophical explanation of this class of words is discarded, and a simple, intelligible, common-sense view of the matter now for the first time substituted,"—I know not what novelty there is in it, that is not also just so much error. "Compare," says he, "these two sentences: 'I saw whom I wanted to see;' 'I saw what I wanted to see. If what in the latter is equivalent to that which or the thing which, whom, in the former is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 51. The former example being simply elliptical of the antecedent, he judges the latter to be so too; and infers, "that what is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and includes nothing else."—Ib. This conclusion is not well drawn, because the two examples are not analogous; and whoever thus finds "that what is nothing more than a relative," ought also to find it is something less,—a mere adjective. "I saw the person whom I wanted to see," is a sentence that can scarcely spare the antecedent and retain the sense; "I saw what I wanted to see," is one which cannot receive an antecedent, without changing both the sense and the construction. One may say, "I saw what things I wanted to see;" but this, in stead of giving what an antecedent, makes it an adjective, while it retains the force of a relative. Or he may insert a noun before what, agreeably to the solution of Butler; as, "I saw the things, what I wanted to see:" or, if he please, both before and after; as, "I saw the things, what things I wanted to see." But still, in either case, what is no "simple relative;" for it here seems equivalent to the phrase, so many as. Or, again, he may omit the comma, and say, "I saw the thing what I wanted to see;" but this, if it be not a vulgarism, will only mean, "I saw the thing to be what I wanted to see." So that this method of parsing the pronoun what, is manifestly no improvement, but rather a perversion and misinterpretation.

But, for further proof of his position, Butler adduces instances of what he calls "the relative THAT with the antecedent omitted. A few examples of this," he says, "will help us to ascertain the nature of what. 'We speak that we do know,' Bible. [John, iii, 11.] 'I am that I am.' Bible. [Exod., iii, 14.] 'Eschewe that wicked is.' Gower. 'Is it possible he should know what he is, and be that he is?' Shakespeare. 'Gather the sequel by that went before.' Id. In these examples," continues he, "that is a relative; and is exactly synonymous with what. No one would contend that that stands for itself and its antecedent at the same time. The antecedent is omitted, because it is indefinite, OR EASILY SUPPLIED."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 52; Bullions's Analytical and Practical Gram., p. 233. Converted at his wisest age, by these false arguments, so as to renounce and gainsay the doctrine taught almost universally, and hitherto spread industriously by himself, in the words of Lennie, that, "What is a compound relative, including both the relative and the antecedent," Dr. Bullions now most absurdly urges, that, "The truth is, what is a simple relative, having, wherever used, like all other relatives, BUT ONE CASE; but * * * that it always refers to a general antecedent, omitted, BUT EASILY SUPPLIED by the mind," though "not UNDERSTOOD, in the ordinary sense of that expression."—Analyt. and Pract. Gram. of 1849, p. 51. Accordingly, though he differs from Butler about this matter of "the ordinary sense," he cites the foregoing suggestions of this author, with the following compliment: "These remarks appear to me just, and conclusive on this point."—Ib., p. 233. But there must, I think, be many to whon they will appear far otherwise. These elliptical uses of that are all of them bad or questionable English; because, the ellipsis being such as may be supplied in two or three different ways, the true construction is doubtful, the true meaning not exactly determined by the words. It is quite as easy and natural to take "that" to be here a demonstrative term, having the relative which understood after it, as to suppose it "a relative," with an antecedent to be supplied before it. Since there would not be the same uncertainty, if what were in these cases substituted for that, it is evident that the terms are not "exactly synonymous;" but, even if they were so, exact synonymy would not evince a sameness of construction.

[193] See this erroneous doctrine in Kirkham's Grammar, p. 112; in Wells's, p. 74; in Sanborn's, p. 71, p. 96, and p. 177; in Cooper's, p. 38; in O. B. Peirce's, p. 70. These writers show a great fondness for this complex mode of parsing. But, in fact, no pronoun, not even the word what, has any double construction of cases from a real or absolute necessity; but merely because, the noun being suppressed, yet having a representative, we choose rather to understand and parse its representative doubly, than to supply the ellipsis. No pronoun includes "both the antecedent and the relative," by virtue of its own composition, or of its own derivation, as a word. No pronoun can properly be called "compound" merely because it has a double construction, and is equivalent to two other words. These positions, if true, as I am sure they are, will refute sundry assertions that are contained in the above-named grammars.

[194] Here the demonstrative word that, as well as the phrase that matter, which I form to explain its construction, unquestionably refers back to Judas's confession, that he had sinned; but still, as the word has not the connecting power of a relative pronoun, its true character is that of an adjective, and not that of a pronoun. This pronominal adjective is very often mixed with some such ellipsis, and that to repeat the import of various kinds of words and phrases: as, "God shall help her, and that right early."—Psal., xlvi, 5. "Nay, ye do wrong, and defraud, and that your brethren."—l Cor., vi, 8. "I'll know your business, that I will."—Shakespeare.

[195] Dr. Bullions has undertaken to prove, "That the word AS should not be considered a relative in any circumstances." The force of his five great arguments to this end, the reader may well conceive of, when he has compared the following one with what is shown in the 22d and 23d observations above: "3. As can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. If, then, it is a relative pronoun, it is, to say the least, a very unaccommodating one."—Bullions's Analytical and Practical Gram. of 1849, p. 233.

[196] The latter part of this awkward and complex rule was copied from Lowth's Grammar, p. 101. Dr. Ash's rule is, "Pronouns must always agree with the nouns for which they stand, or to which they refer, in Number, person, and gender."—Grammatical Institutes, p. 54. I quote this exactly as it stands in the book: the Italics are his, not mine. Roswell C. Smith appears to be ignorant of the change which Murray made in his fifth rule: for he still publishes as Murray's a principle of concord which the latter rejected as early as 1806: "RULE V. Corresponding with Murray's Grammar, RULE V. Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, AND PERSON."—Smith's New Gram., p. 130. So Allen Fisk, in his "Murray's English Grammar Simplified," p. 111; Aaron M. Merchant, in his "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar, Revised, Enlarged and Improved," p. 79; and the Rev. J. G. Cooper, in his "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar," p. 113; where, from the titles, every reader would expect to find the latest doctrines of Murray, and not what he had so long ago renounced or changed.

[197] L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 51; 12mo, 51; 18mo, 22; D. Adams's, 37;
Alger's, 21; Bacon's, 19; Fisk's, 20; Kirkham's, 17; Merchant's Murray, 35;
Merchant's American Gram., 40; F. H. Miller's Gram., 26; Pond's, 28; S.
Putnam's, 22; Russell's, 16; Rev. T. Smith's, 22.

[198] Dr. Crombie, and some others, represent I and thou, with their inflections, as being "masculine and feminine." Lennie, M'Culloch, and others, represent them as being "masculine or feminine." But, if either of them can have an antecedent that is neuter, neither of these views is strictly correct. (See Obs. 5th, above.) Mackintosh says, "We use our, your, their, in speaking of a thing or things belonging to plural nouns of any gender."—Essay on English Gram., p. 149. So William Barnes says, "I, thou, we, ye or you, and they, are of all genders,"— Philosophical Gram., p. 196.

[199] "It is perfectly plain, then, that my and mine are but different forms of the same word, as are a and an. Mine, for the sake of euphony, or from custom, stands for the possessive case without a noun; but must be changed for my when the noun is expressed: and my, for a similar reason, stands before a noun, but must be changed for mine when the noun is dropped. * * * Mine and my, thine and thy, will, therefore, be considered in this book, as different forms of the possessive case from I and Thou. And the same rule will be extended to her and hers, our and ours, your and yours, their and theirs."—Barnard's Analytic Grammar, p. 142.

[200] It has long been fashionable, in the ordinary intercourse of the world, to substitute the plural form of this pronoun for the singular through all the cases. Thus, by the figure ENALLAGE, "you are," for instance, is commonly put for "thou art." See Observations 20th and 21st, below; also Figures of Syntax, in Part IV.

[201] The original nominative was ye, which is still the only nominative of the solemn style; and the original objective was you, which is still the only objective that our grammarians in general acknowledge. But, whether grammatical or not, ye is now very often used, in a familiar way, for the objective case. (See Observations 22d and 23d, upon the declensions of pronouns.) T. Dilworth gave both cases alike: "Nom. Ye or you;" "Acc. [or Obj.] Ye or you."—His New Guide, p. 98. Latham gives these forms: "Nom. ye or you; Obj. you or ye."—Elementary Gram., p. 90. Dr. Campbell says, "I am inclined to prefer that use which makes ye invariably the nominative plural of the personal pronoun thou, and you the accusative, when applied to an actual plurality."—Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 174. Professor Fowler touches the case, rather blindly, thus: "Instead of the true nominative YE, we use, with few exceptions, the objective case; as, 'YOU speak;' 'YOU two are speaking.' In this we substitute one case for another."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §478. No other grammarian, however, discards you as a nominative of "actual plurality;" and the present casual practice of putting ye in the objective, has prevailed to some extent for at least two centuries: as,

   "Your change approaches, when all these delights
    Will vanish and deliver ye to woe."
        —Milton, P. L., B. iv, l. 367.

[202] Dr. Young has, in one instance, and with very doubtful propriety, converted this pronoun into the second person, by addressing himself thus:—

   "O thou, myself I abroad our counsels roam
    And, like ill husbands, take no care at home."
        —Love of Fame, Sat. II, l. 271.

[203] The fashion of using the plural number for the singular, or you for thou, has also substituted yourself for thyself, in common discourse. In poetry, in prayer, in Scripture, and in the familiar language of the Friends, the original compound is still retained; but the poets use either term, according to the gravity or the lightness of their style. But yourself, like the regal compound ourself, though apparently of the singular number, and always applied to one person only, is, in its very nature, an anomalous and ungrammatical word; for it can neither mean more than one, nor agree with a pronoun or a verb that is singular. Swift indeed wrote: "Conversation is but carving; carve for all, yourself is starving." But he wrote erroneously, and his meaning is doubtful: probably he meant, "To carve for all, is, to starve yourself." The compound personals, when they are nominatives before the verb, are commonly associated with the simple; as, "I myself also am a man."—Acts, x, 16. "That thou thyself art a guide."—Rom., ii, 19. "If it stand, as you yourself still do"—Shakspeare. "That you yourself are much condemned."—Id. And, if the simple pronoun be omitted, the compound still requires the same form of the verb; as, "Which way I fly is Hell; myself am Hell."—Milton. The following example is different: "I love mankind; and in a monarchy myself is all that I can love."—Life of Schiller, Follen's Pref., p. x. Dr. Follen objects to the British version, "Myself were all that I could love;" and, if his own is good English, the verb is agrees with all, and not with myself. Is is of the third person: hence, "myself is" or, "yourself is," cannot be good syntax; nor does any one say, "yourself art," or, "ourself am," but rather, "yourself are:" as, "Captain, yourself are the fittest."—Dryden. But to call this a "concord," is to turn a third part of the language upsidedown; because, by analogy, it confounds, to such extent at least, the plural number with the singular through all our verbs; that is, if ourself and yourself are singulars, and not rather plurals put for singulars by a figure of syntax. But the words are, in some few instances, written separately; and then both the meaning and the construction are different; as, "Your self is sacred, profane it not."—The Dial, Vol. i, p. 86. Perhaps the word myself above ought rather to have been two words; thus, "And, in a monarchy, my self is all that I can love." The two words here differ in person and case, perhaps also in gender; and, in the preceding instance, they differ in person, number, gender, and case. But the compound always follows the person, number, and gender of its first part, and only the case of its last. The notion of some grammarians, (to wit, of Wells, and the sixty-eight others whom he cites for it,) that you and your are actually made singular by usage, is demonstrably untrue. Do we, our, and us, become actually singular, as often as a king or a critic applies them to himself? No: for nothing can be worse syntax than, we am, we was, or you was, though some contend for this last construction.

[204] Whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which; as, "A religion whose origin is divine."—Blair. See Observations 4th and 5th, on the Classes of Pronouns.

[205] After but, as in the following sentence, the double relative what is sometimes applied to persons; and it is here equivalent to the friend who:—

   "Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find
    A friend, but what has found a friend in thee."—Young.

[206] Of all these compounds. L. Murray very improperly says, "They are seldom used, in modern style."—Octavo Gram., p. 54; also Fisk's, p. 65. None of them are yet obsolete, though the shorter forms seem to be now generally preferred. The following suggestion of Cobbett's is erroneous; because it implies that the shorter forms are innovations and faults; and because the author carelessly speaks of them as one thing only: "We sometimes omit the so, and say, whoever, whomever, whatever, and even whosever. It is a mere abbreviation. The so is understood: and, it is best not to omit to write it."—Eng. Gram., ¶ 209. R. C. Smith dismisses the compound relatives with three lines; and these he closes with the following notion: "They are not often used!"—New Gram., p. 61.

[207] Sanborn, with strange ignorance of the history of those words, teaches thus: "Mine and thine appear to have been formed from my and thy by changing y into i and adding n, and then subjoining e to retain the long sound of the vowel."—Analytical Gram., p. 92. This false notion, as we learn from his guillemets and a remark in his preface, he borrowed from "Parkhurst's Systematic Introduction." Dr. Lowth says, "The Saxon Ic hath the possessive case Min; Thu, possessive Thin; He, possessive His: From which our possessive cases of the same pronouns are taken without alteration."—Lowth's Gram., p. 23.

[208] Latham, with a singularity quite remarkable, reverses this doctrine in respect to the two classes, and says, "My, thy, our, your, her, and their signify possession, because they are possessive cases. * * * Mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, theirs, signify possession for a different reason. They partake of the nature of adjectives, and in all the allied languages are declined as such."—Latham's Elementary E. Gram., p. 94. Weld, like Wells, with a few more whose doctrine will be criticised by-and-by, adopting here an other odd opinion, takes the former class only for forms of the possessive case; the latter he disposes of thus: "Ours, yours, theirs, hers, and generally mine and thine, are POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, used in either the nominative or objective case,"—Weld's Gram., Improved Ed., p. 68. Not only denying the possessives with ellipsis to be instances of the possessive case, but stupidly mistaking at once two dissimilar things for a third which is totally unlike to either,—i. e., assuming together for substitution both an ellipsis of one word and an equivalence to two—(as some others more learned have very strangely done—) he supposes all this class of pronouns to have forsaken every property of their legitimate roots,—their person, their number, their gender, their case,—and to have assumed other properties, such as belong to "the thing possessed!" In the example, "Your house is on the plain, ours is on the hill," he supposes ours to be of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case; and not, as it plainly is, of the first person, plural number, masculine gender, and possessive case. Such parsing should condemn forever any book that teaches it.

[209] This word should have been numerals, for two or three reasons. The author speaks of the numeral adjectives; and to say "the numbers must agree in number with their substantives," is tautological—G. Brown.

[210] Cardell assails the common doctrine of the grammarians on this point, with similar assertions, and still more earnestness. See his Essay on Language, p. 80. The notion that "these pretended possessives [are] uniformly used as nominatives or objectives"—though demonstrably absurd, and confessedly repugnant to what is "usually considered" to be their true explanation—was adopted by Jaudon, in 1812; and has recently found several new advocates; among whom are Davis, Felch, Goodenow, Hazen, Smart, Weld, and Wells. There is, however, much diversity, as well as much inaccuracy, in their several expositions of the matter. Smart inserts in his declensions, as the only forms of the possessive case, the words of which he afterwards speaks thus: "The following possessive cases of the personal pronouns, (See page vii,) must be called PERSONAL PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE: mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs. For these words are always used substantively, so as to include the meaning of some noun in the third person singular or plural, in the nominative or the objective ease. Thus, if we are speaking of books, and say [,] 'Mine are here,' mine means my books, [Fist] and it must be deemed a personal pronoun possessive in the third person plural, and nominative to the verb are."—Smart's Accidence, p. xxii. If to say, these "possessive cases must be called a class of pronouns, used substantively, and deemed nominatives or objectives," is not absurd, then nothing can be. Nor is any thing in grammar more certain, than that the pronoun "mine" can only be used by the speaker or writer, to denote himself or herself as the owner of something. It is therefore of the first person, singular number, masculine (or feminine) gender, and possessive case; being governed by the name of the thing or things possessed. This name is, of course, always known; and, if known and not expressed, it is "understood." For sometimes a word is repeated to the mind, and clearly understood, where "it cannot properly be" expressed; as, "And he came and sought fruit thereon, and found none."—Luke, xiii, 6. Wells opposes this doctrine, citing a passage from Webster, as above, and also imitating his argument. This author acknowledges three classes of pronouns—"personal, relative, and interrogative;" and then, excluding these words from their true place among personals of the possessive case, absurdly makes them a supernumerary class of possessive nominatives or objectives! "Mine, thine, his, ours, yours, and theirs, are POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, used in construction either as nominatives or objectives; as, 'Your pleasures are past, mine are to come.' Here the word mine, which is used as a substitute for my pleasures, is the subject of the verb are."—Wells's School Gram., p. 71; 113 Ed., p. 78. Now the question to find the subject of the verb are, is, "My what are to come?" Ans. "pleasures." But the author proceeds to argue in a note thus: "Mine, thine, etc. are often parsed as pronouns in the possessive case, and governed by nouns understood. Thus, in the sentence, 'This book is mine,' the word mine is said to possess book. That the word book is not here understood, is obvious from the fact, that, when it is supplied, the phrase becomes not 'mine book,' but 'my book,' the pronoun being changed from mine to my; so that we are made, by this practice, to parse mine as possessing a word understood, before which it cannot properly be used. The word mine is here evidently employed as a substitute for the two words, my and book."—Wells, ibid. This note appears to me to be, in many respects, faulty. In the first place, its whole design was, to disprove what is true. For, bating the mere difference of person, the author's example above is equal to this: "Your pleasures are past, W. H. Wells's are to come." The ellipsis of "pleasures", is evident in both. But ellipsis is not substitution; no, nor is equivalence. Mine, when it suggests an ellipsis of the governing noun, is equivalent to my and that noun; but certainly, not "a substitute for the two words." It is a substitute, or pronoun, for the name of the speaker or writer; and so is my; both forms representing, and always agreeing with, that name or person only. No possessive agrees with what governs it; but every pronoun ought to agree with that for which it stands. Secondly, if the note above cited does not aver, in its first sentence, that the pronouns in question are "governed by nouns understood," it comes much nearer to saying this, than a writer should who meant to deny it. In the third place, the example, "This book is mine," is not a good one for its purpose. The word "mine" may be regularly parsed as a possessive, without supposing any ellipsis; for "book," the name of the thing possessed, is given, and in obvious connexion with it. And further, the matter affirmed is ownership, requiring different cases; and not the identity of something under different names, which must be put in the same case. In the fourth place, to mistake regimen for possession, and thence speak of one word "as possessing" an other, a mode of expression occurring twice in the foregoing note, is not only unscholarlike, but positively absurd. But, possibly, the author may have meant by it, to ridicule the choice phraseology of the following Rule: "A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun it possesses."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 181; Frazee's, 1844, p. 25.

[211] In respect to the numbers, the following text is an uncouth exception: "Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir."—Micah, i, 11. The singular and the plural are here strangely confounded. Perhaps the reading should be, "Pass thou away, O inhabitant of Saphir." Nor is the Bible free from abrupt transitions from one number to the other, or from one person to an other, which are neither agreeable nor strictly grammatical; as, "Brethren, if a man be overtaken in a fault, ye which [who] are spiritual, restore such an [a] one in the spirit of meekness; considering thyself, lest thou also be tempted."—Gal., vi, 1. "Ye that put far away the evil day, and cause the seat of violence to come near; that lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon their couches," &c—Amos, vi, 9.

[212] "The solemn style is used, chiefly, in the Bible and in prayer. The Society of Friends retain it in common parlance. It consists in using thou in the singular number, and ye in the plural, instead of using you in both numbers as in the familiar style. * * * The third person singular [of verbs] ends with th or eth, which affects only the present indicative, and hath of the perfect. The second person, singular, ends with st, est, or t only."—Sanborn's Gram., p. 58. "In [the] solemn and poetic styles, mine, thine, and thy, are used; and THIS is the style adopted by the Friends' society. In common discourse it appears very stiff and affected."—Bartlett's C. S. Man'l, Part II, p. 72.

[213] "And of the History of his being tost in a Blanket, he saith, 'Here, Scriblerus, thou lessest in what thou assertest concerning the blanket: it was not a blanket, but a rug.—Curlliad, p. 25."—Notes to Pope's Dunciad, B. ii, verse 3. A vulgar idea solemnly expressed, is ludicrous. Uttered in familiar terms, it is simply vulgar: as, "You lie, Scriblerus, in what you say about the blanket."

[214] "Notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the Bible, for the size of it, is the most accurate grammatical composition that we have in the English language. The authority of several eminent grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion, but it may be sufficient to mention only that of Dr. Lowth, who says, 'The present translation of the Bible, is the best standard of the English language.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 166. I revere the Bible vastly too much to be pleased with an imitation of its peculiar style, in any man's ordinary speech or writing.—G. BROWN.

[215] "Ye, except in the solemn style, is obsolete; but it is used in the language of tragedy, to express contempt: as, 'When ye shall know what Margaret knows, ye may not be so thankful.' Franklin."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 57. "The second person plural had formerly YE both in the nominative and the objective. This form is now obsolete in the objective, and nearly obsolete in the nominative."—Hart's Gram., p. 55.

[216] So has Milton:—

   "To waste it all myself, and leave ye none!
    So disinherited how would you bless me!"—Par. Lost, B. x, l. 820.

[217] "The word what is a compound of two specifying adjectives, each, of course, referring to a noun, expressed or understood. It is equivalent to the which; that which; which that; or that that; used also in the plural. At different periods, and in different authors, it appears in the varying forms, tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat, and what. This word is found in other forms; but it is needless to multiply them."—Cardell's Essay on Language, p. 86.

[218] This author's distribution of the pronouns, of which I have taken some notice in Obs. 10th above, is remarkable for its inconsistencies and absurdities. First he avers, "Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the Personal, the Adjective, and the Relative pronouns. They are all known by the lists."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 96. These short sentences are far from being accurate, clear, or true. He should have made the several kinds known, by a good definition of each. But this was work to which he did not find himself adequate. And if we look to his lists for the particular words of each kind, we shall get little satisfaction. Of the Personal pronouns, he says, "There are five of them; I, thou, he, she, it."—Ib., p. 97. These are simple words, and in their declension they are properly multiplied to forty. (See Ib., p. 99.) Next he seems to double the number, thus: "When self is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, themselves, &c. they are called Compound Personal Pronouns."—Ib., p. 99. Then he asserts that mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are compounds of ne or s with mi, thi, hi, &c.: that their application invariably "gives them a compound character:" and that, "They may, therefore, be properly denominated Compound Personal Pronouns."—Ib., p. 101. Next he comes to his Adjective pronouns; and, after proving that he has grossly misplaced and misnamed every one of them, he gives his lists of the three kinds of these. His Relative pronouns are who, which, and that. "What is generally a compound relative."—Ib., p. 111. The compounds of who, which, and what, with ever or soever, he calls "compound pronouns, but not compound relatives."—Ib., pp. 110 and 112. Lastly he discovers, that, "Truth and simplicity" have been shamefully neglected in this his third section of pronouns; that, "Of the words called 'relatives,' who only is a pronoun, and this is strictly personal;" that, "It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns;" and that, "Which, that, and what, are always adjectives. They never stand for, but always belong to nouns, either expressed or implied."—Ib., p. 114. What admirable teachings are these!

[219] "It is now proper to give some examples of the manner in which the learners should be exercised, in order to improve their knowledge, and to render it familiar to them. This is called parsing. The nature of the subject, as well as the adaptation of it to learners, requires that it should be divided into two parts: viz. parsing, as it respects etymology alone; and parsing, as it respects both etymology and syntax."—Murray's Gram., Octavo, Vol. 1, p. 225. How very little real respect for the opinions of Murray, has been entertained by these self-seeking magnifiers and modifiers of his work!

What Murray calls "Syntactical Parsing" is sometimes called "Construing," especially by those who will have Parsing to be nothing more than an etymological exercise. A late author says, "The practice of Construing differs from that of parsing, in the extension of its objects. Parsing merely indicates the parts of speech and their accidents, but construing searches for and points out their syntactical relations."—D. Blair's Gram., p. 49.

Here the distinction which Murray judged to be necessary, is still more strongly marked and insisted on. And though I see no utility in restricting the word Parsing to a mere description of the parts of speech with their accidents, and no impropriety in calling the latter branch of the exercise "Syntactical Parsing;" I cannot but think there is such a necessity for the division, as forms a very grave argument against those tangled schemes of grammar which do not admit of it. Blair is grossly inconsistent with himself. For, after drawing his distinction between Parsing and Construing, as above, he takes no further notice of the latter; but, having filled up seven pages with his most wretched mode of "PARSING," adds, in an emphatic note: "The Teacher should direct the Pupil to CONSTRUE, IN THE SAME MANNER, any passage from MY CLASS-BOOK, or other Work, at the rate of three or four lines per day."—D. Blair's Gram., p. 56.

[220] This is a comment upon the following quotation from Milton, where Hers for His would be a gross barbarism:—

   "Should intermitted vengeance arm again
    His red right hand to plague us."—Par. Lost, B. ii, l. 174.

[221] The Imperfect Participle, when simple, or when taken as one of the four principal terms constituting the verb or springing from it, ends always in ing. But, in a subsequent chapter, I include under this name the first participle of the passive verb; and this, in our language, is always a compound, and the latter term of it does not end in ing: as, "In all languages, indeed, examples are to be found of adjectives being compared whose signification admits neither intension nor remission."—CROMBIE, on Etym. and Syntax, p. 106. According to most of our writers on English grammar, the Present or Imperfect Participle Passive is always a compound of being and the form of the perfect participle: as, being loved, being seen. But some represent it to have two forms, one of which is always simple; as, "PERFECT PASSIVE, obeyed or being obeyed."—Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 55. "Loved or being loved."—Parkhurst's Grammar for Beginners, p. 11; Greene's Analysis, p. 225. "Loved, or, being loved."—Clark's Practical Gram., p. 83. I here concur with the majority, who in no instance take the participle in ed or en, alone, for the Present or Imperfect.

[222] In the following example, "he" and "she" are converted into verbs; as "thou" sometimes is, in the writings of Shakspeare, and others: "Is it not an impulse of selfishness or of a depraved nature to he and she inanimate objects?"—Cutler's English Gram., p. 16. Dr. Bullions, who has heretofore published several of the worst definitions of the verb anywhere extant, has now perhaps one of the best: "A VERB is a word used to express the act, being, or state of its subject. "—Analyt. & Pract. Gram., p. 59. Yet it is not very obvious, that "he" and "she" are here verbs under this definition. Dr. Mandeville, perceiving that "the usual definitions of the verb are extremely defective," not long ago helped the schools to the following: "A verb is a word which describes the state or condition of a noun or pronoun in relation to time,"—Course of Reading, p. 24. Now it is plain, that under this definition too, Cutler's infinitives, "to he and she" cannot be verbs; and, in my opinion, very small is the number of words that can be. No verb "describes the state or condition of a noun or pronoun," except in some form of parsing; nor, even in this sort of exercise, do I find any verb "which describes the state or condition" of such a word "in relation to time." Hence, I can make of this definition nothing but nonsense. Against my definition of a verb, this author urges, that it "excludes neuter verbs, expresses no relation to subject or time, and uses terms in a vague or contradictory sense."—Ib., p. 25. The first and the last of these three allegations do not appear to be well founded; and the second, if infinitives are verbs, indicates an excellence rather than a fault. The definition assumes that the mind as well as the body may "act" or "be acted upon." For this cause, Dr. Mandeville, who cannot conceive that "to be loved" is in any wise "to be acted upon," pronounces it "fatally defective!" His argument is a little web of sophistry, not worth unweaving here. One of the best scholars cited in the reverend Doctor's book says, "Of mental powers we have no conception, but as certain capacities of intellectual action." And again, he asks, "Who can be conscious of judgment, memory, and reflection, and doubt that man was made to act!"—EVERETT: Course of Reading, p. 320.

[223] Dr. Johnson says, "English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I languish. The neuters are formed like the actives. The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the substantive verb, as I am loved." He also observes, "Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify condition or habit, and become neuters; as, I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now striking."—Gram. with his Quarto Dict., p. 7.

[224] The doctrine here referred to, appears in both works in the very same words: to wit, "English Verbs are either Active, Passive, or Neuter. There are two sorts of Active Verbs, viz. active-transitive and active-intransitive Verbs."—British Gram., p. 153; Buchanan's, 56. Buchanan was in this case the copyist.

[225] "The distinction between verbs absolutely neuter, as to sleep, and verbs active intransitive, as to walk, though founded in NATURE and TRUTH, is of little use in grammar. Indeed it would rather perplex than assist the learner; for the difference between verbs active and [verbs] neuter, as transitive and intransitive, is easy and obvious; but the difference between verbs absolutely neuter and [those which are] intransitively active is not always clear. But however these latter may differ in nature, the construction of them both is the same; and grammar is not so much concerned with their real, as with their grammatical properties."—Lowth's Gram; p. 30. But are not "TRUTH, NATURE, and REALITY," worthy to be preferred to any instructions that contradict them? If they are, the good doctor and his worthy copyist have here made an ill choice. It is not only for the sake of these properties, that I retain a distinction which these grammarians, and others above named, reject; but for the sake of avoiding the untruth, confusion, and absurdity, into which one must fall by calling all active-intransitive verbs neuter. The distinction of active verbs, as being either transitive or intransitive, is also necessarily retained. But the suggestion, that this distinction is more "easy and obvious" than the other, is altogether an error. The really neuter verbs, being very few, occasion little or no difficulty. But very many active verbs, perhaps a large majority, are sometimes used intransitively; and of those which our lexicographers record as being always transitive, not a few are occasionally found without any object, either expressed or clearly suggested: as, "He convinces, but he does not elevate nor animate,"—Blair's Rhet., p. 242. "The child imitates, and commits to memory; whilst the riper age digests, and thinks independently."—Dr. Lieber, Lit. Conv., p. 313. Of examples like these, three different views maybe taken; and it is very questionable which is the right one: First, that these verbs are here intransitive, though they are not commonly so; Second, that they are transitive, and have objects understood; Third, that they are used improperly, because no determinate objects are given them. If we assume the second opinion or the last, the full or the correct expressions may be these: "He convinces the judgement, but he does not elevate the imagination, or animate the feelings."—"The child imitates others, and commits words to memory; whilst the riper age digests facts or truths, and thinks independently." These verbs are here transitive, but are they so above? Those grammarians who, supposing no other distinction important, make of verbs but two classes, transitive and intransitive, are still as much at variance, and as much at fault, as others, (and often more so,) when they come to draw the line of this distinction. To "require" an objective, to "govern" an objective, to "admit" an objective, and to "have" an objective, are criterions considerably different. Then it is questionable, whether infinitives, participles, or sentences, must or can have the effect of objectives. One author says, "If a verb has any objective case expressed, it is transitive: if it has none, it is intransitive. Verbs which appear transitive in their nature, may frequently be used intransitively."— Chandler's Old Gram., p. 32; his Common School Gram., p. 48. An other says, "A transitive verb asserts action which does or can, terminate on some object."—Frazee's Gram., p. 29. An other avers, "There are two classes of verbs perfectly distinct from each other, viz: Those which do, and those which do not, govern an objective case." And his definition is, "A Transitive Verb is one which requires an objective case after it."—Hart's E. Gram., p. 63. Both Frazee and Hart reckon the passive verb transitive! And the latter teaches, that, "Transitive verbs in English, are sometimes used without an objective case; as, The apple tastes sweet!"—Hart's Gram., p, 73.

[226] In the hands of some gentlemen, "the Principles of Latin Grammar," and "the Principles of English Grammar,"—are equally pliable, or changeable; and, what is very remarkable, a comparison of different editions will show, that the fundamental doctrines of a whole "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek," may so change in a single lustrum, as to rest upon authorities altogether different. Dr. Bullions's grammars, a few years ago, like those of his great oracles, Adam, Murray, and Lennie, divided verbs into "three kinds, Active, Passive, and Neuter." Now they divide them into two only, "Transitive and Intransitive;" and absurdly aver, that "Verbs in the passive form are really transitive as in the active form."—Prin. of E. Gram., 1843, p. 200. Now, as if no verb could be plural, and no transitive act could be future, conditional, in progress, or left undone, they define thus: "A Transitive verb expresses an act done by one person or thing to another."—Ib., p. 29; Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 60; Latin Gram., 77. Now, the division which so lately as 1842 was pronounced by the Doctor to be "more useful than any other," and advantageously accordant with "most dictionaries of the English language," (see his Fourth Edition, p. 30,) is wholly rejected from this notable "Series." Now, the "vexed question" about "the classification of verbs," which, at some revision still later, drew from this author whole pages of weak arguments for his faulty changes, is complacently supposed to have been well settled in his favour! Of this matter, now, in 1849, he speaks thus: "The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive has been so generally adopted and approved by the best grammarians, that any discussion of the subject is now unnecessary."—Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 59.

[227] This late writer seems to have published his doctrine on this point as a novelty; and several teachers ignorantly received and admired it as such: I have briefly shown, in the Introduction to this work, how easily they were deceived. "By this, that Question may be resolv'd, whether every Verb not Passive governs always an Accusative, at least understood: 'Tis the Opinion of some very able GRAMMARIANS, but for our Parts we don't think it."—Grammar published by John Brightland, 7th Ed., London, 1746, p. 115.

[228] Upon this point, Richard Johnson cites and criticises Lily's system thus: "'A Verb Neuter endeth in o or m, and cannot take r to make him a Passive; as, Curro, I run; Sum, I am.'—Grammar, Eng. p. 13. This Definition, is founded upon the Notion abovementioned, viz. That none but Transitives are Verbs Active, which is contrary to the reason of Things, and the common sense of Mankind. And what can shock a Child more, of any Ingenuity, than to be told, That Ambuto and Curro are Verbs Neuter; that is, to speak according to the common Apprehensions of Mankind, that they signifie neither to do, nor suffer."—Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, 8vo, London, 1706, p. 273.

[229] Murray says, "Mood or Mode is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in which the being, action, or passion is represented."—Octavo Gram., p. 63. By many grammarians, the term Mode is preferred to Mood; but the latter is, for this use, the more distinctive, and by far the more common word. In some treatises on grammar, as well as in books of logic, certain parts of speech, as adjectives and adverbs, are called Modes, because they qualify or modify other terms. E.g., "Thus all the parts of speech are reducible to four; viz., Names, Verbs, Modes, Connectives."—Enclytica, or Universal Gram., p. 8. "Modes are naturally divided, by their attribution to names or verbs, into adnames and adverbs."—Ibid., p. 24. After making this application of the name modes, was it not improper for the learned author to call the moods also "modes?"

[230] "We have, in English, no genuine subjunctive mood, except the preterimperfect, if I were, if thou wert, &c. of the verb to be. [See Notes and Observations on the Third Example of Conjugation, in this chapter.] The phrase termed the subjunctive mood, is elliptical; shall, may, &c. being understood: as, 'Though hand (shall) join in hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished.' 'If it (may) be possible, live peaceably with all.' Scriptures."—Rev. W. Allen's Gram., p. 61. Such expressions as, "If thou do love, If he do love," appear to disprove this doctrine. [See Notes and Remarks on the Subjunctive of the First Example conjugated below.]

[231] "Mr. Murray has changed his opinion, as often as Laban changed Jacob's wages. In the edition we print from, we find shall and will used in each person of the first and second future tenses of the subjunctive, but he now states that in the second future tense, shalt, shall, should be used instead of wilt, will. Perhaps this is the only improvement he has made in his Grammar since 1796."—Rev. T. Smith's Edition of Lindley Murray's English Grammar, p. 67.

[232] Notwithstanding this expression, Murray did not teach, as do many modern grammarians, that inflected forms of the present tense, such as, "If he thinks so," "Unless he deceives me," "If thou lov'st me," are of the subjunctive mood; though, when he rejected his changeless forms of the other tenses of this mood, he improperly put as many indicatives in their places. With him, and his numerous followers, the ending determines the mood in one tense, while the conjunction controls it in the other five! In his syntax, he argues, "that in cases wherein contingency and futurity do not occur, it is not proper to turn the verb from its signification of present time, nor to vary [he means, or to forbear to change] its form or termination. [Fist] The verb would then be in the indicative mood, whatever conjunctions might attend it."—L. Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 208: 12mo, p. 167.

[233] Some grammarians—(among whom are Lowth, Dalton, Cobbett, and Cardell—) recognize only three tenses, or "times," of English verbs; namely, the present, the past, and the future. A few, like Latham and Child, denying all the compound tenses to be tenses, acknowledge only the first two, the present and the past; and these they will have to consist only of the simple or radical verb and the simple preterit. Some others, who acknowledge six tenses, such as are above described, have endeavoured of late to change the names of a majority of them; though with too little agreement among themselves, as may be seen by the following citations: (1.) "We have six tenses; three, the Present, Past, and Future, to represent time in a general way; and three, the Present Perfect, Past Perfect, and Future Perfect, to represent the precise time of finishing the action."—Perley's Gram., 1834, p. 25. (2.) "There are six tenses; the present, the past, the present-perfect, the past-perfect, the future, and the future-perfect."—Hiley's Gram., 1840, p. 28. (3.) "There are six tenses; the Present and Present Perfect, the Past and Past Perfect, and the Future and Future Perfect."—Farnum's Gram., 1842, p. 34. (4.) "The names of the tenses will then be, Present, Present Perfect; Past, Past Perfect; Future, Future Perfect. They are usually named as follows: Present, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Second Future."—N. Butler's Gram, 1845, p. 69. (5.) "We have six tenses;—the present, the past, the future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect."—Wells's School Gram., 1846. p. 82. (6.) "The tenses in English are six—the Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect."—Bullions's Gram., 1849. p. 71. (7.) "Verbs have Six Tenses, called the Present, the Perfect-Present, the Past, the Perfect-Past, the Future, and the Perfect-Future."—Spencer's Gram., 1852, p. 53. (8.) "There are six tenses: the present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect."—Covell's Gram., 1853, p. 62. (9.) "The tenses are—the present, the present perfect; the past, the past perfect; the future, the future perfect."—S. S. Greene's Gram., 1853, p. 65. (10.) "There are six tenses; one present, and but one, three past, and two future." They are named thus: "The Present, the First Past, the Second Past, the Third Past, the First Future, the Second Future."—"For the sake of symmetry, to call two of them present, and two only past, while one only is present, and three are past tenses, is to sacrifice truth to beauty."—Pinneo's Gram., 1853, pp. 69 and 70. "The old names, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect," which, in 1845, Butler justly admitted to be the usual names of the three past tenses. Dr. Pinneo, who dates his copy-right from 1850, most unwarrantably declares to be "now generally discarded!"—Analytical Gram., p. 76; Same Revised, p. 81. These terms, still predominant in use, he strangely supposes to have been suddenly superseded by others which are no better, if so good: imagining that the scheme which Perley or Hiley introduced, of "two present, two past, and two future tenses,"—a scheme which, he says, "has no foundation in truth, and is therefore to be rejected,"—had prepared the way for the above-cited innovation of his own, which merely presents the old ideas under new terms, or terms partly new, and wholly unlikely to prevail. William Ward, one of the ablest of our old grammarians, rejecting in 1765 the two terms imperfect and perfect, adopted others which resemble Pinneo's; but few, if any, have since named the tenses as he did, thus: "The Present, the First Preterite, the Second Preterite, the Pluperfect, the First Future, the Second Future."—Ward's Gram., p. 47.

[234] "The infinitive mood, as 'to shine,' may be called the name of the verb; it carries neither time nor affirmation; but simply expresses that attribute, action, or state of things, which is to be the subject of the other moods and tenses."—Blair's Lectures, p. 81. By the word "subject" the Doctor does not here mean the nominative to the other moods and tenses, but the material of them, or that which is formed into them.

[235] Some grammarians absurdly deny that persons and numbers are properties of verbs at all: not indeed because our verbs have so few inflections, or because these authors wish to discard the little distinction that remains; but because they have some fanciful conception, that these properties cannot pertain to a verb. Yet, when they come to their syntax, they all forget, that if a verb has no person and number, it cannot agree with a nominative in these respects. Thus KIRKHAM: "Person, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs not to verbs, but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree with its nominative in person, as well as in number."—Gram. in Familiar Lect., p. 46. So J. W. WRIGHT: "In truth, number and person are not properties of verbs. Mr. Murray grants that, 'in philosophical strictness, both number and person might (say, may) be excluded from every verb, as they are, in fact, the properties of substantives, not a part of the essence of the verb.'"—Philosophical Gram., p. 68. This author's rule of syntax for verbs, makes them agree with their nominatives, not in person and number, but in termination, or else in nobody knows what: "A verb must vary its terminations, so as to agree with the nominative to which it is connected."—Ib., p. 168. But Murray's rule is, "A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person:" and this doctrine is directly repugnant to that interpretation of his words above, by which these gentlemen have so egregiously misled themselves and others. Undoubtedly, both the numbers and the persons of all English verbs might be abolished, and the language would still be intelligible. But while any such distinctions remain, and the verb is actually modified to form them, they belong as properly to this part of speech as they can to any other. De Sacy says, "The distinction of number occurs in the verb;" and then adds, "yet this distinction does not properly belong to the verb, as it signifies nothing which can be numbered."—Fosdick's Version, p. 64. This deceptive reason is only a new form of the blunder which I have once exposed, of confounding the numbers in grammar with numbers in arithmetic. J. M. Putnam, after repeating what is above cited from Murray, adds: "The terms number and person, as applied to the verb are figurative. The properties which belong to one thing, for convenience' sake are ascribed to another."—Gram., p. 49. Kirkham imagines, if ten men build a house, or navigate a ship round the world, they perform just "ten actions," and no more. "Common sense teaches you," says he, "that there must be as many actions as there are actors; and that the verb when it has no form or ending to show it, is as strictly plural, as when it has. So, in the phrase, 'We walk,' the verb walk is [of the] first person, because it expresses the actions performed by the speakers. The verb, then, when correctly written, always agrees, in sense, with its nominative in number and person."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 47. It seems to me, that these authors do not very well know what persons or numbers, in grammar, are.

[236] John Despauter, whose ample Grammar of the Latin language appeared in its third edition in 1517, represents this practice as a corruption originating in false pride, and maintained by the wickedness of hungry flatterers. On the twentieth leaf of his Syntax, he says, "Videntur hodie Christiani superbiores, quam olim ethnici imperatores, qui dii haberi voluerunt; nam hi nunquam inviti audierunt pronomina tu, tibi, tuus. Quæ si hodie alicui monachorum antistiti, aut decano, aut pontifici dicantur aut scribantur, videbitur ita loquens aut scribens blasphemasse, et anathemate dignus: nec tamen Abbas, aut pontifex, tam ægrè feret, quam Malchi, aut famelici gnathones, his assistentes, et vociferantes, Sic loqueris, aut scribis, pontifici? Quintilianus et Donatus dicunt barbarismum, aut soloecismum esse, siquis uni dicat. Salvete." The learned Erasmus also ridiculed this practice, calling those who adopted it, "voscitatores," or youyouers.

[237] "By a perversion of language the pronoun you is almost invariably used for the second person singular, as well as plural; always, however, retaining the plural verb; as, 'My friend, you write a good hand.' Thou is confined to a solemn style, or [to] poetical compositions."—Chandler's Grammar, Edition of 1821, p. 41; Ed. of 1847, p. 66.

[238] In regard to the inflection of our verbs, William B. Fowle, who is something of an antiquarian in grammar, and who professes now to be "conservative" of the popular system, makes a threefold distinction of style, thus: "English verbs have three Styles[,] or Modes,[;] called [the] Familiar, [the] Solemn[,] and [the] Ancient. The familiar style, or mode, is that used in common conversation; as, you see, he fears. The solemn style, or mode, is that used in the Bible, and in prayer; as, Thou seest, he feareth. The ancient style, or mode, now little used, allows no change in the second and third person, [persons,] singular, of the verb, and generally follows the word if, though, lest, or whether; as, if thou see; though he fear; lest he be angry; whether he go or stay."—Fowle's Common School Grammar, Part Second, p. 44. Among his subsequent examples of the Solemn style, he gives the following: "Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou art, Thou wast, Thou hast, Thou hadst, Thou doest or dost, Thou didst." And, as corresponding examples of the Ancient style, he has these forms: "Thou love, Thou loved, Thou or you be, Thou wert, Thou have, Thou had, Thou do, Thou did."—Ib., pp. 44-50. This distinction and this arrangement do not appear to me to be altogether warranted by facts. The necessary distinction of moods, this author rejects; confounding the Subjunctive with the Indicative, in order to furnish out this useless and fanciful contrast of his Solemn and Ancient styles.

[239] In that monstrous jumble and perversion of Murray's doctrines, entitled, "English Grammar on the Productive System, by Roswell C. Smith," you is everywhere preferred to thou, and the verbs are conjugated without the latter pronoun. At the close of his paradigms, however, the author inserts a few lines respecting "these obsolete conjugations," with the pronoun thou; for a further account of which, he refers the learner, with a sneer, to the common grammars in the schools. See the work, p. 79. He must needs be a remarkable grammarian, with whom Scripture, poetry, and prayer, are all "obsolete!" Again: "Thou in the singular is obsolete, except among the Society of Friends; and ye is an obsolete plural!"—Guy's School Gram., p. 25. In an other late grammar, professedly "constructed upon the basis of Murray's, by the Rev. Charles Adams, A. M., Principal of Newbury Seminary," the second person singular is everywhere superseded by the plural; the former being silently dropped from all his twenty pages of conjugations, without so much as a hint, or a saving clause, respecting it; and the latter, which is put in its stead, is falsely called singular. By his pupils, all forms of the verb that agree only with thou, will of course be conceived to be either obsolete or barbarous, and consequently ungrammatical. Whether or not the reverend gentleman makes any account of the Bible or of prayer, does not appear; he cites some poetry, in which there are examples that cannot be reconciled with his "System of English Grammar." Parkhurst, in his late "Grammar for Beginners," tells us that, "Such words as are used in the Bible, and not used in common books, are called obsolete!"—P. 146. Among these, he reckons all the distinctive forms of the second person singular, and all the "peculiarities" which "constitute what is commonly called the Solemn Style."—Ib., p. 148. Yet, with no great consistency, he adds: "This style is always used in prayer, and is frequently used in poetry."—Ibid. Joab Brace, Jnr., may be supposed to have the same notion of what is obsolete: for he too has perverted all Lennie's examples of the verb, as Smith and Adams did Murray's.

[240] Coar gives durst in the "Indicative mood," thus: "I durst, thou durst, he durst;" &c.—Coar's E. Gram., p. 115. But when he comes to wist, he does not know what the second person singular should be, and so he leaves it out: "I wist, ———, he wist; we wist, ye wist, they wist."—Coar's E. Gram., p. 116.

[241] Dr. Latham, who, oftener perhaps than any other modern writer, corrupts the grammar of our language by efforts to revive in it things really and deservedly obsolete, most strangely avers that "The words thou and thee are, except in the mouths of Quakers, obsolete. The plural forms, ye and you, have replaced them."—Hand-Book, p. 284. Ignoring also any current or "vital" process of forming English verbs in the second person singular, he gravely tells us that the old form, as "callest" (which is still the true form for the solemn style,) "is becoming obsolete."—Ib., p. 210. "In phrases like you are speaking, &c.," says he rightlier, "even when applied to a single individual, the idea is really plural; in other words, the courtesy consists in treating one person as more than one, and addressing him as such, rather than in using a plural form in a singular sense. It is certain that, grammatically considered, you=thou is a plural, since the verb with which it agrees is plural."—Ib., p. 163. If these things be so, the English Language owes much to the scrupulous conservatism of the Quakers; for, had their courtesy consented to the grammar of the fashionables, the singular number would now have had but two persons!

[242] For the substitution of you for thou, our grammarians assign various causes. That which is most commonly given in modern books, is certainly not the original one, because it concerns no other language than ours: "In order to avoid the unpleasant formality which accompanies the use of thou with a correspondent verb, its plural you, is usually adopted to familiar conversation; as, Charles, will you walk? instead of—wilt thou walk? You read too fast, instead of—thou readest too fast."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 33.

[243] This position, as may be seen above, I do not suppose it competent for any critic to maintain. The use of you for thou is no more "contrary to grammar," than the use of we for I; which, it seems, is grammatical enough for all editors, compilers, and crowned heads, if not for others. But both are figures of syntax; and, as such, they stand upon the same footing. Their only contrariety to grammar consists in this, that the words are not the literal representatives of the number for which they are put. But in what a posture does the grammarian place himself, who condemns, as bad English, that phraseology which he constantly and purposely uses? The author of the following remark, as well as all who have praised his work, ought immediately to adopt the style of the Friends, or Quakers: "The word thou, in grammatical construction, is preferable to you, in the second person singular: however, custom has familiarized the latter, and consequently made it more general, though BAD GRAMMAR. To say, 'You are a man.' is NOT GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE; the word you having reference to a plural noun only. It should be, 'Thou art a man.'"—Wright's Philosoph. Gram., p. 55. This author, like Lindley Murray and many others, continually calls himself WE; and it is probable, that neither he, nor any one of his sixty reverend commenders, dares address any man otherwise than by the above-mentioned "BAD GRAMMAR!"

[244] "We are always given to cut our words short; and, with very few exceptions, you find people writing lov'd, mov'd, walk'd; instead of loved, moved, walked. They wish to make the pen correspond with the tongue. From lov'd, mov'd, walk'd, it is very easy to slide into lovt, movt, walkt. And this has been the case with regard to curst, dealt, dwelt, leapt, helpt, and many others in the last inserted list. It is just as proper to say jumpt, as it is to say leapt; and just as proper to say walkt as either; and thus we might go on till the orthography of the whole language were changed. When the love of contraction came to operate on such verbs as to burst and to light, it found such a clump of consonants already at the end of the words, that, it could add none. It could not enable the organs even of English speech to pronounce burstedst, lightedst. It, therefore, made really short work of it, and dropping the last syllable altogether, wrote, burst, light, [rather, lit] in the past time and passive participle."—Cobbett's English Gram., ¶ 169. How could the man who saw all this, insist on adding st for the second person, where not even the d of the past tense could he articulated? Am I to be called an innovator, because I do not like in conversation such new and unauthorized words as littest, leaptest, curstest; or a corrupter of the language, because I do not admire in poetry such unutterable monstrosities as, light'dst, leap'dst, curs'dst? The novelism, with the corruption too, is wholly theirs who stickle for these awkward forms.

[245] "You were, not you was, for you was seems to be as ungrammatical, as you hast would be. For the pronoun you being confessedly plural, its correspondent verb ought to be plural."—John Burn's Gram., 10th Ed., P. 72.

[246] Among grammarians, as well as among other writers, there is some diversity of usage concerning the personal inflections of verbs; while nearly all, nowadays, remove the chief occasion for any such diversity, by denying with a fashionable bigotry the possibility of any grammatical use of the pronoun thou in a familiar style. To illustrate this, I will cite Cooper and Wells—two modern authors who earnestly agree to account you and its verb literally singular, and thou altogether erroneous, in common discourse: except that Wells allows the phrase, "If thou art," for "Common style."—School Gram., p. 100.

1. Cooper, improperly referring all inflection of the verb to the grave or solemn style, says: "In the colloquial or familiar style, we observe no change. The same is the case in the plural number." He then proceeds thus: "In the second person of the present of the indicative, in the solemn style, the verb takes st or est; and in the third person th or eth, as: thou hast, thou lovest, thou teachest; he hath, he loveth, he goeth. In the colloquial or familiar style, the verb does not vary in the second person; and in the third person, it ends in s or es, as: he loves, he teaches, he does. The indefinite, [i. e. the preterit,] in the second person singular of the indicative, in the grave style, ends in est, as: thou taughtest, thou wentest. [Fist] But, in those verbs, where the sound of st will unite with the last syllable of the verb, the vowel is omitted, as: thou lovedst, thou heardst, thou didst."—Cooper's Murray, p. 60; Plain and Practical Gram., p. 59. This, the reader will see, is somewhat contradictory; for the colloquial style varies the verb by "s or es," and taught'st may be uttered without the e. As for "lovedst," I deny that any vowel "is omitted" from it; but possibly one may be, as lov'dst.

2. Wells's account of the same thing is this: "In the simple form of the present and past indicative, the second person singular of the solemn style ends regularly in st or est, as, thou seest, thou hearest, thou sawest, thou heardest; and the third person singular of the present, in s or es, as, he hears, he wishes, and also in th or eth, as, he saith, he loveth. In the simple form of the present indicative, the third person singular of the common or familiar style, ends in s or es; as, he sleeps; he rises. The first person singular of the solemn style, and the first and second persons singular of the common style, have the same form as the three persons plural."—Wells's School Grammar, 1st Ed. p. 83; 3d Ed. p. 86. This, too, is both defective and inconsistent. It does not tell when to add est, and when, st only. It does not show what the regular preterit, as freed or loved, should make with thou: whether freedest and lovedest, by assuming the syllable est; fre-edst and lov-edst, by increasing syllabically from assuming st only; or freedst and lov'dst, or lovedst, still to be uttered as monosyllables. It absurdly makes "s or es" a sign of two opposite styles. (See OBS. 9th, above.) And it does not except "I am, I was, If I am, If I was, If thou art, I am loved," and so forth, from requiring "the same form, [are or were,] as the three persons plural." This author prefers "heardest;" the other, "heardst," which I think better warranted:

   "And heardst thou why he drew his blade?
    Heardst thou that shameful word and blow
    Brought Roderick's vengeance on his foe?"—Scott, L. L., C. v, st. 6.

[247] Better, as Wickliffe has it, "the day in which;" though, after nouns of time, the relative that is often used, like the Latin ablative quo or quâ, as being equivalent to in which or on which.

[248] It is not a little strange, that some men, who never have seen or heard such words as their own rules would produce for the second person singular of many hundreds of our most common verbs, will nevertheless pertinaciously insist, that it is wrong to countenance in this matter any departure from the style of King James's Bible. One of the very rashest and wildest of modern innovators,—a critic who, but for the sake of those who still speak in this person and number, would gladly consign the pronoun thou, and all its attendant verbal forms, to utter oblivion,—thus treats this subject and me: "The Quakers, or Friends, however, use thou, and its attendant form of the asserter, in conversation. FOR THEIR BENEFIT, thou is given, in this work, in all the varieties of inflection; (in some of which it could not properly be used in an address to the Deity;) for THEY ERR MOST EGREGIOUSLY in the use of thou, with the form of the asserter which follows he or they, and are countenanced in their errors by G. Brown, who, instead of 'disburdening the language of 144,000 useless distinctions, increases their number just 144,000."—Oliver B. Peirce's Gram., p. 85 Among people of sense, converts are made by teaching, and reasoning, and proving; but this man's disciples must yield to the balderdash of a false speller, false quoter, and false assertor! This author says, that "dropt" is the past tense of "drop;" (p. 118;) let him prove, for example, that droptest is not a clumsy innovation, and that droppedst is not a formal archaism, and then tell of the egregious error of adopting neither of these forms in common conversation. The following, with its many common contractions, is the language of POPE; and I ask this, or any other opponent of my doctrine, TO SHOW HOW SUCH VERBS ARE RIGHTLY FORMED, either for poetry or for conversation, in the second person singular.

   "It fled, I follow'd; now in hope, now pain;
    It stopt, I stopt; it mov'd, I mov'd again.
    At last it fix't,'twas on what plant it pleas'd,
    And where it fix'd, the beauteous bird I seiz'd."
        —Dunciad, B. IV, l. 427.

[249] The Rev. W. Allen, in his English Grammar, p. 132, says: "Yth and eth (from the Saxon lað [sic—KTH]) were formerly, plural terminations; as, 'Manners makyth man.' William of Wykeham's motto. 'After long advisement, they taketh upon them to try the matter.' Stapleton's Translation of Bede. 'Doctrine and discourse maketh nature less importune.' Bacon." The use of eth as a plural termination of verbs, was evidently earlier than the use of en for the same purpose. Even the latter is utterly obsolete, and the former can scarcely have been English. The Anglo-Saxon verb lufian, or lufigean, to love, appears to have been inflected with the several pronouns thus: Ic lufige, Thu lufast, He lufath, We lufiath, Ge lufiath, Hi lufiath. The form in Old English was this: I love, Thou lovest, He loveth, We loven, Ye loven, They loven. Dr. Priestley remarks, (though in my opinion unadvisedly,) that, "Nouns of a plural form, but of a singular signification, require a singular construction; as, mathematicks is a useful study. This observation will likewise," says he, "in some measure, vindicate the grammatical propriety of the famous saying of William of Wykeham, Manners maketh man."—Priestley's Gram., p. 189. I know not what half-way vindication there can be, for any such construction. Manners and mathematics are not nouns of the singular number, and therefore both is and maketh are wrong. I judge it better English to say, "Mathematics are a useful study."—"Manners make the man." But perhaps both ideas may be still better expressed by a change of the nominative, thus: "The study of mathematics is useful."—"Behaviour makes the man."

[250] What the state of our literature would have been, had no author attempted any thing on English grammar, must of course be a matter of mere conjecture, and not of any positive "conviction." It is my opinion, that, with all their faults, most of the books and essays in which this subject has been handled, have been in some degree beneficial, and a few of them highly so; and that, without their influence, our language must have been much more chaotic and indeterminable than it now is. But a late writer says, and, with respect to some of our verbal terminations, says wisely: "It is my sincere conviction that fewer irregularities would have crept into the language had no grammars existed, than have been authorized by grammarians; for it should be understood that the first of our grammarians, finding that good writers differed upon many points, instead of endeavouring to reconcile these discrepancies, absolutely perpetuated them by citing opposite usages, and giving high authorities for both. To this we owe all the irregularity which exists in the personal terminations of verbs, some of the best early writers using them promiscuously, some using them uniformly, and others making no use of them; and really they are of no use but to puzzle children and foreigners, perplex poets, and furnish an awkward dialect to that exemplary sect of Christians, who in every thing else study simplicity."—Fowle's True E. Gram., Part II, p. 26. Wells, a still later writer, gives this unsafe rule: "When the past tense is a monosyllable not ending in a single vowel, the second person singular of the solemn style is generally formed by the addition of est; as heardest, fleddest, tookest. Hadst, wast, saidst, and didst, are exceptions."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 106; 3d Ed., p. 110; 113th Ed., p. 115. Now the termination d or ed commonly adds no syllable; so that the regular past tense of any monosyllabic verb is, with a few exceptions, a monosyllable still; as, freed, feed, loved, feared, planned, turned: and how would these sound with est added, which Lowth, Hiley, Churchill, and some others erroneously claim as having pertained to such preterits anciently? Again, if heard is a contraction of heared, and fled, of fleed, as seems probable; then are heardst and fledtst, which are sometimes used, more regular than heardest, fleddest: so of many other preterits.

[251] Chaucer appears not to have inflected this word in the second person: "Also ryght as thou were ensample of moche folde errour, righte so thou must be ensample of manifold correction."—Testament of Love. "Rennin and crie as thou were wode."—House of Fame. So others: "I wolde thou were cold or hoot."—WICKLIFFE'S VERSION OF THE APOCALYPSE. "I wolde thou were cold or hote."—VERSION OF EDWARD VI: Tooke, Vol. ii, p. 270. See Rev., iii, 15: "I would thou wert cold or hot."—COMMON VERSION.

[252] See evidence of the antiquity of this practice, in the examples under the twenty-third observation above. According to Churchill, it has had some local continuance even to the present time. For, in a remark upon Lowth's contractions, lov'th, turn'th, this author says, "These are still in use in some country places, the third person singular of verbs in general being formed by the addition of the sound th simply, not making an additional syllable."—Churchill's Gram., p. 255 So the eth in the following example adds no syllable:—

   "Death goeth about the field, rejoicing mickle
    To see a sword that so surpass'd his sickle."
       Harrington's Ariosto, B. xiii:
         see Singer's Shak., Vol. ii, p. 296.

[253] The second person singular of the simple verb do, is now usually written dost, and read dust; being permanently contracted in orthography, as well as in pronunciation. And perhaps the compounds may follow; as, Thou undost, outdost, misdost, overdost, &c. But exceptions to exceptions are puzzling, even when they conform to the general rule. The Bible has dost and doth for auxilliaries, and doest and doeth for principal verbs.

[254] N. Butler avers, "The only regular terminations added to verbs are est, s, ed, edst, and ing."—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 81. But he adds, in a marginal note, this information: "The third person singular of the present formerly ended in eth. This termination is still sometimes used in the solemn style. Contractions sometimes take place; as, sayst for sayest."—Ibid. This statement not only imposes a vast deal of needless irregularity upon the few inflections admitted by the English verb, but is, so far as it disagrees with mine, a causeless innovation. The terminations rejected, or here regarded as irregular, are d, st, es, th, and eth; while edst, which is plainly a combination of ed and st,—the past ending of the verb with the personal inflection,—is assumed to be one single and regular termination which I had overlooked! It has long been an almost universal doctrine of our grammarians, that regular verbs form their preterits and perfect participles by adding d to final e, and ed to any other radical ending. Such is the teaching of Blair, Brightland, Bullions, Churchill, Coar, Comly, Cooper, Fowle, Frazee, Ingersoll, Kirkham, Lennie, Murray, Weld, Wells, Sanborn, and others, a great multitude. But this author alleges, that, "Loved is not formed by adding d to love, but by adding ed, and dropping e from love."—Butler's Answer to Brown. Any one is at liberty to think this, if he will. But I see not the use of playing thus with mute Ees, adding one to drop an other, and often pretending to drop two under one apostrophe, as in lov'd, lov'st! To suppose that the second person of the regular preterit, as lovedst, is not formed by adding st to the first person, is contrary to the analogy of other verbs, and is something worse than an idle whim. And why should the formation of the third person be called irregular when it requires es, as in flies, denies, goes, vetoes, wishes, preaches, and so forth? In forming flies from fly, Butler changes "y into ie," on page 20th, adding s only; and, on page 11th, "into i" only, adding es. Uniformity would be better.

[255] Cooper says, "The termination eth is commonly contracted into th, to prevent the addition of a syllable to the verb, as: doeth, doth."—Plain and Practical Gram., p. 59. This, with reference to modern usage, is plainly erroneous. For, when s or es was substituted for th or eth, and the familiar use of the latter ceased, this mode of inflecting the verb without increasing its syllables, ceased also, or at least became unusual. It appears that the inflecting of verbs with th without a vowel, as well as with st without a vowel, was more common in very ancient times than subsequently. Our grammarians of the last century seem to have been more willing to encumber the language with syllabic endings, than to simplify it by avoiding them. See Observations, 21st, 22d, and 23d, above.

[256] These are what William Ward, in his Practical Grammar, written about 1765, denominated "the CAPITAL FORMS, or ROOTS, of the English Verb." Their number too is the same. "And these Roots," says he, "are considered as Four in each verb; although in many verbs two of them are alike, and in some few three are alike."—P. 50. Few modern grammarians have been careful to display these Chief Terms, or Principal Parts, properly. Many say nothing about them. Some speak of three, and name them faultily. Thus Wells: "The three principal parts of a verb are the present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle."—School Gram., 113th Ed., p. 92. Now a whole "tense" is something more than one verbal form, and Wells's "perfect participle" includes the auxiliary "having." Hence, in stead of write, wrote, writing, written, (the true principal parts of a certain verb,) one might take, under Wells's description, either of these threes, both entirely false: am writing, did write, and having written; or, do write, wrotest, and having written. But writing, being the root of the "Progressive Form of the Verb," is far more worthy to be here counted a chief term, than wrote, the preterit, which occurs only in one tense, and never receives an auxiliary. So of other verbs. This sort of treatment of the Principal Parts, is a very grave defect in sundry schemes of grammar.

[257] A grammarian should know better, than to exhibit, as a paradigm for school-boys, such English as the following: "I do have, Thou dost have, He does have: We do have, You do have, They do have."—Everest's Gram., p. 106. "I did have, Thou didst have, He did have: We did have, You did have, They did have."—Ib., p. 107. I know not whether any one has yet thought of conjugating the verb be after this fashion; but the attempt to introduce, "am being, is being," &c., is an innovation much worse.

[258] Hiley borrows from Webster the remark, that, "Need, when intransitive, is formed like an auxiliary, and is followed by a verb, without the prefix to; as, 'He need go no farther.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 90; Webster's Imp. Gram., p. 127; Philos. Gram., p. 178. But he forbears to class it with the auxiliaries, and even contradicts himself, by a subsequent remark taken from Dr. Campbell, that, for the sake of "ANALOGY, 'he needs,' he dares,' are preferable to 'he need,' 'he dare,'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 145; Campbell's Rhet., p. 175

[259] This grammarian here uses need for the third person singular, designedly, and makes a remark for the justification of the practice; but he neither calls the word an auxiliary, nor cites any other than anonymous examples, which are, perhaps, of his own invention.

[260] "The substantive form, or, as it is commonly termed, infinitive mood, contains at the same time the essence of verbal meaning, and the literal ROOT on which all inflections of the verb are to be grafted. This character being common to the infinitive in all languages, it [this mood] ought to precede the [other] moods of verbs, instead of being made to follow them, as is absurdly practised in almost all grammatical systems."—Enclytica, p. 14.

[261] By this, I mean, that the verb in all the persons, both singular and plural, is the same in form. But Lindley Murray, when he speaks of not varying or not changing the termination of the verb, most absurdly means by it, that the verb is inflected, just as it is in the indicative or the potential mood; and when he speaks of changes or variations of termination, he means, that the verb remains the same as in the first person singular! For example: "The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the subjunctive mood, is also very frequently varied in its termination: as, 'If thou loved him truly, thou wouldst obey him.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 209. "The auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, do not change the termination of the second person singular; as, 'If thou mayst or canst go.'"—Ib., p. 210. "Some authors think, that the termination of these auxiliaries should be varied: as, I advise thee, that thou may beware."—Ib., p. 210. "When the circumstances of contingency and futurity concur, it is proper to vary the terminations of the second and third persons singular."—Ib., 210. "It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of termination are necessary, when these two circumstances concur."—Ib., p. 207. "It may be considered as a rule, that no changes of termination are necessary, when these two circumstances concur."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 264. Now Murray and Ingersoll here mean precisely the same thing! Whose fault is that? If Murray's, he has committed many such. But, in this matter, he is contradicted not only by Ingersoll, but, on one occasion, by himself. For he declares it to be an opinion in which he concurs. "That the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, have no reference to change of termination."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 211. And yet, amidst his strange blunders, he seems to have ascribed the meaning which a verb has in this mood, to the inflections which it receives in the indicative: saying. "That part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative!"—Ib., p. 207. But the absurdity which he really means to teach, is, that the subjunctive mood is derived from the indicative,—the primitive or radical verb, from it's derivatives or branches!

[262] Wert is sometimes used in lieu of wast; and, in such instances, both by authority and by analogy, it appears to belong here, if anywhere. See OBS. 2d and 3d, below.

[263] Some grammarians, regardless of the general usage of authors, prefer was to were in the singular number of this tense of the subjunctive mood. In the following remark, the tense is named "present" and this preference is urged with some critical extravagance: "Was, though the past tense of the indicative mood, expresses the present of the hypothetical; as, 'I wish that I was well.' The use of this hypothetical form of the subjunctive mood, has given rise to a form of expression wholly unwarranted by the rules of grammar. When the verb was is to be used in the present tense singular, in this form of the subjunctive mood, the ear is often pained with a plural were, as, 'Were I your master'—'Were he compelled to do it,' &c. This has become so common that some of the best grammars of the language furnish authority for the barbarism, and even in the second person supply wert, as a convenient accompaniment. If such a conjugation is admitted, we may expect to see Shakspeare's 'thou beest' in full use."—Chandler's Gram., Ed. of 1821, p. 55. In "Chandler's Common School Grammar," of 1847, the language of this paragraph is somewhat softened, but the substance is still retained. See the latter work, p. 80.

[264] "If I were, If thou were. If he were."—Harrison's Gram., p. 31. "If, or though, I were loved. If, or though, thou were, or wert loved. If, or though, he were loved."—Bicknell's Gram., Part i, p. 69. "If, though, &c. I were burned, thou were burned or you were burned, he were burned."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 53. "Though thou were. Some say, 'though thou wert.'"—Mackintosh's Gram., p. 178. "If or though I were. If or though thou were. If or though he were."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 86. "If I was, Thou wast, or You was or were, He was. Or thus: If I were, Thou wert, or you was or were, He were."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 95; Improved Gram., p. 64. "PRESENT TENSE. Before, &c. I be; thou beest, or you be; he, she, or it, be: We, you or ye, they, be. PAST TENSE. Before, &c. I were; thou wert, or you were; he, she, or it, were; We, you or ye, they, were."—WHITE, on the English Verb, p. 52.

[265] The text in Acts, xxii, 20th, "I also was standing by, and consenting unto his death," ought rather to be, "I also stood by, and consented to his death;" but the present reading is, thus far, a literal version from the Greek, though the verb "kept," that follows, is not. Montanus renders it literally: "Et ipse eram astans, et consentiens interemptioni ejus, et custodiens vestimenta interficientium illum." Beza makes it better Latin thus: "Ego quoque adstabam, et una assentiebar cædi ipsius, et custodiebam pallia eorum qui interimebant eum." Other examples of a questionable or improper use of the progressive form may occasionally be found in good authors; as, "A promising boy of six years of age, was missing by his parents."—Whittier, Stranger in Lowell, p. 100. Missing, wanting, and willing, after the verb to be, are commonly reckoned participial adjectives; but here "was missing" is made a passive verb, equivalent to was missed, which, perhaps, would better express the meaning. To miss, to perceive the absence of, is such an act of the mind, as seems unsuited to the compound form, to be missing; and, if we cannot say, "The mother was missing her son," I think we ought not to use the same form passively, as above.

[266] Some grammarians, contrary to the common opinion, suppose the verbs here spoken of, to have, not a passive, but a neuter signification. Thus, Joseph Guy, Jun., of London: "Active verbs often take a neuter sense; as, A house is building; here, is building is used in a neuter signification, because it has no object after it. By this rule are explained such sentences as, Application is wanting; The grammar is printing; The lottery is drawing; It is flying, &c."—Guy's English Gram., p. 21. "Neuter," here, as in many other places, is meant to include the active-intransitives. "Is flying" is of this class; and "is wanting," corresponding to the Latin caret, appears to be neuter; hut the rest seem rather to be passives. Tried, however, by the usual criterion,—the naming of the "agent" which, it is said, "a verb passive necessarily implies,"—what may at first seem progressive passives, may not always be found such. "Most verbs signifying action" says Dr. Johnson, "may likewise signify condition, or habit, and become neuters, [i. e. active-intransitives;] as I love, I am in love; I strike, I am now striking."—Gram. before Quarto Dict., p. 7. So sell, form, make, and many others, usually transitive, have sometimes an active-intransitive sense which nearly approaches the passive, and of which are selling, is forming, are making, and the like, may be only equivalent expressions. For example: "It is cold, and ice forms rapidly—is forming rapidly—or is formed rapidly."—Here, with little difference of meaning, is the appearance of both voices, the Active and the Passive; while "is forming," which some will have for an example of "the Middle voice," may be referred to either. If the following passive construction is right, is wanting or are wanting may be a verb of three or four different sorts: "Reflections that may drive away despair, cannot be wanting by him, who considers," &c.—Johnson's Rambler, No. 129: Wright's Gram., p. 196.

[267] Dr. Bullions, in his grammar of 1849, says, "Nobody would think of saying, 'He is being loved'—'This result is being desired.'"—Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 237. But, according to J. W. Wright, whose superiority in grammar has sixty-two titled vouchers, this unheard-of barbarism is, for the present passive, precisely and solely what one ought to say! Nor is it, in fact, any more barbarous, or more foreign from usage, than the spurious example which the Doctor himself takes for a model in the active voice: "I am loving. Thou art loving, &c; I have been loving, Thou hast been loving, &c."—A. and P. Gr., p. 92. So: "James is loving me."—Ib., p 235.

[268] "The predicate in the form, 'The house is being built,' would be, according to our view, 'BEING BEING built,' which is manifestly an absurd tautology."—Mulligan's Gram., 1852, p. 151.

[269] "Suppose a criminal to be enduring the operation of binding:—Shall we say, with Mr. Murray,—'The criminal is binding?' If so, HE MUST BE BINDING SOMETHING,—a circumstance, in effect, quite opposed to the fact presented. Shall we then say, as he does, in the present tense conjugation of his passive verb,—'The criminal is bound?' If so, the action of binding, which the criminal is suffering, will be represented as completed, —a position which the action its self will palpably deny." See Wright's Phil. Gram., p. 102. It is folly for a man to puzzle himself or others thus, with fictitious examples, imagined on purpose to make good usage seem wrong. There is bad grammar enough, for all useful purposes, in the actual writings of valued authors; but who can show, by any proofs, that the English language, as heretofore written, is so miserably inadequate to our wants, that we need use the strange neologism, "The criminal is being bound," or any thing similar?

[270] It is a very strange event in the history of English grammar, that such a controversy as this should have arisen; but a stranger one still, that, after all that has been said, more argument is needed. Some men, who hope to be valued as scholars, yet stickle for an odd phrase, which critics have denounced as follows: "But the history of the language scarcely affords a parallel to the innovation, at once unphilosophical and hypercritical, pedantic and illiterate, which has lately appeared in the excruciating refinement 'is being' and its unmerciful variations. We hope, and indeed believe, that it has not received the sanction of any grammar adopted in our popular education, as it certainly never will of any writer of just pretensions to scholarship."—The True Sun. N. Y., April 16, 1846.

[271] Education is a work of continuance, yet completed, like many others, as fast as it goes on. It is not, like the act of loving or hating, so complete at the first moment as not to admit the progressive form of the verb; for one may say of a lad, "I am educating him for the law;" and possibly, "He is educating for the law;" though not so well as, "He is to be educated for the law." But, to suppose that "is educated" or "are educated" implies unnecessarily a cessation of the educating is a mistake. That conception is right, only when educated is taken adjectively. The phrase, "those who are educated in our seminaries," hardly includes such as have been educated there in times past: much less does it apply to these exclusively, as some seem to think. "Being," as inserted by Southey, is therefore quite needless: so it is often, in this new phraseology, the best correction being its mere omission.

[272] Worcester has also this citation: "The Eclectic Review remarks, 'That a need of this phrase, or an equivalent one, is felt, is sufficiently proved by the extent to which it is used by educated persons and respectable writers.'"—Gram. before Dict., p. xlvi. Sundry phrases, equivalent in sense to this new voice, have long been in use, and are, of course, still needed; something from among them being always, by every accurate writer, still preferred. But this awkward innovation, use it who will, can no more be justified by a plea of "need," than can every other hackneyed solecism extant. Even the Archbishop, if quoted right by Worcester, has descended to "uncouth English," without either necessity or propriety, having thereby only misexpounded a very common Greek word—a "perfect or pluperfect" participle, which means "beaten, struck, or having been beaten"—G. Brown.

[273] Wells has also the following citations, which most probably accord with his own opinions, though the first is rather extravagant: "The propriety of these imperfect passive tenses has been doubted by almost all our grammarians; though I believe but few of them have written many pages without condescending to make use of them. Dr. Beattie says, 'One of the greatest defects of the English tongue, with regard to the verb, seems to be the want of an imperfect passive participle.' And yet he uses the imperfect participle in a passive sense as often as most writers."—Pickbourn's Dissertation on the English Verb.

"Several other expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new-fangled and most uncouth solecism, 'is being done,' for the good old English idiomatic expression, 'is doing,'—an absurd periphrasis, driving out a pointed and pithy turn of the English language."—N. A. Review. See Wells's Grammar, 1850, p. 161.

The term, "imperfect passive tenses," seems not a very accurate one; because the present, the perfect, &c., are included. Pickbourn applies it to any passive tenses formed from the simple "imperfect participle;" but the phrase, "passive verbs in the progressive form," would better express the meaning. The term, "compound passive participle," which Wells applies above to "being built," "being printed," and the like, is also both unusual and inaccurate. Most readers would sooner understand by it the form, having been built, having been printed, &c. This author's mode of naming participles is always either very awkward or not distinctive. His scheme makes it necessary to add here, for each of these forms, a third epithet, referring to his main distinction of "imperfect and perfect;" as, "the compound imperfect participle passive," and "the compound perfect participle passive." What is "being builded" or "being printed," but "an imperfect passive participle?" Was this, or something else, the desideratum of Beattie?

[274] Borne usually signifies carried; born signifies brought forth. J. K. Worcester, the lexicographer, speaks of these two participles thus: "[Fist] The participle born is used in the passive form, and borne in the active form, [with reference to birth]; as, 'He was born blind,' John ix.; 'The barren hath borne seven,' I Sam. ii. This distinction between born and borne, though not recognized by grammars, is in accordance with common usage, at least in this country. In many editions of the Bible it is recognized; and in many it is not. It seems to have been more commonly recognized in American, than in English, editions."—Worcester's Universal and Critical Dict., w. Bear. In five, out of seven good American editions of the Bible among my books, the latter text is, "The barren hath born seven;" in two, it is as above, "hath borne." In Johnson's Quarto Dictionary, the perfect participle of bear is given erroneously, "bore, or born;" and that of forbear, which should be forborne, is found, both in his columns and in his preface, "forborn."

[275] According to Murray, Lennie, Bullions, and some others, to use begun for began or run for ran, is improper; but Webster gives run as well as ran for the preterit, and begun may be used in like manner, on the authority of Dryden, Pope, and Parnell.

[276] "And they shall pass through it, hardly bestead, and hungry."—Isaiah, viii, 21.

[277] "Brake [for the preterit of Break] seems now obsolescent."—Dr. Crombie, Etymol. and Syntax, p. 193. Some recent grammarians, however, retain it; among whom are Bullions and M'Culloch. Wells retains it, but marks it as, "Obsolete;" as he does also the preterits bare, clave, drove, gat, slang, spake, span, spat, sware, tare, writ; and the participles hoven, loaden, rid from ride, spitten, stricken, and writ. In this he is not altogether consistent. Forms really obsolete belong not to any modern list of irregular verbs; and even such as are archaic and obsolescent, it is sometimes better to omit. If "loaden," for example, is now out of use, why should "load, unload, and overload," be placed, as they are by this author, among "irregular verbs;" while freight and distract, in spite of fraught and distraught, are reckoned regular? "Rid," for rode or ridden, though admitted by Worcester, appears to me a low vulgarism.

[278] Cleave, to split, is most commonly, if not always, irregular, as above; cleave, to stick, or adhere, is usually considered regular, but clave was formerly used in the preterit, and clove still may be: as, "The men of Judah clave unto their king."—Samuel. "The tongue of the public prosecutor clove to the roof of his mouth."—Boston Atlas, 1855.

[279] Respecting the preterit and the perfect participle of this verb, drink, our grammarians are greatly at variance. Dr. Johnson says, "preter. drank or drunk; part. pass, drunk or drunken." Dr. Webster: "pret. and pp. drank. Old pret. and pp. drunk; pp. drunken." Lowth: "pret. drank; part, drunk or drunken." So Stamford. Webber, and others. Murray has it: "Imperf. drank, Perf. Part, drunk." So Comly, Lennie, Bullions, Blair, Butler. Frost, Felton, Goldsbury, and many others. Churchill cites the text, "Serve me till I have eaten and drunken;" and observes, "Drunken is now used only as an adjective. The impropriety of using the preterimperfect [drank] for the participle of this verb is very common."—New Gram., p. 261. Sanborn gives both forms for the participle, preferring drank to drunk. Kirkham prefers drunk to drank; but contradicts himself in a note, by unconsciously making drunk an adjective: "The men were drunk; i. e. inebriated. The toasts were drank."—Gram., p. 140. Cardell, in his Grammar, gives, "drink, drank, drunk;" but in his story of Jack Halyard, on page 59, he wrote, "had drinked:" and this, according to Fowle's True English Grammar, is not incorrect. The preponderance of authority is yet in favour of saying, "had drunk;" but drank seems to be a word of greater delicacy, and perhaps it is sufficiently authorized. A hundred late writers may be quoted for it, and some that were popular in the days of Johnson. "In the choice of what is fit to be eaten and drank."—Beattie's Moral Science, Vol. 1, p. 51. "Which I had no sooner drank."—Addison, Tattler, No. 131.

   "Thy brother's blood the thirsty earth hath drank,
    Broach'd with the steely point of Clifford's lance."—Shakspeare.

[280] "Holden is not in general use; and is chiefly employed by attorneys."—Crombie, on Etymology and Synt., p. 190. Wells marks this word as, "Obsolescent."—School Gram., p. 103. L. Murray rejected it; but Lowth gave it alone, as a participle, and held only as a preterit.

[281] "I have been found guilty of killing cats I never hurted."—Roderick Random, Vol. i, p. 8.

[282] "They keeped aloof as they passed her bye."—J. Hogg, Pilgrims of the Sun, p. 19.

[283] Lie, to be at rest, is irregular, as above; but lie, to utter falsehood, is regular, as follows: lie, lied, lying, lied.

   "Thus said, at least, my mountain guide,
    Though deep, perchance, the villain lied."
        —Scott's Lady of the Lake.

[284] Perhaps there is authority sufficient to place the verb rend among those which are redundant.

   "Where'er its cloudy veil was rended."
        —Whittier's Moll Pitcher.

    "Mortal, my message is for thee; thy chain to earth is rended;
    I bear thee to eternity; prepare! thy course is ended."
        —The Amulet.

    "Come as the winds come, when forests are rended."
        —Sir W. Scott.

    "The hunger pangs her sons which rended."
        —NEW QUARTERLY REVIEW: Examiner, No. 119.

[285] We find now and then an instance in which gainsay is made regular: as, "It can neither be rivalled nor gainsayed."—Chapman's Sermons to Presbyterians, p. 36. Perhaps it would be as well to follow Webster here, in writing rivaled with one l: and the analogy of the simple verb say, in forming this compound irregularly, gainsaid. Usage warrants the latter, however, better than the former.

[286] "Shoe, shoed or shod, shoeing, shoed or shod."—Old Gram., by W. Ward, p. 64; and Fowle's True English Gram., p. 46.

[287] "A. Murray has rejected sung as the Preterite, and L. Murray has rejected sang. Each Preterite, however, rests on good authority. The same observation may be made, respecting sank and sunk. Respecting the preterites which have a or u, as slang, or slung, sank, or sunk, it would be better were the former only to be used, as the Preterite and Participle would thus be discriminated."—Dr. Crombie, on Etymology and Syntax, p. 199. The preterits which this critic thus prefers, are rang, sang, stung, sprang, swang, sank, shrank, slank, stank, swam, and span for spun. In respect to them all, I think he makes an ill choice. According to his own showing, fling, string, and sting, always make the preterit and the participle alike; and this is the obvious tendency of the language, in all these words. I reject slang and span, as derivatives from sling and spin; because, in such a sense, they are obsolete, and the words have other uses. Lindley Murray, in his early editions, rejected sang, sank, slang, swang, shrank, slank, stank, and span; and, at the same time, preferred rang, sprang, and swam, to rung, sprung, and swum. In his later copies, he gave the preference to the u, in all these words; but restored sang and sank, which Crombie names above, still omitting the other six, which did not happen to be mentioned to him.

[288] Sate for the preterit of sit, and sitten for the perfect participle, are, in my opinion, obsolete, or no longer in good use. Yet several recent grammarians prefer sitten to sat; among whom are Crombie, Lennie, Bullions, and M'Culloch. Dr. Crombie says, "Sitten, though formerly in use, is now obsolescent. Laudable attempts, however, have been made to restore it."—On Etymol. and Syntax, p. 199. Lennie says, "Many authors, both here and in America, use sate as the Past time of sit; but this is improper, for it is apt to be confounded with sate to glut. Sitten and spitten are preferable [to sat and spit,] though obsolescent."—Principles of E. Gram., p. 45. Bullions says, "Sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete, though preferable to sat and spit."—Principles of E. Gram., p. 64. M'Culloch gives these verbs in the following form: "Sit, sat, sitten or sat. Spit, spit or spat, spit or spitten."—Manual of E. Gram., p. 65.

[289] "He will find the political hobby which he has bestrided no child's nag."—The Vanguard, a Newspaper.

"Through the pressed nostril, spectacle-bestrid."—Cowper.

"A lank haired hunter strided."—Whittier's Sabbath Scene.

[290] In the age of Pope, writ was frequently used both for the participle and for the preterit of this verb. It is now either obsolete or peculiar to the poets. In prose it seems vulgar: as, "He writ it, at least, published it, in 1670."—Barclay's Works, Vol. i, p. 77.

   "He, who, supreme in judgement, as in wit,
    Might boldly censure, as he boldly writ."—Pope, Ess. on Crit.

Dr. Crombie remarked, more than thirty years ago, that, "Wrote as the Participle [of Write,] is generally disused, and likewise writ."—Treatise on Etym. and Synt., p. 202.

[291] A word is not necessarily ungrammatical by reason of having a rival form that is more common. The regular words, beseeched, blowed, bursted, digged, freezed, bereaved, hanged, meaned, sawed, showed, stringed, weeped, I admit for good English, though we find them all condemned by some critics.

[292] "And the man in whom the evil spirit was, leapt on them."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Acts, xix, 16. In Scott's Bible, and several others, the word is "leaped." Walker says, "The past time of this verb is generally heard with the diphthong short; and if so, it ought to be spelled leapt, rhyming with kept."—Walker's Pron. Dict., w. Leap. Worcester, who improperly pronounces leaped in two ways, "l~ept or l=ept," misquotes Walker, as saying, "it ought to be spelled lept."—Universal and Critical Dict., w. Leap. In the solemn style, leaped is, of course, two syllables. As for leapedst or leaptest, I know not that either can be found.

[293] Acquit is almost always formed regularly, thus: acquit, acquitted, acquitting, acquitted. But, like quit, it is sometimes found in an irregular form also; which, if it be allowable, will make it redundant: as, "To be acquit from my continual smart."—SPENCER: Johnson's Dict. "The writer holds himself acquit of all charges in this regard."—Judd, on the Revolutionary War, p. 5. "I am glad I am so acquit of this tinder-box."—SHAK.

[294]

   "Not know my voice! O, time's extremity!
    Hast thou so crack'd and splitted my poor tongue?"
        —SHAK.: Com. of Er.

[295] Whet is made redundant in Webster's American Dictionary, as well as in Wells's Grammar; but I can hardly affirm that the irregular form of it is well authorized.

[296] In S. W. Clark's Practical Grammar, first published in 1847—a work of high pretensions, and prepared expressly "for the education of Teachers"—sixty-three out of the foregoing ninety-five Redundant Verbs, are treated as having no regular or no irregular forms. (1.) The following twenty-nine are omitted by this author, as if they were always regular; belay, bet, betide, blend, bless, curse, dive, dress, geld, lean, leap, learn, mulet, pass, pen, plead, prove, rap, reave, roast, seethe, smell, spoil, stave, stay, wake, wed, whet, wont. (2.) The following thirty-four are given by him as being always irregular; abide, bend, beseech, blow, burst, catch, chide, creep, deal, freeze, grind, hang, knit, lade, lay, mean, pay, shake, sleep, slide, speed, spell, spill, split, string, strive, sweat, sweep, thrive, throw, weave, weep, wet, wind. Thirty-two of the ninety-five are made redundant by him, though not so called in his book.

In Wells's School Grammar, "the 113th Thousand," dated 1850, the deficiencies of the foregoing kinds, if I am right, are about fifty. This author's "List of Irregular Verbs" has forty-four Redundants, to which he assigns a regular form as well as an irregular. He is here about as much nearer right than Clark, as this number surpasses thirty-two, and comes towards ninety-five. The words about which they differ, are—pen, seethe, and whet, of the former number; and catch, deal, hang, knit, spell, spill, sweat, and thrive, of the latter.

[297] In the following example, there is a different phraseology, which seems not so well suited to the sense: "But we must be aware of imagining, that we render style strong and expressive, by a constant and multiplied use of epithets"—Blair's Rhet., p. 287. Here, in stead of "be aware," the author should have said, "beware," or "be ware;" that is, be wary, or cautious; for aware means apprised, or informed, a sense very different from the other.

[298] Dr. Crombie contends that must and ought are used only in the present tense. (See his Treatise, p. 204.) In this he is wrong, especially with regard to the latter word. Lennie, and his copyist Bullions, adopt the same notion; but Murray, and many others, suppose them to "have both a present and [a] past signification."

[299] Dr. Crombie says, "This Verb, as an auxiliary, is inflexible; thus we say, 'he will go;' and 'he wills to go.'"—Treatise on Etym. and Syntax, p. 203. He should have confined his remarks to the familiar style, in which all the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are inflexible. For, in the solemn style, we do not say, "Thou will go," but, "Thou wilt go."

[300] "HAD-I-WIST. A proverbial expression, Oh that I had known. Gower."—Chalmers's Dict., also Webster's. In this phrase, which is here needlessly compounded, and not very properly explained, we see wist used as a perfect participle. But the word is obsolete. "Had I wist," is therefore an obsolete phrase, meaning. If I had known, or, "O that I had known."

[301] That is, passive verbs, as well as others, have three participles for each; so that, from one active-transitive root, there come six participles—three active, and three passive. Those numerous grammarians who, like Lindley Murray, make passive verbs a distinct class, for the most part, very properly state the participles of a verb to be "three;" but, to represent the two voices as modifications of one species of verbs, and then say, "The Participles are three," as many recent writers do, is manifestly absurd: because two threes should be six. Thus, for example, Dr. Bullions: "In English [,] the transitive verb has always two voices, the Active and [the] Passive."—Prin. of E. Gram., p. 33. "The Participles are three, [:] the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect."—Ib., p. 57. Again: "Transitive verbs have two voices, called the Active and the Passive."—Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., p. 66. "Verbs have three participles—the present, the past, and the perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved, in the active voice: AND being loved, loved, having been loved, in the passive."—Ib., p. 76. Now either not all these are the participles of one verb, or that verb has more than three. Take your choice. Redundant verbs usually have duplicate forms of all the participles except the Imperfect Active; as, lighting, lighted or lit, having lighted or having lit; so again, being lighted or being lit, lighted or lit, having been lighted or having been lit.

[302] The diversity in the application of these names, and in the number or nature of the participles recognized in different grammars, is quite as remarkable as that of the names themselves. To prepare a general synopsis of this discordant teaching, no man will probably think it worth his while. The following are a few examples of it:

1. "How many Participles, are there; There are two, the Active Participle which ends in (ing), as burning, and the Passive Participle which ends in (ed) as, burned."—The British Grammar, p. 140. In this book, the participles of Be are named thus: "ACTIVE. Being. PASSIVE. Been, having been."—Ib., p. 138.

2. "How many Sorts of Participles are there? A. Two; the Active Participle, that ends always in ing; as, loving, and the Passive Participle, that ends always in ed, t, or n; as, loved, taught, slain."—Fisher's Practical New Gram., p. 75.

3. "ACTIVE VOICE. Participles. Present, calling. Past, having called. Future, being about to call. PASSIVE VOICE. Present, being called. Past, having been called. Future, being about to be called."—Ward's Practical Gram., pp. 55 and 59.

4. ACT. "Present, loving; Perfect, loved; Past, having loved."—Lowth's Gram., p. 39. The participles passive are not given by Lowth; but, by inference from his rule for forming "the passive verb," they must be these: "Present, being loved; Perfect, loved, or been loved; Past, having been loved." See Lowth's Gram., p. 44.

5. "ACT. V. Present, Loving. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved. PAS. V. Pres. Being loved. Past, Loved. Perf. Having been loved."—Lennie's Gram., pp. 25 and 33; Greene's Analysis, p. 225; Bullions's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., pp. 87 and 95. This is Bullions's revised scheme, and much worse than his former one copied from Murray.

6. ACT. "Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. Compound Perfect, Having loved." PAS. "Present. Being loved. Perfect or Passive. Loved. Compound Perfect. Having been loved."—L. Murray's late editions, pp. 98 and 99; Hart's Gram., pp. 85 and 88; Bullions's Principles of E. Gram., pp. 47 and 55. No form or name of the first participle passive was adopted by Murray in his early editions.

7. ACT. "Present. Pursuing. Perfect. Pursued. Compound perfect. Having pursued." PAS. "Present and Perfect. Pursued, or being pursued. Compound Perfect. Having been pursued."—Rev. W. Allen's Gram., pp. 88 and 93. Here the first two passive forms, and their names too, are thrown together; the former as equivalents, the latter as coalescents.

8. "TRANSITIVE. Pres. Loving, Perf. Having loved. PASSIVE. Pres. Loved or Being loved, Perf. Having been loved."—Parkhurst's Gram. for Beginners, p. 110. Here the second active form is wanting; and the second passive is confounded with the first.

9. ACT. "Imperfect, Loving [;] Perfect, Having loved [.]" PAS. "Imperfect, Being loved [;] Perfect, Loved, Having been loved."—Wells's School Gram., pp. 99 and 101. Here, too, the second active is not given; the third is called by the name of the second; and the second passive is confounded with the third, as if they were but forms of the same thing.

10. ACT. "Imperfect, (Present,) Loving. Perfect. Having loved. Auxiliary Perfect, Loved." PAS. "Imperfect, (Present,) Being loved. Perfect, Having been loved. Passive, Loved."—N. Butler's Pract. Gram., pp. 84 and 91. Here the common order of most of the participles is very improperly disturbed, and as many are misnamed.

11. ACT. "Present, Loving [;] Perfect, Loved [;] Comp. Perf. Having loved [.]" PAS. "Present, Being loved [;] Perfect, Loved, or been loved [;] Compound Perfect, Having been loved."—Frazee's Improved Gram., 63 and 73. Here the second participle passive has two forms, one of which, "been loved," is not commonly recognized, except as part of some passive verb or preperfect participle.

12. ACT. V. "Imperfect, Seeing. Perfect, Seen. Compound, Having seen." PAS. V. "Preterimperfect, Being seen. Preterperfect, Having been seen."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 102. Here the chief and radical passive participle is lacking, and neither of the compounds is well named.

13. ACT. "Present, Loving, [;] Past, Loved, [;] Com. Past, Having loved." PAS. "Present, Being loved. [;] Past, Loved. [;] Com. Past. [,] Having been loved."—Felton's Analyt. and Pract. Gram., of 1843, pp. 37 and 50.

14. ACT. "Present. [,] Loving. [;] Perfect. [,] Loved. [;] Compound Perfect. [,] Having loved." PAS. "Perfect or Passive. Loved. Compound Perfect. Having been loved."—Bicknell's Gram. Lond., 1790, Part I, pp. 66 and 70; L. Murray's 2d Edition, York, 1796, pp. 72 and 77. Here "Being loved," is not noticed.

15. "Participles. Active Voice. Present. Loving. Past. Loved, or having loved. Participles. Passive Voice. Present. Being loved. Past. Having been loved."—John Burn's Practical Gram., p. 70. Here the chief Passive term, "Loved," is omitted, and two of the active forms are confounded.

16. "Present, loving, Past, loved, Compound, having loved."—S. W. Clark's Practical Gram., of 1848, p. 71. "ACT. VOICE.—Present … Loving [;] Compound [,] Having loved…… Having been loving."—Ib., p. 81. "PAS. VOICE.—Present….. Loved, or, being loved [;] Compound….. Having been loved."—Ib., p. 83. "The Compound Participle consists of the Participle of a principal verb, added to the word having, or being, or to the two words having been. Examples—Having loved—being loved—having been loved."—Ib., p. 71. Here the second extract is deficient, as may be seen by comparing it with the first; and the fourth is grossly erroneous, as is shown by the third. The participles, too, are misnamed throughout.

The reader may observe that the punctuation of the foregoing examples is very discrepant. I have, in brackets, suggested some corrections, but have not attempted a general adjustment of it.

[303] "The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between the participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state denoted by the verb; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, the present participle signifies imperfect action, or action begun and not ended: as, 'I am writing a letter.' The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished: as, 'I have written a letter.'—'The letter is written.'"—Murray's Grammar, 8vo, p. 65. "The first [participle] expresses a continuation; the other, a completion."—W. Allen's Grammar, 12mo, London, 1813. "The idea which this participle [e.g. 'tearing'] really expresses, is simply that of the continuance of an action in an incomplete or unfinished state. The action may belong to time present, to time past, or to time future. The participle which denotes the completion of an action, as torn, is called the perfect participle; because it represents the action as perfect or finished."—Barnard's Analytic Gram., p. 51. Emmons stealthily copies from my Institutes as many as ten lines in defence of the term 'Imperfect' and yet, in his conjugations, he calls the participle in ing, "Present." This seems inconsistent. See his "Grammatical Instructer," p. 61.

[304] "The ancient termination (from the Anglo-Saxon) was and; as, 'His schynand sword.' Douglas. And sometimes ende; as, 'She, between the deth and life, Swounende lay full ofte.' Gower."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 88. "The present Participle, in Saxon, was formed by ande, ende, or onde; and, by cutting off the final e, it acquired a Substantive signification, and extended the idea to the agent: as, alysende, freeing, and alysend, a redeemer; freonde, loving or friendly, and freond, a lover or a friend."—Booth's Introd. to Dict., p. 75.

[305] William B. Fowle, a modern disciple of Tooke, treats the subject of grammatical time rather more strangely than his master. Thus: "How many times or tenses have verbs? Two, [the] present and [the] past," To this he immediately adds in a note: "We do not believe in a past any more than a future tense of verbs."—The True English Gram., p. 30. So, between these two authors, our verbs will retain no tenses at all. Indeed, by his two tenses, Fowle only meant to recognize the two simple forms of an English verb. For he says, in an other place, "We repeat our conviction that no verb in itself expresses time of any sort."—Ib., p. 69,

[306] "STONE'-BLIND," "STONE'-COLD," and "STONE'-DEAD," are given in Worcester's Dictionary, as compound adjectives; and this is perhaps their best classification; but, if I mistake not, they are usually accented quite as strongly on the latter syllable, as on the former, being spoken rather as two emphatic words. A similar example from Sigourney, "I saw an infant marble cold," is given by Frazee under this Note: "Adjectives sometimes belong to other adjectives; as, 'red hot iron.'"—Improved Gram., p. 141. But Webster himself, from whom this doctrine and the example are borrowed, (see his Rule XIX,) makes "RED'-HOT" but one word in his Dictionary; and Worcester gives it as one word, in a less proper form, even without a hyphen, "RED'HOT."

[307] "OF ENALLAGE.—The construction which may be reduced to this figure in English, chiefly appears when one part of speech, is used with the power and effect of another."—Ward's English Gram., p. 150.

[308] Forsooth is literally a word of affirmation or assent, meaning for truth, but it is now almost always used ironically: as, "In these gentlemen whom the world forsooth calls wise and solid, there is generally either a moroseness that persecutes, or a dullness that tires you."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 24.

[309] In most instances, however, the words hereof, thereof, and whereof, are placed after nouns, and have nothing to do with any verb. They are therefore not properly adverbs, though all our grammarians and lexicographers call them so. Nor are they adjectives; because they are not used adjectively, but rather in the sense of a pronoun governed by of; or, what is nearly the same thing, in the sense of the possessive or genitive case. Example: "And the fame hereof went abroad."—Matt., ix, 26. That is, "the fame of this miracle;" which last is a better expression, the other being obsolete, or worthy to be so, on account of its irregularity.

[310] Seldom is sometimes compared in this manner, though not frequently; as, "This kind of verse occurs the seldomest, but has a happy effect in diversifying the melody."—Blair's Rhet., p. 385. In former days, this word, as well as its correlative often, was sometimes used adjectively; as, "Thine often infirmities."—1 Tim., v, 23. "I hope God's Book hath not been my seldomest lectures."—Queen Elizabeth, 1585. John Walker has regularly compared the adverb forward: in describing the latter L, he speaks of the tip of the tongue as being "brought a little forwarder to the teeth."—Pron. Dict., Principles, No. 55.

[311] A few instances of the regular inflection of adverbs ending in ly, may be met with in modern compositions, as in the following comparisons: "As melodies will sometimes ring sweetlier in the echo."—The Dial, Vol. i, p. 6. "I remember no poet whose writings would safelier stand the test."—Coleridge's Biog. Lit., Vol. ii, p. 53.

[312] De Sacy, in his Principles of General Grammar, calls the relative pronouns "Conjunctive Adjectives." See Fosdick's Translation, p. 57. He also says, "The words who, which, etc. are not the only words which connect the function of a Conjunction with another design. There are Conjunctive Nouns and Adverbs, as well as Adjectives; and a characteristic of these words is, that we can substitute for them another form of expression in which shall be found the words who, which, etc. Thus, when, where, what, how, as, and many others, are Conjunctive words: [as,] 'I shall finish when I please;' that is, 'I shall finish at the time at which I please.'—'I know not where I am;' i.e. 'I know not the place in which I am.'"—Ib., p. 58. In respect to the conjunctive adverbs, this is well enough, so far as it goes; but the word who appears to me to be a pronoun, and not an adjective; and of his "Conjunctive Nouns," he ought to have given us some examples, if he knew of any.

[313] "Now the Definition of a CONJUNCTION is as follows—a Part of Speech, void of Signification itself, but so formed as to help Signification by making TWO or more significant Sentences to be ONE significant Sentence."—Harris's Hermes, 6th Edition, London, p. 238.

[314] Whether these, or any other conjunctions that come together, ought to ho parsed together, is doubtful. I am not in favour of taking any words together, that can well be parsed separately. Goodenow, who defines a phrase to be "the union of two or more words having the nature and construcion [sic—KTH] of a single word," finds an immense number of these unions, which he cannot, or does not, analyze. As examples of "a conjunctional phrase," he gives "as if and "as though."—Gram., p. 25. But when he comes to speak of ellipsis, he says: "After the conjunctions than, as, but, &c., some words are generally understood; as, 'We have more than [that is which] will suffice;' 'He acted as [he would act] if he were mad.'"—Ib., p. 41. This doctrine is plainly repugnant to the other.

[315] Of the construction noticed in this observation, the Rev. Matt. Harrison cites a good example; pronounces it elliptical; and scarcely forbears to condemn it as bad English: "In the following sentence, the relative pronoun is three times omitted:—'Is there a God to swear by, and is there none to believe in, none to trust to?'—Letters and Essays, Anonymous. By, in, and to, as prepositions, stand alone, denuded of the relatives to which they apply. The sentence presents no attractions worthy of imitation. It exhibits a license carried to the extreme point of endurance."—Harrison's English Language, p. 196.

[316] "An ellipsis of from after the adverb off has caused the latter word sometimes to be inserted incorrectly among the prepositions. Ex. 'off (from) his horse.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 96. Off and on are opposites; and, in a sentence like the following, I see no more need of inserting "from" after the former, than to after the latter: "Thou shalt not come down off that bed on which thou art gone up."—2 Kings, i, 16.

[317] "Who consequently reduced the greatest part of the island TO their own power."—Swift, on the English Tongue. "We can say, that one nation reduces another TO subjection. But when dominion or power is used, we always, as [so] far as I know, say, reduce UNDER their power" [or dominion]—Blair's Rhet., p. 229.

[318] "O foy, don't misapprehend me; I don't say so."—DOUBLE DEALER: Kames, El. of Crit., i, 305.

[319] According to Walker and Webster, la is pronounced law; and, if they are right in this, the latter is only a false mode of spelling. But I set down both, because both are found in books, and because I incline to think the former is from the French la, which is pronounced lah. Johnson and Webster make la and lo synonymous; deriving lo from the Saxon la, and la either from lo or from the French la. "Law, how you joke, cousin."—Columbian Orator, p. 178. "Law me! the very ghosts are come now!"—Ibid. "Law, sister Betty! I am glad to see you!"—Ibid.

"La you! If you speak ill of the devil, How he takes it at heart!"—SHAKESPEARE: Joh. Dict., w. La.

[320] The interjection of interrogating, being placed independently, either after a question, or after something which it converts into a question, is usually marked with its own separate eroteme; as, "But this is even so: eh?"—Newspaper. "Is't not drown'd i' the last rain? Ha?"—Shakespeare. "Does Bridget paint still, Pompey? Ha?"—Id. "Suits my complexion—hey, gal? so I think."—Yankee Schoolmaster. Sometimes we see it divided only by a comma, from the preceding question; as, "What dost thou think of this doctrine, Friend Gurth, ha?"—SCOTT'S IVANHOE: Fowler's E. Gram., §29.

[321] Though oh and ah are most commonly used as signs of these depressing passions, it must be confessed that they are sometimes employed by reputable writers, as marks of cheerfulness or exultation; as, "Ah, pleasant proof," &c.—Cowper's Task, p. 179. "Merrily oh! merrily oh!"—Moore's Tyrolese Song. "Cheerily oh! cheerily oh!"—Ib. But even if this usage be supposed to be right, there is still some difference between these words and the interjection O: if there were not, we might dispense with the latter, and substitute one of the former; but this would certainly change the import of many an invocation.

[322] This position is denied by some grammarians. One recent author says, "The object cannot properly be called one of the principal parts of a sentence; as it belongs only to some sentences, and then is dependent on the verb, which it modifies or explains."—Goodenow's Gram., p. 87. This is consistent enough with the notion, that, "An infinitive, with or without a substantive, may be the object of a transitive verb; as, 'I wish to ride;' 'I wish you to ride.'"—Ib., p. 37. Or, with the contrary notion, that, "An infinitive may be the object of a preposition, expressed or understood; as, 'I wish for you to ride.'"—Ibid. But if the object governed by the verb, is always a mere qualifying adjunct, a mere "explanation of the attribute," (Ib., p. 28,) how differs it from an adverb? "Adverbs are words added to verbs, and sometimes to other words, to qualify their meaning."—Ib., p. 23. And if infinitives and other mere adjuncts may be the objects which make verbs transitive, how shall a transitive verb be known? The fact is, that the true object of the transitive verb is one of the principal parts of the sentence, and that the infinitive mood cannot properly be reckoned such an object.

[323] Some writers distinguish sentences as being of three kinds, simple, and complex, and compound; but, in this work, care has not in general been taken to discriminate between complex sentences and compound. A late author states the difference thus: "A sentence containing but one proposition is simple; a sentence containing two propositions, one of which modifies the other, is complex; a sentence containing two propositions which in no way modify each other, is compound."—Greene's Analysis, p. 3. The term compound, as applied to sentences, is not usually so restricted. An other, using the same terms for a very different division, explains them thus: "A Simple Sentence contains but one subject and one attribute; as, 'The sun shines.' A Complex Sentence contains two or more subjects of the same attribute, or two or more attributes of the same subject; as, 'The sun and the stars shine.' 'The sun rises and sets.' 'The sun and the stars rise and set.' A Compound Sentence is composed of two or more simple or complex sentences united; as, 'The sun shines, and the stars twinkle.' 'The sun rises and sets, as the earth revolves.'"—Pinneo's English Teacher, p. 10; Analytical Gram., pp. 128, 142, and 146. This notion of a complex sentence is not more common than Greene's; nor is it yet apparent, that the usual division of sentences into two kinds ought to give place to any tripartite distribution.

[324] The terms clause and member, in grammar, appear to have been generally used as words synonymous; but some authors have thought it convenient to discriminate them, as having different senses. Hiley says, "Those parts of a sentence which are separated by commas, are called clauses; and those separated by semicolons, are called members."—Hiley' s Gram., p. 66. W. Allen too confines the former term to simple members: "A compound sentence is formed by uniting two or more simple sentences; as, Man is mortal, and life is uncertain. Each of these simple sentences is called a clause. When the members of a compound sentence are complex, they are subdivided into clauses; as, Virtue leads to honor, and insures true happiness; but vice degrades the understanding, and is succeeded by infamy."—Allen's Gram., p. 128. By some authors, the terms clause and phrase are often carelessly confounded, each being applied with no sort of regard to its proper import. Thus, where L. Murray and his copyists expound their text about "the pupil's composing frequently," even the minor phrase, "composing frequently," is absurdly called a clause; "an entire clause of a sentence."—See Murray's Gram., p. 179; Alger's, 61; Fisk's, 108; Ingersoll's, 180; Merchant's, 84; R. C. Smith's, 152; Weld's, 2d Ed., 150. The term sentence also is sometimes grossly misapplied. Thus, by R. C. Smith, the phrases "James and William," "Thomas and John," and others similar, are called "sentences."—Smith's New Gram., pp. 9 and 10. So Weld absurdly writes as follows; "A whole sentence is frequently the object of a preposition; as, 'The crime of being a young man.' Being a young man, is the object of the preposition of."—Weld's E. Gram., 2d Edition, p. 42. The phrase, "being a young man," here depends upon "of;" but this preposition governs nothing but the participle "being." The construction of the word "man" is explained below, in Obs. 7th on Rule 6th, of Same Cases.

[325] In the very nature of things, all agreement consists in concurrence, correspondence, conformity, similarity, sameness, equality; but government is direction, control, regulation, restrain, influence, authoritative requisition, with the implication of inequality. That these properties ought to be so far distinguished in grammar, as never to be supposed to co-exist in the same terms and under the same circumstances, must be manifest to every reasoner. Some grammarians who seem to have been not always unaware of this, have nevertheless egregiously forgotten it at times. Thus Nutting, in the following remark, expresses a true doctrine, though he has written it with no great accuracy: "A word in parsing never governs the same word which it qualifies, or with which it agrees."—Practical Gram., p. 108. Yet, in his syntax, in which he pretends to separate agreement from government, he frames his first rule under the better head thus: "The nominative case governs a verb."—Ib. p. 96. Lindsey Murray recognizes no such government as this; but seems to suppose his rule for the agreement of a verb with its nominative to be sufficient for both verb and nominative. He appears, however, not to have known that a word does not agree syntactically with another that governs it; for, in his Exercises, he has given us, apparently from his own pen, the following untrue, but otherwise not very objectionable sentence: "On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by, an consequently agrees with, the preceding word."—Exercises, 8vo, ii, 74. This he corrects thus: On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by the preceding word, and consequently agrees with it."—Key, 8vo, ii, 204. The amendments most needed he overlooks; for the thought is not just, and the two verbs which are here connected with one and the same nominative, are different in form. See the same example, with the same variation of it, in Smith's New Gram., p. 167; and, without the change, in Ingersoll's, p. 233; and Fisk's, 141.

[326] It has been the notion of some grammarians, that the verb governs the nominative before it. This is an old rule, which seems to have been very much forgotten by modern authors; though doubtless it is as true, and as worthy to be perpetuated, as that which supposes the nominative to govern the verb: "Omne verbum personale finiti modi regit ante se expresse vel subaudite ejusdem numeri et personæ nominativum vel aliquid pro nominativo: ut, ego scribo, tu legis, ille auscultat."—DESPAUTERII SYNT. fol. xvi. This Despauter was a laborious author, who, within fifty years after the introduction of printing, complains that he found his task heavy, on account of the immense number of books and opinions which he had to consult: "Necdum tamen huic operi ultimam manum aliter imposui, quam Apelles olim picturis: siquidem aptius exire, quum in multis tum in hac arte est difficillimum, propter librorum legendorum immensitatem, et opinionum innumeram diversitatem."—Ibid., Epist. Apologetica, A. D. 1513. But if, for this reason, the task was heavy then, what is it now!

[327] Nutting's rule certainly implies that articles may relate to pronouns, though he gives no example, nor can he give any that is now good English; but he may, if he pleases, quote some other modern grammatists, who teach the same false doctrine: as, "RULE II. The article refers to its noun (OR PRONOUN) to limit its signification."—R. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book, p. 18. Greene's two grammars are used extensively in the state of Maine, but they appear to be little known anywhere else. This author professes to inculcate "the principles established by Lindley Murray." If veracity, on this point, is worth any thing, it is a pity that in both books there are so many points which, like the foregoing parenthesis, belie this profession. He followed here Ingersoll's RULE IV, which is this: "The article refers to a noun OR PRONOUN, expressed or understood, to limit its signification."— Conversations on E. Gram., p. 185.

[328] It is truly a matter of surprise to find under what titles or heads, many of the rules of syntax have been set, by some of the best scholars that have ever written on grammar. In this respect, the Latin and Greek grammarians are particularly censurable; but it better suits my purpose to give an example or two from one of the ablest of the English. Thus that elegant scholar the Rev. W. Allen: "SYNTAX OF NOUNS. 325. A verb agrees with its nominative case in number and person."—Elements of E. Gram., p. 131. This is in no wise the syntax of Nouns, but rather that of the Verb. Again: "SYNTAX OF VERBS. 405. Active Verbs govern the accusative case; as, I love him. We saw them. God rules the world."—Ib., p. 161. This is not properly the syntax of Verbs, but rather that of Nouns or Pronouns in the accusative or objective case. Any one who has but the least sense of order, must see the propriety of referring the rule to that sort of words to which it is applied in parsing, and not some other. Verbs are never parsed or construed by the latter of these rules nor nouns by the former.

[329] What "the Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, ON THE SAME PLAN," will ultimately be,—how many treatises for each or any of the languages it will probably contain,—what uniformity will be found in the distribution of their several sorts and sizes,—or what sameness they will have, except that which is bestowed by the binders,—cannot yet be stated with any certainty. It appears now, in 1850, that the scheme has thus far resulted in the production of three remarkably different grammars, for the English part of the series, and two more, a Latin grammar and a Greek, which resemble each other, or any of these, as little. In these works, abound changes and discrepances, sometimes indicating a great unsettlement of "principles" or "plan," and often exciting our wonder at the extraordinary variety of teaching, which has been claimed to be, "as nearly in the same words as the as the genius of the languages would permit!" In what should have been uniform, and easily might have been so, these grammars are rather remarkably diverse! Uniformity in the order, number, or phraseology of the Rules of Syntax, even for our own language, seems scarcely yet to have entered this "SAME PLAN" at all! The "onward progress of English grammar," or, rather, of the author's studies therein, has already, within "fifteen years," greatly varied, from the first model of the "Series," his own idea of a good grammar; and, though such changes bar consistency, a future progress, real or imaginary, may likewise, with as good reason, vary it yet as much more. In the preface to the work of 1840, it is said: "This, though not essentially different from the former, is yet in some respects a new work. It has been almost entirely rewritten." And again: "The Syntax is much fuller than in the former work; and though the rules are not different, they are arranged in a different order." So it is proved, that the model needed remodelling; and that the Syntax, especially, was defective, in matter as well as in order. The suggestions, that "the rules are not different," and the works, "not essentially" so, will sound best to those who shall never compare them. The old code has thirty-four chief, and twenty-two "special rules;" the new has twenty chief, thirty-six "special," and one "general rule." Among all these, we shall scarcely find exact sameness preserved in so many as half a dozen instances. Of the old thirty-four, fourteen only were judged worthy to remain as principal rules; and two of these have no claim at all to such rank, one of them being quite useless. Of the twenty now made chief, five are new to "the Series of Grammars," and three of these exceedingly resemble as many of mine; five are slightly altered, and five greatly, from their predecessors among the old: one is the first half of an old rule; one is an old subordinate rule, altered and elevated; and three are as they were before, their numbers and relative positions excepted!

[330] "The grammatical predicate is a verb."—Butler's Pract. Gram., 1845, p. 135, "The grammatical predicate is a finite verb."—Wells's School Gram., 1850, p. 185. "The grammatical predicate is either a verb alone, or the copula sum [some part of the verb be] with a noun or adjective."—Andrews and Stoddard's Lat. Gram., p. 163. "The predicate consists of two parts,—the verb, or copula, and that which is asserted by it, called the attribute; as 'Snow is white.'"—Greene's Analysis. p. 15. "The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula not modified by other word."—Bullions, Analyt, and Pract. Gram., P. 129. "The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words or phrases that modify it." Ib. p. 130. "The Grammatical predicate is the word or words containing the simple affirmation, made respecting the subject."—Bullions, Latin Gram., p. 269. "Every proposition necessarily consists of these three parts: [the subject, the predicate, and the copula;] but then it is not alike needful, that they be all severally expressed in words; because the copula is often included in the term of the predicate; as when we say, he sits, which imports the same as, he is sitting."—Duncan's Logic, p 105. In respect to this Third Method of Analysis. It is questionable, whether a noun or an adjective which follows the verb and forms part of the assertion, is to be included in "the grammatical predicate" or not. Wells says, No: "It would destroy at once all distinction between the grammatical and the logical predicate."—School Gram., p. 185. An other question is, whether the copula (is, was or the like,) which the logicians discriminate, should be included as part of the logical predicate, when it occurs as a distinct word. The prevalent practice of the grammatical analyzers is, so to include it,—a practice which in itself is not very "logical." The distinction of subjects and predicates as "grammatical and logical," is but a recent one. In some grammars, the partition used in logic is copied without change, except perhaps of words: as "There are, in sentences, a subject, a predicate and a copula." JOS. R. CHANDLER, Gram. of 1821, p. 105; Gram. of 1847, p. 116. The logicians, however, and those who copy them, may have been hitherto at fault in recognizing and specifying their "copula." Mulligan forcibly argues that the verb of being is no more entitled to this name than is every other verb. (See his Exposition," §46.) If he is right in this, the "copula" of the logicians (an in my opinion, his own also) is a mere figment of the brain, there being nothing that answers to the definition of the thing or to the true use of the word.

[331] I cite this example from Wells, for the purpose of explaining it without the several errors which that gentleman's "Model" incidentally inculcates. He suggests that and connects, not the two relative clauses, as such, but the two verbs can give and can take; and that the connexion between away and is must be traced through the former, and its object which. These positions, I think, are wrong. He also uses here, as elsewhere, the expressions, "which relates it" and, "which is related by," each in a very unusual, and perhaps an unauthorized, sense. His formule reads thus: "Away modifies can take; can take is CONNECTED with can give by and; WHICH is governed by CAN GIVE, and relates to security; security is the object of finding, which is RELATED BY of to conviction; conviction is the object of with, which RELATES IT to can look; to expresses the relation between whom and can look, and whom relates to Being, which is the subject of is." —Wells's School Gram., 113th Ed., p. 192. Neither this nor the subsequent method has been often called "analysis;" for, in grammar, each user of this term has commonly applied it to some one method only,—the method preferred by himself.

[332] The possessive phrase here should be, "Andrews and Stoddard's," as Wells and others write it. The adding of the apostrophe to the former name is wrong, even by the better half of Butler's own absurd and self-contradictory Rule: to wit, "When two or more nouns in the possessive case are connected by and, the possessive termination should be added to each of them; as, 'These are John's and Eliza's books.' But, if objects are possessed in common by two or more, and the nouns are closely connected without any intervening words, the possessive termination is added to the last noun only; as, 'These are John and Eliza's books.'"—Butler's Practical Gram., p. 163. The sign twice used implies two governing nouns: "John's and Eliza's books." = "John's books and Eliza's;" "Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar," = "Andrews' (or Andrews's) Latin Grammar and Stoddard's"

[333] In Mulligan's recent "Exposition of the Grammatical Structure of the English Language,"—the work of an able hand,—this kind of "Analysis," being most improperly pronounced "the chief business of the grammarian," is swelled by copious explanation under minute heads, to a volume containing more than three times as much matter as Greene's; but, since school-boys have little relish for long arguments, and prolixity had here already reached to satiety and disgust, it is very doubtful whether the practical utility of this "Improved Method of Teaching Grammar," will be greater in proportion to this increase of bulk.—G. B., 1853.

[334] "I will not take upon me to say, whether we have any Grammar that sufficiently instructs us by rule and example; but I am sure we have none, that in the manner here attempted, teaches us what is right, by showing what is wrong; though this perhaps may prove the more useful and effectual method of Instruction."—Lowth's Gram., Pref., p. viii.

[335] With the possessive case and its governing noun, we use but one article; and sometimes it seems questionable, to which of the two that article properly relates: as, "This is one of the Hebrews' children."—Exodus, ii, 6. The sentence is plainly equivalent to the following, which has two articles: "This is one of the children of the Hebrews." Not because the one article is equivalent to the two, or because it relates to both of the nouns; but because the possessive relation itself makes one of the nouns sufficiently definite. Now, if we change the latter construction back into the former, it is the noun children that drops its article; it is therefore the other to which the remaining article relates. But we sometimes find examples in which the same analogy does not hold. Thus, "a summer's day" means, "a day of summer;" and we should hardly pronounce it equivalent to "the day of a summer." So the questionable phrase, "a three days' journey," means, "a journey of three days;" and, whether the construction be right or wrong, the article a cannot be said to relate to the plural noun. Possibly such a phrase as, "the three years' war," might mean, "the war of three years;" so that the article must relate to the latter noun. But in general it is the latter noun that is rendered definite by the possessive relation: thus the phrase, "man's works" is equivalent to "the works of man," not to "works of the man;" so, "the man's works," is equivalent, not to "the works of man," but to "the works of the man."

[336] Horne Tooke says, "The use of A after the word MANY is a corruption for of; and has no connection whatever with the article A, i. e. one."—Diversions of Purley, Vol. ii, p. 324. With this conjecture of the learned etymologist, I do not concur: it is hardly worth while to state here, what may he urged pro and con.

[337] "Nothing can be more certain than that [in Greek syntax] all words used for the purpose of definition, either stand between the article and the noun, or have their own article prefixed. Yet it may sometimes happen that an apposition [with an article] is parenthetically inserted instead of being affixed."—J. W. DONALDSON: Journal of Philology, No. 2, p. 223.

[338] Churchill rashly condemns this construction, and still more rashly proposes to make the noun singular without repeating the article. See his New Gram., p. 311. But he sometimes happily forgets his own doctrine; as, "In fact, the second and fourth lines here stamp the character of the measure."—Ib., p. 391. O. B. Peirce says, "'Joram's second and third daughters,' must mean, if it means any thing, his second daughters and third daughters; and, 'the first and second verses.' if it means any thing, must represent the first verses and the second verses."— Peirce's English Gram., p. 263. According to my notion, this interpretation is as false and hypercritical, as is the rule by which the author professes to show what is right. He might have been better employed in explaining some of his own phraseology, such as, "the indefinite-past and present of the declarative mode."—Ib., p. 100. The critic who writes such stuff as this, may well be a misinterpreter of good common English. It is plain, that the two examples which he thus distorts, are neither obscure nor inelegant. But, in an alternative of single things, the article must be repeated, and a plural noun is improper; as, "But they do not receive the Nicene or the Athanasian creeds."—Adam's Religious World, Vol. ii, p. 105. Say, "creed." So in an enumeration; as, "There are three participles: the present, the perfect, and the compound perfect participles"—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 42. Expunge this last word, "participles." Sometimes a sentence is wrong, not as being in itself a solecism, but as being unadapted to the author's thought. Example: "Other tendencies will be noticed in the Etymological and Syntactical part."—Fowler's E. Gram., N. Y., 1850, p. 75. This implies, what appears not to be true, that the author meant to treat Etymology and Syntax together in a single part of his work. Had he put an s to the noun "part," he might have been understood in either of two other ways, but not in this. To make sure of his meaning, therefore, he should have said—"in the Etymological Part and the Syntactical."

[339] Oliver B. Peirce, in his new theory of grammar, not only adopts Ingersoll's error, but adds others to it. He supposes no ellipsis, and declares it grossly improper ever to insert the pronoun. According to him, the following text is wrong: "My son, despise not thou the chastening of the Lord."—Heb., xii, 5. See Peirce's Gram., p. 255. Of this gentleman's book I shall say the less, because its faults are so many and so obvious. Yet this is "The Grammar of the English Language," and claims to be the only work which is worthy to be called an English Grammar. "The first and only Grammar of the English Language!"—Ib., p. 10. In punctuation, it is a very chaos, as one might guess from the following Rule: "A word of the second person, and in the subjective case, must have a semicolon after it; as, John; hear me."—Id., p. 282. Behold his practice! "John, beware."—P. 84. "Children, study."—P. 80. "Henry; study."—P. 249. "Pupil: parse."—P. 211; and many other places. "Be thou, or do thou be writing? Be ye or you, or do ye or you be writing?"—P. 110. According to his Rule, this tense requires six semicolons; but the author points it with two commas and two notes of interrogation!

[340] In Butler's Practical Grammar, first published in 1845, this doctrine is taught as a novelty. His publishers, in their circular letter, speak of it as one of "the peculiar advantages of this grammar over preceding works," and as an important matter, "heretofore altogether omitted by grammarians!" Wells cites Butler in support of his false principle: "A verb in the infinitive is often preceded by a noun or pronoun in the objective, which has no direct dependence on any other word. Examples:—'Columbus ordered a strong fortress of wood and plaster to be erected.'—Irving. 'Its favors here should make us tremble.'— Young." See Wells's School Gram., p. 147.

[341] "Sometimes indeed the verb hath two regimens, and then the preposition is necessary to one of them; as, 'I address myself to my judges.'"—Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, p. 178. Here the verb address governs the pronoun myself, and is also the antecedent to the preposition to; and the construction would be similar, if the preposition governed the infinitive or a participle: as, "I prepared myself to swim;" or, "I prepared myself for swimming." But, in any of these cases, it is not very accurate to say, "the verb has two regimens;" for the latter term is properly the regimen of the preposition. Cardell, by robbing the prepositions, and supposing ellipses, found two regimens for every verb. W. Allen, on the contrary, (from whom Nixon gathered his doctrine above,) by giving the "accusative" to the infinitive, makes a multitude of our active-transitive verbs "neuter." See Allen's Gram., p. 166. But Nixon absurdly calls the verb "active-transitive," because it governs the infinitive; i. e. as he supposes—and, except when to is not used, erroneously supposes.

[342] A certain new theorist, who very innocently fogs himself and his credulous readers with a deal of impertinent pedantry, after denouncing my doctrine that to before the infinitive is a preposition, appeals to me thus: "Let me ask you, G. B.—is not the infinitive in Latin the same as in the English? Thus, I desire to teach Latin—Ego Cupio docere. I saw Abel come—Ego videbam Abelem venire. The same principle is recognized by the Greek grammars and those of most of the modern languages."—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 358. Of this gentleman I know nothing but from what appears in his book—a work of immeasurable and ill-founded vanity—a whimsical, dogmatical, blundering performance. This short sample of his Latin, (with six puerile errors in seven words,) is proof positive that he knows nothing of that language, whatever may be his attainments in Greek, or the other tongues of which he tells. To his question I answer emphatically, NO. In Latin, "One verb governs an other in the infinitive; as, Cupio discere, I desire to learn."—Adam's Gram., p. 181. This government never admits the intervention of a preposition. "I saw Abel come," has no preposition; but the Latin of it is, "Vidi Abelem venientem," and not what is given above; or, according to St. Jerome and others, who wrote, "Abel," without declension, we ought rather to say, "Vidi Abel venientem." If they are right, "Ego videbam Abelem venire," is every word of it wrong!

[343] Priestley cites these examples as authorities, not as false syntax. The errors which I thus quote at secondhand from other grammarians, and mark with double references, are in general such as the first quoters have allowed, and made themselves responsible for; but this is not the case in every instance. Such credit has sometimes, though rarely, been given, where the expression was disapproved.—G. BROWN.

[344] Lindley Murray thought it not impracticable to put two or more nouns in apposition and add the possessive sign to each; nor did he imagine there would often be any positive impropriety in so doing. His words, on this point, are these: "On the other hand, the application of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases incorrect: as, 'The Emperor's Leopold's; King George's; Charles's the Second's; The parcel was left at Smith's, the bookseller's and stationer's."—Octavo Gram., p. 177. Whether he imagined any of these to be "incorrect" or not, does not appear! Under the next rule, I shall give a short note which will show them all to be so. The author, however, after presenting these uncouth fictions, which show nothing but his own deficiency in grammar, has done the world the favour not to pronounce them very convenient phrases; for he continues the paragraph as follows: "The rules which we have endeavoured to elucidate, will prevent the inconveniences of both these modes of expression; and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the language.'—Ib. This undeserved praise of his own rules, he might as well have left to some other hand. They have had the fortune, however, to please sundry critics, and to become the prey of many thieves; but are certainly very deficient in the three qualities here named; and, taken together with their illustrations, they form little else than a tissue of errors, partly his own, and partly copied from Lowth and Priestley.

Dr. Latham, too, and Prof. Child, whose erroneous teaching on this point is still more marvellous, not only inculcate the idea that possessives in form may be in apposition, but seem to suppose that two possessive endings are essential to the relation. Forgetting all such English as we have in the phrases, "John the Baptist's head,"—"For Jacob my servant's sake,"—"Julius Cæsar's Commentaries,"—they invent sham expressions, too awkward ever to have come to their knowledge from any actual use,—such as, "John's the farmer's wife,"—"Oliver's the spy's evidence,"—and then end their section with the general truth, "For words to be in apposition with each other, they must be in the same case."—Elementary Grammar, Revised Edition, p. 152. What sort of scholarship is that in which fictitious examples mislead even their inventors?

[345] In Professor Fowler's recent and copious work, "The English Language in its Elements and Forms," our present Reciprocals are called, not Pronominal Adjectives, but "Pronouns," and are spoken of, in the first instance, thus: "§248. A RECIPROCAL PRONOUN is one that implies the mutual action of different agents. EACH OTHER, and ONE ANOTHER, are our reciprocal forms, which are treated exactly as if they were compound pronouns, taking for their genitives, each other's, one another's. Each other is properly used of two, and one another of more." The definition here given takes for granted what is at least disputable, that "each other," or "one another," is not a phrase, but is merely "one pronoun." But, to none of his three important positions here taken, does the author himself at all adhere. In §451, at Note 3, he teaches thus: "'They love each other.' Here each is in the nominative case in apposition with they, and other is in the objective case. 'They helped one another.' Here one is in apposition with they, and another is in the objective case." Now, by this mode of parsing, the reciprocal terms "are treated," not as "compound pronouns," but as phrases consisting of distinct or separable words: and, as being separate or separable words, whether they be Adjectives or Pronouns, they conform not to his definition above. Out of the sundry instances in which, according to his own showing, he has misapplied one or the other of these phrases, I cite the following: (1.) "The two ideas of Science and Art differ from one another as the understanding differs from the will."—Fowler's Gram., 1850, §180. Say,—"from each other;" or,—"one from the other." (2.) "THOU, THY, THEE, are etymologically related to each other."—Ib., §216. Say,—"to one an other;" because there are "more" than "two." (3.) "Till within some centuries, the Germans, like the French and the English, addressed each other in familiar conversation by the Second Person Singular."—Ib., §221. Say,—"addressed one an other." (4.) "Two sentences are, on the other hand, connected in the way of co-ordination [,] when they are not thus dependent one upon _an_other."—Ib., §332. Say,—"upon each other;" or,—"one upon the other;" because there are but two. (5.) "These two rivers are at a great distance from one _an_other."—Ib., §617. Say,—"from each other;" or,—"one from the other." (6.) "The trees [in the Forest of Bombast] are close, spreading, and twined into each other."—Ib., §617. Say,—"into one an other."

[346] For this quotation, Dr. Campbell gives, in his margin, the following reference: "Introduction, &c., Sentences, Note on the 6th Phrase." But in my edition of Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar, (a Philadelphia edition of 1799,) I do not find the passage. Perhaps it has been omitted in consequence of Campbell's criticism, of which I here cite but a part.—G. BROWN.

[347] By some grammarians it is presumed to be consistent with the nature of participles to govern the possessive case; and Hiley, if he is to be understood literally, assumes it as an "established principle," that they all do so! "Participles govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, and at the same time, if derived from transitive verbs, require the noun or pronoun following to be in the objective case, without the intervention of the preposition of; as 'Much depends on William's observing the rule, and error will be the consequence of his neglecting it;' or, 'Much will depend on the rule's being observed by William, and error will be the consequence of its being neglected.'"—Hiley's Gram., p. 94. These sentences, without doubt, are nearly equivalent to each other in meaning. To make them exactly so, "depends" or "will depend" must be changed in tense, and "its being neglected" must be "its being neglected by him." But who that has looked at the facts in the case, or informed himself on the points here in dispute, will maintain that either the awkward phraseology of the latter example, or the mixed and questionable construction of the former, or the extensive rule under which they are here presented, is among "the established principles and best usages of the English language?"—Ib., p. 1.

[348] What, in Weld's "Abridged Edition," is improperly called a "participial noun," was, in his "original work," still more erroneously termed "a participial clause." This gentleman, who has lately amended his general rule for possessives by wrongfully copying or imitating mine, has also as widely varied his conception of the participial—"object possessed;" but, in my judgement, a change still greater might not be amiss. "The possessive is often governed by a participial clause; as, much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently. Pupil's is governed by the clause, 'composing frequently.' NOTE.—The sign ('s) should be annexed to the word governed by the participial clause following it."—Weld's Gram., 2d Edition, p. 150. Again: "The possessive is often governed by a participial noun; as, Much will depend on the pupil's composing frequently. Pupil's is governed by the participial noun composing. NOTE.—The sign ('s) should be annexed to the word governed by the participial noun following it."—Weld's Gram., Abridged, p. 117. Choosing the possessive case, where, both by analogy and by authority, the objective would be quite as grammatical, if not more so; destroying, as far as possible, all syntactical distinction between the participle and the participial noun, by confounding them purposely, even in name; this author, like Wells, whom he too often imitates, takes no notice of the question here discussed, and seems quite unconscious that participles partly made nouns can produce false syntax. To the foregoing instructions, he subjoins the following comment, as a marginal note: "The participle used as a noun, still retains its verbal properties, and may govern the objective case, or be modified by an adverb or adjunct, like the verb from which it is derived."—Ibid. When one part of speech is said to be used as an other, the learner may be greatly puzzled to understand to which class the given word belongs. If "the participle used as a noun, still retains its verbal properties," it is, manifestly, not a noun, but a participle still; not a participial noun, but a nounal participle, whether the thing be allowable or not. Hence the teachings just cited are inconsistent. Wells says, "Participles are often used in the sense of nouns; as, 'There was again the smacking of whips, the clattering of hoofs, and the glittering of harness.'—IRVING."—School Gram., p. 154. This is not well stated; because these are participial nouns, and not "participles." What Wells calls "participial nouns," differ from these, and are all spurious, all mongrels, all participles rather than nouns. In regard to possessives before participles, no instructions appear to be more defective than those of this gentleman. His sole rule supposes the pupil always to know when and why the possessive is proper, and only instructs him not to form it without the sign! It is this: "When a noun or a pronoun, preceding a participle used as a noun, is properly in the possessive case, the sign of possession should not be omitted."—School Gram., p. 121. All the examples put under this rule, are inappropriate: each will mislead the learner. Those which are called "Correct," are, I think erroneous; and those which are called "False Syntax," the adding of the possessive sign will not amend.

[349] It is remarkable, that Lindley Murray, with all his care in revising his work, did not see the inconsistency of his instructions in relation to phrases of this kind. First he copies Lowth's doctrine, literally and anonymously, from the Doctor's 17th page, thus: "When the thing to which another is said to belong, is expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the possessive case is commonly added to the last term: as, 'The king of Great Britain's dominions.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 45. Afterwards he condemns this: "The word in the genitive case is frequently PLACED IMPROPERLY: as, 'This fact appears from Dr. Pearson of Birmingham's experiments.' It should be, 'from the experiments of Dr. Pearson of Birmingham.' "—Ib., p. 175. And again he makes it necessary: "A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase: as, 'Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's;' 'That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;' " &c.—Ib., p. 276. Is there not contradiction in these instructions?

[350] A late grammarian tells us: "In nouns ending in es and ss, the other s is not added; as, Charles' hat, Goodness' sake."—Wilcox's Gram., p. 11. He should rather have said, "To nouns ending in es or ss, the other s is not added." But his doctrine is worse than his syntax; and, what is remarkable, he himself forgets it in the course of a few minutes, thus: "Decline Charles. Nom. Charles, Poss. Charles's, Obj. Charles."—Ib., p. 12. See the like doctrine in Mulligan's recent work on the "Structure of Language," p. 182.

[351] VAUGELAS was a noted French critic, who died in 1650. In Murray's Grammar, the name is more than once mistaken. On page 359th, of the edition above cited, it is printed "Vangelas"—G. BROWN.

[352] Nixon parses boy, as being "in the possessive case, governed by distress understood;" and girl's, as being "coupled by nor to boy," according to the Rule, "Conjunctions connect the same cases." Thus one word is written wrong; the other, parsed wrong: and so of all his examples above.—G. BROWN.

[353] Wells, whose Grammar, in its first edition, divides verbs into "transitive, intransitive, and passive;" but whose late edition absurdly make all passives transitive; says, in his third edition, "A transitive verb is a verb that has some noun or pronoun for its object;" (p. 78;) adopts, in his syntax, the old dogma, "Transitive verbs govern the objective case;" (3d Ed., p. 154;) and to this rule subjoins a series of remarks, so singularly fit to puzzle or mislead the learner, and withal so successful in winning the approbation of committees and teachers, that it may be worth while to notice most of them here.

"REM. 1.—A sentence or phrase often supplies the place of a noun or pronoun in the objective case; as, 'You see how few of these men have returned.'"—Wells' s School Gram., "Third Thousand," p. 154; late Ed. §215. According to this, must we not suppose verbs to be often transitive, when not made so by the author's definition? And if "see" is here transitive, would not other forms, such as are told, have been told, or are aware, be just as much so, if put in its place?

"REM. 2.—An intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective, when the verb and the noun depending upon it are of kindred signification; as, 'To live a blameless life;'—'To run a race.'"—Ib. Here verbs are absurdly called "intransitive," when, both in fact and by the foregoing definition, they are clearly transitive; or, at least, are, by many teachers, supposed to be so.

"REM. 3.—Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which intransitive verbs are followed by objectives depending upon them; as, 'To look the subject fully in the face.'—Channing. 'They laughed him to scorn.'—Matt. 9:24. 'And talked the night away.'—Goldsmith."— Ib. Here again, verbs evidently made transitive by the construction, are, with strange inconsistency, called "intransitive." By these three remarks together, the distinction between transitives and intransitives must needs be extensively obscured in the mind of the learner.

"REM. 4.—Transitive verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some others, are often employed to govern two objectives; as, 'Ask him his opinion;'—'This experience taught me a valuable lesson.'—'Spare me yet this bitter cup.'—Hemans. 'I thrice presented him a kingly crown.'—Shakspeare."—Ib. This rule not only jumbles together several different constructions, such as would require different cases in Latin or Greek, but is evidently repugnant to the sense of many of the passages to which it is meant to be applied. Wells thinks, the practice of supplying a preposition, "is, in many cases, arbitrary, and does violence to an important and well established idiom of the language."—Ib. But how can any idiom be violated by a mode of parsing, which merely expounds its true meaning? If the dative case has the meaning of to, and the ablative has the meaning of from, how can they be expounded, in English, but by suggesting the particle, where it is omitted? For example: "Spare me yet [from] this bitter cup."—"Spare [to] me yet this joyous cup." This author says, "The rule for the government of two objectives by a verb, without the aid of a preposition, is adopted by Webster, Murray, Alexander, Frazee, Nutting, Perley, Goldsbury, J. M. Putnam, Hamlin, Flower, Crane, Brace, and many others."—Ib. Yet, if I mistake not, the weight of authority is vastly against it. Such a rule as this, is not extensively approved; and even some of the names here given, are improperly cited. Lindley Murray's remark, "Some of our verbs appear to govern two words in the objective case," is applied only to words in apposition, and wrong even there; Perley's rule is only of "Some verbs of asking and teaching;" and Nutting's note, "It sometimes happens that one transitive verb governs two objective cases," is so very loose, that one can neither deny it, nor tell how much it means.

"REM. 5.—Verbs of asking, giving, teaching, and some others, are often employed in the passive voice to govern a noun or pronoun; as, 'He was asked his opinion.'—Johnson. 'He had been refused shelter.'— Irving."—Ib., p. 155, §215. Passive governing is not far from absurdity. Here, by way of illustration, we have examples of two sorts; the one elliptical, the other solecistical. The former text appears to mean, "He was asked for, his opinion;"—or, "He was asked to give his opinion: the latter should have been, "Shelter had been refused him;"—i.e., "to him." Of the seven instances cited by the author, five at least are of the latter kind, and therefore to be condemned; and it is to be observed, that when they are corrected, and the right word is made nominative, the passive government, by Wells's own showing, becomes nothing but the ellipsis of a preposition. Having just given a rule, by which all his various examples are assumed to be regular and right, he very inconsistently adds this not: "This form of expression is anomalous, and might, in many cases, be improved. Thus, instead of saying, 'He was offered a seat on the council,' it would be preferable to say 'A seat in the council was offered [to] him.'"—Ib., p. 155, Sec. 215. By admitting here the ellipsis of the preposition to, he evidently refutes the doctrine of his own text, so far as it relates to passive government, and, by implication, the doctrine of his fourth remark also. For the ellipsis of to, before "him," is just as evident in the active expression, "I thrice presented him a kingly crown," as in the passive, "A kingly crown was thrice presented him." It is absurd to deny it in either. Having offset himself, Wells as ingeniously balances his authorities, pro and con; but, the elliptical examples being allowable, he should not have said that I and others "condemn this usage altogether."

"REM. 6.—The passive voice of a verb is sometimes used in connection with a preposition, forming a compound passive verb; as 'He was listened to.'—'Nor is this to be scoffed at.'—'This is a tendency to be guarded against.'—'A bitter persecution was carried on.'—Hallam."— Ib., p. 155, Sec. 215. The words here called "prepositions," are adverbs. Prepositions they cannot be; because they have no subsequent term. Nor is it either necessary or proper, to call them parts of the verb: "was carried on," is no more a "compound verb," than "was carried off," or "was carried forward," and the like.

"REM. 7.—Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur in which a noun in the objective is preceded by a passive verb, and followed by a preposition used adverbially. EXAMPLES: 'Vocal and instrumental music were made use of.'—Addison. 'The third, fourth, and fifth, were taken possession of at half past eight."—Southey. 'The Pinta was soon lost sight of in the darkness of the night.'—Irving."—Ib., p. 155, Sec. 215. As it is by the manner of their use, that we distinguish prepositions and adverbs, it seems no more proper to speak of "a preposition used adverbially," than of "an adverb used prepositionally." But even if the former phrase is right and the thing conceivable, here is no instance of it; for "of" here modifies no verb, adjective, or adverb. The construction is an unparsable synchysis, a vile snarl, which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn. These examples may each be corrected in several ways: 1. Say—"were used;"—"were taken into possession;"—"was soon lost from sight." 2. Say—"They made use of music, both vocal and instrumental."—"Of the third, the fourth, and the fifth, they took possession at half past eight."—"Of the Pinta they soon list sight," &c. 3. Say—"Use was also made of both vocal and instrumental music."—"Possession of the third, the fourth, and the fifth, was taken at half past eight."—"The Pinta soon disappeared in the darkness of the night." Here again, Wells puzzles his pupil, with a note which half justifies and half condemns the awkward usage in question. See School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 147; 3d Ed., 156; late Ed., Sec. 215.

"REM. 8.—There are some verbs which may be used either transitively or intransitively; as, 'He will return in a week,' 'He will return the book.'"—Ib., p. 147; 156; &c. According to Dr. Johnson, this is true of "most verbs," and Lindley Murray asserts it of "many." There are, I think, but few which may not, in some phraseology or other, be used both ways. Hence the rule, "Transitive verbs govern the objective case," or, as Wells now has it, "Transitive verbs, in the active voice, govern the objective case," (Sec. 215,) rests only upon a distinction which itself creates, between transitives and intransitives; and therefore it amounts to little.

[354] To these examples, Webster adds two others, of a different sort, with a comment, thus: "'Ask him his opinion?' 'You have asked me the news.' Will it be said that the latter phrases are elliptical, for 'ask of him his opinion?' I apprehend this to be a mistake. According to the true idea of the government of a transitive verb, him must be the object in the phrase under consideration, as much as in this, 'Ask him for a guinea;' or in this, 'ask him to go.'"—Ibid, ut supra; Frazee's Gram., p. 152; Fowler's, p. 480. If, for the reason here stated, it is a "mistake" to supply of in the foregoing instances, it does not follow that they are not elliptical. On the contrary, if they are analogous to, "Ask him for a guinea;" or, "Ask him to go;" it is manifest that the construction must be this: "Ask him [for] his opinion;" or, "Ask him [to tell] his opinion." So that the question resolves itself into this: What is the best way of supplying the ellipsis, when two objectives thus occur after ask?—G. BROWN.

[355] These examples Murray borrowed from Webster, who published them, with references, under his 34th Rule. With too little faith in the corrective power of grammar, the Doctor remarks upon the constructions as follows: "This idiom is outrageously anomalous, but perhaps incorrigible."— Webster's Philos. Gram., p. 180; Imp. G., 128.

[356] This seems to be a reasonable principle of syntax, and yet I find it contradicted, or a principle opposite to it set up, by some modern teachers of note, who venture to justify all those abnormal phrases which I here condemn as errors. Thus Fowler: "Note 5. When a Verb with its Accusative case, is equivalent to a single verb, it may take this accusative after it in the passive voice; as, 'This has been put an end to.'"—Fowler's English Language, 8vo, §552. Now what is this, but an effort to teach bad English by rule?—and by such a rule, too, as is vastly more general than even the great class of terms which it was designed to include? And yet this rule, broad as it is, does not apply at all to the example given! For "put an end," without the important word "to," is not equivalent to stop or terminate. Nor is the example right. One ought rather to say, "This has been ended;" or, "This has been stopped." See the marginal Note to Obs. 5th, above.

[357] Some, however, have conceived the putting of the same case after the verb as before it, to be government; as, "Neuter verbs occasionally govern either the nominative or [the] objective case, after them."—Alexander's Gram., p. 54. "The verb to be, always governs a Nominative, unless it be of the Infinitive Mood."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 94. This latter assertion is, in fact, monstrously untrue, and also solecistical.

[358] Not unfrequently the conjunction as intervenes between these "same cases," as it may also between words in apposition; as, "He then is as the head, and we as the members; he the vine, and we the branches."—Barclay's Works, Vol. ii, p. 189.

[359] "'Whose house is that?' This sentence, before it is parsed, should be transposed; thus, 'Whose is that house?' The same observation applies to every sentence of a similar construction."—Chandler's old Gram., p. 93. This instruction is worse than nonsense; for it teaches the pupil to parse every word in the sentence wrong! The author proceeds to explain Whose, as "qualifying house, understood;" is, as agreeing "with its nominative, house;" that, as "qualifying house;" and house, as "nominative case to the verb, is." Nothing of this is true of the original question. For, in that, Whose is governed by house; house is nominative after is; is agrees with house understood; and that relates to house understood. The meaning is, "Whose house is that house?" or, in the order of a declarative sentence, "That house is whose house?"

[360] 1: In Latin, the accusative case is used after such a verb, because an other word in the same case is understood before it; as, "Facere quæ libet, ID est [hominem] esse regem."—SALLUST. "To do what he pleases, THAT is [for a man] to be a king." If Professor Bullions had understood Latin, or Greek, or English, as well as his commenders imagine, he might have discovered what construction of cases we have in the following instances: "It is an honour [for a man] to be the author of such a work."—Bullions's Eng. Gram., p. 82. "To be surety for a stranger [,] is dangerous."—Ib. "Not to know what happened before you were born, is to be always a child."—Ib. "Nescire quid acciderit antequam natus es, est semper esse puerum."—Ib. "[Greek: Esti tion aischron …topon, hon hæmen pote kurioi phainesthai proiemenous]." "It is a shame to be seen giving up countries of which we were once masters."—DEMOSTHENES: ib. What support these examples give to this grammarian's new notion of "the objective indefinite" or to his still later seizure of Greene's doctrine of "the predicate-nominative" the learned reader may judge. All the Latin and Greek grammarians suppose an ellipsis, in such instances; but some moderns are careless enough of that, and of the analogy of General Grammar in this case, to have seconded the Doctor in his absurdity. See Farnum's Practical Gram., p. 23; and S. W. Clark's, p. 149.

2. Professor Hart has an indecisive remark on this construction, as follows: "Sometimes a verb in the infinitive mood has a noun after it without any other noun before it; as, 'To be a good man, is not so easy a thing as many people imagine.' Here 'man' may be parsed as used indefinitely after the verb to be. It is not easy to say in what case the noun is in such sentences. The analogy of the Latin would seem to indicate the objective.—Thus, 'Not to know what happened in past years, is to be always a child,' Latin, 'semper esse puerum.' In like manner, in English, we may say, 'Its being me, need make no change in your determination.'"—Hart's English Gram., p. 127.

3. These learned authors thus differ about what certainly admits of no other solution than that which is given in the Observation above. To parse the nouns in question, "as used indefinitely," without case, and to call them "objectives indefinite," without agreement or government, are two methods equally repugnant to reason. The last suggestion of Hart's is also a false argument for a true position. The phrases, "Its being me," and "To be a good man," are far from being constructed "in like manner." The former is manifestly bad English; because its and me are not in the same case. But S. S. Greene would say, "Its being I, is right." For in a similar instance, he has this conclusion: "Hence, in abridging the following proposition, 'I was not aware that it was he,' we should say 'of its being he,' not 'his' nor 'him.'"—Greene's Analysis, 1st Ed., p. 171. When being becomes a noun, no case after it appears to be very proper; but this author, thus "abridging" four syllables into five, produces an anomalous construction which it would be much better to avoid.

[361] Parkhurst and Sanborn, by what they call "A NEW RULE," attempt to determine the doubtful or unknown case which this note censures, and to justify the construction as being well-authorized and hardly avoidable. Their rule is this: "A noun following a neuter or [a] passive participial noun, is in the nominative independent. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, always precedes the participial noun, either expressed or understood, signifying the same thing as the noun does that follows it." To this new and exceptionable' dogma, Sanborn adds: "This form of expression is one of the most common idioms of the language, and in general composition cannot be well avoided. In confirmation of the statement made, various authorities are subjoined. Two grammarians only, to our knowledge, have remarked OH this phraseology: 'Participles are sometimes preceded by a possessive case and followed by a nominative; as, There is no doubt of his being a great statesman.' B. GREENLEAF. 'We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained unchanged in connexion with it; as, I have some recollection of his father's being a judge.' GOOLD BROWN."—Sanborn's Analytical Gram., p. 189. On what principle the words statesman and judge can be affirmed to be in the nominative case, I see not; and certainly they are not nominatives "independent" because the word being, after which they stand, is not itself independent. It is true, the phraseology is common enough to be good English: but I dislike it; and if this citation from me, was meant for a confirmation of the reasonless dogmatism preceding, it is not made with fairness, because my opinion of the construction is omitted by the quoter. See Institutes of English Gram., p. 162. In an other late grammar,—a shameful work, because it is in great measure a tissue of petty larcenies from my Institutes, with alterations for the worse,—I find the following absurd "Note," or Rule: "An infinitive or participle is often followed by a substantive explanatory of an indefinite person or thing. The substantive is then in the objective case, and may be called the objective after the infinitive, or participle; [as,] It is an honor to be the author of such a work. His being a great man, did not make him a happy man. By being an obedient child, you will secure the approbation of your parents."—Farnum's Practical Gram., 1st Ed., p. 25. The first of these examples is elliptical; (see Obs. 12th above, and the Marginal Note;) the second is bad English,—or, at' any rate, directly repugnant to the rule for same cases; and the third parsed wrong by the rule: "child" is in the nominative case. See Obs. 7th above.

[362] When the preceding case is not "the verb's nominative" this phrase must of course be omitted; and when the word which is to be corrected, does not literally follow the verb, it may be proper to say, "constructively follows," in lieu of the phrase, "comes after."

[363] The author of this example supposes friend to be in the nominative case, though John's is in the possessive, and both words denote the same person. But this is not only contrary to the general rule for the same cases, but contrary to his own application of one of his rules. Example: "Maria's duty, as a teacher, is, to instruct her pupils." Here, he says, "Teacher is in the possessive case, from its relation to the name Maria, denoting the same object."—Peirce's Gram., p. 211. This explanation, indeed, is scarcely intelligible, on account of its grammatical inaccuracy. He means, however, that, "Teacher is in the possessive case, from its relation to the name Maria's, the two words denoting the same object." No word can be possessive "from its relation to the name Maria," except by standing immediately before it, in the usual manner of possessives; as, "Sterne's Maria."

[364] Dr. Webster, who was ever ready to justify almost any usage for which he could find half a dozen respectable authorities, absurdly supposes, that who may sometimes be rightly preferred to whom, as the object of a preposition. His remark is this: "In the use of who as an interrogative, there is an apparent deviation from regular construction—it being used without distinction of case; as, 'Who do you speak to?' 'Who is she married to?' 'Who is this reserved for?' 'Who was it made by?' This idiom is not merely colloquial: it is found in the writings of our best authors."—Webster's Philosophical Gram., p. 194; his Improved Gram., p. 136. "In this phrase, 'Who do you speak to?' there is a deviation from regular construction; but the practice of thus using who, in certain familiar phrases, seems to be established by the best authors."—Webster's Rudiments of E. Gram., p. 72. Almost any other solecism may be quite as well justified as this. The present work shows, in fact, a great mass of authorities for many of the incongruities which it ventures to rebuke.

[365] Grammarians differ much as to the proper mode of parsing such nouns. Wells says, "This is the case independent by ellipsis."—School Gram., p. 123. But the idea of such a case is a flat absurdity. Ellipsis occurs only where something, not uttered, is implied; and where a preposition is thus wanting, the noun is, of course, its object; and therefore not independent. Webster, with too much contempt for the opinion of "Lowth, followed by the whole tribe of writers on this subject," declares it "a palpable error," to suppose "prepositions to be understood before these expressions;" and, by two new rules, his 22d and 28th, teaches, that, "Names of measure or dimension, followed by an adjective," and "Names of certain portions of time and space, and especially words denoting continuance of time or progression, are used without a governing word."—Philos. Gram., pp. 165 and 172; Imp. Gram., 116 and 122; Rudiments, 65 and 67. But this is no account at all of the construction, or of the case of the noun. As the nominative, or the case which we may use independently, is never a subject of government, the phrase, "without a governing word," implies that the case is objective; and how can this case be known, except by the discovery of some "governing word," of which it is the object? We find, however, many such rules as the following: "Nouns of time, distance, and degree, are put in the objective case without a preposition."—Nutting's Gram., p. 100. "Nouns which denote time, quantity, measure, distance, value, or direction are often put in the objective case without a preposition."—Weld's Gram., p. 153; "Abridged Ed.," 118. "Numes signifying duration, extension, quantity, quality, and valuation, are in the objective case without a governing word."—Frazee's Gram., p. 154. Bullions, too, has a similar rule. To estimate these rules aright, one should observe how often the nouns in question are found with a governing word. Weld, of late, contradicts himself by admitting the ellipsis; and then, inconsistently with his admission, most absurdly denies the frequent use of the preposition with nouns of time, quantity, &c. "Before words of this description, the ellipsis of a preposition is obvious. But it is seldom proper to use the preposition before such words."—Weld's "Abridged Edition," p. 118.

[366] Professor Fowler absurdly says, "Nigh, near, next, like, when followed by the objective case, may be regarded either as Prepositions or as Adjectives, to being understood."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, §458, Note 7. Now, "to being understood," it is plain that no one of these words can be accounted a preposition, but by supposing the preposition to be complex, and to be partly suppressed. This can be nothing better than an idle whim; and, since the classification of words as parts of speech, is always positive and exclusive, to refer any particular word indecisively to "either" of two classes, is certainly no better teaching, than to say, "I do not know of which sort it is; call it what you please!" With decision prompt enough, but with too little regard to analogy or consistency, Latham and Child say, "The adjective like governs a case, and it is the only adjective that does so."—Elementary Gram., p. 155. In teaching thus, they seem to ignore these facts: that near, nigh, or opposite, might just as well be said to be an adjective governing a case; and that the use of to or unto after like has been common enough to prove the ellipsis. The Bible has many examples; as, "Who is like to thee in Israel?"—1 Samuel, xxvi, 15. "Hew thee two tables of stone like unto the first."—Exodus, xxxiv, 1; and Deut., x, 1. But their great inconsistency here is, that they call the case after like "a dative"—a case unknown to their etymology! See Gram. of E. Gram., p. 259. In grammar, a solitary exception or instance can scarcely be a true one.

[367] The following examples may illustrate these points: "These verbs, and all others like to them, were like TIMAO."—Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang., Vol. ii, p. 128. "The old German, and even the modern German, are much liker to the Visigothic than they are to the dialect of the Edda."—Ib., i, 330. "Proximus finem, nighest the end."—Ib., ii, 150. "Let us now come nearer to our own language."—Dr. Blair's Rhet., p. 85. "This looks very like a paradox."—BEATTIE: Murray's Gram., Vol. i, p. 113. "He was near [to] falling."—Ib., p. 116. Murray, who puts near into his list of prepositions, gives this example to show how "prepositions become adverbs!" "There was none ever before like unto it."—Stone, on Masonry, p. 5.

   "And earthly power doth then show likest God's,
    When mercy seasons justice."—Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 45.

[368] Wright's notion of this construction is positively absurd and self-contradictory. In the sentence, "My cane is worth a shilling," he takes the word worth to be a noun "in apposition to the word shilling." And to prove it so, he puts the sentence successively into these four forms: "My cane is worth or value for a shilling;"—"The worth or value of my cane is a shilling;"—"My cane is a shilling's worth;"—"My cane is the worth of a shilling."—Philosophical Gram., p. 150. In all these transmutations, worth is unquestionably a noun; but, in none of them, is it in apposition with the word shilling; and he is quite mistaken in supposing that they "indispensably prove the word in question to be a noun." There are other authors, who, with equal confidence, and equal absurdity, call worth a verb. For example: "A noun, which signifies the price, is put in the objective case, without a preposition; as, 'my book is worth twenty shillings.' Is worth is a neuter verb, and answers to the latin [sic—KTH] verb valet."—Barrett's Gram., p. 138. I do not deny that the phrase "is worth" is a just version of the verb valet; but this equivalence in import, is no proof at all that worth is a verb. Prodest is a Latin verb, which signifies "is profitable to;" but who will thence infer, that profitable to is a verb?

[369] In J. R. Chandler's English Grammar, as published in 1821, the word worth appears in the list of prepositions: but the revised list, in his edition of 1847, does not contain it. In both books, however, it is expressly parsed as a preposition; and, in expounding the sentence, "The book is worth a dollar," the author makes this remark: "Worth has been called an adjective by some, and a noun by others: worth, however, in this sentence expresses a relation by value, and is so far a preposition; and no ellipsis, which may be formed, would change the nature of the word, without giving the sentence a different meaning."—Chandler's Gram., Old Ed., p. 155; New Ed., p. 181.

[370] Cowper here purposely makes Mrs. Gilpin use bad English; but this is no reason why a school-boy may not be taught to correct it. Dr. Priestley supposed that the word we, in the example, "To poor we, thine enmity," &c., was also used by Shakespeare, "in a droll humorous way."—Gram., p. 103. He surely did not know the connexion of the text. It is in "Volumnia's pathetic speech" to her victorious son. See Coriolanus, Act V, Sc. 3.

[371] Dr. Enfield misunderstood this passage; and, in copying it into his Speaker, (a very popular school-book,) he has perverted the text, by changing we to us: as if the meaning were, "Making us fools of nature." But it is plain, that all "fool's of nature!" must be fools of nature's own making, and not persons temporarily frighted out of their wits by a ghost; nor does the meaning of the last two lines comport with any objective construction of this pronoun. See Enfield's Speaker, p. 864.

[372] In Clark's Practical Grammar, of 1848, is found this NOTE: "The Noun should correspond in number with the Adjectives. EXAMPLES—A two feet ruler. A ten feet pole."—P. 165. These examples are wrong: the doctrine is misapplied in both. With this author, a, as well as two or ten, is an adjective of number; and, since these differ in number, what sort of concord or construction do the four words in each of these phrases make? When a numeral and a noun are united to form a compound adjective, we commonly, if not always, use the latter in its primitive or singular form: as, "A twopenny toy,"—"a twofold error,"—"three-coat plastering," say, "a twofoot rule,"—"a tenfoot pole;" which phrases are right; while Clark's are not only unusual, but unanalogical, ungrammatical.

[373] Certain adjectives that differ in number, are sometimes connected disjunctively by or or than, while the noun literally agrees with that which immediately precedes it, and with the other merely by implication or supplement, under the figure which is called zeugma: as, "Two or more nouns joined together by one or more copulative conjunctions."— Lowth's Gram., p. 75; L. Murray's, 2d Ed., p. 106. "He speaks not to one or a few judges, but to a large assembly."—Blair's Rhet., p. 280. "More than one object at a time."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 301. See Obs. 10th on Rule 17th.

[374] Double comparatives and double superlatives, such as, "The more serener spirit,"—"The most straitest sect,"—are noticed by Latham and Child, in their syntax, as expressions which "we occasionally find, even in good writers," and are truly stated to be "pleonastic;" but, forbearing to censure them as errors, these critics seem rather to justify them as pleonasms allowable. Their indecisive remarks are at fault, not only because they are indecisive, but because they are both liable and likely to mislead the learner.—See their Elementary Grammar, p. 155.

[375] The learned William B. Fowle strangely imagines all pronouns to be adjectives, belonging to nouns expressed or understood after them; as, "We kings require them (subjects) to obey us (kings)."—The True English Gram., p. 21. "They grammarians, [i. e.] those grammarians. They is an other spelling of the, and of course means this, that, these, those, as the case may be."—Ibid. According to him, then, "them grammarians," for "those grammarians," is perfectly good English; and so is "they grammarians," though the vulgar do not take care to vary this adjective, "as the case may be." His notion of subjoining a noun to every pronoun, is a fit counterpart to that of some other grammarians, who imagine an ellipsis of a pronoun after almost every noun. Thus: "The personal Relatives, for the most part, are suppressed when the Noun is expressed: as, Man (he) is the Lord of this lower world. Woman (she) is the fairest Part of the Creation. The Palace (it) stands on a Hill. Men and Women (they) are rational Creatures."—British Gram., p. 234; Buchanan's, 131. It would have been worth a great deal to some men, to have known what an Ellipsis is; and the man who shall yet make such knowledge common, ought to be forever honoured in the schools.

[376] "An illegitimate and ungrammatical use of these words, either and neither, has lately been creeping into the language, in the application of these terms to a plurality of objects: as, 'Twenty ruffians broke into the house, but neither of them could be recognized.' 'Here are fifty pens, you will find that either of them will do.'"—MATT. HARRISON, on the English Language, p. 199. "Either and neither, applied to any number more than one of two objects, is a mere solecism, and one of late introduction."—Ib., p. 200. Say, "Either OR neither," &c.—G. B.

[377] Dr. Priestley censures this construction, on the ground, that the word whole is an "attribute of unity," and therefore improperly added to a plural noun. But, in fact, this adjective is not necessarily singular, nor is all necessarily plural. Yet there is a difference between the words: whole is equivalent to all only when the noun is singular; for then only do entireness and totality coincide. A man may say, "the whole thing," when he means, "all the thing;" but he must not call all things, whole things. In the following example, all is put for whole, and taken substantively; but the expression is a quaint one, because the article and preposition seem needless: "Which doth encompass and embrace the all of things."—The Dial, Vol. i, p. 59.

[378] This is not a mere repetition of the last example cited under Note 14th above; but it is Murray's interpretation of the text there quoted. Both forms are faulty, but not in the same way.—G. BROWN.

[379] Some authors erroneously say, "A personal pronoun does not always agree in person with its antecedent; as, 'John said, I will do it.'"—Goodenow's Gram. "When I say, 'Go, and say to those children, you must come in,' you perceive that the noun children is of the third person, but the pronoun you is of the second; yet you stands for children,"—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 54. Here are different speakers, with separate speeches; and these critics are manifestly deceived by the circumstance. It is not to be supposed, that the nouns represented by one speaker's pronouns, are to be found or sought in what an other speaker utters. The pronoun I does not here stand for the noun John which is of the third person; it is John's own word, representing himself as the speaker. The meaning is, "I myself, John, of the first person, will do it." Nor does you stand for children as spoken of by Ingersoll; but for children of the second person, uttered or implied in the address of his messenger: as, "Children, you must come in."

[380] The propriety of this construction is questionable. See Obs. 2d on Rule 14th.

[381] Among the authors who have committed this great fault, are, Alden, W. Allen, D. C. Allen, C. Adams, the author of the British Grammar, Buchanan, Cooper, Cutler, Davis, Dilworth, Felton, Fisher, Fowler, Frazee, Goldsbury, Hallock, Hull, M'Culloch, Morley, Pinneo, J. Putnam, Russell, Sanborn, R. C. Smith, Spencer, Weld, Wells, Webster, and White. "You is plural, whether it refer to only one individual, or to more."—Dr. Crombie, on Etym. and Synt., p. 240. "The word you, even when applied to one person, is plural, and should never he connected with a singular verb."—Alexander's Gram., p. 53; Emmons's, 26. "You is of the Plural Number, even though used as the Name of a single Person."—W. Ward's Gram., p. 88. "Altho' the Second Person Singular in both Times be marked with thou, to distinguish it from the Plural, yet we, out of Complaisance, though we speak but to one particular Person, use the Plural you, and never thou, but when we address ourselves to Almighty God, or when we speak in an emphatical Manner, or make a distinct and particular Application to a Person."—British Gram., p. 126; Buchanan's, 37. "But you, tho' applied to a single Person, requires a Plural Verb, the same as ye; as, you love, not you lovest or loves; you were, not you was or wast."—Buchanan's Gram., p. 37.

[382] "Mr. Murray's 6th Rule is unnecessary."—Lennie's English Gram., p. 81; Bullions's, p. 90. The two rules of which I speak, constitute Murray's Rule VI; Alger's and Bacon's Rule VI; Merchant's Rule IX; Ingersoll's Rule XII; Kirkham's Rules XV and XVI; Jaudon's XXI and XXII; Crombie's X and XI; Nixon's Obs. 86th and 87th: and are found in Lowth's Gram., p. 100; Churchill's, 136; Adam's, 203; W. Allen's, 156; Blair's, 75; and many other books.

[383] This rule, in all its parts, is to be applied chiefly, if not solely, to such relative clauses as are taken in the restrictive sense; for, in the resumptive sense of the relative, who or which may be more proper than that: as, "Abraham solemnly adjures his most faithful servant, whom he despatches to Charran on this matrimonial mission for his son, to discharge his mission with all fidelity."—Milman's Jews, i, 21. See Etymology, Chap. 5th, Obs. 23d, 24th, &c., on the Classes of Pronouns.

[384] Murray imagined this sentence to be bad English. He very strangely mistook the pronoun he for the object of the preposition with; and accordingly condemned the text, under the rule, "Prepositions govern the objective case." So of the following: "It is not I he is engaged with."—Murray's Exercises, R. 17. Better: "It is not I that he is engaged with." Here is no violation of the foregoing rule, or of any other; and both sentences, with even Murray's form of the latter, are quite as good as his proposed substitutes: "It was not with him, that they were so angry."—Murray's Key, p. 51. "It is not with me he is engaged."—Ib. In these fancied corrections, the phrases with him and with me have a very awkward and questionable position: it seems doubtful, whether they depend on was and is, or on angry and engaged.

[385] In their speculations on the personal pronouns, grammarians sometimes contrive, by a sort of abstraction, to reduce all the persons to the third; that is, the author or speaker puts I, not for himself in particular, but for any one who utters the word, and thou, not for his particular hearer or reader, but for any one who is addressed; and, conceiving of these as persons merely spoken of by himself, he puts the verb in the third person, and not in the first or second: as, "I is the speaker, thou [is] the hearer, and he, she, or it, is the person or thing spoken of. All denote qualities of existence, but such qualities as make different impressions on the mind. I is the being of consciousness, thou [is the being] of perception, and he of memory."—Booth's Introd., p. 44. This is such syntax as I should not choose to imitate; nor is it very proper to say, that the three persons in grammar "denote qualities of existence." But, supposing the phraseology to be correct, it is no real exception to the foregoing rule of concord; for I and thou are here made to be pronouns of the third person. So in the following example, which I take to be bad English: "I, or the person who speaks, is the first person; you, is the second; he, she, or it, is the third person singular."—Bartlett's Manual, Part ii, p. 70. Again, in the following; which is perhaps a little better: "The person 'I' is spoken of as acted upon."—Bullions, Prin. of E. Gram., 2d Edition, p. 29. But there is a manifest absurdity in saying, with this learned "Professor of Languages," that the pronouns of the different persons are those persons: as, "I is the first person, and denotes the speaker. Thou is the second, and denotes the person spoken to."—Ib., p. 22.

[386] (1.) Concerning the verb need, Dr. Webster has the following note: "In the use of this verb there is another irregularity, which is peculiar, the verb being without a nominative, expressed or implied. 'Whereof here needs no account.'—Milt., P. L., 4. 235. There is no evidence of the fact, and there needs none. This is an established use of need."—Philos. Gram., p. 178; Improved Gram., 127; Greenleaf's Gram. Simp., p. 38; Fowler's E. Gram., p. 537. "Established use?" To be sure, it is "an established use;" but the learned Doctor's comment is a most unconscionable blunder,—a pedantic violation of a sure principle of Universal Grammar,—a perversion worthy only of the veriest ignoramus. Yet Greenleaf profitably publishes it, with other plagiarisms, for "Grammar Simplified!" Now the verb "needs," like the Latin eget, signifying is necessary, is here not active, but neuter; and has the nominative set after it, as any verb must, when the adverb there or here is before it. The verbs lack and want may have the same construction, and can have no other, when the word there, and not a nominative, precedes them; as, "Peradventure there shall lack five of the fifty righteous."—Gen., xviii, 28. There is therefore neither "irregularity," nor any thing "peculiar," in thus placing the verb and its nominative.

(2.) Yet have we other grammarians, who, with astonishing facility, have allowed themselves to be misled, and whose books are now misleading the schools, in regard to this very simple matter. Thus Wells: "The transitive verbs need and want, are sometimes employed in a general sense, without a nominative, expressed or implied. Examples:—'There needed a new dispensation.'—Caleb Cushing. 'There needs no better picture.'—Irving. 'There wanted not patrons to stand up.'—Sparks. 'Nor did there want Cornice, or frieze.'—Milton."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 141: 113th Ed., p. 154. In my edition of Milton, the text is, "Nor did they want Cornice or frieze."—P. L., B. i, l. 715, 716. This reading makes want a "transitive" verb, but the other makes it neuter, with the nominative following it. Again, thus Weld: "A verb in the imperative mode, and the transitive verbs need, want, and require, sometimes appear to be used indefinitely, without a nominative; as, let there be light; There required haste in the business; There needs no argument for proving, &c. There wanted not men who would, &c. The last expressions have an active form with a passive sense, and should perhaps rather be considered elliptical than wanting a nominative; as, haste is required, no argument is needed, &c."—Weld's English Grammar Illustrated, p. 143. Is there anywhere, in print, viler pedantry than this? The only elliptical example, "Let there be light,"—a kind of sentence from which the nominative is usually suppressed,—is here absurdly represented as being full, yet without a subject for its verb; while other examples, which are full, and in which the nominative must follow the verb, because the adverb "there" precedes, are first denied to have nominatives, and then most bunglingly tortured with false ellipses, to prove that they have them!

(3.) The idea of a command wherein no person or thing is commanded, seems to have originated with Webster, by whom it has been taught, since 1807, as follows: "In some cases, the imperative verb is used without a definite nominative."—Philos. Gram., p. 141; Imp. Gram., 86; Rudiments, 69. See the same words in Frazee's Gram., p. 133. Wells has something similar: "A verb in the imperative is sometimes used absolutely, having no direct reference to any particular subject expressed or implied; as, 'And God said, Let there be light.'"—School Gram., p. 141. But, when this command was uttered to the dark waves of primeval chaos, it must have meant, "Do ye let light be there." What else could it mean? There may frequently be difficulty in determining what or who is addressed by the imperative let, but there seems to be more in affirming that it has no subject. Nutting, puzzled with this word, makes the following dubious and unsatisfactory suggestion: "Perhaps it may be, in many cases, equivalent to may; or it may be termed itself an imperative mode impersonal; that is, containing a command or an entreaty addressed to no particular person."—Nutting's Practical Gram., p. 47.

(4.) These several errors, about the "Imperative used Absolutely," with "no subject addressed," as in "Let there be light," and the Indicative "verbs NEED and WANT, employed without a nominative, either expressed or implied," are again carefully reiterated by the learned Professor Fowler, in his great text-book of philology "in its Elements and Forms,"—called, rather extravagantly, an "English Grammar." See, in his edition of 1850, §597, Note 3 and Note 7; also §520, Note 2. Wells's authorities for "Imperatives Absolute," are, "Frazee, Allen and Cornwell, Nutting, Lynde, and Chapin;" and, with reference to "NEED and WANT," he says, "See Webster, Perley, and Ingersoll."—School Gram., 1850, §209.

(5.) But, in obvious absurdity most strangely overlooked by the writer, all these blunderers are outdone by a later one, who says: "Need and dare are sometimes used in a general sense without a nominative: as, 'There needed no prophet to tell us that;' 'There wanted no advocates to secure the voice of the people.' It is better, however, to supply it, as a nominative, than admit an anomala. Sometimes, when intransitive, they have the plural form with a singular noun: as, 'He need not fear;' 'He dare not hurt you.'"—Rev. H. W. Bailey's E. Gram., 1854, p. 128. The last example—"He dare"—is bad English: dare should be dares. "He need not fear," if admitted to be right, is of the potential mood; in which no verb is inflected in the third person. "He," too, is not a "noun;" nor can it ever rightly have a "plural" verb. "To supply it, as a nominative," where the verb is declared to be "without a nominative," and to make "wanted" an example of "dare" are blunders precisely worthy of an author who knows not how to spell anomaly!

[387] This interpretation, and others like it, are given not only by Murray, but by many other grammarians, one of whom at least was earlier than he. See Bicknell's Gram., Part i, p. 123; Ingersoll's, 153; Guy's, 91; Alger's, 73; Merchant's, 100; Picket's, 211; Fisk's, 146; D. Adams's, 81; R. C. Smith's, 182.

[388] The same may be said of Dr. Webster's "nominative sentences;" three fourths of which are nothing but phrases that include a nominative with which the following verb agrees. And who does not know, that to call the adjuncts of any thing "an essential part of it," is a flat absurdity? An adjunct is "something added to another, but not essentially a part of it."—Webster's Dict. But, says the Doctor, "Attributes and other words often make an essential part of the nominative; [as,] 'Our IDEAS of eternity CAN BE nothing but an infinite succession of moments of duration.'—LOCKE. 'A wise SON MAKETH a glad father; but a foolish SON IS the heaviness of his mother.' Abstract the name from its attribute, and the proposition cannot always be true. 'HE that gathereth in summer is a wise son.' Take away the description, 'that gathereth in summer,' and the affirmation ceases to be true, or becomes inapplicable. These sentences or clauses thus constituting the subject of an affirmation, may be termed nominative sentences."—Improved Gram., p. 95. This teaching reminds me of the Doctor's own exclamation: "What strange work has been made with Grammar!"—Ib., p. 94; Philos. Gram., 138. In Nesbit's English Parsing, a book designed mainly for "a Key to Murray's Exercises in Parsing," the following example is thus expounded: "The smooth stream, the serene atmosphere, [and] the mild zephyr, are the proper emblems of a gentle temper, and a peaceful life."—Murray's Exercises, p. 8. "The smooth stream, the serene atmosphere, the mild zephyr, is part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb 'are.' Are is an irregular verb neuter, in the indicative mood, the present tense, the third person plural, and agrees with the aforementioned part of a sentence, as its nominative case."—Introduction to English Parsing, p. 137. On this principle of analysis, all the rules that speak of the nominatives or antecedents connected by conjunctions, may be dispensed with, as useless; and the doctrine, that a verb which has a phrase or sentence for its subject, must be singular, is palpably contradicted, and supposed erroneous!

[389] "No Relative can become a Nominative to a Verb."—Joseph W. Wright's Philosophical Grammar, p. 162. "A personal pronoun becomes a nominative, though a relative does not."—Ib., p. 152. This teacher is criticised by the other as follows: "Wright says that 'Personal pronouns may be in the nominative case,' and that 'relative pronouns can not be. Yet he declines his relatives thus: 'Nominative case, who; possessive, whose; objective, whom!"—Oliver B. Peirce's Grammar, p. 331. This latter author here sees the palpable inconsistency of the former, and accordingly treats who, which, what, whatever, &c., as relative pronouns of the nominative case—or, as he calls them, "connective substitutes in the subjective form;" but when what or whatever precedes its noun, or when as is preferred to who or which, he refers both verbs to the noun itself, and adopts the very principle by which Cobbet and Wright erroneously parse the verbs which belong to the relatives, who, which, and that: as, "Whatever man will adhere to strict principles of honesty, will find his reward in himself."—Peirce's Gram., p. 55. Here Peirce considers whatever to be a mere adjective, and man the subject of will adhere and will find. "Such persons as write grammar, should themselves be grammarians."—Ib., p. 330. Here he declares as to be no pronoun, but "a modifying connective," i.e., conjunction; and supposes persons to be the direct subject of write as well as of should be: as if a conjunction could connect a verb and its nominative!

[390] Dr. Latham, conceiving that, of words in apposition, the first must always be the leading one and control the verb, gives to his example an other form thus: "Your master, I, commands you (not command)."—Ib. But this I take to be bad English. It is the opinion of many grammarians, perhaps of most, that nouns, which are ordinarily of the third person, may be changed in person, by being set in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second. But even if terms so used do not assimilate in person, the first cannot be subjected to the third, as above. It must have the preference, and ought to have the first place. The following study-bred example of the Doctor's, is also awkward and ungrammatical: "I, your master, who commands you to make haste, am in a hurry."—Hand-Book, p. 334.

[391] Professor Fowler says, "One when contrasted with other, sometimes represents plural nouns; as, 'The reason why the one are ordinarily taken for real qualities, and the other for bare powers, seems to be.'—LOCKE.", Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, 1850, p. 242. This doctrine is, I think, erroneous; and the example, too, is defective. For, if one may be plural, we have no distinctive definition or notion of either number. "One" and "other" are not here to be regarded as the leading words in their clauses; they are mere adjectives, each referring to the collective noun class or species, understood, which should have been expressed after the former. See Etym., Obs. 19, p. 276.

[392] Dr. Priestley says, "It is a rule, I believe, in all grammars, that when a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, that it may agree with either of them; but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, as also to that which stands next to the verb; for if no regard be paid to these circumstances, the construction will be harsh: [as,] Minced pies was regarded as a profane and superstitious viand by the sectaries. Hume's Hist. A great cause of the low state of industry were the restraints put upon it. Ib. By this term was understood, such persons as invented, or drew up rules for themselves and the world."—English Gram. with Notes, p. 189. The Doctor evidently supposed all these examples to be bad English, or at least harsh in their construction. And the first two unquestionably are so; while the last, whether right or wrong, has nothing at all to do with his rule: it has but one nominative, and that appears to be part of a definition, and not the true subject of the verb. Nor, indeed, is the first any more relevant; because Hume's "viand" cannot possibly be taken "as the subject of the affirmation." Lindley Murray, who literally copies Priestley's note, (all but the first line and the last,) rejects these two examples, substituting for the former, "His meat was locusts and wild honey," and for the latter, "The wages of sin is death." He very evidently supposes all three of his examples to be good English. In this, according to Churchill, he is at fault in two instances out of the three; and still more so, in regard to the note, or rule, itself. In stead of being "a rule in all grammars," it is (so far as I know) found only in these authors, and such as have implicitly copied it from Murray. Among these last, are Alger, Ingersoll, R. C. Smith, Fisk, and Merchant. Churchill, who cites it only as Murray's, and yet expends two pages of criticism upon it, very justly says: "To make that the nominative case, [or subject of the affirmation,] which happens to stand nearest to the verb, appears to me to be on a par with the blunder pointed out in note 204th;" [that is, of making the verb agree with an objective case which happens to stand nearer to it, than its subject, or nominative.]— Churchill's New Gram., p. 313.

[393] "If the excellence of Dryden's works was lessened by his indigence, their number was increased."—Dr. Johnson. This is an example of the proper and necessary use of the indicative mood after an if, the matter of the condition being regarded as a fact. But Dr. Webster, who prefers the indicative too often, has the following note upon it: "If Johnson had followed the common grammars, or even his own, which is prefixed to his Dictionary, he would have written were—'If the excellence of Dryden's works were lessened'—Fortunately this great man, led by usage rather than by books, wrote correct English, instead of grammar."— Philosophical Gram., p. 238. Now this is as absurd, as it is characteristic of the grammar from which it is taken. Each form is right sometimes, and neither can be used for the other, without error.

[394] Taking this allegation in one sense, the reader may see that Kirkham was not altogether wrong here; and that, had he condemned the solecisms adopted by himself and others, about "unity of idea" and "plurality of idea," in stead of condemning the things intended to be spoken of, he might have made a discovery which would have set him wholly right. See a footnote on page 738, under the head of Absurdities.

[395] In his English Reader, (Part II, Chap. 5th, Sec. 7th,) Murray has this line in its proper form, as it here stands in the words of Thomson; but, in his Grammar, he corrupted it, first in his Exercises, and then still more in his Key. Among his examples of "False Syntax" it stands thus:

"What black despair, what horror, fills his mind!" —Exercises, Rule 2.

So the error is propagated in the name of Learning, and this verse goes from grammar to grammar, as one that must have a "plural" verb. See Ingersoll's Gram., p. 242; Smith's New Gram., p. 127; Fisk's Gram., p. 120; Weld's E. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 189; Imp. Ed., p. 196.

[396] S. W. Clark, by reckoning "as" a "preposition," perverts the construction of sentences like this, and inserts a wrong case after the conjunction. See Clark's Practical Grammar, pp. 92 and 178; also this Syntax, Obs. 6 and Obs. 18, on Conjunctions.

[397] Murray gives us the following text for false grammar, under the head of Strength: "And Elias with Moses appeared to them."—Exercises, 8vo, p. 135. This he corrects thus: "And there appeared to them Elias with Moses."—Key, 8vo, p. 266. He omits the comma after Elias, which some copies of the Bible contain, and others do not. Whether he supposed the verb appeared to be singular or plural, I cannot tell; and he did not extend his quotation to the pronoun they, which immediately follows, and in which alone the incongruity lies.

[398] This order of the persons, is not universally maintained in those languages. The words of Mary to her son, "Thy father and I have sought thee sorrowing," seem very properly to give the precedence to her husband; and this is their arrangement in St. Luke's Greek, and in the Latin versions, as well as in others.

[399] The hackneyed example, "I and Cicero are well,"—"Ego et Cicero valemus"—which makes such a figure in the grammars, both Latin and English, and yet is ascribed to Cicero himself, deserves a word of explanation. Cicero the orator, having with him his young son Marcus Cicero at Athens, while his beloved daughter Tullia was with her mother in Italy, thus wrote to his wife, Terentia: "Si tu, et Tullia, lux nostra, valetix; ego, et suavissimus Cicero, valemus."—EPIST. AD FAM. Lib. xiv, Ep. v. That is, "If thou, and Tullia, our joy, are well; I, and the sweet lad Cicero, are likewise well." This literal translation is good English, and not to be amended by inversion; for a father is not expected to give precedence to his child. But, when I was a boy, the text and version of Dr. Adam puzzled me not a little; because I could not conceive how Cicero could ever have said, "I and Cicero are well." The garbled citation is now much oftener read than the original. See it in Crombie's Treatise, p. 243; McCulloch's Gram., p. 158; and others.

[400] Two singulars connected by and, when they form a part of such a disjunction, are still equivalent to a plural; and are to be treated as such, in the syntax of the verb. Hence the following construction appears to be inaccurate: "A single consonant or a mute and a liquid before an accented vowel, is joined to that vowel"—Dr. Bullions, Lat. Gram. p. xi.

[401] Murray the schoolmaster has it, "used to govern."—English Gram., p. 64. He puts the verb in a wrong tense. Dr. Bullions has it, "usually governs."—Lat. Gram., p. 202. This is right.—G. B.

[402] The two verbs to sit and to set are in general quite different in their meaning; but the passive verb to be set sometimes comes pretty near to the sense of the former, which is for the most part neuter. Hence, we not only find the Latin word sedeo, to sit, used in the sense of being set, as, "Ingens coena sedet," "A huge supper is set," Juv., 2, 119; but, in the seven texts above, our translators have used is set, was set, &c., with reference to the personal posture of sitting. This, in the opinion of Dr. Lowth and some others, is erroneous. "Set," says the Doctor, "can be no part of the verb to sit. If it belong to the verb to set, the translation in these passages is wrong. For to set, signifies to place, but without any designation of the posture of the person placed; which is a circumstance of importance, expressed by the original."—Lowth's Gram., p. 53; Churchill's, 265. These gentlemen cite three of these seven examples, and refer to the other four; but they do not tell us how they would amend any of them—except that they prefer sitten to sat, vainly endeavouring to restore an old participle which is certainly obsolete. If any critic dislike my version of the last two texts, because I use the present tense for what in the Greek is the first aorist; let him notice that this has been done in both by our translators, and in one by those of the Vulgate. In the preceding example, too, the same aorist is rendered, "am set," and by Beza, "sedeo;" though Montanus and the Vulgate render it literally by "sedi," as I do by sat. See Key to False Syntax, Rule XVII, Note xii.

[403] Nutting, I suppose, did not imagine the Greek article, [Greek: to], the, and the English or Saxon verb do, to be equivalent or kindred words. But there is no knowing what terms conjectural etymology may not contrive to identify, or at least to approximate and ally. The ingenious David Booth, if he does not actually identify do, with [Greek: to], the, has discovered synonymes [sic—KTH] and cognates that are altogether as unapparent to common observers: as, "It and the," says he, "when Gender is not attended to, are synonymous. Each is expressive of Being in general, and when used Verbally, signifies to bring forth, or to add to what we already see. The, it, and, add, at, to, and do, are kindred words. They mark that an addition is made to some collected mass of existence. To, which literally signifies add, (like at and the Latin ad,) is merely a different pronunciation of do. It expresses the junction of an other thing, or circumstance, as appears more evidently from its varied orthography of too."—Introd. to Analyt. Dict., p. 45. Horne Tooke, it seems, could not persuade this author into his notion of the derivation and meaning of the, it, to, or do. But Lindley Murray, and his followers, have been more tractable. They were ready to be led without looking. "To," say they, "comes from Saxon and Gothic words, which signify action, effect, termination, to act, &c."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 183; Fisk's, 92. What an admirable explanation is this! and how prettily the great Compiler says on the next leaf: "Etymology, when it is guided by judgment, and [when] proper limits are set to it, certainly merits great attention!"—Ib., p. 135. According to his own express rules for interpreting "a substantive without any article to limit it" and the "relative pronoun with a comma before it," he must have meant, that "to comes from Saxon and Gothic words" of every sort, and that the words of these two languages "signify action, effect, termination, to act, &c." The latter assertion is true enough: but, concerning the former, a man of sense may demur. Nor do I see how it is possible not to despise such etymology, be the interpretation of the words what it may. For, if to means action or to act, then our little infinitive phrase, to be, must mean, action be, or to act be; and what is this, but nonsense?

[404] So, from the following language of three modern authors, one cannot but infer, that they would parse the verb as governed by the preposition; but I do not perceive that they anywhere expressly say so:

(1.) "The Infinitive is the form of the supplemental verb that always has, or admits, the preposition TO before it; as, to move. Its general character is to represent the action in prospect, or to do; or in retrospect, as to have done. As a verb, it signifies to do the action; and as object of the preposition TO, it stands in the place of a noun for the doing of it. The infinitive verb and its prefix to are used much like a preposition and its noun object."—Felch's Comprehensive Gram., p. 62.

(2.) "The action or other signification of a verb may be expressed in its widest and most general sense, without any limitation by a person or agent, but merely as the end or purpose of some other action, state of being, quality, or thing; it is, from this want of limitation, said to be in the Infinitive mode; and is expressed by the verb with the preposition TO before it, to denote this relation of end or purpose; as, 'He came to see me;' 'The man is not fit die;' 'It was not right for him to do thus.'"—Dr. S. Webber's English Gram., p. 35.

(3.) "RULE 3. A verb in the Infinitive Mode, is the object of the preposition TO, expressed or understood."—S. W. Clark's Practical Gram., p. 127.

[405] Rufus Nutting, A. M., a grammarian of some skill, supposes that in all such sentences there was "anciently" an ellipsis, not of the phrase "in order to," but of the preposition for. He says, "Considering this mode as merely a verbal noun, it might be observed, that the infinitive, when it expresses the object, is governed by a transitive verb; and, when it expresses the final cause, is governed by an intransitive verb, OR ANCIENTLY, BY A PREPOSITION UNDERSTOOD. Of the former kind—'he learns to read.' Of the latter—'he reads to learn,' i. e. 'for to learn.'"—Practical Gram., p. 101. If for was anciently understood in examples of this sort, it is understood now, and to a still greater extent; because we do not now insert the word for, as our ancestors sometimes did; and an ellipsis can no otherwise grow obsolete, than by a continual use of what was once occasionally omitted.

[406] (1.) "La préposition, est un mot indéclinable, placé devant les noms, les pronoms, et les verbes, qu'elle régit."—"The preposition is an indeclinable word placed before the nouns, pronouns, and verbs which it governs."—Perrin's Grammar, p. 152.

(2.) "Every verb placed immediately after an other verb, or after a preposition, ought to be put in the infinitive; because it is then the regimen of the verb or preposition which precedes."—See La Grammaire des Grammaires, par Girault Du Vivier, p. 774.

(3.) The American translator of the Elements of General Grammar, by the Baron De Sacy, is naturally led, in giving a version of his author's method of analysis, to parse the English infinitive mood essentially as I do; calling the word to a preposition, and the exponent, or sign, of a relation between the verb which follows it, and some other word which is antecedent to it. Thus, in the phrase, "commanding them to use his power," he says, that "'to' [is the] Exponent of a relation whose Antecedent is 'commanding,' and [whose] Consequent [is] 'use.'"—Fosdick's De Sacy, p. 131. In short, he expounds the word to in this relation, just as he does when it stands before the objective case. For example, in the phrase, "belonging to him alone: 'to,' Exponent of a relation of which the Antecedent is 'belonging,' and the Consequent, 'him alone.'"—Ib., p. 126. My solution, in either case, differs from this in scarcely any thing else than the choice of words to express it.

(4.) It appears that, in sundry dialects of the north of Europe, the preposition at has been preferred for the governing of the infinitive: "The use of at for to, as the sign of the infinitive mode, is Norse, not Saxon. It is the regular prefix in Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Feroic. It is also found in the northern dialects of the Old English, and in the particular dialect of Westmoreland at the present day."—Fowler, on the English Language, 8vo, 1850, p. 46.

[407] Here is a literal version, in which two infinitives are governed by the preposition between; and though such a construction is uncommon, I know not why it should be thought less accurate in the one language than in the other. In some exceptive phrases, also, it seems not improper to put the infinitive after some other preposition than to; as, "What can she do besides sing?"—"What has she done, except rock herself?" But such expressions, if allowable, are too unfrequent to be noticed in any general Rule of syntax. In the following example, the word of pretty evidently governs the infinitive: "Intemperance characterizes our discussions, that is calculated to embitter in stead of conciliate."—CINCINNATI HERALD: Liberator, No. 986.

[408] This doctrine has been lately revived in English by William B. Fowle, who quotes Dr. Rees, Beauzée, Harris, Tracy, and Crombie, as his authorities for it. He is right in supposing the English infinitive to be generally governed by the preposition to, but wrong in calling it a noun, or "the name of the verb," except this phrase be used in the sense in which every verb may be the name of itself. It is an error too, to suppose with Beauzée, "that the infinitive never in any language refers to a subject or nominative;" or, as Harris has it, that infinitives "have no reference at all to persons or substances." See Fowle's True English Gram., Part ii, pp. 74 and 75. For though the infinitive verb never agrees with a subject or nominative, like a finite verb, it most commonly has a very obvious reference to something which is the subject of the being, action, or passion, which it expresses; and this reference is one of the chief points of difference between the infinitive and a noun. S. S. Greene, in a recent grammar, absurdly parses infinitives "as nouns," and by the common rules for nouns, though he begins with calling them verbs. Thus: "Our honor is to be maintained. To be maintained, is a regular passive VERB, infinitive mode, present tense, and is used as a NOUN in the relation of predicate; according to Rule II. A noun or pronoun used with the copula to form the predicate, must be in the nominative case."—Greene's Gram., 1848. p. 93. (See the Rule, ib. p. 29.) This author admits, "The 'to' seems, like the preposition, to perform the office of a connective:" but then he ingeniously imagines, "The infinitive differs from the preposition and its object, in that the 'to' is the only preposition used with the verb." And so he concludes, "The two [or more] parts of the infinitive are taken together, and, thus combined, may become a NOUN in any relation."—Ib., 1st Edition, p. 87. S. S. Greene will also have the infinitive to make the verb before it transitive; for he says, "The only form [of phrase] used as the direct object of a transitive verb is the infinitive; as, 'We intend (What?) to leave [town] to-day:' 'They tried (What?) to conceal their fears.'"—Ib., p. 99. One might as well find transitive verbs in these equivalents: "It is our purpose to leave town to-day."—"They endeavoured to conceal their fears." Or in this:—"They blustered to conceal their fears."

[409] It is remarkable that the ingenious J. E. Worcester could discern nothing of the import of this particle before a verb. He expounds it, with very little consistency, thus: "Tò, or To, ad. A particle employed as the usual sign or prefix of the infinitive mood of the verb; and it might, in such use, be deemed a syllable of the verb. It is used merely as a sign of the infinitive, without having any distinct or separate meaning: as, 'He loves to read.'"—Univ. and Crit. Dict. Now is it not plain, that the action expressed by "read" is "that towards which" the affection signified by "loves" is directed? It is only because we can use no other word in lieu of this to, that its meaning is not readily seen. For calling it "a syllable of the verb," there is, I think, no reason or analogy whatever. There is absurdity in calling it even "a part of the verb."

[410] As there is no point of grammar on which our philologists are more at variance, so there seems to be none on which they are more at fault, than in their treatment of the infinitive mood, with its usual sign, or governing particle, to. For the information of the reader, I would gladly cite every explanation not consonant with my own, and show wherein it is objectionable; but so numerous are the forms of error under this head, that such as cannot be classed together, or are not likely to be repeated, must in general be left to run their course, exempt from any criticism of mine. Of these various forms of error, however, I may here add an example or two.

(1.) "What is the meaning of the word to? Ans. To means act. NOTE.—As our verbs and nouns are spelled in the same manner, it was formerly thought best to prefix the word TO, to words when used as verbs. For there is no difference between the NOUN, love; and the VERB, to love; but what is shown by the prefix TO, which signifies act; i. e. to act love."—R. W. Greene's Inductive Exercises in English Grammar, N. Y., 1829, p. 52. Now all this, positive as the words are, is not only fanciful, but false, utterly false. To no more "means act," than from "means act." And if it did, it could not be a sign of the infinitive, or of a verb at all; for, "act love," is imperative, and makes the word "love" a noun; and so, "to act love," (where "love" is also a noun,) must mean "act act love," which is tautological nonsense. Our nouns and verbs are not, in general, spelled alike; nor are the latter, in general, preceded by to; nor could a particle which may govern either, have been specifically intended, at first, to mark their difference. By some, as we have seen, it is argued from the very sign, that the infinitive is always essentially a noun.

(2.) "The infinitive mode is the root or simple form of the verb, used to express an action or state indefinitely; as, to hear, to speak. It is generally distinguished by the sign to. When the particle to is employed in forming the infinitive, it is to be regarded as a part of the verb. In every other case it is a preposition."—Wells's School Grammar, 1st Ed., p. 80. "A Preposition is a word which is used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun depending upon it, to some other word in the sentence."—Ib., pp. 46 and 108. "The passive form of a verb is sometimes used in connection with a preposition, forming a compound passive verb. Examples:—'He was listened to without a murmur.'—A. H. EVERETT. 'Nor is this enterprise to be scoffed at.'—CHANNING."—Ib., p. 146. "A verb in the infinitive usually relates to some noun or pronoun. Thus, in the sentence, 'He desires to improve,' the verb to improve relates to the pronoun he while it is governed by desires."—Ib., p. 150. "'The agent to a verb in the infinitive mode must be in the objective case.'—NUTTING."—Ib., p. 148. These citations from Wells, the last of which he quotes approvingly, by way of authority, are in many respects self-contradictory, and in nearly all respects untrue. How can the infinitive be only "the root or simple form of the verb," and yet consist "generally" of two distinct words, and often of three, four, or five; as, "to hear,"—"to have heard,"—"to be listened to,"—"to have been listened to?" How can to be a "preposition" in the phrase, "He was listened to," and not so at all in "to be listened to?" How does the infinitive "express an action or state indefinitely," if it "usually relates to some noun or pronoun?" Why must its agent "be in the objective case," if "to improve relates to the pronoun he?" Is to "in every other case a preposition," and not such before a verb or a participle? Must every preposition govern some "noun or pronoun?" And yet are there some prepositions which govern nothing, precede nothing? "The door banged to behind him."—BLACKWELL: Prose Edda, §2. What is to here?

(3.) "The preposition TO before a verb is the sign of the Infinitive."—Weld's E. Gram., 2d Ed., p. 74. "The preposition is a part of speech used to connect words, and show their relation."—Ib., p. 42. "The perfect infinitive is formed of the perfect participle and the auxiliary HAVE preceded by the preposition TO."—Ib., p. 96. "The infinitive mode follows a verb, noun, or adjective."—Ib., pp. 75 and 166. "A verb in the Infinitive may follow: 1. Verbs or participles; 2. Nouns or pronouns; 3. Adjectives; 4. As or than; 5. Adverbs; 6. Prepositions; 7. The Infinitive is often used independently; 8. The Infinitive mode is often used in the office of a verbal noun, as the nominative case to the verb, and as the objective case after verbs and prepositions."—Ib., p. 167. These last two counts are absurdly included among what "the Infinitive may follow;" and is it not rather queer, that this mood should be found to "follow" every thing else, and not "the preposition TO," which comes "before" it, and by which it is "preceded?" This author adopts also the following absurd and needless rule: "The Infinitive mode has an objective case before it when [the word] THAT is omitted: as, I believe the sun to be the centre of the solar system; I know him to be a man of veracity."—Ib., p. 167; Abridged Ed., 124. (See Obs. 10th on Rule 2d, above.) "Sun" is here governed by "believe;" and "him," by "know;" and "be," in both instances, by "the preposition TO:" for this particle is not only "the sign of the Infinitive," but its governing word, answering well to the definition of a preposition above cited from Weld.

[411] "The infinitive is sometimes governed by a preposition; as, 'The shipmen were about to flee.'"—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 149; 3d Ed., p. 158. Wells has altered this, and for "preposition" put "adverb."—Ed. of 1850, p. 163.

[412] Some grammatists, being predetermined that no preposition shall control the infinitive, avoid the conclusion by absurdly calling FOR, a conjunction; ABOUT, an adverb; and TO—no matter what—but generally, nothing. Thus: "The conjunction FOR, is inelegantly used before verbs in the infinitive mood; as, 'He came for to study Latin.'"—Greenleaf's Gram., p. 38. "The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; as, 'An object so high as to be invisible;' 'The army is about to march.'"—Kirkham's Gram., p. 188. This is a note to that extra rule which Kirkham proposes for our use, "if we reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood!"—Ib.

[413] After the word "fare," Murray put a semicolon, which shows that he misunderstood the mood of the verb "hear." It is not always necessary to repeat the particle to, when two or more infinitives are connected; and this fact is an other good argument against calling the preposition to "a part of the verb." But in this example, and some others here exhibited, the repetition is requisite.—G. B.

[414] "The Infinitive Mood is not confined to a trunk or nominative, and is always preceded by to, expressed or implied."—S. Barrett's Gram., 1854, p. 43.

[415] Lindley Murray, and several of his pretended improvers, say, "The infinitive sometimes follows the word AS: thus, 'An object so high as to be invisible.' The infinitive occasionally follows THAN after a comparison; as, 'He desired nothing more than to know his own imperfections.'"—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 184; Fisk's, 125; Alger's, 63; Merchant's, 92. See this second example in Weld's Gram., p. 167; Abridg., 124. Merchant, not relishing the latter example, changes it thus: "I wish nothing more, than to know his fate." He puts a comma after more, and probably means, "I wish nothing else than to know his fate." So does Fisk, in the other version: and probably means, "He desired nothing else than to know his own imperfections." But Murray, Alger, and Weld, accord in punctuation, and their meaning seems rather to be, "He desired nothing more heartily than [he desired] to know his own imperfections." And so is this or a similar text interpreted by both Ingersoll and Weld, who suppose this infinitive to be "governed by another verb, understood: as, 'He desired nothing more than to see his friends;' that is, 'than he desired to see,' &c."—Ingersoll's Gram., p. 244; Weld's Abridged, 124. But obvious as is the ambiguity of this fictitious example, in all its forms, not one of these five critics perceived the fault at all. Again, in their remark above cited, Ingersoll, Fisk, and Merchant, put a comma before the preposition "after," and thus make the phrase, "after a comparison," describe the place of the infinitive. But Murray and Alger probably meant that this phrase should denote the place of the conjunction "than." The great "Compiler" seems to me to have misused the phrase "a comparison," for, "an adjective or adverb of the comparative degree;" and the rest, I suppose, have blindly copied him, without thinking or knowing what he ought to have said, or meant to say. Either this, or a worse error, is here apparent. Five learned grammarians severally represent either "than" or "the infinitive," as being AFTER "a comparison;" of which one is the copula, and the other but the beginning of the latter term! Palpable as is the absurdity, no one of the five perceives it! And, besides, no one of them says any thing about the government of this infinitive, except Ingersoll, and he supplies a verb. "Than and as," says Greenleaf, "sometimes appear to govern the infinitive mood; as, 'Nothing makes a man suspect much more, than to know little;' 'An object so high as to be invisible."—Gram. Simp., p. 38. Here is an other fictitious and ambiguous example, in which the phrase, "to know little," is the subject of makes understood. Nixon supposes the infinitive phrase after as to be always the subject of a finite verb understood after it; as, "An object so high as to be invisible is or, implies." See English Parser, p. 100.

[416] Dr. Crombie, after copying the substance of Campbell's second Canon, that, "In doubtful cases analogy should be regarded," remarks: "For the same reason, 'it needs' and 'he dares,' are better than 'he need' and 'he dare.'"—On Etym. and Synt., p. 326. Dr. Campbell's language is somewhat stronger: "In the verbs to dare and to need, many say, in the third person present singular, dare and need, as 'he need not go: he dare not do it.' Others say, dares and needs. As the first usage is exceedingly irregular, hardly any thing less than uniform practice could authorize it."—Philosophy of Rhet., p. 175. Dare for dares I suppose to be wrong; but if need is an auxiliary of the potential mood, to use it without inflection, is neither "irregular," nor at all inconsistent with the foregoing canon. But the former critic notices these verbs a second time, thus: "'He dare not,' 'he need not,' may be justly pronounced solecisms, for 'he dares,' 'he needs.'"—Crombie, on Etym. and Synt., p. 378. He also says, "The verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, let, are not followed by the sign of the infinitive."—Ib., p. 277. And yet he writes thus: "These are truths, of which, I am persuaded, the author, to whom I allude, needs not to be reminded."—Ib., p. 123. So Dr. Bullions declares against need in the singular, by putting down the following example as bad English: "He need not be in so much haste."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 134. Yet he himself writes thus: "A name more appropriate than the term neuter, need not be desired."—Ib., p. 196. A school-boy may see the inconsistency of this.

[417] Some modern grammarians will have it, that a participle governed by a preposition is a "participial noun;" and yet, when they come to parse an adverb or an objective following, their "noun" becomes a "participle" again, and not a "noun." To allow words thus to dodge from one class to an other, is not only unphilosophical, but ridiculously absurd. Among those who thus treat this construction of the participle, the chief, I think, are Butler, Hurt, Weld, Wells, and S. S. Greene.

[418] Dr. Blair, to whom Murray ought to have acknowledged himself indebted for this sentence, introduced a noun, to which, in his work, this infinitive and these participles refer: thus, "It is disagreeable for the mind to be left pausing on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea."—Blair's Rhetoric, p. 118. See Obs. 10th and 11th on Rule 14th.

[419] The perfect contrast between from and to, when the former governs the participle and the latter the infinitive, is an other proof that this to is the common preposition to. For example, "These are the four spirits of the heavens, which go forth from standing before the Lord of all the earth."—Zech., vi, 5. Now if this were rendered "which go forth to stand," &c., it is plain that these prepositions would express quite opposite relations. Yet, probably from some obscurity in the original, the Greek version has been made to mean, "going forth to stand;" and the Latin, "which go forth, that they may stand;" while the French text conveys nearly the same sense as ours,—"which go forth from the place where they stood."

[420] Cannot, with a verb of avoiding, or with the negative but, is equivalent to must. Such examples may therefore be varied thus: "I cannot but mention:" i.e., "I must mention."—"I cannot help exhorting him to assume courage."—Knox. That is, "I cannot but exhort him."

[421] See the same thing in Kirkham's Gram. p. 189; in Ingersoll's, p. 200; in Smith's New Grammar, p. 162; and in other modifications and mutilations of Murray's work. Kirkham, in an other place, adopts the doctrine, that, "Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case; as, 'In case of his majesty's dying without issue, &c.; Upon God's having ended all his works, &c.; I remember its being reckoned a great exploit; At my coming in he said, &c."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 181. None of these examples are written according to my notion of elegance, or of accuracy. Better: "In case his Majesty die without issue."—"God having ended all his works."—"I remember it was reckoned a great exploit."—"At my entrance, he said," &c.

[422] We have seen that Priestley's doctrine, as well as Lowth's, is, that when a participle is taken substantively, "it ought not to govern another word;" and, for the same reason, it ought not to have an adverb relating to it. But many of our modern grammarians disregard these principles, and do not restrict their "participial nouns" to the construction of nouns, in either of these respects. For example: Because one may say, "To read superficially, is useless," Barnard supposes it right to say, "Reading superficially is useless." "But the participle," says he, "will also take the adjective; as, 'Superficial reading is useless.'"—Analytic Gram., p. 212. In my opinion, this last construction ought to be preferred; and the second, which is both irregular and unnecessary, rejected. Again, this author says: "We have laid it down as a rule, that the possessive case belongs, like an adjective, to a noun. What shall be said of the following? 'Since the days of Samson, there has been no instance of a man's accomplishing a task so stupendous.' The entire clause following man's, is taken as a noun. 'Of a man's success in a task so stupendous.' would present no difficulty. A part of a sentence, or even a single participle, thus often stands for a noun. 'My going will depend on my father's giving his consent,' or 'on my father's consenting.' A participle thus used as a noun, may be called a PARTICIPIAL NOUN."—Ib., p. 131. I dislike this doctrine also. In the first example, man may well be made the leading word in sense; and, as such, it must be in the objective case; thus: "There has been no instance of a man accomplishing a task so stupendous." It is also proper to say. "My going will depend on my father's consenting," or, "on my father's consent." But an action possessed by the agent, ought not to be transitive. If, therefore, you make this the leading idea, insert of: thus, "There has been no instance of a man's accomplishing of a task so stupendous." "My going will depend on my father's giving of his consent."—"My brother's acquiring [of] the French language will be a useful preparation for his travels."—Barnard's Gram., p. 227. If participial nouns retain the power of participles, why is it wrong to say, "A superficial reading books is useless?" Again, Barnard approves of the question, "What do you think of my horse's running to-day?" and adds, "Between this form of expression and the following, 'What do you think of my horse running to-day?' it is sometimes said, that we should make a distinction; because the former implies that the horse had actually run, and the latter, that it is in contemplation to have him do so. The difference of meaning certainly exists; but it would seem more judicious to treat the latter as an improper mode of speaking. What can be more uncouth than to say, 'What do you think of me going to Niagara?' We should say my going, notwithstanding the ambiguity. We ought, therefore, to introduce something explanatory; as, 'What do you think of the propriety of my going to Niagara?"—Analytic Gram., p. 227. The propriety of a past action is as proper a subject of remark as that of a future one; the explanatory phrase here introduced has therefore nothing to do with Priestley's distinction, or with the alleged ambiguity. Nor does the uncouthness of an objective pronoun with the leading word in sense improperly taken as an adjunct, prove that a participle may properly take to itself a possessive adjunct, and still retain the active nature of a participle.

[423] The following is an example, but it is not very intelligible, nor would it be at all amended, if the pronoun were put in the possessive case: "I sympathize with my sable brethren, when I hear of them being spared even one lash of the cart-whip."—REV. DR. THOMPSON: Garrison, on Colonization, p. 80. And this is an other, in which the possessive pronoun would not be better: "But, if the slaves wish, to return to slavery, let them do so; not an abolitionist will turn out to stop them going back."—Antislavery Reporter, Vol. IV, p. 223. Yet it might be more accurate to say—"to stop them from going back." In the following example from the pen of Priestley, the objective is correctly used with as, where some would be apt to adopt the possessive: "It gives us an idea of him, as being the only person to whom it can be applied."—Priestley's Gram., p. 151. Is not this better English than to say, "of his being the only person?" The following is from the pen of a good scholar: "This made me remember the discourse we had together, at my house, about me drawing constitutions, not as proposals, but as if fixed to the hand."—WILLIAM PENN: Letter to Algernon Sidney, Oct. 13th, 1681. Here, if me is objectionable, my without of would be no less so. It might be better grammar to say, "about my drawing of constitutions."

[424] Sometimes the passive form is adopted, when there is no real need of it, and when perhaps the active would be better, because it is simpler; as, "Those portions of the grammar are worth the trouble of being committed to memory."—Dr. Barrow's Essays, p. 109. Better, perhaps:—"worth the trouble of committing to memory:" or,—"worth the trouble committing them to memory." Again: "What is worth being uttered at all, is worth being spoken in a proper manner."—Kirkham's Elocution, p. 68. Better, perhaps: "What is worth uttering at all, is worth uttering in a proper manner."—G. Brown.

[425] "RULE.—When the participle expresses something of which the noun following is the DOER, it should have the article and preposition; as, 'It was said in the hearing of the witness.' When it expresses something of which the noun following is not the doer, but the OBJECT, both should be omitted; as, 'The court spent some time in hearing the witness.'"—BULLIONS, Prin. of E. Gram., p. 108; Analyt. and Pract. Gram., 181.

[426] This doctrine is far from being true. See Obs. 12th, in this series, above.—G. B.

[427] "Dr. Webster considers the use of then and above as ADNOUNS, [i. e., adjectives,] to be 'well authorized and very convenient;' as, the then ministry; the above remarks."—Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 108. Dr. Webster's remark is in the following words: "Then and above are often used as ATTRIBUTES: [i. e., adjectives; as,] the then ministry; the above remarks; nor would I prescribe this use. It is well authorized and very convenient."—Philos. Gram., p. 245; Improved Gram., p. 176. Of this use of then, Dr. Crombie has expressed a very different opinion: "Here then," says he, "the adverb equivalent to at that time, is solecistically employed as an adjective, agreeing with ministry. This error seems to gain ground; it should therefore be vigilantly opposed, and carefully avoided."—On Etym. and Synt., p. 405.

[428] W. Allen supposes, "An adverb sometimes qualifies a whole sentence: as, Unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity, no remains of Grecian paintings have been preserved."—Elements of Eng. Gram., p. 173. But this example may be resolved thus: "It happens unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity, that no remains of Grecian paintings have been preserved."

[429] This assertion of Churchill's is very far from the truth. I am confident that the latter construction occurs, even among reputable authors, ten times as often as the former can be found in any English books.—G. BROWN.

[430] Should not the Doctor have said, "are there more," since "more than one" must needs be plural? See Obs. 10th on Rule 17th.

[431] This degree of truth is impossible, and therefore not justly supposable. We have also a late American grammarian who gives a similar interpretation: "'Though never so justly deserving of it.' Comber. Never is here an emphatic adverb; as if it were said, so justly as was never. Though well authorized, it is disapproved by most grammarians of the present day; and the word ever is used instead of never."—Felch's Comp. Gram., p. 107. The text here cited is not necessarily bad English as it stands; but, if the commenter has not mistaken its meaning, as well as its construction, it ought certainly to be, "Though everso justly deserving of it."—"So justly as was never," is a positive degree that is not imaginable; and what is this but an absurdity?

[432] Since this remark was written, I have read an other grammar, (that of the "Rev. Charles Adams,") in which the author sets down among "the more frequent improprieties committed, in conversation, 'Ary one' for either, and 'nary one' for neither."—Adams's System of Gram., p. 116. Eli Gilbert too betrays the same ignorance. Among his "Improper Pronunciations" he puts down "Nary" and "Ary" and for "Corrections" of them, gives "neither" and "either."—Gilbert's Catechetical Gram., p. 128. But these latter terms, either and neither, are applicable only to one of two things, and cannot be used where many are spoken of; as,

   "Stealing her soul with many vows of faith,
    And ne'er a true one."—Shakspeare.

What sense would there be in expounding this to mean, "And neither a true one?" So some men both write and interpret their mother tongue erroneously through ignorance. But these authors condemn the errors which they here falsely suppose to be common. What is yet more strange, no less a critic than Prof. William C. Fowler, has lately exhibited, without disapprobation, one of these literary blunders, with sundry localisms, (often descending to slang,) which, he says, are mentioned by "Mr. Bartlett, in his valuable dictionary [Dictionary] of Americanisms." The brief example, which may doubtless be understood to speak for both phrases and both authors, is this: "ARY = either."—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo, N. Y., 1850, p. 92.

[433] The conjunction that, at the head of a sentence or clause, enables us to assume the whole preposition as one thing; as, "All arguments whatever are directed to prove one or other of these three things: that something is true; that it is morally right or fit; or that it is profitable and good."—Blair's Rhet., p. 318. Here each that may be parsed as connecting its own clause to the first clause in the sentence; or, to the word things with which the three clauses are in a sort of apposition. If we conceive it to have no such connecting power, we must make this too an exception.

[434] "Note. Then and than are distinct Particles, but use hath made the using of then for than after a Comparative Degree at least passable. See Butler's Eng. Gram. Index."—Walker's Eng. Particles, Tenth Ed., 1691, p. 333.

[435] "When the relative who follows the preposition than, it must be used as in the accusative case."—Bucke's Gram., p. 93. Dr. Priestley seems to have imagined the word than to be always a preposition; for he contends against the common doctrine and practice respecting the case after it: "It is, likewise, said, that the nominative case ought to follow the preposition than; because the verb to be is understood after it; As, You are taller than he, and not taller than him; because at full length, it would be, You are taller than he is; but since it is allowed, that the oblique case should follow prepositions; and since the comparative degree of an adjective, and the particle than have, certainly, between them, the force of a preposition, expressing the relation of one word to another, they ought to require the oblique case of the pronoun following."—Priestley's Gram., p. 105. If than were a preposition, this reasoning would certainly be right; but the Doctor begs the question, by assuming that it is a preposition. William Ward, an other noted grammarian of the same age, supposes that, "ME sapientior es, may be translated, Thou art wiser THAN ME." He also, in the same place, avers, that, "The best English Writers have considered than as a Sign of an oblique Case; as, 'She suffers more THAN ME.' Swift, i.e. more than I suffer.

    'Thou art a Girl as much brighter THAN HER,
    As he was a Poet sublimer THAN ME.' Prior.

i.e. Thou art a Girl as much brighter than she was, as he was a Poet sublimer than I am."—Ward's Practical Gram., p. 112. These examples of the objective case after than, were justly regarded by Lowth as bad English. The construction, however, has a modern advocate in S. W. Clark, who will have the conjunctions as, but, save, saving, and than, as well as the adjectives like, unlike, near, next, nigh, and opposite, to be prepositions. "After a Comparative the Preposition than is commonly used. Example—Grammar is more interesting than all my other studies."—Clark's Practical Gram., p. 178. "As, like, than, &c., indicate a relation of comparison. Example 'Thou hast been wiser all the while than me.' Southey's Letters."—Ib., p. 96. Here correct usage undoubtedly requires I, and not me. Such at least is my opinion.

[436] In respect to the case, the phrase than who is similar to than he, than they, &c., as has been observed by many grammarians; but, since than is a conjunction, and who or whom is a relative, it is doubtful whether it can be strictly proper to set two such connectives together, be the case of the latter which it may. See Note 5th, in the present chapter, below.

[437] After else or other, the preposition besides is sometimes used; and, when it recalls an idea previously suggested, it appears to be as good as than, or better: as, "Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i. p. 285. Or perhaps this preposition may be proper, whenever else or other denotes what is additional to the object of contrast, and not exclusive of it; as, "When we speak of any other quantity besides bare numbers."—Tooke's Diversions, Vol. i, p. 215. "Because he had no other father besides God."—Milton, on Christianity, p. 109. Though we sometimes express an addition by more than, the following example appears to me to be bad English, and its interpretation still worse: "'The secret was communicated to more men than him.' That is, (when the ellipsis is duly supplied,) 'The secret was communicated to more persons than to him.'"—Murray's Key, 12mo, p. 61; his Octavo Gram., p. 215; Ingersoll's Gram., 252. Say rather,—"to other men besides him." Nor, again, does the following construction appear to be right: "Now shew me another Popish rhymester but he."—DENNIS: Notes to the Dunciad, B. ii, l. 268. Say rather, "Now show me an other popish rhymester besides him." Or thus: "Now show me any popish rhymester except him." This too is questionable: "Now pain must here be intended to signify something else besides warning."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 121. If "warning" was here intended to be included with "something else," the expression is right; if not, besides should be than. Again: "There is seldom any other cardinal in Poland but him."—Life of Charles XII. Here "but him" should be either "besides him," or "than he;" for but never rightly governs the objective case, nor is it proper after other. "Many more examples, besides the foregoing, might have been adduced."—Nesbit's English Parsing, p. xv. Here, in fact, no comparison is expressed; and therefore it is questionable, whether the word "more" is allowably used. Like else and other, when construed with besides, it signifies additional; and, as this idea is implied in besides, any one of these adjectives going before is really pleonastic. In the sense above noticed, the word beside is sometimes written in stead of besides, though not very often; as, "There are other things which pass in the mind of man, beside ideas."—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 136.

[438] A few of the examples under this head might be corrected equally well by some preceding note of a more specific character; for a general note against the improper omission of prepositions, of course includes those principles of grammar by which any particular prepositions are to be inserted. So the examples of error which were given in the tenth chapter of Etymology, might nearly all of them have been placed under the first note in this tenth chapter of Syntax. But it was thought best to illustrate every part of this volume, by some examples of false grammar, out of the infinite number and variety with which our literature abounds.

[439] "The Rev. Joab Goldsmith Cooper, A. M.," was the author of two English grammars, as well as of what he called "A New and Improved Latin Grammar," with "An Edition of the Works of Virgil, &c.," all published in Philadelphia. His first grammar, dated 1828, is entitled, "An Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar, and Exercises." But it is no more an abridgement of Murray's work, than of mine; he having chosen to steal from the text of my Institutes, or supply matter of his own, about as often as to copy Murray. His second is the Latin Grammar. His third, which is entitled, "A Plain and Practical English Grammar," and dated 1831, is a book very different from the first, but equally inaccurate and worthless. In this book, the syntax of interjections stands thus: "RULE 21. The interjections O, oh and ah are followed by the objective case of a noun or pronoun, as: 'O me! ah me! oh me!' In the second person, they are a mark or sign of an address, made to a person or thing, as: O thou persecutor! Oh, ye hypocrites! O virtue, how amiable thou art!"—Page 157. The inaccuracy of all this can scarcely be exceeded.

[440] "Oh is used to express the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise. O is used to express wishing, exclamation, or a direct address to a person."—Lennie's Gram., 12th Ed., p. 110. Of this distinction our grammarians in general seem to have no conception; and, in fact, it is so often disregarded by other authors, that the propriety of it may be disputed. Since O and oh are pronounced alike, or very nearly so, if there is no difference in their application, they are only different modes of writing the same word, and one or the other of them is useless. If there is a real difference, as I suppose there is, it ought to be better observed; and O me! and oh ye! which I believe are found only in grammars, should be regarded as bad English. Both O and oh, as well as ah, were used in Latin by Terence, who was reckoned an elegant writer; and his manner of applying them favours this distinction: and so do our own dictionaries, though Johnson and Walker do not draw it clearly, for oh is as much an "exclamation" as O. In the works of Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, we find O or o used frequently, but nowhere oh. Yet this is no evidence of their sameness, or of the uselessness of the latter; but rather of their difference, and of the impropriety of confounding them. O, oh, ho, and ah, are French words as well as English. Boyer, in his Quarto Dictionary, confounds them all; translating "O!" only by "Oh!" "OH! ou HO!" by "Ho! Oh!" and "AH!" by "Oh! alas! well-a-day! ough! A! ah! hah! ho!" He would have done better to have made each one explain itself; and especially, not to have set down "ough!" and "A!" as English words which correspond to the French ah!

[441] This silence is sufficiently accounted for by Murray's; of whose work, most of the authors who have any such rule, are either piddling modifiers or servile copyists. And Murray's silence on these matters, is in part attributable to the fact, that when he wrote his remark, his system of grammar denied that nouns have any first person, or any objective case. Of course he supposed that all nouns that were uttered after interjections, whether they were of the second person or of the third, were in the nominative case; for he gave to nouns two cases only, the nominative and the possessive. And when he afterwards admitted the objective case of nouns, he did not alter his remark, but left all his pupils ignorant of the case of any noun that is used in exclamation or invocation. In his doctrine of two cases, he followed Dr. Ash: from whom also he copied the rule which I am criticising: "The Interjections, O, Oh, and Ah, require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first Person: as, O me, Oh me, Ah me: But the Nominative in the second: as, O thou, O ye."—Ash's Gram., p. 60. Or perhaps he had Bicknell's book, which was later: "The interjections O, oh, and ah, require the accusative case of a pronoun in the first person after them; as, O, me! Oh, me! Ah, me! But the nominative case in the second person; as, O, thou that rulest! O, ye rulers of this land!"—The Grammatical Wreath, Part I, p. 105.

[442] See 2 Sam., xix, 4; also xviii, 33. Peirce has many times misquoted this text, or some part of it; and, what is remarkable, he nowhere agrees either with himself or with the Bible! "O! Absalom! my son!"—Gram., p. 283. "O Absalom! my son, my son! would to God I had died for thee."—Ib., p. 304. Pinneo also misquotes and perverts a part of it, thus: "Oh, Absalom! my son"—Primary Gram., Revised Ed., p. 57.

[443] Of this example, Professor Bullions says, "This will be allowed to be a correct English sentence, complete in itself, and requiring nothing to be supplied. The phrase, 'being an expert dancer,' is the subject of the verb 'does entitle;' but the word 'dancer' in that phrase is neither the subject of any verb, nor is governed by any word in the sentence."—Eng. Gram., p. 52. It is because this word cannot have any regular construction after the participle when the possessive case precedes, that I deny his first proposition, and declare the sentence not "to be correct English." But the Professor at length reasons himself into the notion, that this indeterminate "predicate," as he erroneously calls it, "is properly in the objective case, and in parsing, may correctly be called the objective indefinite;" of which case, he says, "The following are also examples: 'He had the honour of being a director for life.' 'By being a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in his profession.'"—Ib., p. 83. But "director" and "student" are here manifestly in the nominative case: each agreeing with the pronoun he, which denotes the same person. In the latter sentence, there is a very obvious transposition of the first five words.

[444] Faulty as this example is, Dr. Blair says of it: "Nothing can be more elegant, or more finely turned, than this sentence. It is neat, clear, and musical. We could hardly alter one word, or disarrange one member, without spoiling it. Few sentences are to be found, more finished, or more happy."—Lecture XX, p. 201. See the six corrections suggested in my Key, and judge whether or not they spoil the sentence.—G. B.

[445] This Note, as well as all the others, will by-and-by be amply illustrated by citations from authors of sufficient repute to give it some value as a grammatical principle: but one cannot hope such language as is, in reality, incorrigibly bad, will always appear so to the generality of readers. Tastes, habits, principles, judgements, differ; and, where confidence is gained, many utterances are well received, that are neither well considered nor well understood. When a professed critic utters what is incorrect beyond amendment, the fault is the more noteworthy, as his professions are louder, or his standing is more eminent. In a recent preface, deliberately composed for a very comprehensive work on "English Grammar," and designed to allure both young and old to "a thorough and extensive acquaintance with their mother tongue,"—in the studied preface of a learned writer, who has aimed "to furnish not only a text-book for the higher institutions, but also a reference-book for teachers, which may give breadth and exactness to their views,"—I find a paragraph of which the following is a part: "Unless men, at least occasionally, bestow their attention upon the science and the laws of the language, they are in some danger, amid the excitements of professional life, of losing the delicacy of their taste and giving sanction to vulgarisms, or to what is worse. On this point, listen to the recent declarations of two leading men in the Senate of the United States, both of whom understand the use of the English language in its power: 'In truth, I must say that, in my opinion, the vernacular tongue of the country has become greatly vitiated, depraved, and corrupted by the style of our Congressional debates.' And the other, in courteous response remarked, 'There is such a thing as an English and a parliamentary vocabulary, and I have never heard a worse, when circumstances called it out, on this side [of] Billingsgate!'"—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo. 1850, Pref., p. iv.

Now of these "two leading men," the former was Daniel Webster, who, in a senatorial speech, in the spring of 1850, made such a remark concerning the style of oratory used in Congress. But who replied, or what idea the "courteous response," as here given, can be said to convey, I do not know. The language seems to me both unintelligible and solecistical; and, therefore, but a fair sample of the Incorrigible. Some intelligent persons, whom I have asked to interpret it, think, as Webster had accused our Congress of corrupting the English language, the respondent meant to accuse the British Parliament of doing the same thing in a greater degree,—of descending yet lower into the vileness of slang. But this is hardly a probable conjecture. Webster might be right in acknowledging a very depraving abuse of the tongue in the two Houses of Congress; but could it be "courteous," or proper, for the answerer to jump the Atlantic, and pounce upon the English Lords and Commons, as a set of worse corrupters?

The gentleman begins with saying, "There is such a thing"—as if he meant to describe some one thing; and proceeds with saying, "as an English and a parliamentary vocabulary," in which phrase, by repeating the article, he speaks of two "things"—two vocabularies; then goes on, "and I have never heard a worse!" A worse what? Does he mean "a worse vocabulary?" If so, what sense has "vocabulary?" And, again, "a worse" than what? Where and what is this "thing" which is so bad that the leading Senator has "never heard a worse?" Is it some "vocabulary" both "English and parliamentary?" If so, whose? If not, what else is it? Lest the wisdom of this oraculous "declaration" be lost to the public through the defects of its syntax,—and lest more than one rhetorical critic seem hereby "in some danger" of "giving sanction to" nonsense,—it may be well for Professor Fowler, in his next edition, to present some elucidation of this short but remarkable passage, which he values so highly!

An other example, in several respects still more remarkable,—a shorter one, into which an equally successful professor of grammar has condensed a much greater number and variety of faults,—is seen in the following citation: "The verb is so called, because it means word; and as there can be no sentence without it, it is called, emphatically, the word."—Pinneo's Analytical Gram., p. 14. This sentence, in which, perhaps, most readers will discover no error, has in fact faults of so many different kinds, that a critic must pause to determine under which of more than half a dozen different heads of false syntax it might most fitly be presented for correction or criticism. (1.) It might be set down under my Note 5th to Rule 10th; for, in one or two instances out of the three, if not in all, the pronoun "it" gives not the same idea as its antecedent. The faults coming under this head might be obviated by three changes, made thus: "The verb is so called, because verb means word; and, as there can be no sentence without a verb, this part of speech is called, emphatically, the word." Cobbett wisely says, "Never put an it upon paper without thinking well of what you are about."—E. Gram., ¶ 196. But (2.) the erroneous text, and this partial correction of it too, might be put under my Critical Note 5th, among Falsities; for, in either form, each member affirms what is manifestly untrue. The term "word" has many meanings; but no usage ever makes it, "emphatically" or otherwise, a name for one of the classes called "parts of speech;" nor is there nowadays any current usage in which "verb means word." (3.) This text might be put under Critical Note 6th, among Absurdities; for whoever will read it, as in fairness he should, taking the pronoun "it" in the exact sense of its antecedent "the verb," will see that the import of each part is absurd—the whole, a two-fold absurdity. (4.) It might be put under Critical Note 7th, among Self-Contradictions; for, to teach at once that "the verb is so called," and "is called, emphatically," otherwise,—namely, "the word,"—is, to contradict one's self. (5.) It might be set down under Critical Note 9th, among examples of Words Needless; for the author's question is, "Why is the verb so called?" and this may be much better answered in fewer words, thus: "THE VERB is so called, because in French it is called le verbe and in Latin, verbum, which means word." (6.) It might be put under Critical Note 10th, as an example of Improper Omissions; for it may be greatly bettered by the addition of some words, thus: "The verb is so called, because [in French] it [is called le verbe, and in Latin, verbum, which] means word: as there can be no sentence without a verb, this [most important part of speech] is called, emphatically, [the verb,—q.d.,] the word." (7.) It might be put under Critical Note 11th, among Literary Blunders; for there is at least one blunder in each of its members. (8.) It might be set down under Critical Note 13th, as an example of Awkwardness; for it is but clumsy work, to teach grammar after this sort. (9.) It might be given under Critical Note 16th, as a sample of the Incorrigible; for it is scarcely possible to eliminate all its defects and retain its essentials.

These instances may suffice to show, that even gross errors of grammar may lurk where they are least to be expected, in the didactic phraseology of professed masters of style or oratory, and may abound where common readers or the generality of hearers will discover nothing amiss.

[446] As a mere assertion, this example is here sufficiently corrected; but, as a definition, (for which the author probably intended it,) it is deficient; and consequently, in that sense, is still inaccurate. I would also observe that most of the subsequent examples under the present head, contain other errors than that for which they are here introduced; and, of some of them, the faults are, in my opinion, very many: for example, the several definitions of an adverb, cited below. Lindley Murray's definition of this part of speech is not inserted among these, because I had elsewhere criticised that. So too of his faulty definition of a conjunction. See the Introduction, Chap. X. paragraphs 26 and 28. See also Corrections in the Key, under Note 10th to Rule 1st.

[447] In his explanation of Ellipsis, Lindley Murray continually calls it "the ellipsis," and speaks of it as something that is "used,"—"made use of,"—"applied,"—"contained in" the examples; which expressions, referring, as they there do, to the mere absence of something, appear to me solecistical. The notion too, which this author and others have entertained of the figure itself, is in many respects erroneous; and nearly all their examples for its illustration are either questionable as to such an application, or obviously inappropriate. The absence of what is needless or unsuggested, is no ellipsis, though some grave men have not discerned this obvious fact. The nine solecisms here quoted concerning "the ellipsis," are all found in many other grammars. See Fisk's E. Gram., p. 144; Guy's, 91; Ingersoll's, 153; J. M. Putnam's, 137; R. C. Smith's, 180; Weld's, 190.

[448] Some of these examples do, in fact, contain more than two errors; for mistakes in punctuation, or in the use of capitals, are not here reckoned. This remark may also he applicable to some of the other lessons. The reader may likewise perceive, that where two, three, or more improprieties occur in one sentence, some one or more of them may happen to be such, as he can, if he choose, correct by some rule or note belonging to a previous chapter. Great labour has been bestowed on the selection and arrangement of these syntactical exercises; but to give to so great a variety of literary faults, a distribution perfectly distinct, and perfectly adapted to all the heads assumed in this digest, is a work not only of great labour, but of great difficulty. I have come as near to these two points of perfection in the arrangement, as I well could.—G. BROWN.

[449] In Murray's sixth chapter of Punctuation, from which this example, and eleven others that follow it, are taken, there is scarcely a single sentence that does not contain many errors; and yet the whole is literally copied in Ingersoll's Grammar, p. 293; in Fisk's, p. 159; in Abel Flint's, 116; and probably in some others. I have not always been careful to subjoin the great number of references which might be given for blunders selected from this hackneyed literature of the schools. For corrections, or improvements, see the Key.

[450] This example, or L. Murray's miserable modification of it, traced through the grammars of Alden, Alger, Bullions, Comly, Cooper, Flint, Hiley, Ingersoll, Jaudon, Merchant, Russell, Smith, and others, will be found to have a dozen different forms—all of them no less faulty than the original—all of them obscure, untrue, inconsistent, and almost incorrigible. It is plain, that "a comma," or one comma, cannot divide more than two "simple members;" and these, surely, cannot be connected by more than one relative, or by more than one "comparative;" if it be allowable to call than, as, or so, by this questionable name. Of the multitude of errors into which these pretended critics have so blindly fallen, I shall have space and time to point out only a very small part: this text, too justly, may be taken as a pretty fair sample of their scholarship!

[451] The "idea" which is here spoken of, Dr. Blair discovers in a passage of Addison's Spectator. It is, in fact, as here "brought out" by the critic, a bald and downright absurdity. Dr. Campbell has criticised, under the name of marvellous nonsense, a different display of the same "idea," cited from De Piles's Principles of Painting. The passage ends thus: "In this sense it may be asserted, that in Rubens' pieces, Art is above Nature, and Nature only a copy of that great master's works." Of this the critic says: "When the expression is stript of the absurd meaning, there remains nothing but balderdash."—Philosophy of Rhet., p, 278.

[452] All his rules for the comma, Fisk appears to have taken unjustly from Greenleaf. It is a double shame, for a grammarian to steal what is so badly written!—G. BROWN.

[453] Bad definitions may have other faults than to include or exclude what they should not, but this is their great and peculiar vice. For example: "Person is that property of nouns and pronouns which distinguishes the speaker, the person or thing addressed, and the person or thing spoken of."—Wells's School Gram., 1st Ed., p. 51; 113th Ed., p. 57. See nearly the same words, in Weld's English Gram., p. 67; and in his Abridgement, p. 49. The three persons of verbs are all improperly excluded from this definition; which absurdly takes "person" to be one property that has all the effect of all the persons; so that each person, in its turn, since each cannot have all this effect, is seen to be excluded also: that is, it is not such a property as is described! Again: "An intransitive verb is a verb which does not have a noun or pronoun for its object."—Wells, 1st Ed., p. 76. According to Dr. Johnson, "does not have," is not a scholarly phrase; but the adoption of a puerile expression is a trifling fault, compared with that of including here all passive verbs, and some transitives, which the author meant to exclude; to say nothing of the inconsistency of excluding here the two classes of verbs which he absurdly calls "intransitive," though he finds them "followed by objectives depending upon them!"—Id., p. 145. Weld imitates these errors too, on pp. 70 and 153.

[454] S. R. Hall thinks it necessary to recognize "four distinctions" of "the distinction occasioned by sex." In general, the other authors here quoted, suppose that we have only "three distinctions" of "the distinction of sex." And, as no philosopher has yet discovered more than two sexes, some have thence stoutly argued, that it is absurd to speak of more than two genders. Lily makes it out, that in Latin there are seven: yet, with no great consistency, he will have a gender to be a or the distinction of sex. "GENUS est sexus discretio. Et sunt genera numero septem."—Lilii Gram., p. 10. That is, "GENDER is the distinction of sex. And the genders are seven in number." Ruddiman says, "GENUS est, discrimen nominis secundum sexum, vel ejus in structurâ grammaticâ imitatio. Genera nominum sunt tria."—Ruddimanni Gram., p. 4. That is, "GENDER is the diversity of the noun according to sex, or [it is] the imitation of it in grammatical structure. The genders of nouns are three." These old definitions are no better than the newer ones cited above. All of them are miserable failures, full of faults and absurdities. Both the nature and the cause of their defects are in some degree explained near the close of the tenth chapter of my Introduction. Their most prominent errors are these: 1. They all assume, that gender, taken as one thing, is in fact two, three, or more, genders, 2. Nearly all of them seem to say or imply, that words differ from one an other in sex, like animals. 3. Many of them expressly confine gender, or the genders, to nouns only. 4. Many of them confessedly exclude the neuter gender, though their authors afterwards admit this gender. 5. That of Dr. Webster supposes, that words differing in gender never have the same "termination." The absurdity of this may be shown by a multitude of examples: as, man and woman, male and female, father and mother, brother and sister. This is better, but still not free from some other faults which I have mentioned. For the correction of all this great batch of errors, I shall simply substitute in the Key one short definition, which appears to me to be exempt from each of these inaccuracies.

[455] Walker states this differently, and even repeats his remark, thus: "But y preceded by a vowel is never changed: as coy, coyly, gay, gayly."—Walker's Rhyming Dict., p.x. "Y preceded by a vowel is never changed, as boy, boys, I cloy, he cloys, etc."—Ib., p viii. Walker's twelve "Orthographical Aphorisms," which Murray and others republish as their "Rules for Spelling," and which in stead of amending they merely corrupt, happened through some carelessness to contain two which should have been condensed into one. For "words ending with y preceded by a consonant," he has not only the absurd rule or assertion above recited, but an other which is better, with an exception or remark under each, respecting "y preceded by a vowel." The grammarians follow him in his errors, and add to their number: hence the repetition, or similarity, in the absurdities here quoted. By the term "verbal nouns," Walker meant nouns denoting agents, as carrier from carry; but Kirkham understood him to mean "participial nouns," as the carrying. Or rather, he so mistook "that able philologist" Murray; for he probably knew nothing of Walker in the matter; and accordingly changed the word "verbal" to "participial;" thus teaching, through all his hundred editions, except a few of the first, that participial nouns from verbs ending in y preceded by a consonant, are formed by merely "changing the y into i." But he seems to have known, that this is not the way to form the participle; though he did not know, that "coyless" is not a proper English word.

[456] The idea of plurality is not "plurality of idea," any more than the idea of wickedness, or the idea of absurdity, is absurdity or wickedness of idea; yet, behold, how our grammarians copy the blunder, which Lowth (perhaps) first fell into, of putting the one phrase for the other! Even Professor Fowler, (as well as Murray, Kirkham, and others,) talks of having regard "to unity or plurality of idea!"—Fowler's E. Gram., 8vo. 1850, §513,—G. BROWN.

[457] In the Doctor's "New Edition, Revised and Corrected," the text stands thus: "The Present participle of THE ACTIVE VOICE has an active signification; as, James is building the house. In many of these, however, it has," &c. Here the first sentence is but an idle truism; and the phrase, "In many of these," for lack of an antecedent to these, is utter nonsense. What is in "the active voice," ought of course to be active in "signification;" but, in this author's present scheme of the verb, we find "the active voice," in direct violation of his own definition of it, ascribed not only to verbs and participles either neuter or intransitive, but also, as it would seem by this passage, to "many" that are passive!—G. BROWN.

[458] One objection to these passage is, that they are examples of the very construction which they describe as a fault. The first and second sentences ought to have been separated only by a semicolon. This would have made them "members" of one and the same sentence. Can it be supported that one "thought" is sufficient for two periods, or for what one chooses to point as such, but not for two members of the same period?—G. BROWN.

[459] (1.) "Accent is the tone with which one speaks. For, in speaking, the voice of every man is sometimes more grave in the sound, and at other times more acute or shrill."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 25. "Accent is the tone of the voice with which a syllable is pronounced."—Dr. Adam's Latin and English Gram., p. 266.

(2.) "Accent in a peculiar stress of the voice on some syllable in a word to distinguish it from the others."—Gould's Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 243.

(3.) "The tone by which one syllable is distinguished from another is the accent; which is a greater stress and elevation of voice on that particular syllable."—Bicknell's Eng. Gram., Part II, p. 111.

(4.) "Quantity is the Length or Shortness of Syllables; and the Proportion, generally speaking, betwixt a long and [a] short Syllable, is two to one; as in Music, two Quavers to one Crotchet.—Accent is the rising and falling of the Voice, above or under its usual Tone, but an Art of which we have little Use, and know less, in the English Tongue; nor are we like to improve our Knowledge in this Particular, unless the Art of Delivery or Utterance were a little more study'd."—Brightland's Gram., p. 156.

(5.) "ACCENT, s. m. (inflexion de la voix.) Accent, tone, pronunciation."—Nouveau Dictionnaire Universel, 4to, Tome Premier, sous le mot Accent.

"ACCENT, subst. (tone or inflection of the voice.) Accent, ton ou inflexion de voix."—Same Work, Garner's New Universal Dictionary, 4to, under the word Accent.

(6.) "The word accent is derived from the Latin language and signifies the tone of the voice."—Parker and Fox's English Gram., Part III, p. 32.

(7.) "The unity of the word consists in the tone or accent, which binds together the two parts of the composition."—Fowler's E. Gram., §360.

(8.) "The accent of the ancients is the opprobrium of modern criticism. Nothing can show more evidently the fallibility of the human faculties, than the total ignorance we are in at present of the nature of the Latin and Greek accent."—Walker's Principles, No. 486; Dict., p. 53.

(9.) "It is not surprising, that the accent and quantity of the ancients should be so obscure and mysterious, when two such learned men of our own nation as Mr. Foster and Dr. Gaily, differ about the very existence of quantity in our own language."—Walker's Observations on Accent, &c.; Key, p. 311.

(10.) "What these accents are has puzzled the learned so much that they seem neither to understand each other nor themselves."—Walker's Octavo Dict., w. Barytone.

(11.) "The ancients designated the pitch of vocal sounds by the term accent; making three kinds of accents, the acute (é), the grave (è), and the circumflex (ê), which signified severally the rise, the fall, and the turn of the voice, or union of acute and grave on the same syllable."—Sargent's Standard Speaker, p. 18.

[460] "Interrogatio, Græcè Erotema, Accentum quoque transfert; ut, Ter. Siccine ais Parmenó? Voss. Susenbr."—Prat's Latin Grammar, 8vo, Part II, p. 190.

[461] In regard to the admission of a comma before the verb, by the foregoing exception, neither the practice of authors nor the doctrine of punctuators is entirely uniform; but, where a considerable pause is, and must be, made in the reading, I judge it not only allowable, but necessary, to mark it in writing. In W. Day's "Punctuation Reduced to a System," a work of no inconsiderable merit, this principle is disallowed; and even when the adjunct of the nominative is a relative clause, which, by Rule 2d below and its first exception, requires a comma after it but none before it, this author excludes both, putting no comma before the principal verb. The following is an example: "But it frequently happens, that punctuation is not made a prominent exercise in schools; and the brief manner in which the subject is there dismissed has proved insufficient to impress upon the minds of youth a due sense of its importance."—Day's Punctuation, p. 32. A pupil of mine would here have put a comma after the word dismissed. So, in the following examples, after sake, and after dispenses: "The vanity that would accept power for its own sake is the pettiest of human passions."—Ib., p. 75. "The generous delight of beholding the happiness he dispenses is the highest enjoyment of man."—Ib., p, 100.

[462] When several nominatives are connected, some authors and printers put the comma only where the conjunction is omitted. W. Day separates them all, one from an other; but after the last, when this is singular before a plural verb, he inserts no point. Example: "Imagination is one of the principal ingredients which enter into the complex idea of genius; but judgment, memory, understanding, enthusiasm, and sensibility are also included."—Day's Punctuation, p. 52. If the points are to be put where the pauses naturally occur, here should be a comma after sensibility; and, if I mistake not, it would be more consonant with current usage to set one there. John Wilson, however, in a later work, which is for the most part a very good one, prefers the doctrine of Day, as in the following instance: "Reputation, virtue, and happiness depend greatly on the choice of companions."—Wilson's Treatise on Punctuation, p. 30.

[463] Some printers, and likewise some authors, suppose a series of words to require the comma, only where the conjunction is suppressed. This is certainly a great error. It gives us such punctuation as comports neither with the sense of three or more words in the same construction, nor with the pauses which they require in reading. "John, James and Thomas are here," is a sentence which plainly tells John that James and Thomas are here; and which, if read according to this pointing, cannot possibly have any other meaning. Yet this is the way in which the rules of Cooper, Felton, Frost, Webster, and perhaps others, teach us to point it, when we mean to tell somebody else that all three are here! In his pretended "Abridgment of Murray's English Grammar," (a work abounding in small thefts from Brown's Institutes,) Cooper has the following example: "John, James or Joseph intends to accompany me."—Page 120. Here, John being addressed, the punctuation is right; but, to make this noun a nominative to the verb, a comma must be put after each of the others. In Cooper's "Plain and Practical Grammar," the passage is found in this form: "John, James, or Joseph intends to accompany us."—Page 132. This pointing is doubly wrong; because it is adapted to neither sense. If the three nouns have the same construction, the principal pause will be immediately before the verb; and surely a comma is as much required by that pause, as by the second. See the Note on Rule 3d, above.

[464] In punctuation, the grammar here cited is unaccountably defective. This is the more strange, because many of its errors are mere perversions of what was accurately pointed by an other hand. On the page above referred to, Dr. Bullions, in copying from Lennie's syntactical exercises a dozen consecutive lines, has omitted nine needful commas, which Lennie had been careful to insert!

[465] Needless abbreviations, like most that occur in this example, are in bad taste, and ought to be avoided. The great faultiness of this text as a model for learners, compels me to vary the words considerably in suggesting the correction. See the Key.—G. B.

[466] "To be, or not to be?—that's the question."—Hallock's Gram., p. 220. "To be, or not to be, that is the question."—Singer's Shak., ii. 488. "To be, or not to be; that is the Question."—Ward's Gram., p 160. "To be, or not to be, that is the Question."—Brightland's Gram., p 209. "To be, or not to be?"—Mandeville's Course of Reading, p. 141. "To be or not to be! That is the question."—Pinneo's Gram., p. 176. "To be—or not to be—that is the question—"—Burgh's Speaker, p. 179.

[467] In the works of some of our older poets, the apostrophe is sometimes irregularly inserted, and perhaps needlessly, to mark a prosodial synsæresis, or synalepha, where no letter is cut off or left out; as,

   "Retire, or taste thy folly', and learn by proof,
    Hell-born, not to contend with spir'its of Heaven."
        —Milton, P. L., ii, 686.

In the following example, it seems to denote nothing more than the open or long sound of the preceding vowel e:

   "That sleep and feeding may prorogue his honour,
    Even till a lethe'd dulness."
        —Singer's Shakspeare, Vol. ii, p. 280.

[468] The breve is properly a mark of short quantity, only when it is set over an unaccented syllable or an unemphatic monosyllable, as it often is in the scanning of verses. In the examples above, it marks the close or short power of the vowels; but, under the accent, even this power may become part of a long syllable; as it does in the word rav´en, where the syllable rav, having twice the length of that which follows, must be reckoned long. In poetry, r=av-en and r=a-ven are both trochees, the former syllable in each being long, and the latter short.

[469] 1. The signs of long and short sounds, and especially of the former, have been singularly slow in acquiring appropriate names—or any appellatives suited to their nature, or such as could obtain the sanction of general use. The name breve, from the French brève, (which latter word came, doubtless, originally from the neuter of the Latin adjective brevis, short,) is now pretty generally applied to the one; and the Greek term macron, long, (also originally a neuter adjective,) is perhaps as common as any name for the other. But these are not quite so well adapted to each other, and to the things named, as are the substitutes added above.

2. These signs are explained in our grammars under various names, and often very unfit ones, to say the least; and, in many instances, their use is, in some way, awkwardly stated, without any attempt to name them, or more than one, if either. The Rev. T. Smith names them "Long (=), and Short (~)."—Smith's Murray, p. 72. Churchill calls them "The long = and the short ~."—New Gram., p. 170. Gould calls them "a horizontal line" and "a curved line."—Gould's Adam's Gram., p. 3. Coar says, "Quantity is distinguished by the characters of - long, and ~ short."—Eng. Gram., p. 197. But, in speaking of the signs, he calls them, "A long syllable =," and "A short syllable ~."—Gram., pp. 222 and 228. S. S. Greene calls them "the long sound," and "the breve or short sound."—Gram., p. 257. W. Allen says, "The long-syllable mark, (=) and the breve, or short-syllable mark, (~) denote the quantity of words poetically employed."—Gram., p. 215. Some call them "the Long Accent," and "the Short Accent;" as does Guy's Gram., p. 95. This naming seems to confound accent with quantity. By some, the Macron is improperly called "a Dash;" as by Lennie, p. 137; by Bullions, p. 157; by Hiley, p. 123; by Butler, p. 215. Some call it "a small dash;" as does Well's, p. 183; so Hiley, p. 117. By some it is absurdly named "Hyphen;" as by Buchanan, p. 162; by Alden, p. 165; by Chandler, 183; by Parker and Fox, iii, 36; by Jaudon, 193. Sanborn calls it "the hyphen, or macron."—Analyt. Gr., p. 279. Many, who name it not, introduce it to their readers by a "this =," or "thus ~;" as do Alger, Blair, Dr. Adam, Comly, Cooper, Ingersoll, L. Murray, Sanders, Wright, and others!

[470] "As soon as language proceeds, from mere articulation, to coherency, and connection, accent becomes the guide of the voice. It is founded upon an obscure perception of symmetry, and proportion, between the different sounds that are uttered."—Noehden's Grammar of the German Language, p. 66.

[471] According to Johnson, Walker, Webster, Worcester, and perhaps all other lexicographers, Quantity, in grammar, is—"The measure of time in pronouncing a syllable." And, to this main idea, are conformed, so far as I know, all the different definitions ever given of it by grammarians and critics, except that which appeared in Asa Humphrey's English Prosody, published in 1847. In this work—the most elaborate and the most comprehensive, though not the most accurate or consistent treatise we have on the subject—Time and Quantity are explained separately, as being "two distinct things;" and the latter is supposed not to have regard to duration, but solely to the amount of sound given to each syllable.

This is not only a fanciful distinction, but a radical innovation—and one which, in any view, has little to recommend it. The author's explanations of both time and quantity—of their characteristics, differences, and subdivisions—of their relations to each other, to poetic numbers, to emphasis and cadence, or to accent and non-accent—as well as his derivation and history of "these technical terms, time and quantity"—are hardly just or clear enough to be satisfactory. According to his theory, "Poetic numbers are composed of long and short syllables alternately;" (page 5;) but the difference or proportion between the times of these classes of syllables he holds to be indeterminable, "because their lengths are various." He began with destroying the proper distinction of quantity, or time, as being either long or short, by the useless recognition of an indefinite number of "intermediate lengths;" saying of our syllables at large, "some are LONG, some SHORT, and some are of INTERMEDIATE LENGTHS; as, mat, not, con, &c. are short sounds; mate, note, cone, and grave are long. Some of our diphthongal sounds are LONGER STILL; as, voice, noise, sound, bound, &c. OTHERS are seen to be of INTERMEDIATE lengths."—Humphrey's Prosody, p. 4.

On a scheme like this, it must evidently be impossible to determine, with any certainty, either what syllables are long and what short, or what is the difference or ratio between any two of the innumerable "lengths" of that time, or quantity, which is long, short, variously intermediate, or longer still, and again variously intermediate! No marvel then that the ingenious author scans some lines in a manner peculiar to himself.

[472] It was the doctrine of Sheridan, and perhaps of our old lexicographers in general, that no English word can have more than one full accent; but, in some modern dictionaries, as Bolles's, and Worcester's, many words are marked as if they had two; and a few are given by Bolles's as having three. Sheridan erroneously affirmed, that "every word has an accent," even "all monosyllables, the particles alone excepted."—Lecture on Elocution, pp. 61 and 71. And again, yet more erroneously: "The essence of English words consisting in accent, as that of syllables in articulation; we know that there are as many syllables as we hear articulate sounds, and as many words as we hear accents."— Ib., p. 70. Yet he had said before, in the same lecture: "The longer polysyllables, have frequently two accents, but one is so much stronger than the other, as to shew that it is but one word; and the inferior accent is always less forcible, than any accent that is the single one in a word."—Ib., p. 31. Wells defines accent as if it might lie on many syllables of a word; but, in his examples, he places it on no more than one: "Accent is the stress which is laid on one or more syllables of a word, in pronunciation; as, re_ver_berate, under_take_."—Wells's School Gram., p. 185. According to this loose definition, he might as well have accented at least one other syllable in each of these examples; for there seems, certainly, to be some little stress on ate and un. For sundry other definitions of accent, see Chap. IV, Section 2d, of Versification; and the marginal note referring to Obs. 1st on Prosody.

[473] According to Dr. Rush, Emphasis is—"a stress of voice on one or more words of a sentence, distinguishing them by intensity or peculiarity of meaning."—Philosophy of the Voice, p. 282. Again, he defines thus: "Accent is the fixed but inexpressive distinction of syllables by quantity and stress: alike both in place and nature, whether the words are pronounced singly from the columns of a vocabulary, or connectedly in the series of discourse. Emphasis may be defined to be the expressive but occasional distinction of a syllable, and consequently of the whole word, by one or more of the specific modes of time, quality, force, or pitch."—Ibid.

[474] 1. This doctrine, though true in its main intent, and especially applicable to the poetic quantity of monosyllables, (the class of words most frequently used in English poetry,) is, perhaps, rather too strongly stated by Murray; because it agrees not with other statements of his, concerning the power of accent over quantity; and because the effect of accent, as a "regulator of quantity," may, on the whole, be as great as that of emphasis. Sheridan contradicts himself yet more pointedly on this subject; and his discrepancies may have been the efficients of Murray's. "The quantity of our syllables is perpetually varying with the sense, and is for the most part regulated by EMPHASIS."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 65. Again: "It is by the ACCENT chiefly that the quantity of our syllables is regulated."—Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, p. 57. See Chap. IV, Sec. 2d, Obs. 1; and marginal note on Obs. 8.

2. Some writers erroneously confound emphasis with accent; especially those who make accent, and not quantity, the foundation of verse. Contrary to common usage, and to his own definition of accent, Wells takes it upon him to say, "The term accent is also applied, in poetry, to the stress laid on monosyllabic words; as,

'Content is wealth, the riches of the mind.'—Dryden." —Wells's School Grammar, p. 185.

It does not appear that stress laid on monosyllables is any more fitly termed accent, when it occurs in the reading of poetry, than when in the utterance of prose. Churchill, who makes no such distinction, thinks accent essential alike to emphasis and to the quantity of a long vowel, and yet, as regards monosyllables, dependent on them both! His words are these: "Monosyllables are sometimes accented, sometimes not. This depends chiefly on their being more or less emphatic; and on the vowel sound being long or short. We cannot give emphasis to any word, or it's [its] proper duration to a long vowel, without accenting it."—Churchill's New Gram., p. 182.

[475] Not only are these inflections denoted occasionally by the accentual marks, but they are sometimes expressly identified with accents, being called by that name. This practice, however, is plainly objectionable. It confounds things known to be different,—mere stress with elevation or depression,—and may lead to the supposition, that to accent a syllable, is to inflect the voice upon it. Such indeed has been the guess of many concerning the nature of Greek and Latin accents, but of the English accent, the common idea is, that it is only a greater force distinguishing some one syllable of a word from the rest. Walker, however, in the strange account he gives in his Key, of "what we mean by the accent and quantity of our own language," charges this current opinion with error, dissenting from Sheridan and Nares, who held it; and, having asserted, that, "in speaking, the voice is continually sliding upwards or downwards," proceeds to contradict himself thus: "As high and low, loud and soft, forcible and feeble, are comparative terms, words of one syllable pronounced alone, and without relation to other words or syllables, cannot be said to have any ACCENT. The only distinction to which such words are liable, is an elevation or depression of voice, when we compare the beginning with the end of the word or syllable. Thus a monosyllable, considered singly, rises from a lower to a higher tone in the question Nó? which may therefore be called the acute ACCENT: and falls from a higher to a lower tone upon the same word in the answer Nò, which may therefore be called the grave [ACCENT]."—Walker's Key, p. 316. Thus he tells of different accents on "a monosyllable," which, by his own showing, "cannot be said to have any accent"! and others read and copy the text with as little suspicion of its inconsistency! See Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary, p. 934.

[476] In Humphrey's English Prosody, cadence is taken for the reverse of accent, and is obviously identified or confounded with short quantity, or what the author inclines to call "small quantity." He defines it as follows: "Cadence is the reverse or counterpart to accent; a falling or depression of voice on syllables unaccented: and by which the sound is shortened and depressed."—P. 3. This is not exactly what is generally understood by the word cadence. Lord Kames also contrasts cadence with accent; but, by the latter term, he seems to have meant something different from our ordinary accent. "Sometimes to humour the sense," says he, "and sometimes the melody, a particular syllable is sounded in a higher tone; and this is termed accenting a syllable, or gracing it with an accent. Opposed to the accent, is the cadence, which I have not mentioned as one of the requisites of verse, because it is entirely regulated by the sense, and hath no peculiar relation to verse."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 78.

[477] The Latin term, (made plural to agree with verba, words,) is subaudita, underheard—the perfect participle of subaudio, to underhear. Hence the noun, subauditio, subaudition, the recognition of ellipses.

[478] "Thus, in the Proverbs of all Languages, many Words are usually left to be supplied from the trite obvious Nature of what they express; as, out of Sight out of Mind; the more the merrier, &c."—W. Ward's Pract. Gram., p. 147.

[479] Lindley Murray and some others say, "As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the English language, numerous examples of it might be given."—Murray's Gram., p. 220; Weld's, 292; Fisk's, 147. They could, without doubt, have exhibited many true specimens of Ellipsis; but most of those which they have given, are only fanciful and false ones; and their notion of the frequency of the figure, is monstrously hyperbolical.

[480] Who besides Webster has called syllepsis "substitution," I do not know. Substitution and conception are terms of quite different import, and many authors have explained syllepsis by the latter word. Dr. Webster gives to "SUBSTITUTION" two meanings, thus: "1. The act of putting one person or thing in the place of another to supply [his or] its place.—2. In grammar, syllepsis, or the use of one word for another."—American Dict., 8vo. This explanation seems to me inaccurate; because it confounds both substitution and syllepsis with enallage. It has signs of carelessness throughout; the former sentence being both tautological and ungrammatical.—G. B.

[481] Between Tropes and Figures, some writers attempt a full distinction; but this, if practicable, is of little use. According to Holmes, "TROPES affect only single Words; but FIGURES, whole Sentences."—Rhetoric, B. i, p. 28. "The CHIEF TROPES in Language," says this author, "are seven; a Metaphor, an Allegory, a Metonymy, a Synecdoche, an Irony, an Hyperbole, and a Catachresis."—Ib., p. 30. The term Figure or Figures is more comprehensive than Trope or Tropes; I have therefore not thought it expedient to make much use of the latter, in either the singular or the plural form. Holmes's seven tropes are all of them defined in the main text of this section, except Catachresis, which is commonly explained to be "an abuse of a trope." According to this sense, it seems in general to differ but little from impropriety. At best, a Catachresis is a forced expression, though sometimes, perhaps, to be indulged where there is great excitement. It is a sort of figure by which a word is used in a sense different from, yet connected with, or analogous to, its own; as,

   "And pity, like a naked new-born babe,
    Striding the blast, as heaven's cherubim
    Hors'd upon the sightless couriers of the air,
    Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye,
    That tears shall drown the wind."—Shak., Macbeth, Act i, Sc. 7.

[482] Holmes, in his Art of Rhetoric, writes this word "Paraleipsis" retaining the Greek orthography. So does Fowler in his recent "English Grammar," §646. Webster, Adam, and some others, write it "Paralepsis." I write it as above on the authority of Littleton, Ainsworth, and some others; and this is according to the analogy of the kindred word ellipsis, which we never write either ellepsis, or, as the Greek, elleipsis.

[483] To this principle there seems to be now and then an exception, as when a weak dissyllable begins a foot in an anapestic line, as in the following examples:—

   "I think—let me see—yes, it is, I declare,
    As long ago now as that Buckingham there."—Leigh Hunt.

    "And Thomson, though best in his indolent fits,
    Either slept himself weary, or blasted his wits."—Id.

Here, if we reckon the feet in question to be anapests, we have dissyllables with both parts short. But some, accenting "ago" on the latter syllable, and "Either" on the former, will call "ago now" a bacchy, and "Either slept" an amphimac: because they make them such by their manner of reading.—G. B.

[484] "Edgar A. Poe, the author, died at Baltimore on Sunday" [the 7th].—Daily Evening Traveller, Boston Oct. 9, 1849. This was eight or ten months after the writing of these observations.—G. B.

[485] "Versification is the art of arranging words into lines of correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity"—Brown's Institutes of E. Gram., p. 235.

[486] This appears to be an error; for, according to Dilworth, and other arithmeticians, "a unit is a number;" and so is it expounded by Johnson, Walker, Webster, and Worcester. See, in the Introduction, a note at the foot of p. 117. Mulligan, however, contends still, that one is no number; and that, "to talk of the singular number is absurd—a contradiction in terms;"—because, "in common discourse," a "number" is "always a plurality, except"—when it is "number one!"—See Grammatical Structure of the E. Language, §33. Some prosodists have taught the absurdity, that two feet are necessary to constitute a metre, and have accordingly applied the terms, monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, and hexameter,—or so many of them as they could so misapply,—in a sense very different from the usual acceptation. The proper principle is, that, "One foot constitutes a metre."—Dr. P. Wilson's Greek Prosody, p. 53. And verses are to be denominated Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, &c., according to "THE NUMBER OF FEET."—See ib. p. 6. But Worcester's Universal and Critical Dictionary has the following not very consistent explanations: "MONOMETER, n. One metre. Beck. DIMETER, n. A poetic measure of four feet; a series of two meters. Beck. TRIMETER, a. Consisting of three poetical measures, forming an iambic of six feet. Tyrwhitt. TETRAMETER, n. A Latin or Greek verse consisting of four feet; a series of four metres. TETRAMETER, a. Having four metrical feet. Tyrwhitt. PENTAMETER, n. A Greek or Latin verse of five feet; a series of five metres. PENTAMETER, a. Having five metrical feet. Warton. HEXAMETER, n. A verse or line of poetry, having six feet, either dactyls or spondees; the heroic, and most important, verse among the Greeks and Romans;—a rhythmical series of six metres. HEXAMETER, a. Having six metrical feet. Dr. Warton." According to these definitions, Dimeter has as many feet as Tetrameter; and Trimeter has as many as Hexameter!

[487] It is common, at any rate, for prosodists to speak of "the movement of the voice," as do Sheridan, Murray, Humphrey, and Everett; but Kames, in treating of the Beauty of Language from Resemblance, says "There is no resemblance of sound to motion, nor of sound to sentiment."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 63. This usage, however, is admitted by the critic, had cited to show how, "causes that have no resemblance may produce resembling effects."—Ib. 64. "By a number of syllables in succession, an emotion is sometimes raised extremely similar to that raised by successive motion: which may be evident even to those who are defective in taste, from the following fact, that the term movement in all languages is equally applied to both."—Ib. ii. 66.

[488] "From what has been said of accent and quantity in our own language, we may conclude them to be essentially distinct and perfectly separable: nor is it to be doubted that they were equally separable in the learned languages."—Walkers's Observations on Gr. and Lat. Accent and Quantity, §20; Key, p. 326. In the speculative essay here cited, Walker meant by accent the rising or the falling inflection,—an upward or a downward slide of the voice: and by quantity, nothing but the open or close sound of some vowel; as of "the a in scatter" and in "skater," the initial syllables of which words be supposed to differ in quantity as much as any two syllables can!—Ib., §24; Key, p. 331. With these views of the things, it is perhaps the less to be wondered at, that Walker, who appears to have been a candid and courteous writer, charges "that excellent scholar Mr. Forster—with a total ignorance of the accent and quantity of his own language," (Ib., Note on §8; Key, p. 317;) and, in regard to accent, ancient or modern, elsewhere confesses his own ignorance, and that of every body else, to be as "total." See marginal note on Obs. 4th below.

[489] (1.) "We shall now take a view of sounds when united into syllables. Here a beautiful variation of quantity presents itself as the next object of our attention. The knowledge of long and short syllables, is the most excellent and most neglected quality in the whole art of pronunciation.

The disputes of our modern writers on this subject, have arisen chiefly from an absurd notion that has long prevailed; viz. that there is no difference between the accent and the quantity, in the English language; that the accented syllables are always long, and the unaccented always short.

An absurdity so glaring, does not need refutation. Pronounce any one line from Milton, and the ear will determine whether or not the accent and quantity always coincide. Very seldom they do."—HERRIES: Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 108.

(2.) "Some of our Moderns (especially Mr. Bishe, in his Art of Poetry) and lately Mr. Mattaire, in what he calls, The English Grammar, erroneously use Accent for Quantity, one signifying the Length or Shortness of a Syllable, the other the raising or falling of the Voice in Discourse."—Brightland's Gram., London, 1746, p. 156.

(3.) "Tempus cum accentu a nonnullis malè confunditur; quasi idem sit acui et produci. Cum brevis autem syllaba acuitur, elevatur quidem vox in eà proferendà, sed tempus non augetur. Sic in voce hominibus acuitur mi; at ni quæ sequitur, æquam in efferendo moram postulat."—Lily's Gram., p. 125. Version: "By some persons, time is improperly confounded with accent; as if to acute and to lengthen were the same. But when a short syllable is acuted, the voice indeed is raised in pronouncing it, but the time is not increased. Thus, in the word hominibus, mi as the acute accent; but ni, which follows, demands equal slowness in the pronunciation." To English ears, this can hardly seem a correct representation; for, in pronouncing hominibus, it is not mi, but min, that we accent; and this syllable is manifestly as much longer than the rest, as it is louder.

[490] (1.) "Syllables, with respect to their quantity, are either long, short, or common."—Gould's Adam's Lat. Gram., p. 243. "Some syllables are common; that is, sometimes long, and sometimes short."—Adam's Lat. and Eng. Gram., p. 252. Common is here put for variable, or not permanently settled in respect to quantity: in this sense, from which no third species ought to be inferred, our language is, perhaps, more extensively "common" than any other.

(2.) "Most of our Monosyllables either take this Stress or not, according as they are more or less emphatical; and therefore English Words of one Syllable may be considered as common; i.e. either as long or short in certain Situations. These Situations are chiefly determined by the Pause, or Cesure, of the Verse, and this Pause by the Sense. And as the English abounds in Monosyllables, there is probably no Language in which the Quantity of Syllables is more regulated by the Sense than in English."—W. Ward's Gram., Ed. of 1765, p. 156.

(3.) Bicknell's theory of quantity, for which he refers to Herries, is this: "The English quantity is divided into long, short, and common. The longest species of syllables are those that end in a vowel, and are under the accent; as, mo in har_mo_nious, sole in con_sole_, &c. When a monosyllable, which is unemphatic, ends in a vowel, it is always short; but when the emphasis is placed upon it, it is always long. Short syllables are such as end in any of the six mutes; as cu_t_, sto_p_, ra_p_i_d_, ru_g_ge_d_, lo_ck_. In all such syllables the sound cannot be lengthened: they are necessarily and invariably short. If another consonant intervenes between the vowel and mute, as re_nd_, so_ft_, fla_sk_, the syllable is rendered somewhat longer. The other species of syllables called common, are such as terminate in a half-vowel or aspirate. For instance, in the words ru_n_, swi_m_, cru_sh_, pu_rl_, the concluding sound can be continued or shortened, as we please. This scheme of quantity," it is added, "is founded on fact and experience."—Bicknell's Gram., Part ii, p. 109. But is it not a fact, that such words as cuttest, stopping, rapid, rugged, are trochees, in verse? and is not unlock an iambus? And what becomes of syllables that end with vowels or liquids and are not accented?

[491] I do not say the mere absence of stress is never called accent; for it is, plainly, the doctrine of some authors that the English accent differs not at all in its nature from the accent of the ancient Greeks or Romans, which was distinguished as being of three sorts, acute, grave, inflex; that "the stronger breathing, or higher sound," which distinguishes one syllable of a word from or above the rest, is the acute accent only; that "the softer breathing, or lower sound," which belongs to an unacuted (or unaccented) syllable, is the grave accent; and that a combination of these two sounds, or "breathings," upon one syllable, constitutes the inflex or circumflex accent. Such, I think, is the teaching of Rev. William Barnes; who further says, "English verse is constructed upon sundry orders of acute and grave accents and matchings of rhymes, while the poetic language of the Romans and Greeks is formed upon rules of the sundry clusterings of long and short syllables."—Philological Grammar, p. 263. This scheme is not wholly consistent, because the author explains accent or accents as being applicable only to "words of two or more syllables;" and it is plain, that the accent which includes the three sorts above, must needs be "some other thing than what we call accent," if this includes only the acute.

[492] Sheridan used the same comparison, "To illustrate the difference between the accent of the ancients and that of ours" [our tongue]. Our accent he supposed, with Nares and others, to have "no reference to inflections of the voice."—See Art of Reading, p. 75; Lectures on Elocution, p. 56; Walker's Key, p. 313.

[493] (1.) It may in some measure account for these remarkable omissions, to observe that Walker, in his lexicography, followed Johnson in almost every thing but pronunciation. On this latter subject, his own authority is perhaps as great as that of any single author. And here I am led to introduce a remark or two touching the accent and quantity with which he was chiefly concerned; though the suggestions may have no immediate connexion with the error of confounding these properties.

(2.) Walker, in his theory, regarded the inflections of the voice as pertaining to accent, and as affording a satisfactory solution of the difficulties in which this subject has been involved; but, as an English orthoëpist, he treats of accent in no other sense, than as stress laid on a particular syllable of a word—a sense implying contrast, and necessarily dividing all syllables into accented and unaccented, except monosyllables. Having acknowledged our "total ignorance of the nature of the Latin and Greek accent," he adds: "The accent of the English language, which is constantly sounding in our ears, and every moment open to investigation, seems as much a mystery as that accent which is removed almost two thousand years from our view. Obscurity, perplexity, and confusion, run through every treatise on the subject, and nothing could be so hopeless as an attempt to explain it, did not a circumstance present itself, which at once accounts for the confusion, and affords a clew to lead us out of it. Not one writer on accent has given such a definition of the voice as acquaints us with its essential properties. * * * But let us once divide the voice into its rising and falling inflections, the obscurity vanishes, and accent becomes as intelligible as any other part of language. * * * On the present occasion it will be sufficient to observe, that the stress we call accent is as well understood as is necessary for the pronunciation of single words, which is the object of this treatise."—Walker's Dict., p. 53, Princip. 486, 487, 488.

(3.) Afterwards, on introducing quantity, as an orthoëpical topic, he has the following remark: "In treating this part of pronunciation, it will not be necessary to enter into the nature of that quantity which constitutes poetry; the quantity here considered will be that which relates to words taken singly; and this is nothing more than the length or shortness of the vowels, either as they stand alone, or as they are differently combined with the vowels or consonants." Ib., p. 62, Princip. 529. Here is suggested a distinction which has not been so well observed by grammarians and prosodists, or even by Walker himself, as it ought to have been. So long as the practice continues of denominating certain mere vowel sounds the long and the short, it will be very necessary to notice that these are not the same as the syllabic quantities, long and short, which constitute English verse.

[494] (1.) In the Latin and Greek languages, this is not commonly supposed to be the case; but, on the contrary, the quantity of syllables is professedly adjusted by its own rules independently of what we call accent; and, in our English pronunciation of these languages, the accentuation of all long words is regulated by the quantity of the last syllable but one. Walker, in the introduction to his Key, speaks of "The English pronunciation of Greek and Latin [as] injurious to quantity." And no one can deny, that we often accent what are called short syllables, and perhaps oftener leave unaccented such as are called long; but, after all, were the quantity of Latin and Greek syllables always judged of by their actual time, and not with reference to the vowel sounds called long and short, these our violations of the old quantities would be found much fewer than some suppose they are.

(2.) Dr. Adam's view of the accents, acute and grave, appears to be peculiar; and of a nature which may perhaps come nearer to an actual identity with the quantities, long and short, than any other. He says,

"1. The acute or sharp accent raises the voice in pronunciation, and is thus marked [´]; prófero, prófer. [The English word is written, not thus, but with two Effs, proffer.—G. B.]

"2. The grave or base accent depresses the voice, or keeps it in its natural tone; and is thus marked [`]; as, doctè. [Fist] This accent properly belongs to all syllables which have no other.

"The accents are hardly ever marked in English books, except in dictionaries, grammars, spelling-books, or the like, where the acute accent only is used. The accents are likewise seldom marked in Latin books, unless for the sake of distinction; as in these adverbs, aliquò, continuò, doctè, unà, &c."—Adam's Latin and English Grammar, p. 266.

(3.) As stress naturally lengthens the syllables on which it falls, if we suppose the grave accent to be the opposite of this, and to belong to all syllables which have no peculiar stress,—are not enforced, not acuted, not circumflected, not emphasized; then shall we truly have an accent with which our short quantity may fairly coincide. But I have said, "the mere absence of stress, which produces short quantity, we do not call accent;" and it may be observed, that the learned improver of Dr. Adam's Grammar, B. A. Gould, has totally rejected all that his predecessor taught concerning accent, and has given an entirely different definition of the thing. See marginal notes on page 771, above. Dr. Johnson also cites from Holder a very different explanation of it, as follows: "Accent, as in the Greek names and usage, seems to have regarded the tune of the voice; the acute accent, raising the voice in some certain syllables, to a higher, (i.e. more acute) pitch or tone; and the grave, depressing it lower; [Fist] and both having some emphasis, i.e. more vigorous pronunciation. HOLDER."—Johnson's Quarto Dict., w. Accent.

[495] (1.) "Amongst them [the ancients,] we know that accents were marked by certain inflexions [inflections] of the voice like musical notes; and the grammarians to this day, with great formality inform their pupils, that the acute accent, is the raising [of] the voice on a certain syllable; the grave, a depression of it; and the circumflex, a raising and depression both, in one and the same syllable. This jargon they constantly preserve, though they have no sort of ideas annexed to these words; for if they are asked to shew how this is to be done, they cannot tell, and their practice always belies their precept."—Sheridan's Lectures on Eloc., p. 54.

(2.) "It is by the accent chiefly that the quantity of our syllables is regulated; but not according to the mistaken rule laid down by all who have written on the subject, that the accent always makes the syllable long; than which there cannot be any thing more false."—Ib., p. 57.

(3.) "And here I cannot help taking notice of a circumstance, which shews in the strongest light, the amazing deficiency of those, who have hitherto employed their labours on that subject, [accent, or pronunciation,] in point of knowledge of the true genius and constitution of our tongue. Several of the compilers of dictionaries, vocabularies, and spelling books, have undertaken to mark the accents of our words; but so little acquainted were they with the nature of our accent, that they thought it necessary only to mark the syllable on which the stress is to be laid, without marking the particular letter of the syllable to which the accent belongs."—Ib., p. 59.

(4.) "The mind thus taking a bias under the prejudice of false rules, never arrives at a knowledge of the true nature of quantity; and accordingly we find that all attempts hitherto to settle the prosody of our language, have been vain and fruitless."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 52.

[496] In the following extract, this matter is stated somewhat differently: "The quantity depends upon the seat of the accent, whether it be on the vowel or [on the] consonant; if on the vowel, the syllable is necessarily long: as it makes the vowel long; if on the consonant, it may be either long or short, according to the nature of the consonant, or the time taken up in dwelling upon it."—Sheridan's Lectures on Eloc., p. 57. This last clause shows the "distinction" to be a very weak one.—G. BROWN.

[497] "If the consonant be in its nature a short one, the syllable is necessarily short. If it be a long one, that is, one whose sound is capable of being lengthened, it may be long or short at the will of the speaker. By a short consonant I mean one whose sound cannot be continued after a vowel, such as c or k p t, as ac, ap, at—whilst that of long consonants can, as, el em en er ev, &c."—Sheridan's Lectures on Elocution, p. 58. Sheridan here forgets that "bor'row" is one of his examples of short quantity.

Murray admits that "accent on a semi-vowel" may make the syllable long; and his semivowels are these: "f, l, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft." See his Octavo Gram., p. 240 and p. 8.

[498] On account of the different uses made of the breve, the macron, and the accents, one grammarian has proposed a new mode of marking poetic quantities. Something of the kind might be useful; but there seems to be a reversal of order in this scheme, the macrotone being here made light, and the stenotone dark and heavy. "Long and short syllables have sometimes been designated by the same marks which are used for accent, tones, and the quality of the vowels; but it will be better[,] to prevent confusion[,] to use different marks. This mark º may represent a long syllable, and this · a short syllable; as,

    · · ° · · ° · · ° · °
   'At the close of the day when the hamlet is still.'"
        —Perley's Gram., p. 73.
    [no · over 'let', sic—KTH]

[499] Dr. Adam's Gram., p. 267; B. A. Gould's, 257. The Latin word cæsura signifies "a cutting, or division." This name is sometimes Anglicized, and written "Cesure." See Brightland's Gram., p. 161; or Worcester's Dict., w. Cesure.

[500] "As to the long quantity arising from the succession of two consonants, which the ancients are uniform in asserting, if it did not mean that the preceding vowel was to lengthen its sound, as we should do by pronouncing the a in scatter as we do in skater, (one who skates,) I have no conception of what it meant; for if it meant that only the time of the syllable was prolonged, the vowel retaining the same sound, I must confess as ut er [sic—KTH] an inability of comprehending this source of quantity in the Greek and Latin as in English."—Walker on Gr. and L. Accent, §24; Key, p. 331. This distinguished author seems unwilling to admit, that the consonants occupy time in their utterance, or that other vowel sounds than those which name the vowels, can be protracted and become long; but these are truths, nevertheless; and, since every letter adds something to the syllable in which it is uttered, it is by consequence a "source of quantity," whether the syllable be long or short.

[501] Murray has here a marginal note, as follows: "Movement and measure are thus distinguished. Movement expresses the progressive order of sounds, whether from strong to weak, from long to short, or vice versa. Measure signifies the proportion of time, both in sounds and pauses."—Octavo Gram., p. 259. This distinction is neither usual nor accurate; though Humphrey adopts it, with slight variations. Without some species of measure,—Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, Dactylic, or some other,—there can be no regular movement, no "progressive order of sounds." Measure is therefore too essential to movement to be in contrast with it. And the movement "from strong to weak, from long to short," is but one and the same, a trochaic movement; its reverse, the movement, "vice versa," from weak to strong, or from short to long, is, of course, that of iambic measure. But Murray's doctrine is, that strong and long, weak and short, may be separated; that strong may be short, and weak be long; so that the movement from weak to strong may be from long to short, and vice versa: as if a trochaic movement might arise from iambic measure, and an iambic movement from trochaic feet! This absurdity comes of attempting to regulate the movement of verse by accent, and not by quantity, while it is admitted that quantity, and not accent, forms the measure, which "signifies the proportion of time." The idea that pauses belong to measure, is an other radical error of the foregoing note. There are more pauses in poetry than in prose, but none of them are properly "parts" of either. Humphrey says truly, "Feet are the constituent parts of verse."—English Prosody, p. 8. But L. Murray says, "Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse."—Octavo Gram., p. 252. Here Sheridan gave bias. Intending to treat of verse, and "the pauses peculiarly belonging to it," the "Cæsural" pause and the "Final," the rhetorician had improperly said, "The constituent parts of verse are, feet, and pauses."—Sheridan's Rhetorical Gram., p. 64.

[502] "But as many Ways as Quantities may be varied by Composition and Transposition, so many different Feet have the Greek Poets contriv'd, and that under distinct Names, from two to six Syllables, to the Number of 124. But it is the Opinion of some Learned Men in this Way, that Poetic Numbers may be sufficiently explain'd by those of two or three Syllables, into which the rest are to be resolv'd."—Brightland's Grammar, 7th Ed., p. 161.

[503] "THE BELLS OF ST. PETERSBURGH."

   "Those ev'ning bells, those ev'ning bells,
    How many a tale their music tells!"—Moore's Melodies, p. 263.

This couplet, like all the rest of the piece from which it is taken, is iambic verse, and to be divided into feet thus:—

   "Those ev' | -ning bells, | those ev' | -ning bells,
    How man | -y a tale | their mu | -sic tells!"

[504] Lord Kames, too, speaking of "English Heroic verse," says: "Every line consists of ten syllables, five short and five long; from which [rule] there are but two exceptions, both of them rare."—Elements of Criticism, Vol. ii, p. 89.

[505] "The Latin is a far more stately tongue than our own. It is essentially spondaic; the English is as essentially dactylic. The long syllable is the spirit of the Roman (and Greek) verse; the short syllable is the essence of ours."—Poe's Notes upon English Verse; Pioneer, Vol. i, p. 110. "We must search for spondaic words, which, in English, are rare indeed."—Ib., p. 111.

[506] "There is a rule, in Latin prosody, that a vowel before two consonants is long. We moderns have not only no such rule, but profess inability to comprehend its rationale."—Poe's Notes: Pioneer, p. 112.

[507] The opponents of capital punishment will hardly take this for a fair version of the sixth commandment.—G. B.

[508] These versicles, except the two which are Italicized, are not iambic. The others are partly trochaic; and, according to many of our prosodists, wholly so; but it is questionable whether they are not as properly amphimacric, or Cretic.

[509] See exercises in Punctuation, on page 786, of this work.—G. B.

[510] The Seventieth Psalm is the same as the last five verses of the Fortieth, except a few unimportant differences of words or points.

[511] It is obvious, that these two lines may easily be reduced to an agreeable stanza, by simply dividing each after the fourth foot—G. B.

[512] In Sanborn's Analytical Grammar, on page 279th, this couplet is ascribed to "Pope;" but I have sought in vain for this quotation, or any example of similar verse, in the works of that poet. The lines, one or both of them, appear, without reference, in L. Murray's Grammar, Second Edition, 1796, p. 176, and in subsequent editions; in W. Allen's, p. 225; Bullions's, 178; N. Butler's, 192; Chandler's New, 196; Clark's, 201; Churchill's, 187; Cooper's Practical, 185; Davis's, 137; Farnum's, 106; Felton's, 142; Frazee's, 184; Frost's, 164; S. S. Greene's, 250; Hallock's, 244; Hart's, 187; Hiley's, 127; Humphrey's Prosody, 17; Parker and Fox's Gram., Part iii, p. 60; Weld's, 211; Ditto Abridged, 138; Wells's, 200; Fowler's, 658; and doubtless in many other such books.

[513] "Owen succeeded his father Griffin in the principality of North Wales, A. D. 1120. This battle was fought near forty years afterwards. North Wales is called, in the fourth line, 'Gwyneth;' and 'Lochlin,' in the fourteenth, is Denmark."—Gray. Some say "Lochlin," in the Annals of Ulster, means Norway.—G. B.

[514] "The red dragon is the device of Cadwallader, which all his descendants bore on their banners."—Gray.

[515] This passage, or some part of it, is given as a trochaic example, in many different systems of prosody. Everett ascribes it entire to "John Chalkhill;" and Nutting, more than twenty years before, had attached the name of "Chalkhill" to a part of it. But the six lines "of three syllables," Dr. Johnson, in his Grammar, credits to "Walton's Angler;" and Bicknell, too, ascribes the same to "Walton." The readings also have become various. Johnson, Bicknell, Burn, Churchill, and Nutting, have "Here" for "Where" in the fifth line above; and Bicknell and Burn have "Stop" in the eighth line, where the rest read "Stops." Nutting has, for the ninth line, "Others' joys," and not, "Other joys," as have the rest.—G. B.

[516] OBS.—Of this, and of every other example which requires no amendment, let the learner simply say, after reading the passage, "This sentence is correct as it stands."—G. BROWN.

[517] OBSERVATION.—In the Bible, the word LORD, whenever it stands for the Hebrew name JEHOVAH, not only commences with a full capital, but has small or half capitals for the other letters; and I have thought proper to print both words in that manner here. In correcting the last example, I follow Dr. Scott's Bible, except in the word "God," which he writes with a small g. Several other copies have "first" and "last" with small initials, which I think not so correct; and some distinguish the word "hosts" with a capital, which seems to be needless. The sentence here has eleven capitals: in the Latin Vulgate, it has but six, and one of them is for the last word, "Deus," God.—G. B.

[518] OBS.—This construction I dislike. Without hyphens, it is improper; and with them it is not to be commended. See Syntax, Obs 24th on Rule IV.—G. B.

[519] On the page here referred to, the author of the Gazetteer has written "Charles city," &c. Analogy requires that the words be compounded, because they constitute three names which are applied to counties, and not to cities.

[520] OBS.—The following words, as names of towns, come under Rule 6th, and are commonly found correctly compounded in the books of Scotch geography and statistics; "Strathaven, Stonehaven, Strathdon, Glenluce, Greenlaw, Coldstream, Lochwinnoch, Lochcarron, Loehmaber, Prestonpans, Prestonkirk, Peterhead, Queensferry, Newmills," and many more like them.

[521] Section OBS.—This name, in both the Vulgate and the Septuagint, is Pharao Nechao, with two capitals and no hyphen. Walker gives the two words separately in his Key, and spells the latter Necho, and not Nechoh. See the same orthography in Jer., xlvi, 2. In our common Bibles, many such names are needlessly, if not improperly, compounded; sometimes with one capital, and sometimes with two. The proper manner of writing Scripture names, is too little regarded even by good men and biblical critics.

[522] "[Marcus] Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum eruditissimus."—QUINTILIAN. Lib. x, Cap. 1, p. 577.

[523] NOTE.—By this amendment, we remove a multitude of errors, but the passage is still very faulty. What Murray here calls "phrases," are properly sentences; and, in his second clause, he deserts the terms of the first to bring in "my," "our," and also "&c.," which seem to be out of place there.—G. BROWN.

[524] An other is a phrase of two words, which ought to be written separately. The transferring of the n to the latter word, is a gross vulgarism. Separate the words, and it will be avoided.

[525] Mys-ter-y, according to Scott and Cobb; mys-te-ry, according to Walker and Worcester.

[526] Kirkham borrowed this doctrine of "Tonics, Subtonics, and Atonies," from Rush: and dressed it up in his own worse bombast. See Obs. 13 and 14, on the Powers of the Letters.—GB.

[527] There is, in most English dictionaries, a contracted form of this phrase, written prithee, or I prithee; but Dr. Johnson censures it as "a familiar corruption, which some writers have injudiciously used;" and, as the abbreviation amounted to nothing but the slurring of one vowel sound into an other, it has now, I think, very deservedly become obsolete.—G. BROWN.

[528] This is the doctrine of Murray, and his hundred copyists; but it is by no means generally true. It is true of adverbs, only when they are connected by conjunctions; and seldom applies to two words, unless the conjunction which may be said to connect them, be suppressed and understood.—G. BROWN.

[529] Example: "Imperfect articulation comes not so much from bad organs, as from the abuse of good ones."—Porter's Analysis. Here ones represents organs, and prevents unpleasant repetition.—G. BROWN.

[530] From the force of habit, or to prevent the possibility of a false pronunciation, these ocular contractions are still sometimes carefully made in printing poetry; but they are not very important, and some modern authors, or their printers, disregard them altogether. In correcting short poetical examples, I shall in general take no particular pains to distinguish them from prose. All needful contractions however will be preserved, and sometimes also a capital letter, to show where the author commenced a line.

[531] The word "imperfect" is not really necessary here; for the declaration is true of any phrase, as this name is commonly applied.—G. BROWN.

[532] A part of speech is a sort of words, and not one word only. We cannot say, that every pronoun, or every verb, is a part of speech, because the parts of speech are only ten. But every pronoun, verb, or other word, is a word; and, if we will refer to this genus, there is no difficulty in defining all the parts of speech in the singular, with an or a: as, "A pronoun is a word put for a noun." Murray and others say, "An Adverb is a part of speech," &c., "A Conjunction is a part of speech," &c., which is the same as to say, "One adverb is a sort of words," &c. This is a palpable absurdity.—G. BROWN.

[533] The propriety of this conjunction, "nor," is somewhat questionable: the reading in both the Vulgate and the Septuagint is—"they, and their wives, and their sons, and their daughters."

[534] All our lexicographers, and all accurate authors, spell this word with an o; but the gentleman who has furnished us with the last set of new terms for the science of grammar, writes it with an e, and applies it to the verb and the participle. With him, every verb or participle is an "asserter;" except when he forgets his creed, as he did in writing the preceding example about certain "verbs." As he changes the names of all the parts of speech, and denounces the entire technology of grammar, perhaps his innovation would have been sufficiently broad, had he for THE VERB, the most important class of all, adopted some name which he knew how to spell.—G. B.

[535] It would be better to omit the word "forth," or else to say—"whom I brought forth from the land of Egypt." The phrase, "forth out of," is neither a very common nor a very terse one.—G. BROWN.

[536] This doctrine, that participles divide and specify time, I have elsewhere shown to be erroneous.—G. BROWN.

[537] Perhaps it would be as well or better, in correcting these two examples, to say, "There are a generation." But the article a, as well as the literal form of the noun, is a sign of unity; and a complete uniformity of numbers is not here practicable.

[538] Though the pronoun thou is not much used in common discourse, it is as proper for the grammarian to consider and show, what form of the verb belongs to it when it is so used, as it is for him to determine what form is adapted to any other pronoun, when a difference of style affects the question.

[539] "Forgavest," as the reading is in our common Bible, appears to be wrong; because the relative that and its antecedent God are of the third person, and not of the second.

[540] All the corrections under this head are directly contrary to the teaching of William S. Cardell. Oliver B. Peirce, and perhaps some other such writers on grammar; and some of them are contrary also to Murray's late editions. But I am confident that these authors teach erroneously; that their use of indicative forms for mere suppositions that are contrary to the facts, is positively ungrammatical; and that the potential imperfect is less elegant, in such instances, than the simple subjunctive, which they reject or distort.

[541] This is what Smith must have meant by the inaccurate phrase, "those in the first." For his first example is, "He went to school;" which contains only the one pronoun "He."—See Smith's New Gram., p. 19.

[542] According to modern usage, has would here be better than is,—though is fallen is still allowable.—G. BROWN.

[543] From this opinion, I dissent. See Obs. 1st on the Degrees of Comparison, and Obs. 4th on Regular Comparison, in the Etymology of this work, at pp. 279 and 285.—G. BROWN.

[544] "The country looks beautiful;'" that is, appears beautiful—is beautiful. This is right, and therefore the use which Bucke makes of it, may be fairly reversed. But the example was ill chosen; and I incline to think, it may also be right to say, "The country looks beautifully;" for the quality expressed by beautiful, is nothing else than the manner in which the thing shows to the eye. See Obs. 11th on Rule 9th.—G. BROWN.

[545] Many examples and authorities may be cited in favour of these corrections; as, "He acted independently of foreign assistance."— Murray's Key, Gram., Vol. ii, p. 222. "Independently of any necessary relation."—Murray's Gram., Vol. i. p. 275. "Independently of this peculiar mode of construction."—Blair's Rhet., p. 473. "Independent of the will of the people."—Webster's Essays, p. 13. "Independent one of an other."—Barclay's Works, i, 84. "The infinitive is often independent of the rest of the sentence."—Lennie's Gram., p. 85. "Some sentences are independent of each other."—Murray's Gram., i, 277. "As if it were independent of it"—Priestley's Gram., p. 186. "Independent of appearance and show."—Blair's Rhet., p. 13.

[546] The preposition of which Jefferson uses before about, appears to me to be useless. It does not govern the noun diameter, and is therefore no substitute for the in which I suppose to be wanting; and, as the preposition about seems to be sufficient between is and feet, I omit the of. So in other instances below.—G. BROWN.

[547] Murray, Jamieson, and others, have this definition with the article "a," and the comma, but without the hyphen: "APOSTROPHE is a turning off from the regular course," &c. See errors under Note 4th to Rule 20th.

[548] This sentence may be written correctly in a dozen different ways, with precisely the same meaning, and very nearly the same words. I have here made the noun gold the object of the verb took, which in the original appears to govern the noun treasure, or money, understood. The noun amount might as well be made its object, by a suppression of the preposition to. And again, for "pounds' weight," we may say, "pounds in weight." The words will also admit of many other positions.—G. BROWN.

[549] See a different reading of this example, cited as the first item of false syntax under Rule 16th above, and there corrected differently. The words "both of," which make the difference, were probably added by L. Murray in some of his revisals; and yet it does not appear that this popular critic ever got the sentence right.—G. BROWN.

[550] "If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what has become of national liberty?"—Hume's History. Vol. vi, p. 254; Priestley's Gram., p. 128.

[551] According to my notion, but is never a preposition; but there are some who think otherwise.—G. BROWN.

[552] "Cùm vestieris te coccino, cùm ornata fueris monili aureo, et pinxeris stibio oculos tuos, frustra componêris."—Vulgate. "[Greek: Eàn peribálæ[i] kókkinon, kaì kosm'æsæ[i] kósmw[i] chrys~w[i]· eàn egchrísæ[i] stíbi toùs ophthalmoús sou eìs mátaion wraïsmós sou.]"—Septuagint. "Quoique tu te revêtes de pourpre, que tu te pares d'ornemens d'or, et que tu te peignes les yeux avec du fard, tu t'embellis en vain."—French Bible.

[553] The word "any" is here omitted, not merely because it is unnecessary, but because "every any other piece,"—with which a score of our grammarians have pleased themselves,—is not good English. The impropriety might perhaps be avoided, though less elegantly, by repeating the preposition, and saying,—"or of any other piece of writing."—G. BROWN.

[554] This correction, as well as the others which relate to what Murray says of the several forms of ellipsis, doubtless conveys the sense which he intended to express; but, as an assertion, it is by no means true of all the examples which he subjoins, neither indeed are the rest. But that is a fault of his which I cannot correct.—G. BROWN.

[555] The article may be repeated in examples like these, without producing impropriety; but then it will alter the construction of the adjectives, and render the expression more formal and emphatic, by suggesting a repetition of the noun.—G. BROWN.

[556] "The whole number of verbs in the English language, regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken together, is about 4300."—Lowth's Gram., p. 59; Murray's, 12mo, p. 98; 8vo, p. 109; et al.

[557] In Singer's Shakspeare, Vol. ii, p. 495, this sentence is expressed and pointed thus: "O, shame! where is thy blush?"—Hamlet, Act III, Sc. 4. This is as if the speaker meant, "O! it is a shame! where is thy blush?" Such is not the sense above; for there "Shame" is the person addressed.

[558] If, in each of these sentences, the colon were substituted for the latter semicolon, the curves might well be spared. Lowth has a similar passage, which (bating a needful variation of guillemets) he pointed thus: "as ——, as; expressing a comparison of equality; 'as white as snow:' as ——, so; expressing a comparison sometimes of equality; 'as the stars, so shall thy seed be;' that is, equal in number: but" &c.—Lowth's Gram., p. 109. Murray, who broke this passage into paragraphs, retained at first these semicolons, but afterwards changed them all to colons. Of later grammarians, some retain the former colon in each sentence; some, the latter; and some, neither. Hiley points thus: "As requires as, expressing equality; as, 'He is as good as she.'"—Hiley's E. Gram., p. 107.

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